Geography Notes

Geography as a discipline
1. Greek scholar Eratosthenese coined the term Geography – description of
earth.
2. Imprint – impress or stamp (a mark or outline) on a surface.
3. Approaches to study geography –
a. Systematic approach – studies at global level. It was introduced by
Alexander Von Humboldt.
b. Regional approach – studies at micro (regional) level. It was introduced by
Karl Ritter.

The origin and evolution of the earth

Monistic Hypothesis
1. Gaseous Hypothesis – It was postulated by Immanuel Kant in 1755. Nebula,
a cold gaseous motionless cloud, experienced particle collisions generating
heat energy, forming a circular axis for particle revolution. With the release
of greater heat, centrifugal forces [that separate particles from the centre]
surpassed centripetal [that attract particles to the centre] forces, leading to
increased distance from the centre. This paved the way for planet and
satellite formation, while the residual nebula formed the sun.
2. Nebular Hypothesis –proposed by French mathematician Laplace in 1796,
extended the gaseous hypothesis. Laplace envisioned that planets were
formed out of nebula associated with youthful sun. Nebula was already hot.
Its outer surface lost heat due to radiation.

Dualistic/ Binary Hypothesis

1. Planetesimal Hypothesis – proposed by American scientists T. C.
Chamberlain and Forest Ray Moultan in 1900. A wandering star with higher
gravity passed near sun. As a result, cigar/ cheroot shaped material
separated from sun. As the wandering star moved away, the separated
material revolved around the sun. That material further broke and
condensed to form planets and satellites.
2. Tidal Hypothesis – proposed by Sir Herold Jeffry and James Jeans in 1919.
Tides are formed due to the gravity of sun and moon. Under high gravity
tidal waves were formed on Sun’s surface. Because to this, cigar/ cheroot
shaped material separated from sun. As the wandering star moved away,
the separated material revolved around the sun. That material further
broke and condensed to form planets and satellites.

Gaseous and dust clouds hypothesis

1. Interstellar dust hypothesis – proposed by Russian thinker Otto Schmidt in
1943. With primitive sun, planets existed in atomic state. Gradually, gas
clouds of hydrogen and helium and dust clouds formed. The dust particles
were attracted towards each other due to sun’s attraction. Those clouds
revolved around sun in flat disc shape.
2. Nebular Hypothesis – proposed by Cal Weizsackar. The sun entered into
the cloud. Some particles got attracted to sun and revolved around it and
the remaining escaped into the universe. They later condensed in the form
of pearl necklace. Large pearls became planets and small ones became
satellites.

Big bang theory

It was proposed by Belgium scientist, George Limaitre.
1. Matter forming earth was in a small sphere.
2. It expanded like a balloon infused with air. The primordial matter dispersed
with expansion.
3. Big bang took place about 13.7 billion years ago.
4. The first atom was formed in just 3 minutes.
5. Temperature dropped to 4,500 Kelvin which made the universe
transparent.

Stars formation
The sun, the moon and all those objects shining in the night sky are called
celestial bodies.
1. Due to density difference and gravitational forces, matter got attracted. This
formed base for galaxy formation.
2. Galaxy formed by accumulation of hydrogen gas called nebula.
3. Growing nebula developed localised clumps of gas within it.
4. The clumps of gas got denser to form stars.
 Patterns formed by group of stars are known as constellations. E.g. Ursa
Major¿.
Light year is a measure of distance. Light travels at a speed of 3, 00,000 km/
second.

Planets formation
1. Gravity within the clumps of nebula, a core is formed.
2. Around the core, disc of gas revolve.
3. Gases got condensed to form small balls.
4. Through the process of cohesion (process of sticking together of alike
molecules) develop into planetesimals.
5. Larger bodies of planetesimals accrete to form planets.
Planets do not have their own heat and light.
Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus have rings around them.
Venus is considered as ‘Earth’s-twin’ because its size and shape are very
much similar to that of the earth.

Solar System
It consists of 8 planets, 63 moons, asteroids (small rocky objects in the solar
orbit), meteoroids, comets, satellites, planetesimals.

Terrestrial Planets Jovian Planets

Means earth – like. Means Jupiter – like.
Thick atmosphere Thin atmosphere
Planets in inner orbit. Planets in outer orbit.
Warm cold
Smaller and low gravity Larger and high gravity
Moon
1. Fission theory – was given by George Darwin in 1838. The earth was in an
elongated oval shape. It was rotating around the sun fast. Due to its speed,
a dumb – bell shaped was formed. It later broke and orbited around the
earth.
2. Modern theory – A body larger than earth collided with the earth. A part of
the earth broke and started revolving around the earth. That part was
called moon. The effect responsible for it was “giant splat”. That part
separated from Pacific Ocean causing depression in it.
 Satellite is a celestial body that moves around the planets in the same way
as the planets move around the sun.
Human-made Satellite is an artificial body. It is designed by scientists to
gather information about the universe or for communication. It is carried by
a rocket and placed in the orbit around the earth.
Asteroids are the tiny bodies that revolve around the sun between mars
and Jupiter.
The small pieces of rocks which move around the sun are called
meteoroids. Half burnt pieces create hollow in the earth.

Evolution of Atmosphere and Lithosphere

1. Earth filled with helium and hydrogen
2. As it cooled, water vapour and gases (carbon – di – oxide, nitrogen,
methane, ammonia, and little oxygen) escaped out of the earth. Later,
temperature reduced and it started raining.
3. Water collected in depression and formed ocean.

