Class Two and Words and Meaning 1 1

Paper tow
Order If you do something in order to achieve a particular

thing or in order that something can happen, you do it
because you want to achieve that thing.
Order If someone must be in a particular situation in order
to achieve something they want, they cannot achieve that
thing if they are not in that situation.
Order If something must happen in order for something else
to happen, the second thing cannot happen if the first thing
does not happen.
Order If a person in authority orders someone to do
something, they tell them to do it.
Synonyms: command, instruct, direct, charge
Order If someone in authority orders something, they give
instructions that it should be done.
Synonyms: decree, rule, demand, establish
Order If someone in authority gives you an order, they tell
you to do something.
Synonyms: instruction, ruling, demand, direction
Order A court order is a legal instruction stating that
something must be done.
Order When you order something that you are going to pay
for, you ask for it to be brought to you, sent to you, or
obtained for you.
Order An order is a request for something to be brought,
made, or obtained for you in return for money.
Order Someone's order is what they have asked to be
brought, made, or obtained for them in return for money.
Synonyms: request, booking, demand, commission
See also holy orders, mail order, postal order, standing order
Order If a set of things are arranged or done in a particular
order, they are arranged or done so one thing follows
another, often according to a particular factor such as
importance.
Synonyms: sequence, grouping, ordering, line
Order is the situation that exists when everything is in the
correct or expected place, or happens at the correct or
expected time.
Synonyms: organization, system, method, plan
Order is the situation that exists when people obey the law
and do not fight or riot.
Synonyms: peace, control, law, quiet
Order When people talk about a particular order, they mean
the way society is organized at a particular time.
Order The end of the Cold War has produced the prospect of
a new world order based on international co-operation.
Order The way that something is ordered is the way that it is
organized and structured.
Order If you refer to something of a particular order, you
mean something of a particular kind.
Order A religious order is a group of monks or nuns who live
according to a particular set of rules.
Synonyms: society, company, group, club
Order People who belong to a particular order have been
given a particular honor or rank by the head of their country
as a reward for their services or achievements.
Order The person in charge of a meeting can say 'Order!' to
tell people to stop making noise.
See also ordered, law and order, pecking order, point of
order
Contain If something such as a box, bag, room, or place
contains things, those things are inside it.
Synonyms: hold, incorporate, accommodate, enclose
Contain If a substance contains something, that thing is a
part of it.
Contain If writing, speech, or film contains particular
information, ideas, or images, it includes them.
Contain If a group or organization contains a certain number
of people, those are the people that are in it.
Synonyms: include, consist of, embrace, comprise
Contain If you contain something, you control it and prevent
it from spreading or increasing.
Synonyms: restrain, control, hold in, curb
Contain If you cannot contain a feeling such as excitement
or anger, or if you cannot contain yourself, you cannot
prevent yourself from showing your feelings.
Previous event or thing is one that happened or existed

before the one that you are talking about.
Previous You refer to the period of time or the thing
immediately before the one that you are talking about as the
previous one.
Synonyms: preceding, past, prior, foregoing
Lecture is a talk someone gives in order to teach people

about a particular subject, usually at a university or college.
Synonyms: talk, address, speech, lesson
Lecture If you lecture on a particular subject, you give a
lecture or a series of lectures about it.
Synonyms: talk, speak, teach, address
Lecture If someone lectures you about something, they
criticize you or tell you how they think you should behave.
Synonyms: tell off [informal], berate, scold, reprimand
Derive If you derive something such as pleasure or benefit
from a person or from something, you get it from them.
Synonyms: obtain, get, receive, draw
Derive If you say that something such as a word or feeling
derives or is derived from something else, you mean that it
comes from that thing.
Concentration on something involves giving all your
attention to it.
The concentration of something is a large amount of it or
large numbers of it in a small area.
Synonyms: convergence, collection, mass, cluster
Concentration the proportion of essential ingredients or
substances in it.
Concentration the action or power of focusing all one's
attention.
Similar: close attention, close thought, attentiveness,
application, industry, assiduousness, single-mindedness
Absorption, engrossment, focusing, centralization, direction
Peace If countries or groups involved in a war or violent

conflict are discussing peace, they are talking to each other
in order to try to end the conflict.
Synonyms: truce, ceasefire, treaty, armistice
Peace If there is peace in a country or in the world, there
are no wars or violent conflicts going on.
Peace If you disapprove of weapons, especially nuclear
weapons, you can use peace to refer to campaigns and
other activities intended to reduce their numbers or stop
their use.
Peace If you have peace, you are not being disturbed, and
you are in calm, quiet surroundings.
Synonyms: stillness, rest, quiet, silence
Peace If you have a feeling of peace, you feel contented and
calm and not at all worried. You can also say that you are at
peace.
Peace If there is peace among a group of people, they live or
work together in a friendly way and do not quarrel.
Peace You can also say that people live or work in peace
with each other.
Peace If you can't live in peace with your little brother then
get out of the house.
Synonyms: harmony, accord, agreement, concord
Peace The Peace of a particular place is a treaty or an
agreement that was signed there, bringing an end to a war.
Power If someone has power, they have a lot of control over
people and activities.
Synonyms: control, authority, influence, command
Power Your power to do something is your ability to do it.
Synonyms: ability, capacity, faculty, property
Power If it is in or within your power to do something, you
are able to do it or you have the resources to deal with it.
Power Although it is not in his power to do so, he said he
would rebuild the Air Base.
Power We must do everything in our power to ensure the
success of the conference.
Power If someone in authority has the power to do
something, they have the legal right to do it.
Power the Prime Minister has the power to dismiss and
appoint senior ministers.
Synonyms: authority, right, license, privilege
Power If people take power or come to power, they take
charge of a country's affairs. If a group of people are in
power, they are in charge of a country's affairs.
Power You can use power to refer to a country that is very
rich or important or has strong military forces.
Power the country is a major power in an area of great
strategic importance.
Power The power of something is the ability that it has to
move or affect things.
Power is energy, especially electricity, that is obtained in
large quantities from a fuel source and used to operate
lights, heating, and machinery.
Power The device or fuel that powers a machine provides
the energy that the machine needs in order to work
Secrecy is the act of keeping something secret, or the state

of being kept secret.
Synonyms: mystery, stealth, concealment, furtiveness
Secrecy the action of keeping something secret or the state
of being kept secret.
Consider If you consider a person or thing to be something,
you have the opinion that this is what they are.
Synonyms: think, see, believe, rate
Consider If you consider something, you think about it
carefully.
Synonyms: bear in mind, remember, regard, respect
Consider If you are considering doing something, you intend
to do it, but have not yet made a final decision whether to do
it.
Principle is a general belief that you have about the way you
should behave, which influences your behaviour.
principles of a particular theory or philosophy are its basic
rules or laws.
Synonyms: belief, rule, standard, attitude
Principle Scientific principles are general scientific laws
which explain how something happens or
Synonyms: rule, idea, law, theory
Principle a fundamental truth or proposition that serves as
the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a
chain of reasoning.
Principle "the basic principles of justice"
Similar: truth, proposition, concept, idea, theory, postulate,
assumption, basic, fundamental, essence
Essential, philosophy
Principle a general scientific theorem or law that has
numerous special applications across a wide field.
Commence When something commences or you commence
it, it begins.
Synonyms: start, open, begin, go ahead
Emphasize to show that something is very important or

worth giving attention to:
Emphasize to state or show that something is especially
important or deserves special attention:
Similar: bring/call/draw attention to, focus attention on,
highlight, point up, spotlight, foreground
An aspect of something is one of the parts of its character
or nature.
Synonyms: feature, point, side, factor
Aspects the aspect of a building or window is the direction
in which it faces.
Synonyms: position, view, situation, scene
Aspects If something begins to have a new aspect, it begins
to have a new appearance or quality.
Synonyms: appearance, look, air, condition
A movement is a group of people who share the same
beliefs, ideas, or aims.
Synonyms: group, party, organization, grouping
Movement involves changing position or going from one
place to another.
Synonyms: transfer, transportation, displacement
A movement is a planned change in position that an army
makes during a battle or military exercise.
Movement is a gradual development or change of an
attitude, opinion, or policy.
Synonyms: progression, advance, progress, breakthrough
Movement Your movements are everything which you do or
plan to do during a period of time.
A movement of a piece of classical music is one of its main
sections.
Synonyms: section, part, division, passage
Slogan is a short phrase that is easy to remember.

Slogans are used in advertisements and by political parties
and other organizations who want people to remember what
they are saying or selling.
Synonyms: catch phrase, motto, jingle, mantra
Evade If you evade something, you find a way of not doing
something that you really ought to do.
Evade If you evade a question or a topic, you avoid talking
about it or dealing with it.
Synonyms: avoid answering, parry, circumvent, fend
Evade If you evade someone or something, you move so that
you can avoid meeting them or avoid being touched or hit.
Synonyms: avoid, escape, dodge, get away from
Evade If something such as success, glory, or love evades
you, you do not manage to have it.
Sort If you talk about a particular sort of something, you are

talking about a class of things that have particular features
in common and that belong to a larger group of related
things.
Sort You describe someone as a particular sort when you
are describing their character.
Synonyms: person, individual, type, customer
Sort If you sort things, you separate them into different
classes, groups, or places, for example so that you can do
different things with them.
Synonyms: arrange, group, order, class
Sort If you get a problem or the details of something sorted,
you do what is necessary to solve the problem or organize
the details.
Synonyms: resolve, answer, work out, clear up
Natural If you say that it is natural for someone to act in a

particular way or for something to happen in that way, you
mean that it is reasonable in the circumstances.
Natural A period of depression can be a perfectly natural
response to certain aspects of life.
Synonyms: logical, normal, reasonable, valid
Natural Natural behaviour is shared by all people or all
animals of a particular type and has not been learned.
Natural Anger is the natural reaction we experience when
we feel threatened or frustrated.
Natural Someone with a natural ability or skill was born with
that ability and did not have to learn it.
Synonyms: innate, native, characteristic, indigenous
Natural If you say that someone is a natural, you mean that
they do something very well and very easily.
Natural If someone's behaviour is natural, they appear to be
relaxed and are not trying to hide anything.
Synonyms: unaffected, open, frank, genuine
Synonyms: easily, automatically, instinctively, effortlessly
Synonyms: unselfconsciousness, simplicity, openness,
spontaneity
Synonyms: purity, wholeness, plainness, pureness
Synonyms: realism, naturalism, verisimilitude, factualism
Natural Natural things exist or occur in nature and are not
made or caused by people.
Synonyms: easily, automatically, instinctively, effortlessly
Synonyms: unaffectedly, normally, genuinely, sincerely
Natural Someone's natural parent is their biological father or
mother, as opposed to an adult who is looking after them or
has adopted them.
Natural Someone's natural child is their biological son or
daughter, as opposed to a child they are looking after or
have adopted.
Natural In music, a natural note is the ordinary note, not its
sharp or flat form.
Universal Something that is universal relates to everyone in
the world or everyone in a particular group or society.
Synonyms: comprehensiveness, generalization, generality,
totality
Universal Something that is universal affects or relates to
every part of the world or the universe.
Universal A universal is a principle that applies in all cases
or a characteristic that is present in all members of a
particular class.
Concern is worry about a situation.
Synonyms: anxiety, fear, worry, distress
Concern If something concerns you, it worries you.
Synonyms: worry, trouble, bother, disturb
Synonyms: caring, attentive, solicitous
Synonyms: worried, troubled, exercised, upset
A concern is a fact or situation that worries you.
Synonyms: worry, care, anxiety
Concern Someone's concern with something is their feeling
that it is important.
Someone's concerns are the things that they consider to be
important.
Concern for someone is a feeling that you want them to be
happy, safe, and well.
Concern If you do something out of concern for someone,
you do it because you want them to be happy, safe, and well.
Synonyms: care, interest, regard, consideration
Concern If you concern yourself with something, you give it
attention because you think that it is important.
Concern If something such as a book or a piece of
information concerns a particular subject, it is about that
subject.
Synonyms: be about, cover, deal with, go into
Concern If a situation, event, or activity concerns you, it
affects or involves you.
Synonyms: be relevant to, involve, affect, regard
Synonyms: involved, interested, active, mixed up
Concern If a situation or problem is your concern, it is
something that you have a duty or responsibility to be
involved with.
Concern You can refer to a company or business as a
concern, usually when you are describing what type of
company or business it is.
Concern If not a large concern, Queensbury Nursery was at
least a successful one.
Synonyms: company, house, business, firm
Ceremonial Something that is ceremonial relates to a

ceremony or is used in a ceremony.
Synonyms: formal, public, official, ritual
Ceremonial A position, function, or event that is ceremonial
is considered to be representative of an institution, but has
very little authority or influence.
Ceremonial Ceremonial consists of all the impressive things
that are done, said, and worn on very formal occasions.
Ritual A ritual is a religious service or other ceremony which

involves a series of actions performed in a fixed order .
Synonyms: ceremony, rite, ceremonial, sacrament
Ritual activities happen as part of a ritual or tradition.
A ritual is a way of behaving or a series of actions which
people regularly carry out in a particular situation, because
it is their custom to do so.
Synonyms: custom, tradition, routine, convention
Ritual You can describe something as a ritual action when it
is done in exactly the same way whenever a particular
situation occurs.
Synonyms: ceremonial, formal, conventional, routine
Hebdomadal happening or appearing once a week:

Symbolic If you describe an event, action, or procedure as
symbolic, you mean that it represents an important change,
although it has little practical effect.
Synonyms: representative, token, emblematic, allegorical
Symbolic Something that is symbolic of a person or thing is
regarded or used as a symbol of them.
Symbolic is used to describe things involving or relating to
symbols.
Synonyms: figurative, representative, allegorical, illustrative
Passe If someone describes something as passé, they think

that it is no longer fashionable or that it is no longer
effective.
Synonyms: pass, out-of-date, old-fashioned, dated, outdated
Similar cross, move, party, pass, person, switch, walk,
outranks
Pass (GO PAST) to go past something or someone or move
in relation to it, him, or her:
Pass (SUCCEED)
to be successful in an exam, course, etc.:
Pass Guess what? I've passed my driving test!
Pass The exam is so hard that only five percent of all
applicants pass.
Pass (GIVE) to give something to someone:
Attain If you attain something, you gain it or achieve it, often

after a lot of effort.
Synonyms: obtain, get, win, reach
Attain If you attain a particular state or condition, you may
reach it as a result of natural development or work hard to
attain this state.
Synonyms: reach, achieve, realize, acquire
A rigorous test, system, or procedure that is rigorous is very

thorough and strict.
Synonyms: strict, hard, firm, demanding
Rigorous If someone is rigorous in the way that they do
something, they are very careful and thorough.
Synonyms: thorough, meticulous, painstaking, scrupulous
Turbulent time, place, or relationship is one in which there is
a lot of change, confusion, and disorder .
Synonyms: wild, violent, disorderly, agitated
Turbulent water or air contains strong currents which
change direction suddenly.
Synonyms: stormy, rough, raging, tempestuous
Swage When people or things sway, they lean or swing

slowly from one side to the other.
Synonyms: move from side to side, rock, wave, roll
Swage If you are swayed by someone or something, you are
influenced by them.
Synonyms: influence, control, direct, affect
Swage move or cause to move slowly
Similar: swing, shake, oscillate, rock, undulate, move from
side to side, move to and for, move back and forth, stagger,
wobble, lurch, reel, roll, list, stumble, pitch, keel, veer,
swerve, waver, fluctuate, vacillate, alternate, vary, see-saw
Emanation is a form of energy or a mass of tiny particles

that comes from something.
Issue is an important subject that people are arguing about

or discussing.
Synonyms: topic, point, matter, problem
Issued If something is the issue, it is the thing you consider
to be the most important part of a situation or discussion.
Synonyms: point, question, concern, bone of contention
An issue of something such as a magazine or newspaper is
the version of it that is published, for example, in a
particular month or on a particular day.
Synonyms: edition, printing, copy, impression
Issued If you issue a statement or a warning, you make it
known formally or publicly.
Synonyms: give out, release, publish, announce
Issued If you are issued with something, it is officially given
to you.
Synonyms: supply, give, provide, stock
Issued When something such as a liquid, sound, or smell
issues from something, it comes out of that thing.
Synonyms: emerge, come out, proceed, rise
Noted To be noted for something you do or have means to be

well-known and admired for it.
Synonyms: famous, celebrated, recognized, distinguished
Desire is a strong wish to do or have something.
Synonyms: wish, want, longing, need
Desire If you desire something, you want it.
Desire You may find that just threatening this course of
action will produce the desired effect.
Synonyms: required, necessary, correct, appropriate
Synonyms: intended, wanted, wished for, needed
Desire for someone is a strong feeling of wanting to have
sex with them.
Synonyms: lust, passion, libido, appetite
Isolate To isolate a person or organization means to cause
them to lose their friends or supporters .
Synonyms: separate, break up, cut off, detach .
Synonyms: solitary, withdrawn, lonely, sheltered
Isolate If you isolate yourself, or if something isolates you,
you become physically or socially separated from other
people.
Isolate If you isolate something such as an idea or a
problem, you separate it from others that it relates to, so
that you can concentrate on it or consider it on its own.
Isolate To isolate a substance means to obtain it by
separating it from other substances using scientific
processes.
Isolate To isolate someone who has or could have an
infectious disease means keeping them apart from other
people, so that their illness does not spread.
Isolate If someone who has or could have an infectious
disease isolate, they keep apart from other people.
Quieten If you quieten someone or something, or if they
quieten, you make them become less noisy, less active, or
silent.
Synonyms: silence, subdue, stifle, still
Quieten To quieten fears or complaints means to persuade
people that there is no good reason for them.
Conception of something is an idea that you have of it in

your mind.
Conception is the forming of an idea for something in your
mind.
The symphony is admirable in conception.
Synonyms: idea, plan, design, image
Conception is the process in which a woman 's egg is
fertilized, and she becomes pregnant.
Synonyms: impregnation, insemination, fertilization,
germination
Attitude Your attitude to something is the way that you think
and feel about it, especially when this shows in the way you
behave.
Synonyms: opinion, thinking, feeling, thought
Attitude If you refer to someone as a person with attitude,
you mean that they have a striking and individual style of
behavior, especially a forceful or aggressive one.
Sort If you talk about a particular sort of something, you are
talking about a class of things that have particular features
in common and that belong to a larger group of related
things.
Sort You describe someone as a particular sort when you
are describing their character.
Synonyms: person, individual, type, customer
Sort If you sort things, you separate them into different
classes, groups, or places, for example so that you can do
different things with them.
Synonyms: arrange, group, order, class
Sort If you get a problem or the details of something sorted,
you do what is necessary to solve the problem or organize
the details.
Synonyms: resolve, answer, work out, clear up
Sink A sink is a large fixed container in a kitchen, with taps
to supply water.
Synonyms: basin, washbasin, hand basin, wash-hand basin
Sink If a boat sinks or if someone or something sinks it, it
disappears below the surface of a mass of water.
Synonyms: go down, founder, go under, submerge
Sink If something sinks, it disappears below the surface of a
mass of water.
Sink If something sinks, it moves slowly downwards.
Synonyms: descend, lower, go down, dip
Sink If you sink, you move into a lower position, for example
by sitting down in a chair or kneeling.
Synonyms: slump, drop, flop, collapse
If something sinks to a lower level or standard, it falls to
that level or standard.
Synonyms: fall, drop, decline, slip
Sink People use sink school or sink estate to refer to a
school or housing estate that is in a very poor area with few
resources.
Synonyms: drop, fall, get lower, get softer
Sink If your heart or your spirits sink, you become depressed
or lose hope.
Sink If something sharp sinks or is sunk into something
solid, it goes deeply into it.
Sink If someone sinks a well, mine, or other large hole, they
make a deep hole in the ground, usually by digging or
drilling.
Synonyms: dig, bore, drill, drive
If you sink money into a business or project, you spend
money on it in the hope of making more money.
Synonyms: invest, put in, plough, risk
Sink If someone sinks a number of alcoholic drinks, they
drink them quickly.
Synonyms: drink, down [informal], knock back, neck
Sink In golf, snooker, and some other games, if you sink a
ball or a putt, you successfully hit the ball into a hole.
Utter If someone utters sounds or words, they say them.

Synonyms: say, state, speak, voice
Utter You use utter to emphasize that something is great in
extent, degree, or amount.
Synonyms: absolute, complete, total, perfect
Personality Your personality is your whole character and

nature.
nature.
Synonyms: nature, character, make-up, identity
nature.
Personality If someone has personality or is a personality,
they have a strong and lively character.
Synonyms: character, charm, attraction, charisma
Personality You can refer to a famous person, especially in
entertainment, broadcasting, or sport, as a personality.
2
Appeal If you appeal to someone to do something, you make
a serious and urgent request to them.
Synonyms: plead, call, ask, apply
An appeal is a serious and urgent request.
Synonyms: plea, call, application, request
An appeal is an attempt to raise money for a charity or for a
good cause.
An appeal If you appeal to someone in authority against a
decision, you formally ask them to change it.
An appeal is a formal request for a decision to be changed.
Synonyms: retrial, reconsideration
An appeal If something appeals to you, you find it attractive
or interesting.
Appeal The appeal of something is a quality that it has
which people find attractive or interesting.
Synonyms: attraction, charm, fascination, charisma
Account If you have an account with a bank or a similar

organization, you have an arrangement to leave your money
there and take some out when you need it.
Account In business, a regular customer of a company can
be referred to as an account, especially when the customer
is another company.
Accounts are detailed records of all the money that a person
or business receives and spends.
An account is a written or spoken report of something that
has happened.
Account And that, according to some accounts I have read,
is why he adopted the name.
Synonyms: description, report, record, story
An account of something is a theory which is intended to
explain or describe it.
Account If you say that something is accounted for a
particular thing, you are reporting someone's judgment or
opinion that it is that thing.
Synonyms: consider, rate, value, explain
See also accounting, bank account, current account,
deposit account
Splendors The splendors of something is its beautiful and

impressive appearance.
Splendors The splendors of a place or way of life are its
beautiful and impressive features.

part of it.
Form of something is a type or kind of it.

Synonyms: type, sort, kind, variety
Form When something can exist or happen in several
possible ways, you can use form to refer to one particular
way in which it exists or happens.
Synonyms: shape, formation, configuration, construction
Form When a particular shape forms or is formed, people or
things move or are arranged so that this shape is made.
Synonyms: arrange, combine, line up, organize
Form You can refer to something that you can see as a form
if you cannot see it clearly, or if its outline is the clearest or
most striking aspect of it.
Form If something is arranged or changed so that it
becomes similar to a thing with a particular structure or
function, you can say that it forms that thing.
Form If something consists of particular things, people, or
features, you can say that they form that thing.
Form If you form an organization, group, or company, you
start it.
Form When something natural forms or is formed, it begins
to exist and develop.
Form If you form a relationship, a habit, or an idea, or if it
forms, it begins to exist and develop.
Form If you say that something forms a person's character
or personality, you mean that it has a strong influence on
them and causes them to develop in a particular way.
Synonyms: train, develop, shape, mould
A form is a paper with questions on it and spaces marked
where you should write the answers. Forms usually ask you
to give details about yourself, for example when you are
applying for a job or joining an organization.
Rose (PLANT) a garden plant with thorns on its stems and
pleasant-smelling flowers, or a flower from this plant:
Rose (FOR WATER CONTAINER) a circular object with small
holes in it that is put on the end of a watering can (= a
container used for pouring water on plants)
Rose (COLOUR) a pink colour:
Rose (RISE) past simple of rise
Abound If things abound, or if a place abounds with things,
there are very large numbers of them.
Synonyms: be plentiful, thrive, flourish, be numerous
Recall When you recall something, you remember it and tell

