Language – Functional English Unit 1

Unit 1 Evolution of Language

Structure:
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Evolution of Language
Language as a spandrel
Language as an adaptation
Language evolution and memes
1.3 History of the Origins and Development of English Language
Old English (450-1100AD)
Middle English (1100-1500)
Early modern English (1500-1800)
Late modern English (1800-present)
1.4 Types of world English
Canadian English
Australian English
South African English
Indian English
1.5 Summary
1.6 Terminal Questions
1.7 Answers

1.1 Introduction
Humans are the only species that has evolved an advanced system of
communication between individuals. Whereas other species communicate
through ritualized and repetitious songs, calls, or gestures, humans have
developed linguistic systems that can express a literally infinite variety of
separate and distinct thoughts.
Prior to the emergence of writing systems, no direct evidence remains to
inform theories about the evolution of language. That is why it is quite
difficult to trace the history of language evolution. Yet in this unit an attempt
is made to study how language emerged, and how languages continue to
change over time.
The unit then also discusses about the evolution of English language.

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Objectives:
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 Discuss the evolution of language
 Elucidate upon history of the origins and development of English
language

1.2 Evolution of Language

It is a common knowledge that language first appeared between 30,000 and
100,000 years ago among human beings. But how did language evolve?
Currently, there are two answers to this question. Each one being quite rival
to the other,
 The first and more common explanation is that language was an
adaptation of some sort;
 The second is that language is a spandrel, a non-adaptive element
arising as a byproduct of other processes.
We will consider these explanations in reverse order.
1.2.1 Language as a spandrel
Some people (Stephen Jay Gould being most prominent among them)
believe language to be the byproduct of other evolutionary processes, not a
special adaptation that arose by ordinary natural selection acting on
mutations.
In “The Pleasures of Pluralism” Gould says, "Natural selection made the
human brain big, but most of our mental properties and potentials may be
spandrels – that is, non-adaptive side consequences of building a device
with such structural complexity".
In other words, our ancestors encountered environments which required the
type of advanced reasoning only provided by a larger brain; however,
language capability was not one of those functions for which the brain was
selected. Instead, language is a result of exacting neural structures formerly
used for other functions, as in the words of Gould again: "Many, if not most,
universal behaviors [including language] are probably spandrels, often co-
opted later in human history for important secondary functions".
The famous linguist Noam Chomsky has also reinforced the same view. He
argues that the brain's language capability cannot be explained in terms of
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natural selection and attempts to explain the brain through the effects of
physical laws unlike many others who have done so through biology or
engineering principles. According to Chomsky, “There may be unexpected
emergent physical properties associated with the specific structure of the
brain that explain language.”
1.2.2 Language as an adaptation
The mainstream view is that language is an adaptation, evolved in response
to some selection pressure toward improved communication between
humans. This explanation is associated with many speculative possibilities
and proposals for the adaptive function of language. Many scholars (such as
Steven Pinker) though postulate "mental modules" that compartmentalize
linguistic functions.
There are many different possible "adaptationist" explanations for the
evolution of language. For example, perhaps there was a need for improved
communication between hunters at some point in the history of Homo
sapiens, and oral expressions were simply the optimal way to solve the
problem. More plausibly (or at least more importantly), sharing information
between individuals probably conferred an extremely major advantage:
groups of humans with language, or even "proto-language", could share a
wealth of information about local hunting conditions, food supplies,
poisonous plants, or the weather.
It would be extremely beneficial to the survival of all members of the tribe if
only one had to encounter a poisonous plant, rather than each member
having to rediscover the fact for himself.
It is also simple to imagine a series of "oral gestures", perhaps indicating the
presence of an animal to another person by imitating the animal's cries.
Steven Pinker suggests in his book “The Language Instinct”, "Perhaps a set
of quasi-referential calls... came under the voluntary control of the cerebral
cortex [which controls language], and came to be produced in combination
for complicated events; the ability to analyze combinations of calls was then
applied to the parts of each call".
Another possible source of selection pressure towards better linguistic
abilities is the social group. Social interactions between people with widely
divergent or conflicting interests "make formidable and ever-escalating