Globe
The tilted needle fixed is called the axis.
It moves west to east ( clock−wise ) just like the earth rotates.
All parallel circles from the equator up to the poles are called parallels of
latitudes.
All parallels north of the equator are called ‘north latitudes.’
1. Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the Northern Hemisphere.
2. Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the Southern Hemisphere.
3. Arctic Circle at 66½° north of the equator.
4. Antarctic Circle at 66½° south of the equator.

Maps
Thematic maps – is based on specific themes such as roads, rainfall.
Cardinal points- marked directional points, namely north, south, east and
west.
Conventional symbols – are based on international agreements.
Sketch – is based on memory and spot observation. It is not based on scale.
 Heat zones of earth
1. The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all latitudes in
between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. This area,
therefore, receives the maximum heat and is called the Torrid Zone.
2. The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic
of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn – temperate zone.
3. Areas lying between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole in the Northern
Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle and the South Pole in the Southern
Hemisphere, are very cold. It is because here the sun does not rise much
above the horizon – frigid zone.

Time calculation
1. Places east of Greenwich will be ahead of Greenwich Time and those to
the west will be behind it.
2. The earth rotates 360° in about 24 hours, which means 15° an hour or 1°
in four minutes.
3. When it is 12 noon at Greenwich, the time at 15° east of Greenwich will
be 15 × 4 = 60 minutes.
4. There is about 1 hour 45 minutes difference between Dwarka and
Dibrugarh in Assam.
5. India located east of Greenwich at 82°30'E is 5 hours and 30 minutes
ahead of GMT.
6. The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle
of illumination.
7. Summer Solstice – 21st June experiences longest day in northern
hemisphere( includes India ). Tropic of cancer receives direct light. Southern
hemisphere experiences longest night on this day.
8. Winter Solstice – 22nd December experiences longest night in northern
hemisphere( includes India ). Tropic of Capricorn receives direct light from
sun. Southern hemisphere experiences longest night on this day.
9. Equinox – 21st March and September 23rd experiences equal day and
night. Equator receives sun’s direct light. Neither of the poles is tilted.
On 21st March, it is spring in Northern Hemisphere and autumn in
Southern Hemisphere. On 23rd September, it is vice versa.
 Interior of the Earth
1. The interior of the earth can only be understood through indirect evidence.

Sources of Information about the interior

The earth’s radius is 6,370 km.

Direct Sources
1. Mines and oil wells – Mponeng gold mine near Johannesburg, South Africa
is 4 km deep. Drilling in Kola in Artic Ocean was 12 km deep.
2. Volcanic eruption – Magma is released.

Indirect Sources
1. Temperature – 6,000 ℃ at the core. It increases by 1℃ after 32 meters.
2. Density –Measurement of density is based on Newton’s law of gravity.

Average 5.5 g/cm3

Outer surface 2.7 g/cm3
Igneous rocks 3 to 3.5 g/cm3
Core 13g/cm3
3. Pressure – increased pressure causes increase in density.
4. Meteors – contains iron and nickel.
5. Gravity – Earth’s centre is close to poles. Hence, gravity near poles is
greater than equator.
6. Magnetic survey – geo material is uneven.
7. Seismic waves – P, S and L waves helped know about the earth’s layers.
Lithosphere, Mantle and Core.

Earthquake

 The crustal rocks break( fault ). The frictional force locks the broken rocks
together. Over time the tendency to move apart surpasses friction. Then
energy is released.
 The point of origin of energy is called focus/ hyper – centre. The point just
above the focus is called the epicentre.

Body waves and surface waves

 Body waves are P and S waves.
 P ( Primary )waves moves in the speed of 8 –14 km/s. It reaches the surface
first. It vibrates in the parallel direction of waves. It travels in solid, liquid
and gas. It is similar to sound waves.
 S ( Secondary )waves moves in 3 km/s speed. It travels and vibrates in
perpendicular direction. It can only travel in solid. It creates crests and
trough in the rocks.
 L ( Surface )waves are the most destructive ones.

Shadow Zone
It is a zone where no waves are recorded. Within 105° both P and S waves
recorded. Beyond 105° ¿ 145 ° only P waves are recorded. Within 105° ¿ 145 °a
band of P waves are created. Shadow waves of S waves re much larger.

Types of earthquakes
1. Tectonic earthquake – rocks slide in the crust – most common.
2. Volcanic earthquake – due to volcanic eruption.
3. Collapse earthquake – due to mining.
4. Nuclear earthquake – due to such testing or explosion of reactors.
5. Reservoir induced earthquake – due to pressure created by water.

Measurement
 Richter scale measures magnitude of energy released from focus in the
scale of 0 – 10.
 Mercalli scale measures intensity of energy felt at the surface in the scale
of 1 – 12.

Effects of earthquake

On landforms
1. Ground Shaking
2. Ground lurching – land becoming uneven.
3. Differential ground settlement – moving to different place
4. Land and mudslide
5. Avalanche – mudslide kind of thing in snow
6. Soil liquefaction

On life and property

1. Ground displacement – breaking of land. Thus, creating potholes.
2. Falling of objects
3. Fires
4. Structural collapse
5. Floods from dams and levee failures
6. Tsunami

Structure of the earth

Crust
Ocean 5 Km ( SIMA ) – Basaltic rocks
Continent 30 Km ( SIAL ) – lighter than
Magnesium. Hence, it floats. Granite
rocks.
Himalayan regions 70 Km

Mantle
It extends from Moho’s discontinuity to the depth of 2900 km.

The crust + upper mantle ( asthenosphere ) = Lithosphere. Its thickness is 10 – 200

km.