others about it.
Synonyms: recollect, remember, call up, evoke
Recall You can say as I recall, you might recall, or you will
recall to someone that you are talking to when you want to
mention something that you are both already aware of which
is relevant to the discussion.
Recall is the ability to remember something that has
happened in the past or the act of remembering it.
Synonyms: recollection, memory, remembrance
Recall If you are recalled to your home, country, or the place
where you work, you are ordered to return there.
Synonyms: call back, bring back, order back, summon back
Recall In sport, if a player is recalled to a team, he or she is
included in that team again after being left out.
Recall If a company recalls a product, it asks the shops or
the people who have bought that product to return it
because there is something wrong with it.
A prototype is a new type of machine or device which is not
yet ready to be made in large numbers and sold.
Synonyms: original, model, precedent, first
Prototype If you say that someone or something is a
prototype of a type of person or thing, you mean that they
are the first or most typical one of that type.
Realm You can use realm to refer to any area of activity,
interest, or thought.
Synonyms: field, world, area, province
A realm is a country that has a king or queen.
Synonyms: kingdom, state, country, empire
Density is the extent to which something is filled or covered
with people or things.
Synonyms: tightness, closeness, thickness, compactness
Density In science, the density of a substance or object is
the relation of its mass or weight to its volume.
Synonyms: mass, body, bulk, consistency
Earthly means happening in the material world of our life on
Earth and not in any spiritual life or life after death.
Synonyms: worldly, material, physical, secular
Earthly is used for emphasis in phrases such as no earthly
reason.
Earthly If you say that there is no earthly reason why
something should happen, you are emphasizing that there is
no reason at all why it should happene
Synonyms: possible, likely, practical, feasible
Something that is dense contains a lot of things or people in
a small area.
Dens Where Bucharest now stands, there once was a large,

dense forest.
Dense fog or smoke is difficult to see through because it is
very heavy and dark.
Dens In science, a dense substance is very heavy in relation
to its volume.
Dens If you describe writing or a film as dense, you mean
that it is difficult to understand because it contains a lot of
information and ideas.
Synonyms: obscure, deep, complex, profound
Dens If you say that someone is dense, you mean that you
think they are stupid and that they take a long time to
understand simple things.
Synonyms: stupid [informal], slow, thick, dull
Anxious If you are anxious to do something or anxious that

something should happen, you very much want to do it or
very much want it to happen.
Synonyms: eager, keen, intent, yearning
Anxious If you are anxious, you are nervous or worried about
something.
Synonyms: uneasy, concerned, worried, troubled
Anxious time or situation is one during which you feel
nervous and worried.
Prisoner anxious
Self-Help. In many cases, the prisoner themself can treat
their condition of anxiety in a variety of ways, such as by
practicing meditation, physical exercises, resting in a dark
room, or talking with sympathetic persons.
Effort If you make an effort to do something, you try very

hard to do it.
Synonyms: attempt, try, endeavour, shot
Effort If you say that someone did something with effort or
with an effort, you mean it was difficult for them to do.
An effort is a particular series of activities that is organized
by a group of people in order to achieve something.
Effort If you say that something is an effort, you mean that
an unusual amount of physical or mental energy is needed
to do it.
Account If you have an account with a bank or a similar

organization, you have an arrangement to leave your money
there and take some out when you need it.
Account In business, a regular customer of a company can
be referred to as an account, especially when the customer
is another company.
Accounts are detailed records of all the money that a person
or business receives and spends.
An account is a written or spoken report of something that
has happened.
Account And that, according to some accounts I have read,
is why he adopted the name.
Synonyms: description, report, record, story
An account of something is a theory which is intended to
explain or describe it.
Account If you say that something is accounted for a
particular thing, you are reporting someone's judgment or
opinion that it is that thing.
Synonyms: consider, rate, value, explain
See also accounting, bank account, current account,
deposit account
Pacify If you pacify someone who is angry, upset, or not
pleased, you succeed in making them calm or pleased.
Synonyms: calm (down), appease, placate, still
Pacify If the army or the police pacify a group of people,
they use force to overcome their resistance or protests.
Synonyms: quell, silence, crush, put down
Condition If you talk about the condition of a person or

thing, you are talking about the state that they are in,
especially how good or bad their physical state is.
Synonyms: state, order, shape, nick
Condition The conditions under which something is done or
happens are all the factors or circumstances which directly
affect it.
The conditions in which people live or work are the factors
which affect their comfort, safety, or health.
A condition is something which must happen or be done in
order for something else to be possible, especially when this
is written into a contract or law.
Synonyms: requirement, terms, rider, provision
The conditions If someone has a particular condition, they
have an illness or other medical problem.
Synonyms: ailment, problem, complaint, weakness
Condition If someone is conditioned by their experiences or
environment, they are influenced by them over a period so
that they do certain things or think in a particular way.
Condition People are conditioned into believing that they
have no power over their situation.
Synonyms: train, teach, educate, adapt
Synonyms: accustoming, seasoning, readying, preparation
Synonyms: training, education, teaching, accustoming
Retain To retain something means to continue to have that

thing.
Synonyms: maintain, keep, reserve, preserve
Retain If you retain a lawyer, you pay him or her a fee to
make sure that he or she will represent you when your case
comes before the court.
Grip If you grip something, you take hold of it with your hand
and continue to hold it firmly.
Grip A grip is a firm, strong hold on something.
Synonyms: clasp, hold, grasp, handclasp
Grip Someone's grip on something is the power and control
they have over it.
Synonyms: control, rule, influence, command
Grip If something grips you, it affects you very strongly.
Grip If someone grips something, they take firm control of it.
Grip If you are gripped by something such as a story or a
series of events, your attention is concentrated on it and
held by it.
Synonyms: engross, fascinate, absorb, entrance

Synonyms: fascinating, exciting, thrilling, entrancing
Grip If things such as shoes or car tyres have grip, they do
not slip.
Synonyms: hold, purchase, friction, traction
A grip is a bag that is smaller than a suitcase, and that you
use when you are travelling.
Earthly means happening in the material world of our life on

Earth and not in any spiritual life or life after death.
Synonyms: worldly, material, physical, secular
Earthly is used for emphasis in phrases such as no earthly
reason.
Earthly If you say that there is no earthly reason why
something should happen, you are emphasizing that there is
no reason at all why it should happene
Synonyms: possible, likely, practical, feasible
Something that is dense contains a lot of things or people in
a small area.
Order If you do something in order to achieve a particular

thing or in order that something can happen, you do it
because you want to achieve that thing.
does not happen.
obtained for you.
importance.
expected time.
order

part of it.
Endeavor If you endeavour to do something, you try very

hard to do it.
Synonyms: try, labour, attempt, aim
An endeavors is an attempt to do something, especially
something new or original.
Synonyms: attempt, try, shot [informal], effort
Appreciation of something is the recognition and enjoyment

of its good qualities.
Synonyms: admiration, liking, respect, assessment
Appreciation Your appreciation for something that someone
does for you is your gratitude for it.
Synonyms: gratitude, thanks, recognition, obligation
An appreciation of a situation or problem is an
understanding of what it involves.
Synonyms: awareness, understanding, regard, knowledge
Appreciation in the value of something is an increase in its
value over a period of time.
Synonyms: increase, rise, gain, growth
Appreciation of an artist or performer or of their work is a
speech or piece of writing in which they are discussed and
assessed.
Synonyms: review, report, notice, analysis
Apt An apt remark, description, or choice is especially

suitable.
Synonyms: appropriate, timely, right, seemly
Apt If someone is apt to do something, they often do it and
so it is likely that they will do it again.
Synonyms: inclined, likely, ready, disposed
Experiment is a scientific test which is done in order to
discover what happens to something in particular
conditions.
Synonyms: test, trial, investigation, examination
Experiment If you experiment with something or experiment
on it, you do a scientific test on it in order to discover what
happens to it in particular conditions.
An experiment is the trying out of a new idea or method to
see what it is like and what effects it has.
Experiment means to try out a new idea or method to see
what it is like and what effects it has.
What is attunement ?
to make someone able to understand or recognize
something
Introspective people spend a lot of time examining their own

thoughts, ideas, and feelings.
Synonyms: inward-looking, introverted, brooding,
contemplative
Enthusiastic If you are enthusiastic about something, you
show how much you like or enjoy it by the way that you
behave and talk.
Synonyms: keen, earnest, spirited, committed
Discovery If someone makes a discovery, they become
aware of something that they did not know about before.
Synonyms: finding out, news, announcement, revelation
Discovery If someone makes a discovery, they are the first
person to find or become aware of a place, substance, or
scientific fact that no one knew about before.
Synonyms: breakthrough, find, finding, development
Discovery If someone makes a discovery, they recognize
that an actor, musician, or other performer who is not well-
known has talent.
Discovery When the discovery of people or objects happens,
someone finds them, either by accident or as a result of
looking for them
Mournful If you are mournful, you are very sad.

Synonyms: dismal, sad, unhappy, miserable
A mournful sound seems very sad.
Synonyms: sad, distressing, unhappy, tragic
Melancholy You describe something that you see or hear as

melancholy when it gives you an intense feeling of sadness.
Melancholy is an intense feeling of sadness which lasts for a
long time and which Synonyms: sadness, depression,
misery, gloom
If someone feels or looks melancholy, they feel or look very
sad.
Synonyms: sad, down, depressed, unhappy
Disgust is a feeling of very strong dislike or disapproval.

Synonyms: loathing, revulsion, hatred, dislike
Disgust To disgust someone means to make them feel a
strong sense of dislike and disapproval.
Synonyms: sicken, outrage, offend, revolt
Ugly If you say that someone or something is ugly, you mean
that they are very unattractive and unpleasant to look at.
Synonyms: unattractive, homely plain, unsightly
Ugly If you refer to an event or situation as ugly, you mean
that it is very unpleasant, usually because it
Synonyms: unpleasant, shocking, terrible [informal],
offensive
Stumble (WALK) to step awkwardly while walking or running

and fall or begin to fall:
Stumble (PAUSE) to make a mistake, such as repeating
something or pausing for too long, Stumble while speaking
or playing a piece of music:
Stumble (MAKE A MISTAKE) to make a mistake, or to pause
unexpectedly when speaking:
Stumble If you stumble, you put your foot down awkwardly
while you are walking or running and nearly fall over.
Synonyms: totter, reel, stagger, blunder
Stumble If you stumble while you are reading aloud or
speaking, you Stumble make a mistake, and have to pause
before saying the words properly.
Synonyms: falter, hesitate, stammer, stutter
Threshold of a building or room is the floor in the doorway,
or the doorway itself.
Synonyms: entrance, doorway, door, doorstep
Threshold is an amount, level, or limit on a scale. When the
threshold is reached, something else happens or changes.
Synonyms: limit, margin, starting point, minimum
Definite If something such as a decision or an arrangement

is definite, it is firm and clear, and unlikely to be changed.
Synonyms: specific, exact, precise, clear
Definite evidence or information is true, rather than being
someone's opinion or guess.
Definite If you have any definite news of my husband, please
let me know.
Synonyms: clear, explicit, black-and-white, clear-cut
Definite You use definite to emphasize the strength of your
opinion or belief.
Synonyms: noticeable, marked, clear, decided
Definite Someone who is definite behaves or talks in a firm,
confident way.
A definite shape or colour is clear and noticeable.
Aspiration Someone's aspirations are their desire to achieve

things.
Synonyms: aim, longing, end, plan
Fail If you fail to do something that you were trying to do,
you are unable to do it or do not succeed in doing it.
Fail If an activity, attempt, or plan fails, it is not successful.
Synonyms: be unsuccessful, founder, fall flat, come to
nothing
Fail If someone or something fails to do a particular thing
that they should have done, they do not do it.
Fail If something fails, it stops working properly, or does not
do what it is supposed to do.
Synonyms: wither, perish, sag, droop
Fail If a business, organization, or system fails, it becomes
unable to continue in operation or in existence.
Synonyms: go bankrupt, crash, collapse, fold
Fail If something such as your health or a physical quality is
failing, it is becoming gradually weaker or less effective.
Synonyms: give out, disappear, fade, dim
Fail If someone fails you, they do not do what you had
expected or trusted them to do.
Synonyms: disappoint, abandon, desert, neglect
Fail If someone fails in their duty or fails in their
responsibilities, they do not do everything that they have a
duty or a responsibility to do.
Fail If a quality or ability that you have fails you, or if it fails,
it is not good enough in a particular situation to enable you
to do what you want to do.
Fail If someone fails a test, examination, or course, they
perform badly in it and do not reach the standard that is
required.
Fail I lived in fear of failing my end-of-term exams.
unsuccessful, flunk [informal], screw up
Fail If someone fails you in a test, examination, or course,
they judge that you have not reached a high enough
standard in it.
As long during the whole time that.
Discontent is the feeling that you have when you are not
satisfied with your situation.
Synonyms: dissatisfaction, unhappiness, displeasure, regret
Effort If you make an effort to do something, you try very
hard to do it.
Synonyms: attempt, try, endeavour, shot
Effort If you say that someone did something with effort or
with an effort, you mean it was difficult for them to do.
An effort is a particular series of activities that is organized
by a group of people in order to achieve something.
Effort If you say that something is an effort, you mean that
an unusual amount of physical or mental energy is needed
to do it.
Seeming means appearing to be the case, but not