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demands on cognition". Increasing cognitive ability could easily have

focused on the improvement of language as well, since so many social
interactions depend on effective persuasion.
1.2.3 Language evolution and memes
It is possible to imagine numerous potential scenarios by which language
might have evolved as a purely biological adaptation. However, Susan
Blackmore, reveals a different theory of language evolution in her book The
Meme Machine. She proposes that it evolved for the sake of being a
characteristic of a culture (memes), not as an adaptation for the benefit of
genes.
Susan says that memes first came into existence with the advent of true
imitation in humans, which allowed the former to spread through
populations. Recalling production of new copies or that fecundity is
necessary for a replicator. She also said that the language came into
existence to serve the purpose of being a mechanism for improving the
fecundity of memes.
Sound transmission has many advantages for the purpose – sounds can be
heard by multiple listeners and can be used even at night. After sound
transmission (proto-language) came into existence, the "digitalization" of
language into discrete words arose as a mechanism for ensuring meme
fidelity, or lack of errors in the new copies. She explains that those
alterations that produce the most copies of the highest fidelity will be those
that predominate, thus improving the language.
Blackmore goes on to suggest that grammar was an adaptation to improve
the fecundity and fidelity of existing memes; its recursive structure then
provided the framework for the development of more complex memes,
which then favored the existence of more complex grammar, etc. in a self-
sustaining process. Furthermore, language then began to exert pressure on
the genes, creating a selection pressure toward bigger brains that are better
at language.
If people prefer to mate with those possessing the best or most memes,
then the genes that allowed those people to be good meme-spreaders will
be differentially transmitted into the next generation. This process again
leads to a self-catalytic process of brain evolution that places a strong

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survival and reproductive advantage on those most capable of meme

transmission.
Finally, Blackmore believes that language is an unavoidable result of the
existence of memes, which follow naturally from the ability to imitate (an
ability that is, surprisingly, realized in very few species). She states, "Verbal
language is almost an inevitable result of memetic selection. First, sounds
are a good candidate for high-fecundity transmission of behaviour. Second,
words are an obvious way to digitise the process and so increase its fidelity.
Third, grammar is a next step for increasing fidelity and fecundity yet again,
and all of these will aid memorability and hence longevity".
Self assessment questions
1. Stephen Jay Gould is most prominent among those who propounded
that language is a ____________.
2. According to people who view language as a spandrel, language was a
______________ of other evolutionary processes.
3. According to Susan Blackmore, grammar was an adaptation to improve
the ________________ and ________________ of existing memes.

1.3 History of the Origins and Development of English Language

In the fifth and sixth centuries AD the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes invaded
the British Isle, each speaking languages that could be mutually understood
amongst themselves. This language is known today as Old English (500-
1100), which contained four dialects: west Saxon, Mercian, north Umbrian,
and Kentish. Approximately half of all Modern English words are derived
from Old English roots. Unlike Middle English, which can be deciphered by
speakers of Modern English, Old English can no longer be understood
without being extensively studied as a "foreign" language.
English is an ever-changing form of mutual expression that is unique to
humans and humans alone. The history of a language is as vast as the
language itself, showing distinct periods in change and development.
English can be crudely shaped into three distinct periods: Old English (500-
1100 AD), Middle English (1100-1500), and Modern English (1500-Present.)
Each of these periods has experienced distinct changes.
English is part of the Indo-European group, which covers most of the
languages spoken in Europe today. While there is no written record of
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Proto-Indo-European language, its influence on English can be readily

identified. For example, the English word for father can be compared to the
cognate word vater (German), pater (Latin), and padre (Spanish). Likewise,
dissimilarity between languages that are not related in their roots is readily
apparent. Consider the counting system of the Mungaka language, for
example, in comparison to the English counting system: nyn, iba, ipe, ikwa,
itan, intu, kwatat, ifom, swiwo, om; one, two, three, four, five, six, seven,
eight, nine, ten.
Now compare the counting system of Danish to the counting system of
English: en, to, tre, fire, fem, seks, syv, otte, ni, ti; one, two, three, four, five,
six, seven, eight, nine, ten. The similarities between Danish and English are
as apparent as the dissimilarities between Mungaka and English.
1.3.1 Old English (450-1100AD)
Old English, also known as Englisc or Anglo-Saxon, is an early version of
the English spoken today in Britain. Old English was the West Germanic
language spoken in the area now known as England between the 5th and
11th centuries. Speakers of Old English called their language Englisc. Old
English began to appear in writing during the early 8th century. Most texts
were written in West Saxon, one of the four main dialects. The other dialects
were Mercian, Northumbrian and Kentish. Old English varies widely from the
language we know today. Throughout the centuries, it experienced influence
from Germanic dialects and Celtic languages. Later on, Latin also became a
powerful influence, particularly around the time when a new alphabet was
adopted. Because Latin was considered the language of the educated
population, it became important at one point to adopt a new alphabet. Old
English originally used the runic alphabet, so when the Latin alphabet was
adopted, words were written as pronounced. There were no silent letters.
1.3.2 Middle English (1100-1500)
The English language has changed continually throughout history. In the
early Middle Ages these changes were often the result of invasions or
migrations; as people from other countries settled in the British Isles they
brought their own languages, which combined with or even super ceded the
native languages. The period of Middle English covers the period between
the twelfth and the first half of the fifteenth century – the time when Britain
was under the Norman rule. The French kings who ruled England at that