Asthenosphere Liquid
Lower mantle ( mesosphere ) Solid

Core
Inner core Liquid
Outer core Solid
Core is made of Nickel and Iron( NIFE ).

Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms

 Molten material ( magma ) is released from asthenosphere, When it magma
comes outside, it is called lava.
 The released material include lava flows, pyroclastic( hot ) debris, volcanic
bombs, ash, dust and gases such as nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine, hydrogen
and argon.
 Volcanoes

Shield Volcanoes
It is round in shape with basaltic flows. Basalt is a thin fluid. This volcano erupts
when water enters the vent( fault ). It throws up the cone cap covering the
shield and when it cools down, it becomes cinder cone. It is characterised by
low explosively. Famous type is Hawaiian volcanoes.

Composite Volcanoes
It becomes like a mountain. It released viscous material than basalt.

Caldera
It forms like a well. It is the most explosive of all the types. The magma
chamber is huge and closer to the surface.

Flood Basalt Provinces

It extends to a large area. It does not explode together but in series. The series
of overlapping happens at the thickness of about 50 km. E.g. Deccan trap.

Mid – ocean ridge volcanoes

It is in a crisscross shape. The central portion explodes.

Volcanic Landforms

Intrusive Forms
 Volcanic rocks – cool at the surface.
 Plutonic rocks – cool at the crust.
 The forms taken by the plutonic rocks at the crust are called intrusive
forms.

Batholiths
It cools and solidifies at greater depths( magma chamber ) . It comes up when upper
portion denudates after crore of years.

Laccoliths
It forms above batholiths in the form of domes with pipe like conduit attached
to it. Karnataka’s domal hills of granite are laccoliths and batholiths.

Lapoliths
It is in a concave saucer shape.
 Phacoliths
It is in a wavy form connected to the conduit to magma chambers( batholiths ).

Sheets and sills

 Sheet is dense in shape. It stands horizontally.
 Sills is small and thin in shape. It is also horizontal.

Dykes
It is in a wall shape. These are the most common type of intrusive rocks. It is
most in western Maharashtra area.

Distribution of oceans and continents

 Atlantic Ocean is surrounded by North and South America in the west and
Europe and Africa in the east. It is marked by absolute symmetry. In 1596,
Abraham Ortelius proposed a possibility of the 4 continent being 1 at some
point of time.
 Antonio Pellegrini drew a map showing all the 4 continents together.

Continental Drift
 Alfred Wegener put forth this theory in 1912. At the beginning of the earth,
there was only one continent – Pangea ( landmass ) and sea – Panthalassa
( all sea ). Due to drifting away of the continents, Pangea broke into 2 –
Laurasia( northern part ) and Gondwana( southern part ). Further drifting resulted
in formation of the present continents.

Evidences of continental drifting

1. Jig saw fit – of Atlantic region presented by Bullard in 1964.
2. Rocks of same age – rocks of Brazil matches western Africa. Similarly,
coastal rocks of South America and Africa belong to Jurassic age. It means
that the sea did not exist before that time.
3. Tillite – sedimentary rocks formed out of glaciers. Such rocks of same age
are found at Africa, Australia, Antarctica, Falkland and Madagascar. It shows
that there existed same paleo – climate and continental drifting.
4. Placer Deposits – means accumulation of valuable materials due to gravity,
such that the source rock is in different place from the accumulated place.
Gold mine in Ghana has veins in Brazil( South America ).
5. Distribution of Fossils – Lemur found only in Africa, India and Madagascar.
Mesosaurus ( reptile ) are found only in Southern cape( Africa ) and Iraver( Brazil )
.

Forces of Drifting
1. Pole fleeing forces – differential gravity at poles + centrifugal forces
2. Tidal forces – gravitational attraction of sun and moon.

Post – drift Studies

1. Convectional current in mantle portion has radio – active elements that
cause continents to drift.
2. Ocean Floor mapping – ocean rocks are younger than continental rocks.
Equidistant rocks on crust shows remarkable similarities.

Ocean floor configuration

Distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes

 The foci of earthquakes in the mid ocean ridges are at shallow depths.
 Alpine Himalayan belts are deep seated ones.

Concept of sea floor spreading by Hess

 The rocks at ocean are much younger than continents. As a result of oceanic
volcanic eruptions, old materials undergo a process of reincarnation,
transforming into younger ones.
 The spreading of one ocean does not shrink others.

Plate Tectonics by Mc Kenzie, Parker and Morgan

Tectonic plate/ Lithospheric plate – massive, irregular shaped slab of solid
rocks.
Plates are classified into oceanic or continental based on the area covered by
continents or oceans.

Major plates
1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate
2. North American (with western Atlantic floor separated from the South
American plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
3. South American (with western Atlantic floor separated from the North
American plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
4. Pacific plate
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate

Some Minor plates

1. Cocos plate: Between Central America and Pacific plate
2. Nazca plate: Between South America and Pacific plate
3. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate
5. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plate (North of New
Guinea)
6. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia.

Types of plate boundaries

Divergent boundaries/ spreading sites

These plates move away from each other. E.g. Mid – Atlantic Ridge, American
plates are separated from the Eurasian and African plate.

Convergent Boundaries
The location where the sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone.

1. Ocean – continent plate: forms trenches

2. Ocean – ocean plate: forms deep trenches
3. Continent – ocean plate: forms mountains.

Transform Boundaries
A fault is created in the mid ocean ridge. The plate slide over one another
horizontally.
 Rate of Movement
 Artic ridge – less than 2.5 cm/yr
 East Pacific Rise near Easter Island – more than 15 cm/yr.