necessarily the case. For example, if you talk about
someone's seeming ability to do something, you mean that
they appear to be able to do it, but you are not certain.
Synonyms: apparent, appearing, outward, surface
Either used in negative sentences instead of "also" or "too":
Either used when referring to a choice between two
possibilities:
Regards If you regard someone or something as being a
particular thing or as having a particular quality, you believe
that they are that thing or have that quality.
Synonyms: consider, see, hold, rate
Regards If you regard something or someone with a feeling
such as dislike or respect, you have that feeling about them.
Regards If you regard someone in a certain way, you look at
them in that way.
Synonyms: look at, view, eye, watch
Regards If you have regard for someone or something, you
respect them and care about them. If you hold someone in
high regard, you have a lot of respect for them.
Synonyms: respect, esteem, deference, store
Regards are greetings. You use regards in expressions such
as best regards and with kind regards as a way of
expressing friendly feelings towards someone, especially in
a letter or email.
Synonyms: good wishes, respects, greetings, compliments
Adopt If you adopt a new attitude, plan, or way of behaving,
you begin to have it.
Synonyms: take on, follow, support, choose
Synonyms: embracing, choice, taking on, taking up
Adopt If you adopt someone else's child, you take it into
your own family and make it legally your son or daughter.
Synonyms: take in, raise, nurse, parent
Synonyms: fostering, adopting, taking in, fosterage
Adopt If you adopt a physical position, you move yourself
into it.
Adopt If you adopt a country, you choose it as a place to
live.
Synonyms: select, choose, pick, nominate
Adopt If you adopt an accent or a particular tone of voice,
you speak differently from normal, especially to create an
effect in a particular situation.
Acquainted knowing or being familiar with a person:
Acquainted knowing or being familiar with someone or
something:
Similar: familiarize, make familiar, make conversant,
get/keep up to date, accustomed to, make known to, make
aware of, inform of, advise of, apprise of, brief as to, give
information about, enlighten, keep posted, let know
Slunk move smoothly and quietly with gliding steps, in a

stealthy or sensuous manner.
Similar: creep, sneak, steal, slip, slide, sidle, edge, move

furtively, tiptoe, pussyfoot, pad, skulk, lurk, prowl
Fawkesin Guy. 1570–1606, English conspirator, executed for

his part in the Gunpowder Plot to blow up King James I and
VI and the Houses of Parliament (1605). Effigies of him
(guys) are burnt in Britain on Guy Fawkes Day (Nov 5)
What is the meaning of Fawkes?

English conspirator who was executed for his role in a plot
to blow up James I and the Houses of Parliament (1570-
1606) synonyms: Guy Fawkes. example of: coconspirator,
conspirator, machinator, plotter. a member of a conspiracy.
Guy Fawkes (/fɔːks/; 13 April 1570 – 31 January 1606),[a] also known as

Guido Fawkes while fighting for the Spanish, was a member of a group of
provincial English Catholics involved in the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605.
He was born and educated in York; his father died when Fawkes was eight
years old, after which his mother married a recusant Catholic.
Fawkes converted to Catholicism and left for mainland Europe, where he
fought for Catholic Spain in the Eighty Years' War against Protestant Dutch
reformers in the Low Countries. He travelled to Spain to seek support for a
Catholic rebellion in England without success. He later met Thomas Wintour,
with whom he returned to England. Wintour introduced him to Robert
Catesby, who planned to assassinate King James I and restore a Catholic
monarch to the throne. The plotters leased an undercroft beneath the House
of Lords; Fawkes was placed in charge of the gunpowder that they stockpiled
there. The authorities were prompted by an anonymous letter to search
Westminster Palace during the early hours of 5 November, and they found
Fawkes guarding the explosives. He was questioned and tortured over the next
few days and confessed to wanting to blow up the House of Lords.
Fawkes was sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered. However, at his
execution on 31 January, he died when his neck was broken as he was hanged,
with some sources claiming that he deliberately jumped to make this happen;
he thus avoided the agony of his sentence. He became synonymous with the
Gunpowder Plot, the failure of which has been commemorated in the UK as
Guy Fawkes Night since 5 November 1605, when his effigy is traditionally
burned on a bonfire, commonly accompanied by fireworks
Conspirator is a person who joins a conspiracy.

Synonyms: plotter, intriguer, conspirer, traitor
A general is a senior officer in the armed forces, usually in
the army.
General If you talk about the general situation somewhere
or talk about something in general terms, you are describing
the situation as a whole rather than considering its details
or exceptions.
General You use general to describe several items or
activities when there are too many of them or when they are
not important enough to mention separately.
Synonyms: overall, complete, total, global
General You use general to describe something that involves
or affects most people, or most people in a particular group.
Revelation is a surprising or interesting fact that is made

known to people.
Synonyms: disclosure, discovery, news, broadcast
Revelation If you say that something you experienced was a
revelation, you are saying that it was very surprising or very
good.
A divine revelation is a sign or explanation from God about
his nature or purpose.
Synonyms: sign, warning, omen, portent
Enable If someone or something enables you to do a

particular thing, they give you the opportunity to do it.
Synonyms: allow, permit, facilitate, empower
Enable To enable something to happen means to make it
possible for it to happen.
Enable someone to do something means to give them
permission or the right to do it.
Ponder If you ponder something, you think about it
Synonyms: think about, consider, study, reflect on
Recapitulate You can say that you are going to recapitulate
the main points of an explanation, argument, or description
when you want to draw attention to the fact that you are
going to repeat the most important points as a summary.
Synonyms: restate, review, repeat, outline
4
Discretion is the quality of behaving in a quiet and
controlled way without drawing attention to yourself or
giving away personal or private information.
Discretion If someone in a position of authority uses their
discretion or has the discretion to do something in a
particular situation,
Discretion (CAREFUL BEHAVIOUR)

the ability to behave without causing embarrassment or
attracting too much attention, especially by keeping
information secret:
Discretion (RIGHT TO CHOOSE)
the right or ability to decide something:
choice, or the right to make a choice, based on judgment:
Similar: circumspection, care, carefulness, caution,
wariness, chariness, guardedness, tact, tactfulness,
diplomacy, delicacy, sensitivity, subtlety, consideration,
prudence, judiciousness, judgement, discrimination
Harmonious relationships, agreements, or discussion is

friendly and peaceful.
Harmonious To live together harmoniously as men and
women is an achievement.
Harmonious Something that is harmonious has parts which
go well together, and which are in proportion to each other.
Harmonious Musical notes that are harmonious produce a
pleasant sound when played together.
What is the simple definition of radiation?

Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels
through space at the speed of light. This energy has an
electric field and a magnetic field associated with it, and
has wave-like properties. You could also call radiation
“electromagnetic waves”.
Faculty your faculties are your physical and mental abilities.
Synonyms: power, reason, sense, intelligence
A faculty is a group of related departments in some
universities, or the people who work in them.
Synonyms: department, school, discipline, profession
Faculty is all the teaching staff of a university or college, or
of one department.
Synonyms: teaching staff, staff, teachers, professors
Vatalioty If you say that someone or something has vitality,
you mean that they have great energy and liveliness.
Synonyms: energy, vivacity, sparkle, go
Intellect is the ability to understand or deal with ideas and

information.
Synonyms: intelligence, mind, reason, understanding

Intellect is the quality of being very intelligent or clever.
Intellect If you describe someone as an intellect, you mean
that they are very intelligent.
Synonyms: thinker, intellectual, genius, mind
Contemplation serious and quiet thought for a period:

Similar: viewing, regarding, examination, inspection,
observation, survey, study, scrutiny, scanning, staring at,
gazing at, eyeing
Entirely means completely and not just partly.
Entirely is also used to emphasize what you are saying.
Synonyms: only, exclusively, solely
Entirely People sometimes use the expression not entirely to
reduce the force of a strong statement, especially a critical
one.
Optional If something is optional, you can choose whether or

not you do it or have it.
Optional Sex education is a sensitive area for some parents,
and thus it should remain optional.
Synonyms: voluntary, open, discretionary, possible
A reflection is an image that you can see in a mirror or in
glass or water.
Synonyms: image, echo, counterpart, likeness
Reflection is the process by which light and heat are sent
back from a surface and do not pass through it.
Synonyms: sending back, mirroring, throwing back, casting
Reflection If you say that something is a reflection of a
particular person's attitude or of a situation, you mean that
it is caused by that attitude or situation and therefore
reveals something about it.
Synonyms: indication, evidence, display, demonstration
Reflection If something is a reflection or a sad reflection on
a person or thing, it gives a bad impression of them.
Synonyms: criticism, censure, slur, reproach
Reflection is careful thought about a particular subject.
Reflection Your reflections are your thoughts about a
particular
Reflections on something are comments or writings that
express someone's ideas about it.
STUDU NUMBER 2
Request If you request something, you ask for it politely or
formally.
Request If you request someone to do something, you
politely or formally ask them to do it.
Synonyms: invite, call for, beg, petition
Request If you make a request, you politely or formally ask
someone to do something.
Synonyms: appeal, call, demand, plea
A request is a song or piece of music which someone has
asked a performer or disc jockey to play.
Exercise If you exercise something such as your authority,
your rights, or a good quality, you use it or put it into effect.
Synonyms: put to use, use, apply, employ
Exercise When you exercise, you move your body
energetically in order to get fit and to remain healthy.
Synonyms: train, work out, practise, drill
Exercise If a movement or activity exercises a part of your
body, it keeps it strong, healthy, or in good condition.
Exercises are a series of movements or actions which you
do in order to get fit, remain healthy, or practise for a
particular physical activity.
Exercises are military activities and operations which are
not part of a real war, but which allow the armed forces to
practice for a real war.
An exercise is a short activity or piece of work that you do,
for example in school, which is designed to help you learn a
particular skill.
Synonyms: task, problem, lesson, assignment
Exercises is an official ceremony, in which people make
speeches and present awards.
Exercise If you describe an activity as an exercise in a
particular quality or result, you mean that it has that quality
or
Exercise If something exercises you or your mind, you think
or talk about it a great deal, especially because you are
worried or concerned about it.
Synonyms: worry, concern, occupy, try
Meditation is the act of remaining in a silent and calm state

for a period of time, as part of a religious training, or so that
you are more able to deal with the problems of everyday life.
A meditation is a particular exercise that is used in
meditation.
Meditation is the act of thinking about something very
carefully and deeply for a long time.
Synonyms: reflection, thought, concentration, study
A meditation on a particular subject is something such as a
piece of writing or a speech which expresses deep thoughts
about that subject.
Peace If countries or groups involved in a war or violent

conflict are discussing peace, they are talking to each other
in order to try to end the conflict.
Synonyms: truce, ceasefire, treaty, armistice
Peace If there is peace in a country or in the world, there
are no wars or violent conflicts going on.
Peace If you disapprove of weapons, especially nuclear
weapons, you can use peace to refer to campaigns and
other activities intended to reduce their numbers or stop
their use.
Peace If you have peace, you are not being disturbed, and
you are in calm, quiet surroundings.
Synonyms: stillness, rest, quiet, silence
Peace If you have a feeling of peace, you feel contented and
calm and not at all worried. You can also say that you are at
peace.
Peace If there is peace among a group of people, they live or
work together in a friendly way and do not quarrel.
Peace You can also say that people live or work in peace
with each other.
Peace If you can't live in peace with your little brother then
get out of the house.
Synonyms: harmony, accord, agreement, concord
Peace The Peace of a particular place is a treaty or an
agreement that was signed there, bringing an end to a war.
Power If someone has power, they have a lot of control over

