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 Seafood Science: Advances in Chemistry, Technology and Applications

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Seafood
SeafoodScience
Seafood Science
Science
Seafood Science
Advances
Advances in
Advances Chemistry,
in in Chemistry,
Chemistry,
Advances in Chemistry,
Editor: Se-Kwon Kim
Technology
Technology and
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Editor: Se-Kwon Kim

Technology and Applications
Editor: Se-Kwon Kim
Editor: Se-Kwon Kim

K20742
Editor:
Editor: Se-Kwon
Editor:
Editor:
Se-Kwon Kim
Se-Kwon
Se-Kwon
Kim Kim Kim
6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW
Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487
711 Third Avenue
New York, NY 10017
an informa business
7814669595828
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w w w. c rc p r e s s . c o m Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK 9 9781466
7814669595828
595828 A Science Publishers Book
 Seafood Science
Advances in Chemistry,
Technology and Applications

Editor
Se-Kwon Kim
Department of Marine-bio Convergence Science
Specialized Graduate School of
Convergence Science and Technology
Pukyong National University
Pusan, Republic of Korea

p,
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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 Contents

Preface v
1. Introduction to Seafood Science 1
Se-Kwon Kim and Jayachandran Venkatesan
2. Fermentation of Seaweeds and its Applications 14
Motoharu Uchida
3. Recent Advantages of Seafood Cooking Methods based 47
on Nutritional Quality and Health Benefits
Abdul Bakrudeen Ali Ahmed, Teoh Lydia and Rosna Mat Taha
4. Oil Tannage for Chamois Leather 80
Eser Eke Bayramoğlu and Seher Erkal
5. Fish Protein Coating to Enhance the Shelf Life of Fishery 90
Products
V. Venugopal Menon
6. Recovery of Fish Protein using pH Shift Processing 117
Yeung Joon Choi and Sang-Keun Jin
7. Usage of MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry in Sea Food 132
Safety Assessment
Karola Böhme, Marcos Quintela-Baluja,
Inmaculada C. Fernández-No, Jorge Barros-Velázquez,
Jose M. Gallardo, Benito Cañas and Pilar Calo-Mata
8. Production and Application of Microbial Transglutaminase 170
to Improve Gelling Capabilities of Some Indonesian
Minced Fish
Ekowati Chasanah and Yusro Nuri Fawzya
9. Lactic Acid Bacteria in Seafood Products: Current Trends 182
and Future Perspectives
Panchanathan Manivasagan, Jayachandran Venkatesan and
Se-Kwon Kim
viii Seafood Science: Advances in Chemistry, Technology and Applications

10. Feeding Trial of Red Sea Bream with Dioxin Reduced 202
Fish Oil
T. Honryo
11. Chitosan as Bio-based Nanocomposite in Seafood Industry 211
and Aquaculture
Alireza Alishahi, Jade Proulx and Mohammed Aider
12. Recent Developments in Quality Evaluation, Optimization 232
and Traceability System in Shrimp Supply Chain
Imran Ahmad, Chawalit Jeenanunta and Athapol Noomhorm
13. Anti-aging & Immunoenhancing Properties of Marine 261
Bioactive Compounds
Ranithri Abeynayake and Eresha Mendis
14. Arsenic in Seaweed: Presence, Bioavailability and 276
Speciation
Cristina García Sartal, María Carmen Barciela Alonso and
Pilar Bermejo Barrera
15. Application of Bacterial Fermentation in Edible Brown 352
Algae
Sung-Hwan Eom and Young-Mog Kim
16. Production, Handling and Processing of Seaweeds 359
in Indonesia
Hari Eko Irianto and Syamdidi
17. Food Applications of By-Products From the Sea 376
C. Senaka Ranadheera and Janak K. Vidanarachchi
18. Mining Products from Shrimp Processing Waste and 397
Their Biological Activities
Asep Awaludin Prihanto, Rahmi Nurdiani and Muhamad Firdaus
19. Selenium-Health Benefit Values as Seafood Safety Criteria 433
Nicholas V.C. Ralston, Alexander Azenkeng, Carla R. Ralston,
J. Lloyd Blackwell III and Laura J. Raymond
20. Role of Bacteria in Seafood Products 458
Françoise Leroi
21. Health Risks Associated with Seafood 483
Samanta S. Khora
Index 571
About the Editor 575
Color Plate Section 577
 13
Anti-aging & Immunoenhancing
Properties of Marine Bioactive
Compounds
Ranithri Abeynayake and Eresha Mendis*