Indian plate
The Indian plate includes Peninsular India and the Australian continental
portions. The subduction zone along the Himalayas forms the northern plate
boundary in the form of continent— continent convergence. In the east, it
extends through Rakinyoma Mountains of Myanmar towards the island arc
along the Java Trench. The eastern margin is a spreading site lying to the east
of Australia in the form of an oceanic ridge in SW Pacific. The Western margin
follows Kirthar Mountain of Pakistan. It further extends along the Makrana
coast and joins the spreading site from the Red Sea rift southeastward along
the Chagos Archipelago. The boundary between India and the Antarctic plate is
also marked by oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) running in roughly W-E
direction and merging into the spreading site, a little south of New Zealand.
India was a large island situated off the Australian coast, in a vast ocean. The
Tethys Sea separated it from the Asian continent till about 225 million years
ago. India is supposed to have started her northward journey about 200 million
years ago at the time when Pangaea broke. India collided with Asia about 40-
50 million years ago causing rapid uplift of the Himalayas. The positions of
India since about 71 million years till the present are shown in the Figure 4.6. It
also shows the position of the Indian subcontinent and the Eurasian plate.
About 140 million years before the present, the subcontinent was located as
south as 50o S. latitude. The two major plates were separated by the Tethys
Sea and the Tibetan block was closer to the Asiatic landmass. During the
movement of the Indian plate towards the Asiatic plate, a major event that
occurred was the outpouring of lava and formation of the Deccan Traps. This
started somewhere around 60 million years ago and continued for a long
period of time. Note that the subcontinent was still close to the equator. From
40 million years ago and thereafter, the event of formation of the Himalayas
took place. Scientists believe that the process is still continuing and the height
of the Himalayas is rising even to this date.

Minerals and Rocks

Earth’s crust is composed of –
 Major elements
1. Oxygen
2. Silicon
3. Aluminium
4. Iron
5. Calcium
6. Sodium
7. Potassium
8. Magnesium

Minor elements
1. Titanium
2. Hydrogen
3. Phosphorous
4. Manganese
5. Sulphur
6. Carbon
7. Nickel
8. Other elements
Some of these elements when combines together, mineral is formed.

Physical Characteristics
Finger nail is 2.5 degrees and glass/ knife blade is 5.5 degrees.
Petrology is a study of rocks.

Igneous rocks/ Primary rocks

If the magma cools at greater depths slowly, large grains are formed.
If it cools suddenly – smaller gains are formed. E.g. Granite

Sedimentary rocks
Through denudation process, fragments of rocks are transported and
deposited. Through compaction these fragments turn into rocks again. This
process is called lithification.

Modes of formation
1. Mechanically formed – sandstone.
2. Organically formed – chalk
3. Chemically formed – limestone.
 Metamorphic Rocks
1. Dynamic metamorphism – without any appreciable chemical change.
2. Thermal metamorphism – chemical changes occur.
Foliation/lieation – arrangement in lines of minerals or grains in
metamorphic rocks.
Banded rocks – arranged in thin and thick lines.

Rock cycle
Igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks undergo subduction to
change its nature and form.

Major landforms

Mountains
1. Glaciers – mountains whether in crust or ocean, that are covered
permanently by ice.
2. Range – mountains arranged in line.
3. Fold mountains – are mountains formed due to convergence( crushing ) of
tectonic plates, causing fold in the crust. E.g. Himalayan, Alps, Aravalli,
Appalachians, Ural mountains.
4. Block Mountains – are formed due to divergence of plates. Part that sits
down is called Graben. The upper elevated part is called horsts. E.g. Rhine
valley in Germany and Vosges mountains in France.
5. Volcanic Mountains – are formed from accumulated cool magma. E.g. Mt.
Kilimanjaro in Africa and Mt. Fujiyana in Japan.

Plateau
Plateaus are elevated flat land like a table. E.g. Deccan plateau in India, The
East African Plateau in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda and the Western
plateau of Australia. The Tibet plateau is the highest plateau in the world.

Plains
Large stretches of flat land, generally not more than 200 meters above the
mean sea level. It is formed out of eroded mountains varied down by rivers.
The deposits form plains.
 India
Himalayas
1. Greater Himalayas – Himadri

2. Middle Himalayas – Himachal

3. Lower Himalayas – Shivalik

Northern Plains
1. It lies south to the Himalayas. Ganga – Brahmaputra delta.

Peninsular Plateau
1. Aravalli hills

2. Vindhyas

3. Satpura – Narmada and Tapi.

4. Western Ghats of Sahyadri

5. Eastern Ghats

Geomorphic Processes

 Gradient means slope.

Endogenic processes
 Diastrophism and volcanism.

Diastrophism
 Movement in earth crust involving elevation, building up [ulat palat].
 Orogenic processes – mountain building process through folding.
 Epeirogenic process – continent building process through wrapping of large
part of crust.
 Minor earthquakes
 Plate tectonics.

Exogenic process
 Stress on unit area breaks down particles. Molecules break down due to
chemical stress. It is created due to loosing of bonds, crystallisation and
other similar processes.
 Denudation – to strip off/ to make it nude.

Weathering
Weathering is the action of weather and climate over earth materials. It
is an in – situ process.
It is a process of gradual breaking up rocks into pebbles ( smaller peices )
through the exposure of wind, water, light, etc. – mechanical disintegration
and chemical decomposition.
Chemical weathering – solution( lemon juice−solute , water −solvent ) ,
carbonation, hydration, oxidation and reduction on the rocks to
decompose, dissolve or reduce.