people and activities.
Synonyms: control, authority, influence, command
Power Your power to do something is your ability to do it.
Synonyms: ability, capacity, faculty, property
Power If it is in or within your power to do something, you
are able to do it or you have the resources to deal with it.
Power Although it is not in his power to do so, he said he
would rebuild the Air Base.
Power We must do everything in our power to ensure the
success of the conference.
Power If someone in authority has the power to do
something, they have the legal right to do it.
Power the Prime Minister has the power to dismiss and
appoint senior ministers.
Synonyms: authority, right, license, privilege
Power If people take power or come to power, they take
charge of a country's affairs. If a group of people are in
power, they are in charge of a country's affairs.
Power You can use power to refer to a country that is very
rich or important or has strong military forces.
Power the country is a major power in an area of great
strategic importance.
Power The power of something is the ability that it has to
move or affect things.
Power is energy, especially electricity, that is obtained in
large quantities from a fuel source and used to operate
lights, heating, and machinery.
Power The device or fuel that powers a machine provides
the energy that the machine needs in order to work
Allied forces or troops are armies from different countries
who are fighting on the same side in a war.
Allied countries, troops, or political parties are united by a
political or military agreement.
Synonyms: united, joined, linked, related
Allied If one thing or group is allied to another, it is related
to it because the two things have particular qualities or
characteristics in common.
Allied Something that is allied to another thing occurs with
the other thing.
So far If you say that something only goes so far or can only
go so far, you mean that its extent, effect, or influence is
limited.
Synonyms: up to a point, to a certain extent, to a limited
extent
Lecture about a particular subject, usually at a university or
college.
Synonyms: talk, address, speech, lesson
Lecture If you lecture on a particular subject, you give a
lecture or a series of lectures about it.
Synonyms: talk, speak, teach, address
Lecture If someone lectures you about something, they
criticize you or tell you how they think you should behave.
Synonyms: tell off [informal], berate, scold, reprimand
Principle is a general belief that you have about the way you
should behave, which influences your behaviour.
principles of a particular theory or philosophy are its basic
rules or laws.
Synonyms: belief, rule, standard, attitude
Principle Scientific principles are general scientific laws
which explain how something happens or
Synonyms: rule, idea, law, theory
Principle a fundamental truth or proposition that serves as
the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a
chain of reasoning.
Principle "the basic principles of justice"
Similar: truth, proposition, concept, idea, theory, postulate,
assumption, basic, fundamental, essence
Essential, philosophy
Principle a general scientific theorem or law that has
numerous special applications across a wide field.
Meantime In the meantime or meantime means in the period
between two events.
Consider If you consider a person or thing to be something,

you have the opinion that this is what they are.
Synonyms: think, see, believe, rate
Consider If you consider something, you think about it
carefully.
Synonyms: bear in mind, remember, regard, respect
Consider If you are considering doing something, you intend
to do it, but have not yet made a final decision whether to do
it.
Awhile means for a short time. It is more commonly spelled

'a while', which is considered
Synonyms: for a while, briefly, for a moment, for a short time
While If something happens while something else is

happening, the two things are happening at the same time.
While If something happens while something else happens,
the first thing happens at some point during the time that
the second thing is happening.
While You use while at the beginning of a clause to
introduce information which contrasts with information in
the main clause.
While You use while, before making a statement, in order to
introduce information that partly conflicts with your
statement.
A while is a period of time.
Synonyms: time, period, stretch, spell
Similar: time, span, season, length of time, duration, run
Condition If you talk about the condition of a person or

thing, you are talking about the state that they are in,
especially how good or bad their physical state is.
Material things are related to possessions or money, rather

than to more abstract things such as ideas or values.
Material condition
The material aspects of people's lives, such as their
economic stability, housing conditions, access to healthcare
and nutrition, and other material resources that ultimately
determines their quality of life and how long they may live.
Order If you do something to achieve a particular thing or in
order that something can happen, you do it because you
want to achieve that thing.
does not happen.
obtained for you.
importance.
expected time.
order
Discover If you discover something that you did not know

about before, you become aware of it or learn of it.
Synonyms: find out, see, learn, reveal
If a person or thing is discovered, someone finds them,
either by accident or because they have been looking for
them.
Synonyms: find, come across, uncover, track down
Discover When someone discovers a new place, substance,
scientific fact, or scientific technique, they are the first
person to find it or become aware of it
Synonyms: invent, develop, come up with, design
Synonyms: inventor, author, creator, originator
Synonyms: explorer, pioneer
Discover If you say that someone has discovered a
particular activity or subject, you mean that they have tried
doing it or studying it for the first time and that they enjoyed
it.
Discover When an actor, musician, or other performer who is
not well-known is discovered, someone recognizes that they
have talent and helps them in their career.
Necessary Something that is necessary is needed for
something else to happen.
A necessary consequence or connection must happen or
exist, because of the nature of the things or events involved.
Synonyms: inevitable, sure, certain, unavoidable
Necessaries are things, such as food or clothing, that you
need to have to live.
Necessaries needed to be done, achieved, or present;
essential.
Similar: obligatory, requisite, required, compulsory,
mandatory, imperative, demanded, needed, called for,
needful, essential, indispensable, vital, of the essence,
incumbent, de rigueur
A thorough action or activity is one that is done very

carefully and in a detailed way so that nothing is forgotten.
Synonyms: comprehensive, full, complete, sweeping
Synonyms: fully, completely, throughout, inside out
Synonyms: carefully, completely, fully, comprehensively
Through Someone who is thorough is always very careful in
their work, so that nothing is forgotten.
Synonyms: careful, conscientious, painstaking, efficient
Thorough is used to emphasize the great degree or extent of
something.
Synonyms: complete, total, absolute, utter
Synonyms: fully, completely, throughout, inside out
Synonyms: completely, quiet, totally, perfectly
Material
Material is what everything that you can touch is made of.
Even material that is too small to touch, is called material.
We use materials to make things. We can also call material
"physical substances."
Raw material is materials such as ores which we can clean
and mix with other materials to make another material like
steel, for example. Cotton is a raw material used to make
textiles, which are materials to make clothes.
Some important materials
• Metals
• Steel
• Aluminum
• Copper
• Gold
• Polymers
• Rubber
• Plastic
• Ceramics
• Glass
• Cement
• Stone
• Textiles
• Cotton fabric
• Wool fabric
• organic materials
• Leather
• Bone
• Paper
• Lumber/wood
• Glue
• Composites
• Fiberglass
• Concrete
Remain If someone or something remains in a particular

state or condition, they stay in that state or condition and do
not change.
Synonyms: stay, continue, go on, stand
Remain If you remain in a place, you stay there and do not
move away.
Synonyms: stay behind, wait, delay, stay put
Remain You can say that something remains when it still
exists.
Synonyms: continue, be left, endure, persist
Remain If something remains to be done, it has not yet been
done and still needs to be done.
The remains of something are the parts of it that are left
after most of it has been taken away or destroyed.
Remain The remains of a person or animal are the parts of
their body that are left after they have died, sometimes after
they have been dead for a long time.
Remain Historical remains are things that have been found
from an earlier period of history, usually buried in the
ground, for example parts of buildings and pieces of pottery.
Remain You can use remain in expressions such as the fact
remains that or the question remains whether to introduce
and emphasize something that you want to talk about.
Closed (NOT OPEN) not open:

Closed (ENDED) finished and therefore not able to be
discussed any more:
Closed (NOT ACCEPTING IDEAS) not wanting to accept new
ideas, people, customs,
Closed group of people does not welcome new people or
ideas from outside.
Closed book If you say that someone or something is a
closed book, you mean that you do not know anything about
them.
Closed book a subject about which you know or understand
nothing:
Closed book something deemed unknown or incapable of
being understood
Substance is the material, or matter, of which something is
made. Substances are physical things that can be seen,
touched, or measured. They are made up of one or
more elemental parts. Iron, aluminum, water and air are
examples of substances.
Substance is a solid, powder, liquid, or gas with properties.
Synonyms: material, body, stuff, element
Substance is the quality of being important or significant.
Synonyms: importance, significance, moment, meaningfulness
The substance of what someone says or writes is the main thing that
they are trying to say.
Synonyms: meaning, main point, gist, matter
Substance If you say that something has no substance, you mean that
it is not true.
Synonyms: truth, fact, reality, certainty
Matter
Solids, Liquids, and Gases
We learned in some of our other lessons that matter is made
up of atoms and molecules. Millions and millions of these
tiny objects fit together to form larger things like animals
and planets and cars. Matter includes the water we drink,
the air we breathe, and the chair we are sitting on.
States or Phases
Matter usually exists in one of three states or phases: solid,
liquid, or gas. The chair you are sitting on is a solid, the
water you drink is liquid, and the air you breathe is a gas.
Changing State
The atoms and molecules don't change, but the way they
move about does. Water, for example, is always made up of
two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. However, it can
take the state of liquid, solid (ice), and gas (steam). Matter
changes state when more energy gets added to it. Energy is
often added in the form of heat or pressure.
Water
Solid water is called ice. This is water with the lowest
energy and temperature. When solid, the molecules in water
are held tightly together and don't move easily.
Liquid water is just called water. As ice heats up it will
change phases to liquid water. Liquid molecules are loose
and can move about easily.
Gas water is called steam or vapor. When water boils, it will
turn to vapor. These molecules are hotter, looser, and
moving faster than the liquid molecules. They are more
spread apart and can be compressed or squished.
The three states of Water
More States
There are two more states or phases that matter can take, but we
don't see them much in our everyday life.
One is called plasma. Plasma occurs at very high temperatures and

can be found in stars and lightning bolts. Plasma is like gas, but the
molecules have lost some electrons and become ions.
Another state has the fancy name Bose-Einstein condensates. This

state can occur at super low temperatures.
Fun Facts about Solids, Liquids, Gases

• Gases are often invisible and assume the shape and volume
of their container.
• The air we breathe is made up of different gases, but it is
mostly nitrogen and oxygen.
• We can see through some solids like glass.
• When liquid gasoline is burned in a car, it turns into various
gases which go into the air from the exhaust pipe.
• Fire is a mixture of hot gases.
• Plasma is by far the most abundant state of matter in the
universe because stars are mostly plasma.
Matter
Matter is usually classified
into three classical states,
with plasma sometimes added
as a fourth state. From top to
bottom: quartz (solid), water
(liquid), nitrogen dioxide (gas),
and a plasma globe (plasma).
Matter is the substance of which all material is made. That
means objects which have mass. More specifically, they
must have rest HYPERLINK
"https://kids.kiddle.co/Rest_mass" mass, which is a form of
energy that matter has even when it is not moving (it has no
kinetic energy), is extremely cold (it has no thermal energy),
etc. Matter is a word that is sometimes used in varying ways
in everyday life, whereas mass is a well-defined concept and
quantity at least in physics. They are not the same thing,
though they are related.
Ordinary matter is made of tiny particles called atoms. The
atoms have spaces between them and they move or vibrate
all the time. The particles move faster and move further
apart when heated, and the reverse when cooled.
Contents
• Baryonic matter
• Properties of matter
• Examples of matter
• Composition
• States of matter
• Related pages
• Images for kids
• See als HYPERLINK "https://kids.kiddle.co/Matter"o
Baryonic matter
Nearly all matter that may be experienced in everyday life is
baryonic matter. This includes atoms of any sort, and gives
those the property of mass. Non-baryonic matter, as implied
by the name, is any sort of matter that is not composed
mainly of baryons. This might include neutrinos and free
electrons, dark matter, such as supersymmetric particles,
axions, and black holes.
The very existence of baryons is a significant issue in
cosmology. It is assumed that the Big Bang produced a state
with equal amounts of baryons and antibaryons. The process
by which baryons came to outnumber their antiparticles is
called baryogenesis.
Properties of matter
Matter can be directly experienced through the senses. It
has properties which can be measured, such as mass,
volume, density, and qualitative properties such as taste,
smell and colour, for instance.
Examples of matter
All physical bodies in the universe are made of matter:
galaxies, stars and planets, rocks, water and air. Living
organisms like plants, animals and humans are also
composed of matter.
In physics, the universe also contains things that aren't
matter, including some elementary particles that have no
rest mass. Photons (electromagnetic radiation such as light)
are a familiar example.
In addition to its rest mass, matter can contain other forms
of energy, which aren't matter but allow them to interact
with each other by exchanging kinetic energy, heat, light,
sound waves, etc.
Outside of the physical sciences, there can be many other
things that aren't matter or energy. Just for example,
emotions can be experienced or ideas can be had.
Composition
The structure and composition of matter is investigated by breaking
matter into smaller and smaller pieces. Hence, living organisms are
made up of cells. Cells are composed of molecules, which are sets of
atoms bonded together. A molecule is formed when two or more atoms
join together chemically. Each atom, in turn, is an assemblage of
elementary particles.
States of matter
Physicists also classify matter in a few broad categories, called states,
with quite different properties:
• Solids are material objects made up of molecules and atoms so