1 Introduction
Emerging research evidence regarding the impact of diet on human health
beyond the basic nutrition has aroused the curiosity of consumers. Marine
based bioactive compounds, in particular, are believed to provide a number
of health benefits. The marine ecosystem covers more than 70% of the earth’s
surface but represents 95% of the biosphere with phenomenal biodiversity
(Faulkner 1995). Therefore, marine bioactive compounds can be derived
from a number of sources including marine plants, microorganisms and
by-products of the fish industry. Many marine organisms live in complex,
competitive and aggressive habitats exposed to extreme conditions and in
adapting to new environmental surroundings, they produce a wide variety
of biologically active secondary metabolites which cannot be found in other
organisms. While the effect of these compounds on the human body may be
very small over relatively short periods, they could contribute significantly
to health when they are consumed throughout one’s life as a part of the
daily diet (Biesalski et al. 2009).

Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya,

Peradeniya (KY 20400), Sri Lanka.
Emails: aranithri@yahoo.com, ereshamendis@yahoo.com
* Corresponding author
262 Seafood Science: Advances in Chemistry, Technology and Applications

Japanese females have the longest average lifespan with better health
than other elderly people in the world; this is believed to be due to the
anti-aging and immunoenhancing properties of their diet, rich in marine
foods. Therefore, many scientific research studies have been carried out to
find the anti-aging and immunoenhancing mechanisms of marine derived
bioactive compounds. Among millions of bioactive compounds, fatty acids,
proteins, polysaccharides and antioxidants such as carotene are considered
to be highly beneficial.

2 Mechanisms and Theories of Aging Process

Aging is a unique biological process for each and every living organism.
Accumulation of damaged and defective cellular components, loss of cell
or organ physiological functions, failure of physical activities and loss of
memory occur during the aging process. Most of the aging related changes
cause the development of diseases such as cardiovascular disease, type II
diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, cognitive decline and depression, etc.
As a result of scientific investigations carried out to discover the secret of
aging, a number of theories have been suggested but none of these theories
alone provides the means to explain the secret of aging. Genetic mutation
and imbalance of the signaling pathways are believed to have a great impact
on the aging process. Genes with genetic mutation regulate aging through
acting on cellular stress response, energy and metabolism control, growth
modulation, gene dysregulation, genetic stability and nutrition sensing.
The coordinated action of signaling networks systematically modulates
homeostasis and functions that respond to stress, damage, nutrition and
temperature. Imbalance of these signaling pathways has been noted in
various organs and tissues during age related pathology (Pan et al. 2012).

3 Immune System, Immunoenhancement and Stimulation

Immunity is the resistance of an organism to avoid infection, disease or
other unwanted biological invasion. The immune system is the most diverse
and complex system in the body; it is a network of cells, tissues and organs
that work together to defend the body against attacks by microbes such as
bacteria, parasites, viruses and fungi. The function of the immune system
depends on its ability to distinguish between the body’s own cells and
foreign cells. The immune system starts to react as soon as it recognizes
the attack of an antigen. Anything that can trigger an immune response is
called an antigen. An antigen can be a microbe or a part of a microbe such
as a molecule.
 Anti-aging & Immunoenhancing Properties of Marine Bioactive Compounds 263

Many exogenous factors like bioactive compounds have been found

to enhance the activity of the immune system. In the past few decades,
the discovery of metabolites with immunoenhancing properties from
marine sources has increased significantly. The compounds responsible for
immunoenhancement are known as immunostimulants.