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time spoke no, or very little English and only some of them, as for example
Henry II understood it, but did not speak it. As the French introduced their
laws the predominant external influence on the Middle English was French.
There are numerous differences between the Old English and Middle
English and the most visible ones are in grammar. The Old English was
inflectional so there were many word endings for nouns, adjectives and
verbs, while in the Middle English the inflection vanishes and word order
starts playing a major role. Thus, the firm subject-verb-object order started
to be used and the importance of prepositions increased.
1.3.3 Early modern English (1500-1800)
From the 16th century the British had contact with many nations from
around the world. During this period-the Renaissance-a great revival of
interest in learning swept over England and much of Europe, leading people
to become more aware of the importance of language as they studied the
writings of the past. Furthermore, many words from other languages
(especially Latin and Greek) were introduced into English as a result of this
growing interest in the writings of the distant past.
1.3.4 Late modern English (1800-present)
The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern
English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising
from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology
created a need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its height
covered one quarter of the earth's surface, and the English language
adopted foreign words from many countries.
Self assessment questions
4. English is an ever-changing form of ________________ expression.
5. For English as a language, Latin became a powerful influence,
particularly around the time when a new _____________ was adopted.
6. The most important difference between the Old English and Middle
English pertains to _____________.

1.4 Types of World English

U.S. English, Inc. Founded in 1983 by the late Senator S.I. Hayakawa, an
immigrant himself, U.S. English now has 1.8 million members nationwide.
U.S. ENGLISH, Inc. is the nation's oldest, largest citizens' action group

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dedicated to preserving the unifying role of the English language in the

United States. The use of English in the United States was inherited from
British colonization. The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in
North America in the 17th century. During that time, there were also
speakers in North America of Spanish, French, Dutch, German, Norwegian,
Swedish, Scots, Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Finnish, Russian (Alaska) and
numerous Native American languages. U.S English, is a set of dialects of
the English language used mostly in the United States. Approximately two
thirds of native speakers of English live in the United States. English is the
most common language in the United States. Though the U.S. federal
government has no official language, English is considered the “de facto
language” of the United States due to its widespread use. English has been
given official status by 30 of the 50 state governments.
1.4.1 Canadian English
Canada has a greater mix of people with different backgrounds than almost
anywhere on Earth, after Australia. A large number of immigrants from
almost every part of the world come to live in Canada. One example is the
Governor General of Canada, Michaëlle Jean, who came to Canada as a
young child with her family from Haiti in 1968.
According to the words of Orkin (author of Speaking Canadian English) in
comparing Canadian English to American and British English states: “the
truth seems to be that Canadians are not prolific coiners of words, being
content for the most part to borrow American and British English
expressions, inventing new words sparsely and reluctantly” “In their daily
vocabulary, Canadians thread an uncertain and apparently arbitrary path
between British and American usage”.
Canadian English is the product of four waves of immigration and settlement
over a period of almost two centuries. The first large wave of permanent
English-speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the mostimportant,
was the influx of British Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution, chiefly
from the Mid-Atlantic States – as such, Canadian English is believed by
some scholars to have derived from northern American English and is
nothing more than a variety of it. The second wave from Britain and Ireland
was encouraged to settle in Canada after the War of 1812 by the governors
of Canada, who were worried about anti-English sentiment among its

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citizens. Waves of immigration from around the globe peaking in 1910 and
1960 had a lesser influence, but they did make Canada a multicultural
country, ready to accept linguistic change from around the world during the
current period of globalization.
The languages of Aboriginal peoples in Canada started to influence
European languages used in Canada even before widespread settlement
took place, and the French of Lower Canada provided vocabulary to the
English of Upper Canada.
1.4.2 Australian English
Spoken Australian English includes some colloquial phrases and unique
slang. Australian English incorporates many terms that Australians consider
to be unique to their country.
In 1850s, Australian gold rushes significantly influence the language. During
this period United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was under economic
hardship, about two per cent of its population emigrated to the Colony of
NSW and the Colony of Victoria. Among the changes wrought by the gold
rushes was "Americanisation" of the language – the introduction of words,
spellings, terms, and usages from North American English. The words
imported included some later considered to be typically Australian, such as
dirt and digger. Bonzer, which was once a common Australian slang word
meaning "great", "superb" or "beautiful", is thought to have been a
corruption of the American mining term bonanza, which means a rich vein of
gold or silver and is itself a loanword from Spanish. One of the best-known
of these is outback which means a "remote, sparsely-populated area". Many
such words, phrases or usages originated with British and Irish convicts
transported to Australia in 1788-1868. Australian English and several British
English dialects (eg. Cockney, Scouse, and Geordie) use the word mate to
mean a friend, rather than the conventional meaning of "a spouse", although
this usage has also become common in some other varieties of English.
American say Australian say
Candy Lollies
Ketchup Tomato sauce
Diaper Nappy
Cookie Biscuit
Good day G’day

