Ch4 - Learning and Transfer of Training

CHAPTER 4
LEARNING AND TRANSFER OF TRAINING
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OBJECTIVES (1)
Discuss the five types of learner outcomes

Explain the implications of learning theory for instructional design
Incorporate adult learning theory into the design of a training
program
Describe how learners receive, process, store, retrieve, and act
upon information
Discuss the internal conditions (within the learner) and external
conditions (learning environment) necessary for the trainee to
learn each type of capability
OBJECTIVES (2)
Discuss the implications of open and closed skills and near and far
transfer for designing training programs
Explain the features of instruction and the work environment that are
necessary for learning and transfer of training
LEARNING AND TRANSFER
Both learning and transfer are necessary for training effectiveness

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in human
capabilities
Transfer refers to trainees applying what they have learned to their
jobs
Goals of Training transfer:
• Generalization is applying what was learned to situations that are
similar but not identical to those in training
• Maintenance is the continued use of what was learned over time
MULTIPLE LEARNING OUTCOMES (1)
Verbal Information
• specialized knowledge, including names, labels, facts, and
bodies of knowledge
Intellectual Skills ‫مهارات فكرية‬
• concepts and rules critical to solve problems, serve customers,

and create products
Motor Skills ‫املهارات الحركية‬
• coordination of physical movements
MULTIPLE LEARNING OUTCOMES (2)
Attitudes
• beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave in a certain way
Cognitive Strategies
• strategies that regulate thinking and learning
• they relate to decisions regarding what information to attend
to, how to remember, and how to solve problems
LEARNING THEORIES
Jump to LEARNING THEORIES Long Description
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Individuals are motivated to perform or avoid behaviors because

of past outcomes of behavior
Trainers need to identify what outcomes learners find most

positive and negative and then link these outcomes to acquiring
new knowledge and skills
DIFFERENT TYPES OF REINFORCEMENTS
Positive reinforcement is adding a desirable outcome following

desirable behavior
Negative reinforcement is removing an unpleasant outcome
following desirable behavior
Punishment (positive punishment) is adding an unpleasant outcome
following undesirable behavior
Extinction (negative punishment) is removing a desirable outcome
following undesirable behavior
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating

behavior, and receiving reinforcement and rewards
Learning results from directly experiencing the consequences of

using a skill, observing others, and seeing the consequences of their
behavior
• Attention
• Retention
• Motor reproduction
• Motivational processes
‫الكفاءة الذاتية‬
SELF-EFFICACY IS CRITICAL
Self-efficacy reflects an individual’s belief that he/she can

successfully learn knowledge and skills
Self-efficacy can be increased through:
• verbal persuasion
• logical verification
• modeling
• past accomplishment
GOAL ORIENTATION
. In training, goal setting theory suggests that learning can be effectively facilitated by
setting specific and challenging goals.
Goal orientation refers to the goals held by a trainee in a learning situation. Goal
orientation can include:
1-Learning orientation relates to trying to increase ability and competence in a task
People with a learning orientation view mistakes as useful for learning
2-Performance orientation refers to a desire to look good in

comparison to others
• Individuals with a performance orientation avoid mistakes
because they do not want to appear foolish
PROMOTING A LEARNING ORIENTATION
Jump to PROMOTING A LEARNING ORIENTATION Long Description
NEED THEORIES
Need theories help explain the value that a person places on

certain outcomes.
A need is a deficiency that a person is experiencing at a given point
in time.
A need motivates a person to behave in a manner to satisfy the
deficiency. Need theories help to explain the value that a person
places on outcomes.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY
OF NEEDS
ALDERFER’S THEORY
Existence
• physical needs such as food, clothing, and shelter
Relatedness
• interpersonal needs in personal and professional settings
Growth
• needs for personal development
• If the higher needs are not satisfied, people will refocus on

lower needs (Difference with Maslo’s)
MCCLELLAND’S THEORY
Needs can be learned:

Need for achievement
• need to achieve challenging goals, prove something, and recognition
Need for power

• need to dominate and influence others
Need for affiliation

• need to be a part of something and a desire for social relationships
NEEDS THEORY IMPLICATIONS
Trainers should attempt to understand learners’ needs, explain how training

will meet needs, and adapt training
Another implication is providing employees with a choice of training programs to attend.