Erosion
The weathered rocks then move away from its original place through the
work of catalyst.
Role of gravity – it brings the eroded material down through gradients. It
creates stress

Ox Bow Lake
When the river flows through less sloping regions, it loses its furious flow. As a
result, it takes the shape of ‘U’. This is called meander. Because of large
amount of deposits hurdling its way, it changes it course a little bit to become a
wider U. This is called ox Bow Lake.

Flood Plains
The river when floods, the water cross its banks. River deposits the material
carried with it. Its thickness forms like an embankment and that is called levee.

Delta
As the river reaches the sea, it is carries with it a lot of sediments
accumulated over time. As a result of which, it slows down forming
distributaries( branches ) . The sediments appear to form a triangle called
delta.

Sea waves
1. With the repeated stroke of sea waves, the rocks are eroded. Due to this,
sea caves are formed.
2. Further erosion of sea caves cause formation of sea arches.

3. Next step of erosion of sea arches cause formation of stacks. It has only
roofs left.
4. After stacks, cliffs are formed with only one pillar left.
5. With eroded sediments settling with small pebbles and sand particles.
Beaches are formed.

Work of ice
1. Moraines are sediments brought by glaciers ( ice river ) and deposited.

Work of wind
1. It majorly works in deserts.
2. Sand dunes are same hills formed by the activity of wind and it can be
transferred to other place.
3. Loess is a series of deposition of fine particles of sand. Gobi loess is in China.
4. Mushroom rocks are in cylindrical shape. Wind erodes the lower part
forming vertical stand. The upper portion remains relatively unaffected
forming a circular shape.

Air
1. Wind – movement of air from one place to other.
2. Permanent wind/ trade winds – At equator, there is low pressure. Above
and below equator, there is high pressure. The wind moves from high
altitude to low altitude.

Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources

 India is among 12 biosphere hotspots of the world.
 Natural/ Virgin vegetation – that are left undisturbed by humans. Crops,
orchids are not virgin vegetation.
 Endogenic – are purely in Indian.

Factors affecting vegetation and wildlife

 Land, height of the land, climate, soil moisture, slope of the land, thickness
of the sand.
 Depending upon the temperature and rainfall, forest can be – dense or
open. If there is a lot of rainfall, then density will be more.

Advantages of forest
Modifies local climate, controls soil erosion, regulate stream flow
( trees hold the wate r ) .

 Grasslands are tropic, if they fall between tropic of cancer and Capricorn.
They are temperate, if they are above or below tropics.
 Shrubs are plants which grown dry area.

Tropical evergreen/ rain forest

 Forest between tropics and close to equator with ample of rain
( more than 200 cm rainfall ) . Such that, they don’t need to shed their leaves. The
trees reach more than 60 metres of height. There is a canopy. With trees,
shrubs, creepers multi layered canopy is achieved. Hence, little sunlight
penetrates into it. Trees like Rosewood, Mahogany, Rubber, Cinchona, Aini,
Jackfruit and Ebony are part of it. Elephant, one – horned rhino, monkey,
lemur, deer, bat, snail, sloth, scorpion are common. Western Ghats, Eastern
coastal area, Andaman and Nicobar and North eastern states have this
vegetation.
 Timber acts as an insulator of heat.

Semi – evergreen forest

 There is a mix of evergreen and moist deciduous forest. Climber provides
evergreen character to it. White cedar, hillock, kail are common.
 British replaced oak with pine in Gharwal and Kumaon forest.

Tropical deciduous forest

 They are monsoon fed forests in between tropics. They are classified into
moist( 100−200 cm ) and dry deciduous forest( 70−100 cm ). They shed leaves to
conserve water. Elephants, langurs, tiger, lions, pig, deer, lizard, snake are
common. Moist deciduous is found NE states, Jharkhand, W Bengal, eastern
 slopes of Western Ghats. Odisha. Teak, sal, shisham, sandalwood, kair,
Kusum, Arjun, mulberry, hurra, mahua, amla, semul are found here. Dry
deciduous have parkland landscape and is found in peninsular plateau,
plains of Bihar and UP. Teak, pipal, neem, tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, kair,
axle wood are found here.

Temperate evergreen forest

 Temperate means area immediately above and below tropics. Extreme
ends are called frigid. Evergreen implies regular and heavy rainfall. Hence,
areas of located in mid latitudinal coastal regions. Like south China, South
east Brazil are such forest. Mid latitudinal coastal regions is where warm
and cold air mixes, this causes frequent cyclones and hence, heavy rainfall.
It has hard and soft wood trees. This classification is based on pulp of the
tree. Oak, pine, eucalyptus are common.

Temperate deciduous forest

 Deciduous is monsoon feed and leaves are shed in dry season. NE USA,
China, New Zealand, Chile, coastal regions of W Europe are of this type.
Trees such as oak, ash, beech are seen. Deer, foxes, wolves are the common
animals.

Mediterranean Vegetation
 Areas of Europe, Asia and Africa surrounded by Mediterranean Sea. It has
hot dry summers and mild rainy winters. There are citrus fruits and not
much wildlife.

Coniferous/Taiga( pure∧untouched ) forest

 Area between 50 °−70 ° in the northern hemisphere. Cone shaped trees are
seen here. Tall soft wood trees like Chir, pine, cedar used in paper making,
matches making, packaging are present. Silver fox, mink, polar bear are
seen.