strongly bonded together that they tend to keep their shape even when
moved around, though they can deform under stress.
Examples: a rock, a table, a knife, a block of ice.
• Fluids are amounts of matter composed of molecules and atoms

weakly bonded together. They do not have a proper shape.
There are two types of fluids:
• Liquids include condensed forms of matter, like solids, but where the
bonds between the constituting elements (molecules, atoms) allow
them to move with respect to each other while continuing to stick
together in bulk: they maintain a definite surface. Liquids adopt the
shape of the recipients in which they are contained. Examples: water,
oil, blood, lava, soft drinks.
• Gases are amounts of matter where the bonds between the

constituting elements (molecules, atoms) are so loose or weak that
they can move independently from each other. Gases do not exhibit a
proper surface, they tend to expand to occupy the whole volume
available.
Examples: air, water vapor, helium.
• Plasmas are made of ionized matter, they are mostly of interest to

scientists. Examples: the Earth's ionosphere, the Sun's corona.
The particles in a plasma are a mixture between a liquid and a gas.
The particles are free to move, like a liquid, and the attraction is weak,
like a gas. This state of matter is not fully understood. An example of
plasma can be found in lightning.
• A Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter of a dilute gas

of bosons cooled to temperatures very near absolute zero (0 K or
−273.15 °C)
A given amount of matter may change from one state to another
depending on its temperature and pressure. On Earth, water can exist
simultaneously in three states: solid (ice), liquid water (lakes, oceans)
and gas (vapor or steam).
Composed The things that something is composed of are its

parts or members. The separate things that compose
something are the parts or members that form it.
Synonyms: put together, make up, constitute, comprise
Composed If you compose something such as an email,
letter, poem, or speech, you write it, often using a lot of
concentration or skill.
Synonyms: create, write, produce, imagine
Composed If you compose a picture or image, you arrange it
in an attractive and artistic way.
Synonyms: arrange, make up, construct, put together
Composed If you compose yourself or if you compose your
features, you succeed in becoming calm after you have been
angry, excited, or upset.
Composed If someone is composed, they are calm and able
to control their feelings.
Synonyms: calm, together, cool, collected
Form of something is a type or kind of it.

Synonyms: type, sort, kind, variety
Form When something can exist or happen in several
possible ways, you can use form to refer to one particular
way in which it exists or happens.
Synonyms: shape, formation, configuration, construction
Form When a particular shape forms or is formed, people or
things move or are arranged so that this shape is made.
Synonyms: arrange, combine, line up, organize
Form You can refer to something that you can see as a form
if you cannot see it clearly, or if its outline is the clearest or
most striking aspect of it.
Form If something is arranged or changed so that it
becomes similar to a thing with a particular structure or
function, you can say that it forms that thing.
Form If something consists of particular things, people, or
features, you can say that they form that thing.
Form If you form an organization, group, or company, you
start it.
Form When something natural forms or is formed, it begins
to exist and develop.
Form If you form a relationship, a habit, or an idea, or if it
forms, it begins to exist and develop.
Form If you say that something forms a person's character
or personality, you mean that it has a strong influence on
them and causes them to develop in a particular way.
Synonyms: train, develop, shape, Mould
A form is a paper with questions on it and spaces marked
where you should write the answers. Forms usually ask you
to give details about yourself, for example when you are
applying for a job or joining an organization.
Being is the present participle of be1.

Being is used in non-finite clauses where you are giving the
reason for something.
Being You can refer to any real or imaginary creature as a
being.
Synonyms: individual, thing, body [informal], animal
Being is existence. Something that is in being or comes into
being exists or starts to exist.
Synonyms: life, living, reality, animation
Characterized If something is characterized by a particular

feature or quality, that feature or quality is an obvious part
of it.
Synonyms: distinguish, mark, identify, brand
Characterized If you characterize someone or something as
a particular thing, you describe them as that thing.
An extension is a new room or building which is added to an

existing building or group of buildings.
An extension is a new section of a road or rail line that is
added to an existing road or line.
An extension is an extra period of time for which something
lasts or is valid, usually as a result of official permission.
Synonyms: lengthening, extra time, continuation,
postponement
Extension Something that is an extension of something else
is a development of it that includes or affects more people,
things, or activities.
An extension is a phone line that is connected to the
switchboard of a company or institution, and that has its
own number. The written abbreviation ext. is also used.
An extension is a part which is connected to a piece of
equipment to make it reach something further away.
Inertia (LACK OF ACTIVITY) lack of activity or interest, or

unwillingness to try to do anything:
Inertia (FORCE) the physical force that keeps something in
the same position or moving in the same direction
Inertia the tendency not to change what is happening:
Inertia is Inertia the force that causes something moving to
tend to continue moving, and that causes something not
moving to tend to continue not to move.
Inertia a situation in which there is very little activity or
interest, or people are unwilling to try to change:
Constitutes If something constitutes a particular thing, it
can be regarded as being that thing.
Synonyms: represent, be, consist of, embody
Constitutes If several things or people constitute something,
they are the parts or members that form it.
Constitutes When something such as a committee or
government is constituted, it is formally established and
given authority to operate.
Synonyms: set up, found, name, create
The essence of something is its basic and most important
characteristic which gives it its individual identity.
Essence is a very concentrated liquid that is used for
flavoring food or for its smell.
Synonyms: concentrate, spirits, extract, elixir
Corporeal means involving or relating to the physical world

rather than the spiritual world.
Synonyms: physical, human, material, substantial

Corporeal physical and not spiritual
Similar: bodily, fleshly, carnal, corporal, human, mortal,
earthly, physical, material, actual, real, substantial, tangible
concrete
Materialist is someone who attaches a lot of importance to
money and wants to possess a lot of material things.
Materialist is used to describe things relating to the
philosophy of materialism.
What is chemistry?
Chemistry is the branch of science that studies the
properties of matter and how matter interacts with energy.
Chemistry is considered a physical science and is closely
related to physics. Sometimes chemistry is called the
"central science" because it is an important part of other
major sciences such as biology, Earth science, and physics.
Scientists who specialize in chemistry are called chemists
Deny When you deny something, you state that it is not true.
Synonyms: contradict, oppose, counter, disagree with
Deny If you deny someone or something, you say that they
have no connection with you or do not belong to you.
Synonyms: renounce, reject, discard, revoke
Deny If you deny someone something that they need or
want, you refuse to let them have it.
Deny If he is unlucky, he may find that his ex-partner denies
him access to his children.
Synonyms: refuse, decline, forbid, reject
Composition When you talk about the composition of
something, you are referring to the way in which its various
parts are put together and arranged.
The compositions of a composer, painter, or other artist are

the works of art that they have produced.
Synonyms: creation, work, piece, production
A composition is a piece of written work that children write
at school.
Composition is the technique or skill involved in creating a
work of art.
Composition is the act of composing something such as a
piece of music or a poem.
Synonyms: production, creation, making, fashioning
A large thing or person is greater in size than usual or
average.
Large In the largest room about a dozen children and seven
adults are sitting on the carpet.
Synonyms: massive, great, big, huge
A large amount or number of people or things is more than
the average amount or number.
Large There are many centers where you can take full-time
courses.
Synonyms: plentiful, full, grand, liberal
A large organization or business does a lot of work or
commercial activity and employs a lot of people.
Large is used to indicate that a problem or issue which is
being discussed is very important or serious.
Synonyms: serious, important, difficult, worrying
Extent If you are talking about how great, important, or

serious a difficulty or situation is, you can refer to the extent
of it.
Synonyms: magnitude, amount, degree, scale
The extent of something is its length, area, or size.
Industry is the work and processes involved in collecting
raw materials, and making them into products in factories.
Synonyms: business, production, manufacturing, trade
Industry A particular industry consists of all the people and
activities involved in making a particular product or
providing a particular service.
Industry If you refer to a social or political activity as an
industry, you are criticizing it because you think it involves a
lot of people in unnecessary or useless work.
Industry is the fact of working very hard.
Synonyms: diligence, effort, labour, hard work
See also captain of industry, cottage industry, service
industry
Owe If you owe money to someone, they have lent it to you

and you have not yet paid it back. You can also say that the
money is owing.
Owe If someone or something owes a particular quality or
their success to a person or thing, they only have it because
of that person or thing.
Owe If you say that you owe a great deal to someone or
something, you mean that they have helped you or
influenced you a lot, and you feel very grateful to them.
Owe If you say that something owes a great deal to a person
or thing, you mean that it exists, is successful, or has its
form mainly because of them.
Owe If you say that you owe someone gratitude, respect, or
loyalty, you mean that they deserve it from you.
Owe If you say that you owe it to someone to do something,
you mean that you should do that thing because they
deserve it.
Owe (HAVE DEBTS) to need to pay or give something to
someone because they have lent money to you, or in
exchange for something they have done for you:
Mankind is the same as humankind. Many people dislike this

use.
Synonyms: people, man, humanity, human race
Forego If you forego something, you decide to do without it,

although you would like it.
Forego If you forego something, you choose to give it up
Comfort (NO PAIN) a pleasant feeling of being relaxed and
free from pain:
Comfort (FOR SADNESS)
the state of feeling better after feeling sad or worried, or
something that makes you feel better in this way:
Comfort (ENOUGH MONEY) the state of having a pleasant
life with enough money for everything that you need:
Comfort (PLEASANT THING) something that makes your life
easy and pleasant
Comforts If you are doing something in comfort, you are
physically relaxed and contented, and are not feeling any
pain or other unpleasant sensations.
Comfort is a style of life in which you have enough money to
have everything you need.
Comfort is what you feel when worries or unhappiness stop.
Comforts If you refer to a person, thing, or idea as a comfort,
you mean that it helps you to stop worrying or makes you
feel less unhappy.
Synonyms: ease, luxury, wellbeing, opulence
Comforts If you comfort someone, you make them feel less
worried, unhappy, or upset, for example by saying kind
things to them.
Synonyms: console, encourage, ease, cheer
Comforts are things which make your life easier and more
pleasant, such as electrical devices you have in your home.
Manipulation If you say that someone manipulates people,

you disapprove of them because they skilfully force or
persuade people to do what they want.
Synonyms: influence, control, direct, guide
Manipulation If you say that someone manipulates an event
or situation, you disapprove of them because they use or
control it for their own benefit, or cause it to develop in the
way they want.
Manipulation If you manipulate something that requires skill,
such as a complicated piece of equipment or a difficult idea,
you operate it or process it.
Synonyms: work, use, operate, handle
Manipulation If someone manipulates your bones or
muscles, they skillfully move and press them with their
hands to push the bones into their correct position or make
the muscles less stiff.
Synonyms: massage, rub, knead, palpate
Complicated If you say that something is complicated, you

mean it has so many parts or aspects that it is difficult to
understand or deal with.
Synonyms: involved, difficult, puzzling, troublesome
A process is a series of actions which are carried out to

achieve a particular result.
Synonyms: procedure, means, course, system
Process is a series of things which happen naturally and
result in a biological or chemical change.
Process It occurs in elderly men, apparently as part of the
ageing process.
Process When raw materials or foods are processed, they
are prepared in factories before they are used or sold.
Process When people process information, they put it
through a system or into a computer to deal with it.
Process When people are processed by officials, their case
is dealt with in stages, and they pass from one stage of the
process to the next.
Procedure is a way of doing something, especially the usual
or correct way.
Synonyms: method, policy, process, course
Chemical processing is a way of making changes to

chemical compounds.
In a physical change the appearance or form of the matter
changes but the kind of matter in the substance does not.
However in a chemical change, the kind of matter changes
and at least one new substance with new properties is
formed.
The distinction between physical and chemical change is
not clear cut. Frequently students are led to believe that a
change is either physical or chemical. In fact this should be
considered more of a continuum. For example salt dissolving
in water is usually considered to be a physical change,
however the chemical species in salt solution (hydrated
sodium and chlorine ions) are different from the species in
solid salt. Dissolving of instant coffee in water seems to be
a physical change but in most cases dissolving is
accompanied by an energy change and is probably better
considered to be a chemical process even though it is
possible to recover the original components by physical
means. Many examples of materials dissolving (for example,
an Alka Seltzer in water, metal in acid and the effect of acid
rain on marble and concrete) involve both chemical and
physical processes.
Students could investigate:
Heating steel wool in air and collecting the black powder
that results, then weighing the reactant and product (there
should be an increase). This could be done as a POE
(Predict-Observe-Explain): students are asked to predict
what will happen to the weight of the steel wool when it
burns. What has been added to the steel wool during
combustion?
Dissolving sugar and salt in water and comparing what
happens to the electrical conductivity of the two solutions
as the dissolving takes place. Recovering the salt by
evaporation shows the salt is still there but the conductivity
is indicating something new is forming.
Comparing boiling water with mixing vinegar and baking
soda - both produce bubbles but what's the difference? The
baking soda and vinegar can be mixed in a Ziploc sandwich
bag to show the production of a new substance which blows
the bag up.
Precipitation reactions, particularly ones that produce an
obvious colour change, such as Epsom salts and ammonia
solution. This can be compared with adding potassium
permanganate to water. What are the differences?
Acid - base reactions can be illustrated through the use of
indicators both natural (cabbage juice) and synthetic. The
colour changes help illustrate that new materials could be
forming.
The proportion of a group or an amount is a part of it.