Giving employees a choice of which training course to attend can increase their motivation to
learn because trainees are able to choose programs that best match their needs.
If certain basic needs are not met, motivation may suffer
However, training should not necessarily attempt to meet all needs
EXPECTANCY THEORY IMPLICATIONS
BEHAVIORS ARE BASED ON 3 FACTOTRS
Jump to EXPECTANCY THEORY IMPLICATIONS Long Description
ADULT LEARNING THEORY ANDRAGOGY
Is build on the following assumptions:

• Adults have the need to know why they are learning something.
• Adults have a need to be self-directed.
• Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation.
• Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach
to learning.
• Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
ADULT LEARNING THEORY IMPLICATIONS
Mutual planning and collaboration
Use learner experiences for examples and applications
Develop instruction based on learners’ interests and competencies
Provide opportunities for application
Ensure training is problem centered
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (1)
Information processing theory proposes that information taken in

by the learner undergoes several transformations in the brain
A message is received by the senses, is registered, stored in short-
term memory, transformed to long-term memory, and a response to
the message is organized
The final link in the model is feedback from the environment
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (2)
Jump to INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (2) Long Description
TRANSFER OF TRAINING THEORY
Trainees are more likely to transfer

what they learned when trained in similar
environment to work depending on the
type of skills they are practicing.
There are 3 theories to explain that
CLOSED VERSUS OPEN SKILLS
Transfer can be enhanced by understanding the type of skill
Closed Skills
• Involve responding to predictable situations with
standardized responses
Open Skills
• Involve responding to variable situations with adaptive responses
PROMOTING TRANSFER FOR CLOSED SKILLS
Provide detailed checklists to follow
Provide high-fidelity practice
Shape favorable attitudes toward compliance
Reward compliance
PROMOTING TRANSFER FOR OPEN SKILLS
Teach general principles
Shape favorable attitudes toward experimentation
Allow trainees to make mistakes without fear of punishment
Provide rewards for experimentation
1- THEORY OF IDENTICAL ELEMENTS
Transfer will be maximized when the tasks, materials, and equipment in

training are similar to the work environment
Identical elements are particularly important for promoting :
near transfer, applying learned capabilities exactly to the work situation
2-STIMULUS GENERALIZATION APPROACH
Transfer is enhanced when the most important features, or general

principles, are emphasized during training
The stimulus generalization approach is appropriate to promote far

transfer, applying learned capabilities to the work environment
when it is not identical to training
3-COGNITIVE THEORY OF TRANSFER
Transfer depends on a trainee’s ability to retrieve learned capabilities
Meaningful material and coding schemes enhance storage and recall of

training
THE LEARNING PROCESS
Mental & Physical Processes

Learning depends on the learner’s cognitive processes, organizing the content in a
mental representation, and relating the content to existing knowledge from long-
term memory
Jump to MENTAL & PHYSICAL PROCESSES Long Description
LEARNING STRATEGIES
Different learning strategies influence how training content is

coded
• Rehearsal
• learning through repetition
• Organizing
• finding similarities and themes
• Elaboration
• relating the material to other more familiar knowledge
THE LEARNING CYCLE (1)
Jump to THE LEARNING CYCLE (1) Long Description
THE LEARNING CYCLE (2)
EMPLOYEES NEED TO KNOW THE OBJECTIVES
An objective may have three components

• what the learner is expected to do or know
• quality or level of acceptable performance
• conditions under which the learner is expected to perform
EMPLOYEES NEED MEANINGFUL CONTENT
Content should be linked to current job experiences and tasks that

have meaning
Material should be presented using familiar concepts, terms, and

examples
Content should be aligned with personal and professional goals
EMPLOYEES NEED OPPORTUNITIES TO PRACTICE
Practice should:
• involve the trainee actively
• include overlearning
• take the appropriate amount of time
• include the appropriate unit of learning
EMPLOYEES NEED A NUMBER OF PRE-PRACTICE
CONDITIONS
Provide strategies that will result in the greatest learning
Encourage trainees to reflect
Provide advanced organizers
Help trainees set challenging learning goals
Create realistic expectations for trainees
For training in teams, clarify roles and responsibilities
EMPLOYEES NEED PRACTICE INVOLVING EXPERIENCE
Learners need practice involving direct experience
Overlearning is needed
Incorporate errors in the learning process
• … and teach individuals how to learn from them
MASSED VERSUS SPACED PRACTICE
Massed practice involves practicing continuously without rest
With spaced practice, individuals are given rest intervals within