Tropical grassland
 It is receives moderate to less rainfall. The grass can be as large as 3 – 4
meters( elephant grass ). East African grass land is called savannah. Brazil –
Campos, Venezuela – Llanos. Elephant, zebras, giraffe, deer, leopards are
common.
 Temperate grassland
 It is in the interior part of temperate zone. The grass is short and nutritious.
Wild buffaloes, bisons, antelopes are common. Argentina – Pampas, N
America – Prairie, S Africa – Veld, C Africa – Steppe, Australia – Down.

Thorny Bushes
 Desert, scanty rainfall( less than 70 cm ) and scorching heat. Fox, camel are
common. Trees are scattered and have long roots. Stem, thick and waxy
leaves conserve water. NW India – Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, UP,
Chhattisgarh, Haryana, SW Punjab. Trees such as Acacias, palms,
euphorbias, cacti are found here. In tropical thorn forest – babool, ber,
khair, neem, Khejri, palas can also be seen here. Rat, mice, rabbit, fox, wolfs
tiger, lion, wild ass, horse, camel are common. Tussocky grass up to 2
metres as undergrowth.

Montane forest
Montane means mountain. Wet temperate forest – 1000 to 2000 metres.
Evergreen broadleaf tree like oak and chestnut are found. Shivalik Mountains
have it. Dry Temperate forest – 1500 to 3000 metres. Coniferous trees are
found here. S slopes of Himalayas; high altitudes of south India and NE India
have thick vegetation due to better rainfall than N slopes of Himalayas. Alpine
forest – above 3600 metres above sea level. Temperate vegetation and
grassland, Tundra are part of it. Gujjars, Bhotiyas, Gaddis, Bakarwals use
grassland for grazing. Northern forests – Himalayan range change/ succeed in
vegetation from tropical to tundra with change in altitude. Deciduous forest in
foothills. Wet temperate forest/ grassland from 1,000 to 2,000 metres. Pine/
Chir pine between 1,500 to 1,750 metres. Deodar tree – endemic species – W
Himalayas – durable wood in construction activity. Chinar and walnut –
Kashmiri handicraft. Blue pine and Spruce – 2,225 – 3,048 metres. Silver fir,
juniper, pines, birch, rhododendrons – 3,000 – 4,000 metres. In N slopes of
Himalayas, only mosses and lichens grow as it is tundra vegetation. Southern
forests – peninsular India – Western Ghats, Vindhyas and Nilgiris. They are
closer to tropics and only 1,500 metres above sea level. Temperate in higher
regions and sub-tropical in lower regions of W Ghats – Kerala, TN, Karnataka.
Temperate forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani.
Magnolia, laurels, cinchona, wattle are seen here. Forest in Satpura, Maikal
ranges are of montane type.

Mangrove forest
Forests which are near sea and influence by tides. Formed in salt marshes, tidal
creek( while meeting the sea ,the detla m outh opens fully ), mud flat and estuaries. Mud,
silt and mangrove roots are submerged into sea water. The roots are
intertwined among the trees forming a chain. They are found in delta regions.
Andaman and nicobar, Sundarbans, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari.

 Sundarban delta – on the mouth of Ganga and Brahmaputra forming

Meghna. Sundari trees grown here are used for hard timber. Palm, coconut,
Keroa, agar also grows here. Tigers, turtles, crocodiles, gharials, snakes are
found.

Littoral and Swamp forest

The forests close to sea are littoral. Chilika lake – Odisha, Keoladeo national
park – Bharatpur – are water fowl habitat under Ramsar convention.

Ramsar wetlands
They are of 8 categories –

1. Reservoirs of South Deccan plateau + lagoons + wetland of SW coast.

Saline expanse of Gujarat, Rajasthan. Freshwater of eastern Gujarat.
Rajathan and MP. Eastern coast – Chilika Lake. Gangetic and
Brahmaputra plains. Kashmir and Ladakh. Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Tundra vegetation
 It is found in polar region of Europe, Asia and Africa. Vegetation is limited.
Lichens, mosses, small shrubs are found here. Seals, walruses, musk oxen,
arctic owl, polar bear, snow fox common.

Climate
Vegetation zone Mean Winter Remarks
temperature
Tropical Above 24° C Above 18° C No frost
Sub – tropical 17 - 24° C 10 – 18° C Rare frost
Temperate 7 – 17° C -1 to - 10° C Some snow
Alpine Below 7° C Below -1° C Snow
 Medicinal plants
Sarpagandha, Arjun – controls blood pressure. Jamun – controls diabetes.
Babool – cure sore eyes. Gums are used as tonic. Neem – anti bacterial
properties. Kachnar – cures asthma and ulcer.

Ecosystem
The biotic and abiotic elements living in the same area interact with each other
and live in an interconnected way.

Forest cover
Lakshadweep has no forest cover. The term 'forest area' denotes the legal
status of the land as per the government records, whereas the term 'forest
cover' indicates presence of trees over any land.

Conservation efforts
Forest policy in 1952, which was further modified in 1988. (i) bringing 33 per
cent of the geographical areas under forest cover; (ii) maintaining
environmental stability and to restore forests where ecological balance was
disturbed; (iii) conserving the natural heritage of the country, its biological
diversity and genetic pool; (iv) checks soil erosion, extension of the desert
lands and reduction of floods and droughts; (v) increasing the forest cover
through social forestry and afforestation on degraded land; (vi) increasing the
productivity of forests to make timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural
population dependant on forests, and encourage the substitution of wood; (vii)
creating of a massive peoples movement involving women to encourage
planting of trees, stop felling of trees and thus, reduce pressure on the existing
forest.

