UNIT- III

SAMPLING, METEROLOGY AND AIR

QUALITY MODELLING
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
PART-A
1) What is sampling?
Air sampling is a process used to determine what airborne contaminants are
present in an environment. It uses special instruments to detect contaminants
such as gases, vapours, dusts and fibers in the air.
2) What is gaseous pollutant?
Gaseous pollutants can be categorized into two types they are
• inorganic gases such as ozone, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide, hydrogen sulphide, chloride.
• organic gases such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

3) what is air ambient?

Air Quality Standards are legal limits placed on levels of air pollutants in the
ambient air during a given period of time. As such, they characterize the
allowable level of a pollutant or a class of pollutants in the atmosphere and thus
define the amount of exposure permitted to the population and/or to
ecological systems.
4) Define stack sampling.
Or
Define source sampling.
Stack sampling or Source sampling may be defined as a method of collecting
representative sample of pollutant laden air/gas at the place of origin of
pollutants, to determine the total amount of pollutants emitted into the
atmosphere from a given source in a given time.
 5) Define Meteorology.
Air movements influence the fate of air pollutants. So any study of air pollution
should include a study of the local weather patterns (meteorology). If the air is
calm and pollutants cannot disperse, then the concentration of these pollutants
will build up.
6) What is lapse rate?
The lapse rate is the rate at which an atmospheric variable, normally
temperature in Earth's atmosphere, falls with altitude. Lapse rate arises from the
word lapse, in the sense of a gradual fall.
7) What is meant by wind rose?
wind rose, map diagram that summarizes information about the wind at a
particular location over a specified time period. A wind rose was also, before
the use of magnetic compasses, a guide on mariners' charts to show the
directions of the eight principal winds.
8) What is wind velocity?
Wind speed, or wind flow velocity, is a fundamental atmospheric quantity.
Wind speed is caused by air moving from high pressure to low pressure, usually
due to changes in temperature.
9) Define plume behaviour?
Plume behaviour refers to the dispersal pattern of gaseous pollutants in
atmosphere depending upon wind conditions, atmospheric stability and vertical
temperature profile. It shows seasonal as well as diurnal variations.
10) Types of plume behaviour?
There are six type of plume behaviour they are as follows.

• Fanning Plume
• Fumigating Plume
• Looping Plume
• Coning Plume
• Trapping Plume
• Lofting Plume
 PART-B
1) Briefly explain sampling and measurement of particulate and gaseous
pollutant?

Air quality monitoring: Sampling and measurement of air pollutants generally

known, as air quality monitoring. It is an integral component of any air
pollution control programme.

Classification of sampling methods:

➢ Sampling of impurities of every nature (Ranging from particulate matter

to gases)
➢ Sampling under various environmental conditions (ranging from samples
taken from chimneys to samples taken in the open air)
➢ Sampling methods varying according to the time factor (Ranging from
intermittent to continuous sampling)

Air Quality measurement is undertaken in two situations:

1. Ambient air quality measurement

2. Stack monitoring

Ambient air quality measurement: Where the pollutant levels in the ambient
atmosphere are measured.

Stack sampling: It deals with the pollutants emitted from a source such as
smoke stack and is known as stack sampling. It provides information on the
nature and quantities of various pollutants that are emitted into the atmosphere.

Difficulties encountered in sampling:

1. Collecting samples of true representative character.

2. Errors arising from methods used for the collection and separation of the
various components of pollution.
3. Difficulty in preventing any change in the concentration of particulate
matter in suspension, as a result of sampling operation.

Collection of Gaseous air Pollutants:

a) Grab sampling
b) Absorption in liquid
c) Adsorption on solids
d) Freeze-out Sampling
Grab sampling

In grab sampling the sample is collected by filling an evacuated flask or an

inflatable bag. Plastics bag are widely used.

Advantage: The losses can be minimized by performing the analysis

immediately following collection.

Grab sampling may be taken using rigid wall containers made from glass or
stainless steel.