the practice session
In general, spaced practice is superior
WHOLE VERSUS PART PRACTICE
Whole practice involves focusing on all tasks at the same time
Part practice involves practicing each component as soon as it

is introduced in training
Trainers should incorporate both types
EMPLOYEES NEED TO COMMIT TRAINING CONTENT TO MEMORY
Jump to EMPLOYEES NEED TO COMMIT TRAINING CONTENT TO MEMORY Long Description
BOOSTERS
Boosters refer to retrieval opportunities that help the learner’s brain

consider training information as important and help retain it
Boosters can include short multiple choice, short-answer quizzes, or

other activities that require learners to retrieve what they have
learned from long-term memory
MICROLEARNING
Microlearning refers to training delivered in small pieces or chunks to

engage trainees, motivate them to learn, and help facilitate retention
Chunks of learning are presented using videos or games spanning 5 to

8 minutes
Used to replaced longer training and to supplement formal training
EMPLOYEES NEED FEEDBACK
Feedback should be specific and should follow the behavior as

closely as possible
Feedback can come from a variety of sources, such as through

interpersonal interactions, video recordings, tests and quizzes, on-
the-job observation, and performance data
EMPLOYEES LEARN THROUGH OBSERVATION,
EXPERIENCE, AND INTERACTION
Individuals learn through observation and imitating the actions of
models
Trainers should promote three key types of interaction:
• Learner-content
• Learner-instructor
• Learner-learner
EMPLOYEES NEED THE TRAINING PROGRAM TO BE
PROPERLY COORDINATED AND ARRANGED
Training administration is important
• Communicate courses to employees
• Prepare instructional materials
• Arrange the training facility and room
• Test equipment that will be used
• Provide support during instruction
• Distribute evaluation materials
ENCOURAGE TRAINEE RESPONSIBILITY AND SELF-
MANAGEMENT
Self-management refers to a person’s attempt to control aspects of
decision making and behavior
Self-management training involves setting goals to use skills on the

job, identifying obstacles and ways to overcome them, and self-
administering rewards
ENSURE A SUPPORTIVE WORK ENVIRONMENT
Characteristics of a positive climate for transfer include:

• Supervisors and coworkers encourage transfer
• Task cues to use new skills
• Lack of punishment for using new skills
• Extrinsic reinforcement consequences
• Intrinsic reinforcement consequences
CONSIDER BOTH INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL
CONDITIONS
Internal conditions are processes within the learner that are
necessary for learning
External conditions are processes in the learning environment that

are necessary for learning
External conditions should directly influence forms of instruction,

and they should be designed to facilitate the internal conditions
Appendix of Image Long Descriptions
LEARNING THEORIES Long Description
This slide presents different learning theories in different boxes (from left to right, top to bottom):
Reinforcement Theory
Social Learning Theory
Goal Theories
Need Theories
Expectancy Theory
Adult Learning Theory
Information Processing Theory
Jump back to LEARNING THEORIES

PROMOTING A LEARNING ORIENTATION Long Description
This slide presents different strategies for promoting a learning orientation from left to
right:
Set goals around experimentation
Deemphasize competition
Create a community of learning
Provide constructive feedback when trainees make mistakes
Jump back to PROMOTING A LEARNING ORIENTATION

EXPECTANCY THEORY IMPLICATIONS Long Description
This slide presents the three components of expectancy theory in three boxes from left to right:
EXPECTANCY--ensure trainees are confident in their ability
VALENCE--provide and communicate valued rewards
INSTRUMENTALITY--ensure valued rewards are received if trainees successfully learn and transfer
Jump back to EXPECTANCY THEORY IMPLICATIONS

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (2) Long Description
Information Processing Theory
This flowchart depicts the information processing theory.
The left end of the flowchart contains a vertically positioned rectangular box. The top portion of this box is labeled
stimulus or message. An arrow arises from the top right side of this box and leads to a smaller rectangular box that is
labeled receptors (eyes, ears, nose, and skin). An arrow arises from the right side of this box and leads to another box
that is labeled sensory register. An arrow arises from the right side of this box and leads to the next box that is labeled
short-term memory. An arrow arises from the right side of this box and leads to another box that is labeled long-term
memory. An arrow arises from the left side of this box and points at the box labeled short-term memory.
An arrow arises from the bottom of each of the boxes labeled short-term memory and long-term memory. These
arrows point downward at a rectangular box that is labeled response generator. An arrow arises from the left side of
this box and points at a box labeled effectors. An arrow arises from the left side of this box and points at the bottom
right side of the vertically positioned rectangular box. The content at the bottom of this rectangular box reads
environment and feedback reinforcement.
Jump back to INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (2)