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1.4.3 South African English

The History of the English language in South Africa can be traced back to
the first British occupation in 1795. English was considered to be the
civilized language and the upper classes, even those from the Dutch stock
used it in their everyday life. South Africa is a multilingual country. Besides
the 11 officially recognised languages, scores of others – African, European,
Asian and more – are spoken here, as the country lies at the crossroads of
southern Africa. South Africa's linguistic diversity means all 11 languages
have had a profound effect on each other. South African English, for
example, is littered with words and phrases from Afrikaans, isiZulu, Nama
and other African languages.
1.4.4 Indian English
English has been with India since the early 1600's, when the East India
Company started trading and English missionaries first began their efforts.
English became the official and academic language of India by the early
twentieth century. Indian English is a distinct variety of the English
language. Many Indians claim that it is very similar to British English, but this
opinion is based on a surface level examination of lexical similarities. Indian
English has become a new form of Indian culture, and the voice in which
India speaks. While Indian Authors, poets, novelists, essayists, have been
making significant contribution to world literature since the
pre-independence era, the past few years have seen a massive flourishing
of Indian English writing in the international market. Indian English
morphology is very creative and it is filled with new terms and usages.
Indian English uses compound formation extensively, as in English-
speaking classes or convent-going. The compounds cousin-brother and
cousin-sister allow the Indian English speaker to designate whether their
cousin is male or female – a function which is inherent in the terminology of
most Indian languages. Indians also pluralize many English mass nouns
and end up with words such as litters, furniture’s, and woods. Sometimes
words which should be pluralized are not; for example, S.Shah says, "One
of my relative". A quintessential Indian English term which comes from
compound formation is time-pass, which denotes something as non-
exciting, as in "That movie was real time-pass." It can also indicate the act
of passing time without a specific purpose or motivation.

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E-Indians also shorten many words to create commonly used terms.

Enthusiasm is called enthu; as such, it can be used in new ways. One can
say, "That guy has a lot of enthu." While this is simply an abbreviation,
enthu can also be used as an adjective where enthusiasm cannot, as in
"He's a real enthu guy." The same applies for fundamentals, which is
shortened as fundas. "She knows her fundas." What is interesting about
fundas is that when the – as ending is dropped and – u is added, it takes on
a new meaning and can be used in a new way. Fundu basically means
wonderful or brilliant. What is interesting about Indian English abbreviations
is that they are pronounced the way they are spelled after they have been
shortened. Many Indians feel that the use of English should be actively
encouraged because of the many advantages it confers – the greatest of
which is its universal character. English has become a new form of Indian
culture.
Activity:
Analyse the impact of regional dialects on English as spoken in India.

Self Assessment Questions

7. Canadian English is the product of four waves of _____________ and
_____________ over a period of almost two centuries.
8. The use of English in the United States was inherited from
_____________ colonization.
9. Indian English morphology is very _____________ and it is filled with
new terms and usages.

1.5 Summary
You have learnt that language first appeared between 30,000 and 100,000
years ago among human beings. The two views explaining the evolution of
language are it being a spandrel and being an adaptation of some sort.
You have also come to know that on the basis of language evolution,
English can be divided into Old English, Middle English and Modern English.
Glossary
Gestures: A form of non-verbal communication in which visible bodily
actions communicate particular messages, either in place of speech or
together and in parallel with spoken words.

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Spandrel: A phenotypic characteristic that is a byproduct of the evolution of

some other character, rather than a direct product of adaptive selection.
Meme: A unit of cultural ideas, symbols or practices, which can be
transmitted from one mind to another through writing, speech, gestures,
rituals or other imitable phenomena.

1.6 Terminal Questions

1. What is the difference between the theories of language evolution?
2. Differentiate between Old English, Middle English and Modern English.
3. Define the characteristics of Indian English.

1.7 Answers
Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1. Spandrel
2. Byproduct
3. Fecundity, fidelity
4. Mutual
5. Alphabet
6. Grammar
7. Immigration, settlement
8. British
9. Creative

Answers to Terminal Questions

1. Refer to 1.2 – Both are rivals.
2. Refer to 1.3 – The difference is basically on the basis of time and
geographical regions.
3. Refer to 1.4 – The use of English in the United States was inherited from
British colonization.

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