Disadvantages: Losses caused by moisture condensation or diffusion through

the walls of the bag

Absorption in liquid:

Absorption separates the desire pollutant form air either through direct
solubility in the absorbing medium or by chemical reaction.

i. Fitted glass absorber

ii. Impingers

i. Fitted glass absorber

➢ The gas stream is broken up into extremely small bubbles, thus promoting
an intimate contact between the gas and the liquid.
➢ Frits designated coarse (50micron m pore size) are used for air sampling.
➢ The glass frit can become blocked and is difficult to clean after use. So
pre filter the air prior to sampling.
 ii. Impingers

➢ In the Impingers the gas stream is impinged at high velocity onto a flat
surface thus providing good contact between the gas and liquid.
➢ The flat surface can be the bottom of the collector or a specially designed
pate.

Two types of Impingers:

a. Wet Impingers
b. Dry Impingers

a. Wet Impingers

➢ Collect a prticle by causing them to impinge a surface submerged in a

liquid.

b. Dry Impingers:

➢ Referred to as impactors collect particles by impaction on a dry surface.

Adsorption on solids:

➢ This method is based on the tendency of gases to be adsorbed on the

surface of solid materials.
➢ The sample air is passed through a packed column containing a finely
divided solid adsorbent on whose surface the pollutants are retained and
concentrated.

Solid adsorbent:

i. Granular porous solids: Activated Charcoal, Silica gel After adsorption,

the sample gases are desorbed for analysis.
 ii. This may be accomplished by heating the adsorbent to volatilize the
trapped materials or by washing it with a liquid solvent.
iii. Most organic vapors are analyses by gas chromatographic techniques that
directly use the adsorption of the gases.

Disadvantages:

➢ Desorption of gases are complicated

Freeze out Sampling:

i. In freeze out sampling a series of cold traps, which are maintained at

progressively lower temperature, are used to draw the air sample,
whereby the pollutants are condensed.
ii. The traps are brought to the laboratory, the samples are removed and
analyses by means of gas chromatographic, infrared or ultraviolet,
spectrophotometer, and mass spectrometry or by wet chemical means.

Disadvantages:

➢ Plugging of the system because of Ice formation

2) Briefly explain Lapse rate and adiabatic lapse rate?

Definition:
The lapse rate is the rate at which an atmospheric variable,
normally temperature in Earth's atmosphere, falls with
altitude. Lapse rate arises from the word lapse, in the sense of
a gradual fall
Adiabatic Lapse rate
➢ No heat exchange with surroundings
➢ Consider an air parcel moving upward so rapidly that it experiences no
heat exchange with surrounding atmosphere

Enthalpy change:

H = H 2 − H1
Where:

H1 = initial enthalpy of air parcel

H2 = final enthalpy of air parcel

U1 = initial internal energy

U2 = final internal energy

V1 = initial volume

V2 = final volume.

➢ This approximation assumed there is no phase change in the air parcel

called Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR)
➢ If any phase change takes place during the motion, the temperature
change will be far more different from DALR Called Saturated (Wet)
Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR, WALR).
➢ Variable, must be calculated for each case Also significant in some cases;
this course does not focus on it.
➢ For standardization purposes, Standard Lapse Rate (SLR), also known as
Normal Lapse Rate (NLR), has been defined on average, in middle
latitude, temperature changes from 1°C to -56.7°C
➢ SLR = -0.66°C/100 m.
 ➢ Lapse rate measurements are taken by a device called Radiosonde
➢ Results of measurements are plotted to obtain Environmental Lapse Rate
(ELR)
➢ ELR is real atmospheric lapse rate
➢ Another significant concept is Potential Temperature
• Defined as possible ground level temperature of an air parcel at a
given altitude
 = T p = T + (DALR )* H

Where:
θ = Tp = potential temperature of air parcel
T = Temperature of air parcel
H = Height of air parcel from ground
DALR = Dry adiabatic lapse rate.
Types of Stability of Adiabatic:

Stability of the atmosphere is affected by:

• Temperature of the surrounding environment
• Temperature of the air parcel
Accordingly, the types of stability adiabatic are as follow:
• Super adiabatic meaning unstable
• Neutral
• Subadiabatic meaning stable (weakly stable)
• Subadiabatic meaning stable (weakly stable)
Super adiabatic meaning unstable:
If ELR < DALR Then