Synonyms: part, share, cut [informal], amount
The proportion of one kind of person or thing in a group is
the number of people or things of that kind compared to the
total number of people or things in the group.
Synonyms: relative amount, relationship, distribution, ratio
The proportion of one amount to another is the relationship
between the two amounts in terms of how much there is of
each thing.
Proportion If you refer to the proportions of something, you
are referring to its size, usually when this is extremely large.
Proportion If you refer to the proportions in a work of art or
design, you are referring to the relative sizes of its different
parts.
Contents of a container such as a bottle, box, or room are
the things that are inside it.
Contents If you refer to the content or contents of
something such as a book, speech, or television programme,
you are referring to the subject that it deals with, the story
that it tells, or the ideas that it expresses.
Synonyms: subject matter, ideas, matter, material
Contents the contents of a book are its different chapters
and sections, usually shown in a list at the beginning of the
book.
The content of something such as an educational course or
a programme of action is the elements that it consists of.
Content is any kind of material that can be read or watched
online, on television, or in print.
Contents You can use content to refer to the amount or
proportion of something that a substance contains.
Synonyms: amount, measure, size, load
Well – being the condition of being contented, healthy, or

successful; welfare
Well – being the state of feeling healthy and happy:
Well – being the state of being comfortable, healthy, or
happy.
Similar: welfare, health, good health, happiness, comfort,
security, safety, protection, prosperity, profit, good, success,
fortune, good fortune, advantage, interest, prosperousness,
successfulness
A chemical reaction is a process in which two substances

combine chemically to form another substance.
Generalization is a statement that seems to be true in most

situations or for most people, but that may not be
completely true in all cases.
Synonyms: generality, abstraction, sweeping statement,
loose statement
a written or spoken statement in which you say or write that
something is true all of the time when it is only true some of
the time:
An abstraction is a general idea rather than one relating to a

particular object, person, or situation.
Synonyms: concept, thought, idea, view
Abstraction is the state of being very deep in thought.
Synonyms: absent-mindedness, musing, preoccupation,
daydreaming
Abstraction is the use of shapes and patterns in art.
A generalization is taking one or a few facts and making a
broader, more universal statement.
Disprove an idea, belief, or theory means showing that it is
not true.
Synonyms: prove false, discredit, refute, contradict
Chemical decomposition
Chemical decomposition, or chemical breakdown, is the
process or effect of simplifying a single chemical entity
(normal molecule, reaction intermediate, etc.) into two or
more fragments.[1] Chemical decomposition is usually
regarded and defined as the exact opposite of chemical
synthesis
Chemical process of decomposition

Human body composition
Water (64%)
Protein (20%)
Fat (10%)
Carbohydrate (1%)
Minerals (5%)
Decomposition in animals is a process that begins
immediately after death and involves the destruction of soft
tissue, leaving behind skeletonized remains. The chemical
process of decomposition is complex and involves the
breakdown of soft tissue, as the body passes through the
sequential stages of decomposition.
Autolysis and putrefaction also play major roles in the
disintegration of cells and tissues.
The human body is composed of approximately: 64% water,
20% protein, 10% fat, 1% carbohydrate, 5% minerals.
The decomposition of soft tissue is characterized by the
breakdown of these macromolecules, and thus a large
proportion of the decomposition products should reflect the
amount of protein and fat content initially present in the
body.
As such, the chemical process of decomposition involves
the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic
acids, and bone.
Protein degradation
Proteins make up a variety of different tissues within the
body, which may be classified as soft or hard tissue
proteins. As such, proteins within the body are not degraded
at a uniform rate.
Proteolysis
Proteolysis is the process that breaks down proteins.
It is regulated by moisture, temperature, and bacteria.
This process does not occur at a uniform rate and thus some
proteins are degraded during early decomposition, while
others are degraded during later stages of decomposition.
During the early stages of decomposition, soft tissue
proteins are broken down.
These include proteins that:

. line the gastrointestinal tract and pancreatic epithelium
. form the brain, liver, and kidneys
During later stages of decomposition, more resistant tissue

proteins are degraded by the effects of putrefaction.
These include:
. Reticulin
. muscle protein
. collagen (a hard tissue protein), which survives even longer
than the former tissue proteins
Keratin is a protein which is found in skin, hair, and nails.

It is most resistant to the enzymes involved in proteolysis
and must be broken down by special keratinolytic
microorganisms. This is the reason that hair and nails are
commonly found with skeletal remains.
Proteolysis products
In general, proteolysis breaks down proteins into:
. proteoses
. peptones
. polypeptides
. amino acids
Continuing proteolysis leads to the production of phenolic
substances. In addition, the following gases will also be
produced:
. carbon dioxide
. hydrogen sulphide, which is highly toxic
. Ammonia
. Methane
The sulfur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine
undergo bacterial decomposition to yield:
• ammonia
• thiols (decomposition gases known for their foul odours)
• pyruvic acid
• sulphides
• hydrogen sulphide gas
• Ferrous sulphide will be produced if iron is present, which
can be seen as a black precipitate
Two common decarboxylation products of protein

associated with decomposition are putrescine and
cadaverine. These compounds are toxic at high levels and
have distinctive, foul odours. It is believed that they are
components of the characteristic odours of decomposition
commonly detected by cadaver dogs.
A summary of the protein degradation products can be
found in Table 1 below.
Nitrogen release
Nitrogen is a component of amino acids and is released
upon deamination. It is typically released in the form of
ammonia, which may be used by plants or microbes in the
surrounding environment, converted to nitrate, or can
accumulate
[4]
in soil (if the body is located on top of or within
soil). It has been suggested that the presence of nitrogen
in soil may enhance nearby plant growth.
In acidic soil conditions, ammonia will be converted to
ammonium ions, which can be used by plants or microbes.
Under alkaline conditions, some of the ammonium ions
entering soil may be converted back to ammonia. Any
remaining ammonium in the environment can undergo
nitrification and denitrification to yield nitrate and nitrite. In
the absence of nitrifying bacteria, or organisms capable of
oxidizing ammonia, ammonia will accumulate in the soil.
Phosphorus release
Phosphorus can be released from various components of the
body, including proteins (especially those making up nucleic
acids), sugar phosphate, and phospholipids. The route
phosphorus takes once it is released is complex and relies
on the pH of the surrounding environment. In most soils,
phosphorus exists as insoluble inorganic complexes,
associated with iron, calcium, magnesium, and aluminum.
Soil microorganisms can also transform insoluble organic
complexes into soluble ones.
Carbohydrate degradation
Early in decomposition, carbohydrates will be broken down
by microorganisms. The process begins with the breakdown
of glycogen into glucose monomers.
These sugar monomers can be completely decomposed to
carbon dioxide and water or incompletely decomposed to
various organic acids and alcohols,[3] or other oxygenated
species, such as ketones, aldehydes, esters and ethers.[10]
Depending on the availability of oxygen in the environment,
sugars will be decomposed by different organisms and into
different products, although both routes may occur
simultaneously. Under aerobic conditions, fungi and bacteria
will decompose sugars into the following organic acids: [3]
• glucuronic acid
• citric acid
• oxalic acid
Under [3]
anaerobic conditions, bacteria will decompose sugars
into:
• lactic acid
• butyric acid
• acetic acid
which are collectively responsible for the acidic
environment commonly associated with decomposing
bodies.
Other bacterial fermentation products include alcohols, such
as butyl and ethyl alcohol,
[3]
acetone, and gases, such as
methane and hydrogen.
A summary of the carbohydrate degradation products can
be found in Table 1 below.
Lipid degradation
Lipids in the body are mainly contained in adipose tissue,
which is made up of about 5-30% water, 2-3% protein, and
60-85% lipids, by weight, of which 90-99% are triglycerides.
Adipose tissue is largely composed of neutral lipids, which
collectively refers to triglycerides, diglyercides,
phospholipids, and cholesterol esters, of which triglycerides
are the most common.[11] The fatty acid content of the
triglycerides varies from person to person, but contains
oleic acid in the greatest amount, followed by linoleic,
palmitoleic, and palmitic acids.
Neutral lipid degradation
Neutral lipids are hydrolyzed by lipases shortly after death,
to free the fatty acids from their glycerol backbone. This
creates
[13]
a mixture of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
Under the right conditions (when sufficient water and
bacterial enzymes are present), neutral lipids will be
completely degraded until they are reduced to fatty acids.
Under suitable conditions, the fatty acids can be
transformed into adipocere.[12] In contrast, fatty acids may
react with sodium and potassium ions present in tissue, to
produce salts of fatty acids. When the body is located near
soil, the sodium and potassium ions can be replaced by
calcium and magnesium ions to form soaps of saturated
fatty acids, which can also contribute to the formation of
adipocere.
Fatty acid degradation