Social forestry
Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and
afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping in the
environmental, social and rural development. The National Commission on
Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry into three categories. These are
Urban forestry, Rural forestry and Farm forestry. Urban forestry pertains to
the raising and management of trees on public and privately owned lands in
and around urban centres such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues,
industrial and commercial green belts, etc. Rural forestry lays emphasis on
promotion of agro-forestry and community-forestry. Agro-forestry is the
raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land inclusive of the waste
patches. It combines forestry with agriculture, thus, altering the simultaneous
production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and fruit. Community forestry involves
the raising of trees on public or community land such as the village pasture and
temple land, roadside, canal bank, strips along railway lines, and schools etc.
Community forestry programme aims at providing benefits to the community
as a whole. Community forestry provides a means under which the people of
landless classes can associate themselves in tree raising and thus, get those
benefits which otherwise are restricted for landowners. Farm forestry is a term
applied to the process under which farmers grow trees for commercial and
non-commercial purposes on their farm lands.
 Land, Soil, Water
Mitigation Mechanism Advancement in scientific techniques has empowered
us to understand what factors cause landslides and how to manage them.
Some broad mitigation techniques of landslide are as follows: • Hazard
mapping to locate areas prone to landslides. Hence, such areas can be avoided
for building settlements. • Construction of retention wall to stop land from
slipping. • Increase in the vegetation cover to arrest landslide. • The surface
drainage control works to control the movement of landslide along with rain
water and spring flows.

1.

2. Some methods of soil conservation are listed below:

Mulching: The bare ground between plants is covered with a layer of
organic matter like straw. It helps to retain soil moisture.
Contour barriers: Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along
contours.
Trenches are made in front of the barriers to collect water.
Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of water. This
prevents gullies and further soil loss.
3. Intercropping: Different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at
different times to protect the soil from rain wash. Contour ploughing:
Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for
water to flow down the slope.
4. Shelter belts: In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to
check the wind movement to protect soil cover.
5. Vultures in the Indian subcontinent were dying of kidney failure shortly
after scavenging livestock treated with diclofenac, a painkiller that is similar
to aspirin or ibuprofen. Efforts are on to ban the drug for livestock use and
breed vultures in captivity.
6. CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments. It
 aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and
plants does not threaten their survival.

Mineral and Power Resources

1. Minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface
layer; this is known as open-cast mining. Deep bores, called shafts, have to
be made to reach mineral deposits that lie at great depths. This is called
shaft mining. Petroleum and natural gas occur far below the earth’s surface.
Deep wells are bored to take them out, this is called drilling. Minerals that
lie near the surface are simply dug out, by the process known as quarrying.
2. Iron-ore in north Sweden, copper and nickel deposits in Ontario, Canada,
iron, nickel, chromites and platinum in South Africa are examples of
minerals found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rock
formations of plains and young fold mountains contain non-metallic
minerals like limestone. Limestone deposits of Caucasus region of France,
manganese deposits of Georgia and Ukraine and phosphate beds of Algeria
are some examples.
3. China, Malaysia and Indonesia are among the world’s leading tin producers.
China also leads in production of lead, antimony and tungsten. Asia also has
deposits of manganese, bauxite, nickel, zinc and copper. (zbc mn)
4. Switzerland has no known mineral deposit in it.
5. Europe is the leading producer of iron-ore in the world. The countries with
large deposits of iron ore are Russia, Ukraine, Sweden and France. Minerals
deposits of copper, lead, zinc, (zcl mn) manganese and nickel are found in
eastern Europe and European Russia.
6. The mineral deposits in North America are located in three zones: the
Canadian region north of the Great Lakes, the Appalachian region and the
mountain ranges of the west. Iron ore, nickel, gold, uranium and copper
(gun ci) are mined in the Canadian Shield Region, coal in the Appalachians
region. Western Cordilleras have vast deposits of copper, lead, zinc, gold
and silver. (gsc zl)
7. Brazil is the largest producer of high grade iron-ore in the world. Chile and
Peru are leading producers of copper. Brazil and Bolivia are among the
world’s largest producers of tin. South America also has large deposits of
gold, silver, zinc, chromium, manganese, bauxite, mica, platinum, asbestos
 and diamond. Mineral oil is found in Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Peru and
Columbia.
8. A green diamond is the rarest diamond.
9. Africa is rich in mineral resources. It is the world’s largest producer of
diamonds, gold and platinum. South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zaire produce a
large portion of the world’s gold. The other minerals found in Africa are
copper, iron ore, chromium, uranium, cobalt and bauxite. Oil is found in
Nigeria, Libya and Angola.
10.Australia is the largest producer of bauxite in the world. It is a leading
producer of gold, diamond, iron ore, tin and nickel. It is also rich in copper,
lead, zinc and manganese. Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie areas of western
Australia have the largest deposits of gold.
11.The geology of Antarctica is sufficiently well known to predict the existence
of a variety of mineral deposits, some probably large. Significant size of
deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains and iron near the Prince
Charles Mountains of East Antarctica is forecasted. Iron ore, gold, silver and
oil are also present in commercial quantities.
12.Electricity from coal is called thermal power. Coal is therefore referred to as
Buried Sunshine. The leading coal producers of the world are China, USA,
Germany, Russia, South Africa and France. The coal producing areas of India
are Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad and Bokaro in Jharkhand.
13.