Neutral:
If ELR = DALR Then
Sub adiabatic meaning stable (weakly stable):
If DALR < ELR < 0 Then

Inversion meaning strongly stable:

If DALR < 0 < ELR Then
 3) What is wind rose?
Definition:
Any one of a class of diagrams designed to show the distribution of wind
direction experienced at a given location, over a considerable period.
Diagram:

Objective:
The most common form consists of a circle from which eight or sixteen lines
emerge, one for each direction. The length of each line is proportional to the
frequency of wind from that direction and the frequency of calm conditions is
entered in the centre. There are many variations in the construction of wind
roses. Some indicate the range of wind speeds from each direction, and some
relate wind direction with other meteorological conditions.
Wind roses may be constructed from the data obtained over a given time period
such as a particular month or season or a year. In constructing or interpreting
wind roses, it is necessary to keep in mind the meteorological convention that
wind direction refers to the direction from which the wind is blowing. A line or
bar extending to the north on the wind rose indicates the frequency of winds
blowing from the north.
The wind rose diagram is prepared using an appropriate scale to represent
percentage frequencies of wind directions and appropriate index shades, lines
etc., to represent various wind speeds. Observations corresponding to wind
speed below 1 km/h are recorded as calm.
Special wind roses are sometimes constructed like:
o Precipitation wind rose
o Smoke wind rose
o Sulphur dioxide wind rose
o Hydrocarbons wind rose
Instead of wind speed the parameters of precipitation, smoke, sulphur dioxide,
hydro carbons etc. are attached to the wind direction. These are known as
'Pollution Roses’.

Working:
➢ The wind rose is the time-honored method of graphically presenting the
wind conditions, direction and speed, over a period of time at a specific
location.
➢ Accurate estimation of the dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere
require a knowledge of the frequency distribution of wind directions as
well as wind speed.
➢ The create a wind rose, average wind direction and wind speed values are
collected at a site, at short intervals, over a period of time, e.g. 1
week, 1 month, 1 year or longer.
➢ The collected wind data is then sorted by wind direction so that the
percentage of time that the wind was blowing from each direction can be
determined.
➢ Presented in a circular format, the wind rose shows the frequency of
winds blowing from particular directions over a particular period.
➢ The length of each "spoke or segment" around the circle is related to the
frequency that the wind blows from a particular direction per unit time.
➢ Each concentric circle represents a different frequency, starting from zero
at the center to increasing frequencies at the outer circles.
➢ A wind rose plot may contain additional information, in that each
spoke/segment is broken down into color-coded bands that show wind
speed ranges.
➢ Wind roses typically use 16 cardinal directions, such as north (N), NNE,
NE, etc., although they may be subdivided into as many as 32 directions.
➢ In terms of angle measurement in degrees, North corresponds to 0°/360°,
East to 90°, South to 180° and West to 270°.
Uses of Wind rose:
I. Architects do, or should, use wind rose information for the siting of
buildings and stadiums.
II. Wind-power "farms" (wind mills) do extensive wind rose type studies
prior to erecting their wind turbines.
III. Also used for siting of industries in order to minimize impact of air
pollution on neighbouring cities.
IV. Sailors use wind rose.
 4) Explain briefly about Inversion and wind velocity,
turbulence?
Inversion:
Inversion is a frequent occurrence in the autumn and winter months and the
accumulation of smoke and other contaminants further aggravates pollution
by preventing the sun's rays from warming the ground and the adjacent air.
Types of Inversion:
There are two type of inversion they are as follows:
➢ Radiation inversion
➢ Subsidence inversion
Radiation inversion: It usually occurs at night, when the earth loses heat by
radiation and cools the air in contact with it. If the air is moist and its
temperature is below the dew point, fog will form. The cool air stratum is
covered by warmer air, and the vertical movement is stopped until the sun
warms the lower air, next morning. This type of inversion is more common in
winter than in summer because of the longer nights. Valley areas, because of the
restriction of horizontal air movement by surrounding high groung, may
frequently have such inversions.
In India, because of intense solar heating of the ground, inversions are broken
within a few hours after sunrise. However, simultaneous occurrence of fog or
mist prolongs the duration of inversion by cutting out sunlight reaching the
ground.
Subsidence inversion: It occurs at modest altitudes and often remains for
several days. It is caused by sinking or subsiding of air in anti-cyclones (high
pressure areas surrounded by low pressure areas). The air circulating around the
area descends slowly at the rate of about 1000 m per day. As the air sinks, it is
compressed and gets heated to form a warm dense layer.
This acts as a lid to prevent the upward movement of contaminants. The
inversion height may vary from the ground surface to 1600 m. When it drops to
less than 200 m, extreme pollution occurs.
Sometimes both radiation inversion and subsidence inversion may occur
simultaneously. Such a phenomenon is known as 'double inversion'.
Wind Velocity:
➢ The direction and speed of surface winds govern the drift and diffusion of
air pollutants discharged near the ground level.
➢ The higher the wind speed at or near the point of discharge of pollution,
the more rapidly are the pollutants carried away from the source.
➢ The pollutants so dispersed will not exist at the same concentration but
will rapidly be diluted with greater and greater volumes of air.
➢ On the other hand, when wind speeds are low, pollutants tend to be
concentrated near the area of discharge and the longer the periods of such
light winds, the greater will be the concentration of pollutants.
➢ Hills may deflect the air flow either horizontally, vertically, or both, the
amount of deflection depending on the vertical stability of the
atmosphere.
Wind Speed recorder:

Instruments for measuring wind speed are called anemometers. If they are
recording instruments they are known as anemographs.
The most common type is the cup anemometer.
The rate of rotation of the shaft to which the cups are attached indicates the
wind speed and this is transmitted to a recorder or an indicating panel by either
mechanical, optical or electrical means.
The NEERI has developed and patented a wind speed recorder.
In the instrument a fourcup rotor is employed to sense the wind.
The motion of the cup is transferred after reducing its speed by a gear system, to
the pen which makes a continuous rise and fall impression on chart paper.
This rate of rise or fall is proportional to the wind speed.
The instrument gives a 24-hour record in one setting. Wind speed at a particular
time and the average win speed can be found out from this record.
Turbulence:
Atmospheric turbulence, small-scale, irregular air motions characterized by
winds that vary in speed and direction. Turbulence is important because it mixes
and churns the atmosphere and causes water vapour, smoke, and other
substances, as well as energy, to become distributed both vertically and
horizontally.
5) Explain briefly about Plume behaviour?

➢ Plume behaviour refers to the dispersal pattern of gaseous pollutants in

atmosphere depending upon wind conditions, atmospheric stability and
vertical temperature profile. It shows seasonal as well as diurnal
variations.
➢ There are different types of plume behaviour based on the lapse rates and
atmospheric stability.
Types of Plume behaviour:
There are six types of Plume behaviour they are as follows:
I. Looping
II. Coning
III. Fanning
IV. Lofting
V. Fumigation
VI. Trapping.

Looping plume:
It is a type of plume which has a wavy character. It occurs in a highly unstable
atmosphere because of rapid mixing. The high degree of turbulence helps in
dispersing the plume rapidly but high concentrations may occur close to the
stack if the plume touches the ground.
Coning plume:

It is a type of plume which is shaped like a cone. This takes place in a near
neutral atmosphere (adiabatic condition) when the wind velocity is greater than
32 km/h. However, the plume reaches the ground at greater distances than with
looping.
Fanning plume:

It is a type of plume emitted under extreme inversion conditions. The plume,

under these conditions will spread horizontally, but little, if at all vertically.
Therefore, the prediction of ground level concentrations is difficult here.
Lofting plume:

Lofting occurs when there is a strong lapse rate above a surface inversion.
Under this condition, diffusion is rapid upward, but downward diffusion does
not penetrate the inversion layer. Under these conditions, emissions will not
reach the surface.
Fumigation plume:

It is a phenomenon in which pollutants that are aloft in the air are brought
rapidly to ground level when the air destabilizes.
Trapping plume:

This refers to conditions where the plume is caught between inversions and can
only diffuse within a limited vertical height.