4 Sources of Marine Bioactive Compounds

The importance of the marine ecosystem as a source of bioactive compounds
is growing rapidly. Sea weeds, marine micro algae or by products of fish
processing can be the root of marine bioactive compounds.
Marine algae are one of the richest sources of bioactive compounds.
Algae can be classified into macro algae (seaweed) and microalgae, based
on the size. The biodiversity of microalgae is enormous and they represent
an almost untapped resource. Marine macro algae are classified into
three main categories based on their pigmentation. Phaeophyta or brown
seaweeds are predominantly brown due to the presence of the carotenoid
fucoxanthin and the primary polysaccharides present include alginates,
laminarins, fucans and cellulose (Haugan and Liaaenjensen 1994; Goni et
al. 2002). Chlorophyta or green seaweeds are dominated by chlorophyll a
and b, with ulvan being the major polysaccharide component (Robic et al.
2009). The principal pigments found in rhodophyta or red seaweeds are
phycoerythrin and phycocyanin and the primary polysaccharides are agars
and carrageenans (McHugh 2003). By products of fish processing refer to
tissues that remain after the fish muscle has been removed and include
heads, frames, viscera, and skin. By products can be used to make fish meal
and fish oil. Fish, fish oils, fish meal and by products of fish processing
industry are considered rich sources of bioactive compounds.

5 Role of Marine Bioactive Compounds in Anti-aging and

Immunoenhancing Mechanisms
5.1 Carotenoids

Chemically, carotenoids are polyunsaturated hydrocarbons containing

40 carbon atoms per molecule and variable numbers of hydrogen
atoms. Oxygenated derivatives of carotenoids are known specifically as
xanthophyll. Among the other carotenoid sources, seaweeds and microalgae
are known to have a greater impact on anti-aging and immunoenhancing
mechanisms (Table 1).
264 Seafood Science: Advances in Chemistry, Technology and Applications

Table 1. Macro and micro algal sources of carotenoids.

Carotenoid Molecular Structure Source Reference
β-carotene Dunaliella (Rabbani et al. 1998)
salina
Chlorella (Plaza et al. 2009)
ellipsoidea
Chlorella (Plaza et al. 2009)
vulgaris
α-carotene Dunaliella (Ocean White
salina 2003)

Lutein Chlorella (Plaza et al. 2009)

ellipsoidea (Plaza et al. 2009)
Chlorella
vulgaris

Astaxanthin Haematococcus (Tripathi et al. 1999)

pluvialis (Cha et al. 2008)
crustacean
shells

Cryptoxanthin Dunaliella (Ocean White

salina 2003)

Canthaxanthin Haematococcus (Demming-Adams

pluvialis and Adams 2002)

Lutein Haematococcus (Demming-Adams

pluvialis and Adams 2002)
Scenedesmus (Abe et al. 2005)
almeriensis

Zeaxanthin Dunaliella (Yokthongwattana

salina et al. 2005)

Carotenoids in anti-aging and age related disease prevention: In the

last decades, many laboratory and epidemiological studies have been
conducted which suggest that intake of carotenoids is inversely related
to aging and age related diseases. Although the mechanisms are not well
understood, the action of carotenoids is believed to be due to its antioxidant
 Anti-aging & Immunoenhancing Properties of Marine Bioactive Compounds 265