14.The chief petroleum producing countries are Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and
Qatar. The other major producers are USA, Russia, Venezuela, and Algeria.
The leading producers in India are Digboi in Assam, Bombay High in
Mumbai and the deltas of Krishna and Godavari rivers.
15.In India Jaisalmer, Krishna Godavari delta, Tripura and some areas off shore
in Mumbai have natural gas resources.
16.The leading producers of hydel power in the world are Paraguay, Norway,
Brazil, and China. Some important hydel power stations in India are Bhakra
Nangal, Gandhi Sagar, Nagarjunsagar and Damodar valley projects. Norway
was the first country in the world to devlop hydroelectricity.
17.The site of the world’s first solar and wind powered bus shelter is in
Scotland.
18.Wind farms are found in Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, UK, USA and
Spain are noted for their wind energy production.
19.The greatest producers of nuclear power are USA and Europe. In India
Rajasthan and Jharkhand have large deposits of Uranium. Thorium is found
in large quantities in the Monozite sands of Kerala. The nuclear power
stations in India are located in Kalpakkam in Tamilnadu, Tarapur in
 Maharastra, Ranapratap Sagar near Kota in Rajasthan, Narora in Uttar
Pradesh and Kaiga in Karnataka.
20.USA has the world’s largest geothermal power plants followed by New
Zealand, Iceland, Philippines and Central America. In India, geothermal
plants are located in Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley in
Ladakh.
21.The first tidal energy station was built in France.
22.Energy generated from tides is called tidal energy. Tidal energy can be
harnessed by building dams at narrow openings of the sea. During high tide
the energy of the tides is used to turn the turbine installed in the dam to
produce electricity. Russia, France and the Gulf of Kachchh in India have
huge tidal mill farms.
23.

Agriculture
1. The land on which the crops are grown is known as arable land.
2. Agriculture The science and art of cultivation on the soil, raising crops
and rearing livestock. It is also called farming. Sericulture commercial
 rearing of silk worms. It may supplement the income of the farmer.
Pisciculture breeding of fish in specially constructed tanks and ponds.
Viticulture cultivation of grapes. Horticulture Growing vegetables,
flowers and fruits for commercial use.
3. In intensive subsistence agriculture the farmer cultivates a small plot of
land using simple tools and more labour. Climate with large number of
days with sunshine and fertile soils permit growing of more than one
crop annually on the same plot. Rice is the main crop. Other crops
include wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds. Intensive subsistence
agriculture is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon
regions of south, southeast and east Asia.
4. Rice: Rice needs high temperature, high humidity and rainfall. It grows
best in alluvial clayey soil, which can retain water. China leads in the
production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt. In
favourable climatic conditions as in West Bengal and Bangladesh two to
three crops are grown in a year.
5. Wheat requires moderate temperature and rainfall during growing
season and bright sunshine at the time of harvest. It thrives best in well
drained loamy soil. Wheat is grown extensively in USA, Canada,
Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia and India. In India it is grown in
winter.
6. Millets: They are also known as coarse grains and can be grown on less
fertile and sandy soils. It is a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high
to moderate temperature and adequate rainfall. Jowar, bajra and ragi
are grown in India. Other countries are Nigeria, China and Niger.
7. Maize is also known as corn. Maize requires moderate temperature,
rainfall and lots of sunshine. It needs well-drained fertile soils. Maize is
grown in North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and
Mexico.
8. Cotton requires high temperature, light rainfall, two hundred and ten
frost-free days and bright sunshine for its growth. It grows best on black
and alluvial soils. China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt are the
leading producers of cotton.
9. Jute was also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’. It grows well on alluvial soil
and requires high temperature, heavy rainfall and humid climate. This
 crop is grown in the tropical areas. India and Bangladesh are the leading
producers of jute.
10. Coffee requires warm and wet climate and welldrained loamy soil. Hill
slopes are more suitable for growth of this crop. Brazil is the leading
producer followed by Columbia and India.
11. Tea requires cool climate and well distributed high rainfall throughout
the year for the growth of its tender leaves. It needs well-drained loamy
soils and gentle slopes. Labour in large number is required to pick the
leaves. Kenya, India, China, Sri Lanka produce the best quality tea in the
world.

Industries
1. Major industrial regions of the world are eastern North America, western
and central Europe, Eastern Europe and eastern Asia.
2. One of the worst industrial disasters of all time occurred in Bhopal on 3
December 1984 around 00:30 a.m. It was a technological accident in which
highly poisonous Methyl Isocynate (MIC) gas along with Hydrogen Cyanide
and other reaction products leaked out of the pesticide factory of Union
Carbide. The official death toll was 3,598 in 1989. Thousands, who survived
still suffer from one or many ailments like blindness, impaired immune
system, gastrointestinal disorders.
3. The countries in which iron and steel industry is located are Germany, USA,
China, Japan and Russia. Textile industry is concentrated in India, Hong
Kong, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan. The major hubs of Information
technology industry are the Silicon valley of Central California and the
Bangalore region of India.
4. All the important steel producing centres such as Bhilai, Durgapur, Burnpur,
Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro are situated in a region that spreads over
four states — West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh. Bhadravati
and Vijay Nagar in Karnataka, Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, and
Salem in Tamil Nadu are other important steel centres utilising local
resources.
5. TISCO was started in 1907 at Sakchi, near the confluence of the rivers
Subarnarekha and Kharkai in Jharkhand. Later on Sakchi was renamed as
Jamshedpur.
6. Sakchi was chosen to set up the steel plant for several reasons. This place
was only 32 km away from Kalimati station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway
line. It was close to the iron ore, coal and manganese deposits as well as to
Kolkata, which provided a large market. TISCO, gets coal from Jharia
coalfields, and iron ore, limestone, dolomite and manganese from Odisha
and Chhattisgarh. The Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers ensured sufficient
water supply. Government initiatives provided adequate capital for its later
development.