MENTAL & PHYSICAL PROCESSES Long Description
At the bottom of the slide are different process for learning in different boxes (from left to
right):
Expectancy
Perception
Working Storage
Semantic Encoding
Long-term Storage
Retrieval
Generalizing
Gratifying
Jump back to MENTAL & PHYSICAL PROCESSES

THE LEARNING CYCLE (1) Long Description
This slide presents the learning process with an arrow (from left to right):
Concrete experience: trainees encounter a concreate experience
Reflective observation: trainees think about the problem
Abstract conceptualization: trainees generate ideas how to solve the problem
Active experimentation: trainees implement ideas to solve the problem
Jump back to THE LEARNING CYCLE (1)

EMPLOYEES NEED TO COMMIT TRAINING CONTENT TO
MEMORY Long Description
This slide presents strategies to help trainees commit learning to memory in different boxes (from left to right, top to
bottom):
Help them understand how they learn
Emphasize important points and eliminate irrelevant content
Use a concept map to show relationships among ideas
Teach key words, provide a procedure, sequence, or visual image
Encourage trainees to take notes and engage in reflection
Have trainees engage in overlearning
Provide rest breaks during training
Use quizzes or boosters
Break courses into small chunks of learning using modules or microlearning
Have trainees complete pre-training work
Jump back to EMPLOYEES NEED TO COMMIT TRAINING CONTENT TO MEMORY

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CHAPTER 4

LEARNING AND TRANSFER OF TRAINING

Discuss the five types of learner outcomes

Both learning and transfer are necessary for training effectiveness

• concepts and rules critical to solve problems, serve customers,

Motor Skills ‫املهارات الحركية‬

• coordination of physical movements

Jump to LEARNING THEORIES Long Description

Individuals are motivated to perform or avoid behaviors because

Trainers need to identify what outcomes learners find most

Positive reinforcement is adding a desirable outcome following

Individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating

Learning results from directly experiencing the consequences of

Self-efficacy reflects an individual’s belief that he/she can

2-Performance orientation refers to a desire to look good in

Jump to PROMOTING A LEARNING ORIENTATION Long Description

Need theories help explain the value that a person places on

• If the higher needs are not satisfied, people will refocus on

Needs can be learned:

Need for power

Need for affiliation

Trainers should attempt to understand learners’ needs, explain how training

Another implication is providing employees with a choice of training programs to attend.

If certain basic needs are not met, motivation may suffer

However, training should not necessarily attempt to meet all needs

Jump to EXPECTANCY THEORY IMPLICATIONS Long Description

Is build on the following assumptions:

Mutual planning and collaboration

Use learner experiences for examples and applications

Develop instruction based on learners’ interests and competencies

Provide opportunities for application

Ensure training is problem centered

Information processing theory proposes that information taken in

Jump to INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (2) Long Description

Trainees are more likely to transfer

Transfer can be enhanced by understanding the type of skill

Provide detailed checklists to follow

Provide high-fidelity practice

Shape favorable attitudes toward compliance

Teach general principles

Shape favorable attitudes toward experimentation

Allow trainees to make mistakes without fear of punishment

Provide rewards for experimentation

Transfer will be maximized when the tasks, materials, and equipment in

Identical elements are particularly important for promoting :

near transfer, applying learned capabilities exactly to the work situation

Transfer is enhanced when the most important features, or general

The stimulus generalization approach is appropriate to promote far

Transfer depends on a trainee’s ability to retrieve learned capabilities

Meaningful material and coding schemes enhance storage and recall of

Mental & Physical Processes

Jump to MENTAL & PHYSICAL PROCESSES Long Description

Different learning strategies influence how training content is

Jump to THE LEARNING CYCLE (1) Long Description

An objective may have three components

Content should be linked to current job experiences and tasks that

Material should be presented using familiar concepts, terms, and

Content should be aligned with personal and professional goals

Learners need practice involving direct experience

Incorporate errors in the learning process

• … and teach individuals how to learn from them

Massed practice involves practicing continuously without rest