effect. The conjugated double bonds of carotenoids show antioxidant

properties in reducing oxidative stress created by reactive oxygen species.
Astaxanthin possesses powerful antioxidant properties as it contains two
additional oxygenated groups on each ring structure compared with other
carotenoids.
The anticancer activity of marine carotenoids has been widely observed.
In particular, β-carotene, astaxanthin, cantaxanthin and zeaxanthin have
been shown to have positive impacts (Gradelet et al. 1998; Nishino et
al. 2002). DNA oxidation due to oxidative stress is believed to be one of
the major risk factors of cancers. In this sense, the anticancer activity of
marine carotenoids may be due to its antioxidant ability to prevent DNA
oxidation.
Cardiovascular diseases are the most commonly found disease among
elderly populations and atherosclerosis is considered the most common
cause. Low density lipoproteins oxidation induced by oxidative stress
plays a key role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Numerous research
studies have shown that astaxanthin, cantaxanthin, lutein, α-carotene and
β-carotene exerted significant anti-atherogenic properties due to the ability
to suppress oxidative stress (Palozza et al. 2008; Vílchez et al. 2011).
In addition, a marine carotenoid enriched diet has been found to
diminish the risk of degenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and
Alzheimer’s (Guerin et al. 2003). Neurodegeneration is the progressive
loss of structure or function of neurons. Many neurodegenerative diseases
are caused by genetic mutations. Therefore, the protective action of marine
carotenoids due to their antioxidant activity on DNA oxidation can be
considered.
Carotenoids in immunoenhancement: Many studies have demonstrated
the activity of marine β-carotenoids upon immunoenhancement. In early
days the immunoenhancing role of β-carotene was believed to be due
to its provitamin A activity in maintaining non-specific host defence. In
humans, four carotenoids; β-carotene, α-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin have
provitamin A activity.
However, subsequent studies have shown the specific action of
carotenoids without provitamin A activity, carotenoids such as in lutein,
canthaxanthin and astaxanthin. In fact, these non-provitamin A carotenoids
were as active and at times more active than β-carotene in enhancing
immune response in animals and humans (Chew and Park 2004). Though
the mode of action is not clear, antioxidant properties of conjugated double
bonds of carotenoids may be effective in immunoenhancement through
neutralizing singlet oxygen and other reactive oxygen species.
During the non-specific immune responses to infection, free radicals
and reactive oxygen species are used by certain white blood cells against
266 Seafood Science: Advances in Chemistry, Technology and Applications

bacterial invaders. Neutrophils are a major class of white blood cells which
use reactive oxygen species and free radicals to kill phagocytized bacteria.
However, effectiveness and efficiency of the immune system can be depleted
as a result of injury to white blood cells as well as neighboring cells and
tissues caused by the excessive production of free radicals. Scientists have
found that the β-carotene protects neutrophils from free radical damage
without suppressing its activity on bacteria (Weitberg et al. 1985).
The cells involved in specific immune responses can also be affected
by lipid peroxides and other oxidative products formed due to oxidative
reactions (Gurr 1983). β-carotene and canthaxanthin together inhibited
the loss of macrophage receptors following exposure to reactive oxygen
intermediates (Gruners et al. 1986). At the same time, carotenoids can protect
lipids from oxidation and reduce peroxide generation.
Apart from the antioxidant activity β-carotene enhances many aspects of
immune function including T and B lymphocyte proliferation and secretion
of factors required for communication between the cells responsible for
immune functions.

5.2 Proteins, peptides and amino acids

Amino acids contain an amine group, a carboxylic acid group and a side
chain that is specific to each amino acid. Peptides are short polymers of
amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and
amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues. Typically peptides contain
fewer than 50 monomer units. Proteins are biochemical compounds
consisting of one or more polypeptide folded into a globular or fibrous
form, facilitating a biological function.
Proteins, peptides and amino acids in anti-aging and age related disease
prevention: Anti-aging and age related disease preventive actions of
proteins, peptides and amino acids isolated from marine sources have
been widely studied. It has been reported that several proteins, peptides
and amino acids have the antioxidant property to suppress the activity of
reactive oxygen species. On the other hand, oxidative stress created by free
radicals is believed to have a strong relationship with aging and age related
diseases. Therefore, proteins, peptides and amino acids are considered
effective in anti-aging and prevention of age related diseases.
Polypeptides with 3–20 amino acids are found to have functional
properties. However their activities are based on their amino acid
composition and sequence (Pihlanto-Leppälä 2000; Kim and Wijesekara
2010). It has already been shown that bioactive peptides isolated from fish
protein hydrolysates, algal fucans, and galactans possess anticoagulant,
anticancer, hypocholesterolemic (Moskowitz 2000) and antioxidative
 Anti-aging & Immunoenhancing Properties of Marine Bioactive Compounds 267

properties (Jun et al. 2004; Rajapakse et al. 2005). In addition, purified

peptides extracted from Chlorella vulgaris have shown protective effects
against cellular damage (Sheih et al. 2009). On the other hand, fish protein
has been reported to decrease cholesterol which influences the lipid
metabolism of human subjects in serum and liver (Hosomi et al. 2009). The
major proteins in Spirulina platensis and Porphyridium are known to have
antioxidant and anticancer effects (Plaza et al. 2009).
The basic unit of proteins and peptides is amino acid. In the intestinal
tract, proteins and peptides are broken down to amino acids which are
distributed to the whole body after absorption by the intestinal tube
wall. Therefore, it is suggested that proteins and peptides are absorbed as
amino acids and the amino acids inhibit age related diseases due to their
antioxidant properties. In particular, these amino acids are considered to
be a leading part of the antioxidant property. Researchers have found that
phenylalanine, histidine, and tryptophan in fish product peptides may
scavenge HO• (Dean et al. 1997). Therefore, regular intake of marine peptides
and proteins might contribute to the prevention of aging and age related
diseases by regulating the balance of oxidative stress.
Proteins, peptides and amino acids in immunoenhancement: There has not
been much research on the immunoenhancing properties of marine derived
bioactive proteins, peptides or amino acids. Anyhow, the immunoenhancing
properties of protein hydrolysate isolated from Chlorella vulgaris, which is a
small green one celled algae, have received considerable attention. Though
the specific functions are little known, Chlorella is believed to stimulate the
production of interferons, macrophages and T cells, thus functioning as an
immune stimulant (Tse 2000).

5.3 Fatty acids

Fatty acids are dietary nutrients important for the healthy functioning of the
body. Unlike other fatty acids that can be created in the body, ω-6 and ω-3
fatty acids can only be obtained through one’s diet. Considerable research
activities have focused on the relationship between increased ω-3 fatty acid
intake and anti-aging and immunoenhancing activities. Oily fish, fish oil
and microalgae contain varying amounts of polyunsaturated ω-3 fatty acids
known as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA, 22:6n-3). Microalgae are being developed as a commercial source.
Fatty acids in anti-aging and age related disease prevention: Experimental
studies have shown the relationship between higher intakes of DHA and
EPA from marine sources and inhibition of tumor growth. EPA and DHA
may act either through the same or different mechanisms, but differential
efficacy could exist. Several molecular mechanisms, whereby ω-3 fatty acids
268 Seafood Science: Advances in Chemistry, Technology and Applications

Table 2. Sources of marine ω-3 fatty acids.

Fatty Acid Molecular Structure Source Reference

EPA Microalgae (Fuentes
Porphyridium cruentum et al. 1999)
Chlorella minutissima (Rasmussen and
Morrissey 2007)
Fish and fish oil
Cod liver, herring,
mackerel, salmon,
menhaden, sardine
DHA Microalgae (Wikipedia 2012)
Crypthecodinium cohnii

Fish and fish oil

Cod liver, herring,
mackerel, salmon,
menhaden, sardine
γ-linolenic Microalgae (Wikipedia 2012)
acid Arthrospiraplatensis
Arthrospira maxima

may modify the carcinogenic process, have been proposed. These include
suppression of arachidonic acid derived eicosanoid biosynthesis, influences
on transcription factor activity, gene expression and signal transduction
pathways, alteration of estrogen metabolism, increased or decreased
production of free radicals and reactive oxygen species and mechanisms
involving insulin sensitivity and membrane fluidity (Larsson et al. 2004).
At the same time, numerous epidemiological and experimental studies
have conclusively shown that higher intakes of marine EPA and DHA are
associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. The cardiovascular
protective effects of DHA contained in fish lipid have been reported to be
due to suppression of cholesterol secretion from the liver to the plasma
(Garg et al. 1998).
Moreover, DHA derived metabolites have been found to promote
resolution and protect neural cells in brain tissue from neurodegeneration
(Bazan 2005). At the same time, marine DHA intake has been reported to
reduce the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease which is characterized by a
decline in cognitive function. The presence of extracellular amyloid peptide
deposits and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles in the brain are considered
the main features of the disease. Although the cause of the disease is not well
understood, increased inflammation (Akiyama et al. 2000) and oxidative
stress (Markesbery 1997) are considered the key contributing factors.
Therefore, the preventive activity of DHA can be recommended due to its
ability to suppress neuroinflammation and oxidative stress.
 Anti-aging & Immunoenhancing Properties of Marine Bioactive Compounds 269

Fatty acids in immunoenhancement: Immunoenhancing activities of marine

fatty acids are lacking in evidence. The hot water extract of Spirulina was
discovered to enhance immunity by increasing the phagocytic activity of
macrophages and stimulating the natural killer cells. The immunoenhancing
properties of Spirulina may also be due to activation and mobilization of T
and B cells due to its impact in the production of cytokines and antibodies
(Schwartz and Shklar 1987). The immunoenhancing property of Spirulina is
believed to be due to γ-linolenic acid which is a precursor of prostaglandins,
leukotrienes and thromboxans (Burtin 2003).

5.4 Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides

Significant efforts have been made to find and confirm the bioactivity of
saccharides. Polysaccharides and oligosaccharides are long carbohydrate
molecules of repeated monomer units joined together by glycosidic bonds.
Typically, oligosaccharides contain two to ten monomer units while
polysaccharides contain more than ten monosaccharide units.
Fucoidan is a sulfated, water soluble, branched polysaccharide with
L-fucose monomer units. The basic structure of 3-linked, preponderantly
4-sulfated fucoidan from Eckloniakurome (Nishino and Nagumo 1991) is
shown in Fig. 1. Fucoidans are found both intercellularly and in the cell wall
of brown algae, such as Hizikiafusiforme, Fucusvesiculosus, Eiseniabicyclics,
Fucusserratus, Fucusdistichus, Himanthalialorea, Bifurcaria bifurcate and
Eckloniakurome (Berteau and Mulloy 2003).
Chitin is one of the major structural polysaccharides of crustacean shells
and shellfish wastes and built from n-acetyl-glucosamine monomer. The
structure of the chitin molecule, showing two of the N-acetylglucosamine
units that repeat to form long chains in β-1,4 linkage are given in Fig. 2.

Figure 1. The basic structure of 3-linked, preponderantly 4-sulfated fucoidan.

270 Seafood Science: Advances in Chemistry, Technology and Applications

Figure 2. Structure of the chitin molecule, showing two of the N-acetylglucosamine units.

In practice, chitosan is produced commercially by deacetylation of

chitin. Chitosan is a linear cationic polysaccharide composed of randomly
distributed β-(1-4)-linked D-glucosamine (deacetylated unit) and N-acetyl-
D-glucosamine (acetylated unit). The proportion of the two monosaccharide
units in chitosan depends on the alkaline treatment. Chitosan has three types
of reactive functional groups, an amino/acetamido group as well as both
primary and secondary hydroxyl groups at the C-2, C-3 and C-6 positions,
respectively. Chito-oligosaccharides are chitosan derivatives which can be
generated via chemical or enzymatic hydrolysis of chitosan.

Figure 3. Chemical structure of chitosan.

Laminaran and sodium alginate are polysaccharides with proven

functional health benefits. Laminaran is a β-glucan found widely in brown
algae. It is a β-1,3/1,6 glucan which is considered the most active form of
β-glucans.

Figure 4. Chemical structure of laminaran.

 Anti-aging & Immunoenhancing Properties of Marine Bioactive Compounds 271

Sodium alginate is the sodium salt of alginic acid and is extracted from
brown sea weeds by the use of dilute alkali. Basically, sodium alginate
composed of β-D-mannuronic acid monomers linked by glycosidic
bonds.

Figure 5. Chemical structure of sodium alginate.

Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides in anti-aging and age related

disease prevention: Marine polysaccharides such as fucoidans and
chitosan and chito-oligosaccharides present a real potential in anti-aging
mechanisms. Fucoidans are reported to display physiological and biological
activities including antithrombotic, antitumor and antioxidant (Li et al. 2008)
activities with therapeutic potential increasing with the degree of sulfation
(Berteau and Mulloy 2003).
In the medical field, chitosan has been developed as new physiological
material due to its antitumor and hypocholesterolemic properties (Jeon et
al. 2000). These functions have been limited by its high molecular weight
and highly viscous nature, resulting in its low solubility in acid free aqueous
media. Recently, these oligosaccharides have been the subject of increased
attention in terms of their high solubility and their antioxidant, anticancer,
hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic and anticoagulant properties
(Wijesekara and Kim 2010).
Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides in immunoenhancement: Great
attention has been paid to immunoenhancing properties of marine derived
polysaccharides such as fucoidan, glucan, alginate, chitin and chitin
derivatives, etc.
Marine algae are considered a rich source of polysaccharides, having
a number of health benefits including immunoenhancement. β-1,3-glucan
of Chlorella (Spolaore et al. 2006) and 1→3:1→6-β-D-glucans, produced
from laminaran, have been found to have immunostimulating activities
in animals and plants (Kuznetsova et al. 1994; Chertkov et al. 1999).
Preparations containing 1→3:1→6-β-D-glucans, laminaran and fucoidan,
are marketed for their beneficial properties on the immune system. High
molecular weight fucoidans of Okinawa mozuku are immunostimulators as
they increase the proportion of murine cytotoxic T cells (Shimizu 2005).
Fucoidan from Fucus vesiculosus has immunostimulating and maturing
272 Seafood Science: Advances in Chemistry, Technology and Applications

effects on dendritic cells which are powerful antigen presenting cells (Kima
and Joo 2008). The marine brown alga, Endarachne binghamiae, which is a rich
source of sodium alginate, exhibited strong immunostimulation activity for
macrophage and T cell proliferation (Rang and Huiting 2005). Although the
immunoenhancing mechanisms of alginates and their hydrolysates are still
unclear, it is proposed that the molecular size and molecular conformational
characters are highly related to their bioactivity (Ji et al. 2011).
Recent advances demonstrate the health benefits of oligosaccharides
including enhanced immunity. Chitin and chitin derivatives stimulate
macrophages to produce cytokines by interacting with different cell surface
receptors such as macrophage mannose receptor, toll-like receptor-2 (TLR-2),
C-type lectin receptor Dectin-1, and leukotriene 134 receptor (BLT1) (Lee
2009). Chitosan showed an immunoenhancing effect by enhancement of
antibody response. 70%-DD chitosan, in particular, was an immune regulator
that could activate macrophages and natural killer cells and improve the
delayed type hypersensitive reaction (Nishimura et al. 1984).

6 Perspectives
Since antiquity, due to their functional properties, marine sources have
been used as a part of daily diet and also as a medicinal remedy in
some parts of the world. The longest average lifespan and better health
of Japanese females are also believed to be due to the anti-aging and
immunoenhancing properties of their diet, rich in marine foods. As a result,
scientific investigations have been carried out to find the exact molecules
responsible for the anti-aging and immunoenhancing activities. But it is
still difficult to explain how exactly these molecules perform their activity.
Therefore, further studies are needed in order to investigate the detailed
molecular mechanisms.
Although marine food has been found to possess a number of health
benefits, including anti-aging and immunoenhancement, its intake is
not adequate due to its cost and lack of availability. At the same time,
many individuals do not like the taste and odor of marine food. Foods
fortified with marine bioactive compounds could play an important role in
meeting the requirements for optimal benefits. Technological innovations
in the field of food science should be applied in the development of food
products fortified with bioactive compounds, having anti-aging and
immunoenhancing properties.
 Anti-aging & Immunoenhancing Properties of Marine Bioactive Compounds 273

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