The fatty acids resulting from hydrolysis can undergo one of
two routes of degradation, depending on the availability of
oxygen.[3] It is possible, however, for both routes to take
place at the same time in different areas of the body.
Anaerobic degradation
Anaerobic bacteria dominate within a body following death,
which promote[3]the anaerobic degradation of fatty acids by
hydrogenation. The process of hydrogenation transforms
unsaturated bonds (double and triple bonds) into single
bonds. This essentially increases the amounts of saturated
fatty acids, while decreasing the proportion of unsaturated
fatty acids. Therefore, hydrogenation of oleic and
palmitoleic acids, for example,
[13]
will yield stearic, and
palmitic acids, respectively.
Aerobic degradation[edit]
In the presence of oxygen, the fatty acids will undergo
oxidation. Lipid oxidation is a chain reaction process in
which oxygen attacks the double bond in a fatty acid, to
yield peroxide linkages.[4]Eventually, the process will produce
aldehydes and ketones.
• Initiation
Aerobic degradation
In the presence of oxygen, the fatty acids will undergo
oxidation. Lipid oxidation is a chain reaction process in
which oxygen attacks the double bond in a fatty acid, to
yield peroxide linkages.[ Eventually, the process will produce
aldehydes and ketones.
A summary of the lipid degradation products can be found in
Table 1[where?] below.
Nucleic acid degradation
The breakdown of nucleic acids[10]produces nitrogenous
bases, phosphates, and sugars. These three products are
further broken down by degradation pathways of other
macromolecules. The nitrogen from the nitrogenous bases
will be transformed in the same way that it is in proteins.
Similarly, phosphates will be released from the body and
undergo the same changes as those released from proteins
and phospholipids. Finally, sugars, also known as
carbohydrates, will be degraded based on the availability of
oxygen.
Bone degradation
• Bone is a composite tissue that is made up of three
main fractions:
a protein fraction that mainly consists of collagen (a
hard tissue protein that is more resistant to
degradation than other tissue proteins), which serves
as support
• a mineral fraction that consists of hydroxyapatite(the
mineral that contains the calcium and phosphorus in a
bone), which stiffens the protein structure
• a ground substance made of other organic compounds
• The collagen and hydroxyapatite are held together by a
strong protein-mineral bond that provides bone with its
strength and its ability to remain long after the soft
tissue of a body has been degraded.
• The process that degrades bone is referred to as
diagenesis. The first step in the process involves the
elimination of the organic collagen fraction by the
action of bacterial collagenases. These collagenases
break down protein into peptides. The peptides are
subsequently reduced to their constituent amino acids,
which can be leached away by groundwater. Once the
collagen has been removed from bone, the
hydroxyapatite content is degraded by inorganic
mineral weathering, meaning that important ions, such
as calcium, are lost to the environment.[4] The strong
protein-mineral bond that provided bone with its
strength will become compromised by this degradation,
leading to an overall weakened structure, which will
continue to weaken until full disintegration of bone
occurs.
• Factors affecting bone degradation
• Bone is quite resistant to degradation but will
eventually be broken down by physical breaking,
decalcification, and dissolution. The rate at which bone
is degraded, however, is highly dependent on its
surrounding environment. When soil is present, its
destruction is influenced by both abiotic (water,
temperature, soil type, and pH) and biotic (fauna and
flora) agents.
• Abiotic factors
• Water accelerates the process by leaching essential
organic minerals from bone. As such, soil type plays a
role, because it will affect the water content of the
environment. For example, some soils, like clay soils,
retain water better than others, like sandy or silty soils.
Further, acidic soils are better able to dissolve the
inorganic matrix of hydroxyapatite than basic soils,
thus accelerating the disintegration of bone. [
• Biotic factors
• Microorganisms, mainly bacteria and fungi, play a role
in bone degradation. They are capable of invading bone
tissue and causing minerals to leach into the
surrounding environment, leading to disturbances in its
structure. Small and large mammals often disturb bones
by removing them from grave sites or gnawing on them,
which contributes to their destruction. Finally, plant
roots located above burial sites can be extremely
destructive to bone. Fine roots can travel through the
tissue and split long bones, while larger roots can
produce openings in bones that may be mistaken for
fractures.
A protein fraction that mainly consists of collagen (a
hard tissue protein that is more resistant to
degradation than other tissue proteins), which serves
as support
• a mineral fraction that consists of hydroxyapatite(the
mineral that contains the calcium and phosphorus in a
bone), which stiffens the protein structure
• a ground substance made of other organic compounds
The collagen and hydroxyapatite are held together by a
strong protein-mineral bond that provides bone with its
strength and its ability to remain long after the soft tissue of
a body has been degraded.[4]
The process that degrades bone is referred to as
diagenesis. The first step in the process involves the
elimination of the organic collagen fraction by the action of
bacterial collagenases. These collagenases break down
protein into peptides. The peptides are subsequently
reduced to their constituent amino acids, which can be
leached away by groundwater. Once the collagen has been
removed from bone, the hydroxyapatite content is degraded
by inorganic mineral weathering, meaning that important
ions, such as calcium, are lost to the environment.
The strong protein-mineral bond that provided bone with its
strength will become compromised by this degradation,
leading to an overall weakened structure, which will
continue to weaken until full disintegration of bone occurs.
Factors affecting bone degradation
Bone is quite resistant to degradation but will eventually be
broken down by physical breaking, decalcification, and
dissolution. The rate at which bone is degraded, however, is
highly dependent on its surrounding environment. When soil
is present, its destruction is influenced by both abiotic
(water, temperature, soil type, and pH) and biotic (fauna and
flora) agents.
Abiotic factors[edit]
Water accelerates the process by leaching essential organic
minerals from bone. As such, soil type plays a role, because
it will affect the water content of the environment. For
example, some soils, like clay soils, retain water better than
others, like sandy or silty soils. Further, acidic soils are
better able to dissolve the inorganic matrix of
hydroxyapatite than basic soils, thus accelerating the
disintegration of bone.
Biotic factors
Microorganisms, mainly bacteria and fungi, play a role in
bone degradation. They are capable of invading bone tissue
and causing minerals to leach into the surrounding
environment, leading to disturbances in its structure.
Small and large mammals often disturb bones by removing
them from grave sites or gnawing on them, which
contributes to their destruction.
Finally, plant roots located above burial sites can be
extremely destructive to bone. Fine roots can travel through
the tissue and split long bones, while larger roots can
produce openings in bones that may be mistaken for
fractures.
Fanatical If you describe someone as fanatical, you

disapprove of them because you consider their behaviour or
opinions to be very extreme.
Synonyms: obsessive, burning, wild, mad
Fanatical filled with excessive and single-minded zeal.
Similar: zealous, extremist, extreme, militant, dogmatic,
sectarian, bigoted, rabid, maniacal, radical, diehard, activist,
prejudiced, chauvinistic, intolerant, narrow-minded, single-
minded, partisan, blinkered, illiberal, inflexible,
uncompromising, swivel-eyed
Deduce If you deduce something or deduce that something

is true, you reach that conclusion because of other things
that you know to be true.
Synonyms: work out, reason, understand, gather
Generalize to make a general statement that something is

true in all cases, based on what is true in some cases:
Generalize to make a statement that relates to many people,
things, or conditions, esp. when based on limited facts:
Classify To classify things means to divide them into groups

or types so that things with similar characteristics are in the
same group.
Synonyms: categorize, sort, file, rank
Synonyms: categorization, grading, cataloguing, taxonomy
Synonyms: class, grouping, heading, head
Classify to divide things or people into groups according to
their type, or to say which group or type something or
someone belongs to:
Classified information is officially stated to be secret:
Classified documents and information are officially kept
secret and can only be seen by people who have high
authority or special permission:
relating to
Classified the small advertisements in newspapers,
magazines, or on websites that offer jobs or to sell or buy
things:
Classified arranged in classes or categories.
Negative A fact, situation, or experience that is negative is

unpleasant, depressing, or harmful.
Negative If someone is negative or has a negative attitude,
they consider only the bad aspects of a situation, rather than
the good ones.
Synonyms: contradictoriness, opposition, resistance, refusal
Synonyms: pessimism, cynicism, unwillingness, antagonism
Negative reply or decision indicates the answer 'no'.
Negative Upon a negative decision, the applicant loses the
protection offered by Belgian law.
Synonyms: dissenting, contradictory, refusing, denying
A negative is a word, expression, or gesture that means 'no'
or 'not'.
Negative If a medical test or scientific test is negative, it
shows no evidence of the medical condition or substance
that you are looking for.
Negative In photography, a negative is an image that shows
dark areas as light and light areas as dark. Negatives are
made from camera film and are used to print photographs.
A negative charge or current has the same electrical charge
as an electron.
Negative As these electrons are negatively charged, they
will attempt to repel each other.
Negative numbers, quantity, or measurement is less than
zero.
States You can refer to countries as states, particularly

when you are discussing politics.
States A successful secular state is built on liberal
democratic foundations.
States Some large countries such as the USA are divided
into smaller areas called states.
Synonyms: province, region, district, area
States The USA is sometimes referred to as the States.
States You can refer to the government of a country as the
state.
Synonyms: government, ministry, administration, executive
State industries or organizations are financed and organized
by the government rather than private companies.
A state occasion is a formal one involving the head of a
country.
States When you talk about the state of someone or
something, you are referring to the condition they are in or
what they are like at a particular time.
Synonyms: condition, shape, state of affairs
States If you state something, you say or write it in a formal
or definite way.
Synonyms: say, report, declare, specify
Positive If you are positive about things, you are hopeful and
confident, and think of the good aspects of a situation rather
than the bad ones.
Synonyms: optimistic, confident, hopeful, upbeat
Positive You really must try to start thinking positively.
Synonyms: really, completely, simply, plain
A positive fact, situation, or experience is pleasant and
helpful to you in some way.
Synonyms: beneficial, effective, useful, practical
Positive If you make a positive decision or take positive
action, you do something definite in order to deal with a task
or problem.
A positive response to something indicates agreement,
approval, or encouragement.
Positive If you are positive about something, you are
completely sure about it.
Positive evidence gives definite proof of the truth or identity
of something.
Positive If a medical or scientific test is positive, it shows
that something has happened or is present.
Synonyms: absolute, complete, perfect, right
A positive number is greater than zero.
Positive If something has a positive electrical charge, it has
the same charge as a proton and the opposite charge to an
electron.
According to (OPINION) as stated by:

According to (METHOD) in a way that agrees with:
According to (FOLLOWING) in a way that agrees with; by:
According used for saying which person, group, piece of
information, etc. provides a particular fact:
According to treat someone specially, usually by showing
respect:
Similar: as stated by, as maintained by, as claimed by, on the
authority of, on the report of, in the opinion of
The conception of something is an idea that you have of it in

your mind.
Conception is the forming of an idea for something in your
mind.
Synonyms: idea, plan, design, image
Conception is the process in which a woman 's egg is
fertilized, and she becomes pregnant.
Synonyms: impregnation, insemination, fertilization,
germination
Conception the act of inventing
Synonyms development, design, production, setting up,
foundation, construction, constitution, creation, discovery,
introduction, establishment, pioneering, formation,
innovation, conception, masterminding, formulation,
inception, contrivance, origination, institution
Neither not either of two things or people:

Neither not one and not the other of two things or people:
Exist If something exists, it is present in the world as a real

thing.
To exist means to live, especially under difficult conditions
or with very little food or money.
Synonyms: survive, stay alive, make ends meet, subsist
Course is often used in the expression 'of course', or instead

of 'of course' in informal spoken English. See of course.
The course of a vehicle, especially a ship or aircraft, is the
route along which it is travelling.
A course of action is an action or a series of actions that you
can do in a particular situation.
Synonyms: procedure, plan, policy, programmed
Course You can refer to the way that events develop as, for
example, the course of history or the course of events.
Synonyms: progression, order, unfolding, development
A course is a series of lessons or lectures on a particular
subject.
Synonyms: classes, course of study, programmed, schedule
See also access course, correspondence course, refresher
course, sandwich course
A course of medical treatment is a series of treatments that
a doctor gives someone.
Course In sport, a course is an area of land where races are
held or golf is played, or the land over which a race takes
place.
Synonyms: racecourse, race, circuit, cinder track
Course If a liquid courses somewhere, it flows quickly.
Synonyms: run, flow, stream, gush
Substance A person of substance has a lot of money, power,

or influence.
Substance (MATERIAL) material with physical
characteristics:
Substance
Substance is the material, or matter, of which something is made.

Substances are physical things that can be seen, touched, or
measured. They are made up of one or more elemental parts. Iron,
aluminium, water and air are examples of substances.
Steam and liquid water are two different forms of the same chemical
substance, water.
Contents
• Problems of definition
• History of the concept
• Related articles
• See also
Problems of definition
The main problem of a clear definition of what the substance is that if,
for example, to consider not just the universe (cosmos), being and
non-being, and in general all, the question arises, what is the constant
basic principle (attribute) is the basis of the substance, which
generally consists of all (that is, matter, mind, senses, space, soul,
and so on).
History of the concept
The Latin word substantia - a translation of the Greek word for the
essence (ossia), and in Latin to describe the essence of using the
word essential. In ancient philosophy substance is treated as a
substrate, the first principle of all things (for example, "water" of
Thales, the "fire" of Heraclitus).
In modern times, the concept of substance is treated and spread

widely. The first view is connected with an ontological understanding
of substance as ultimate bases being (Francis Bacon, Benedict
Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz). Central category of metaphysics
in philosophy substance is identified as with God and with nature and
determined as the cause of itself (Latin, causa sui). The main
characteristics (attributes) of a substance from Benedict Spinoza are
thinking and stretch. By analogy with the philosophy of Benedict
Spinoza substance considered in the light of the concept of René
Descartes and Leibniz. The first substance is a unity of subject and
object, and the second - the same atoms are simple beings who lose
their stretch, but receive attribute aspirations (French, appetition) and
multiplicity. Thanks Leibniz substance begins to associate with
matter.
The second point of view on the substance - an epistemological

understanding of the concept, its capabilities and the need for
scientific knowledge (John Locke, David Hume). Immanuel Kant
believed that the law under which any change in the substance of
events and the number of stored it in nature remains the same, can be
attributed to the "analogies of experience." Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Hegel defined substance as the integrity of changing, transient side of
things, as a "major step in the development of the will." For Arthur
Schopenhauer substance - matter for David Hume - a fiction, the
coexistence properties.
Chemical composition
Introduction
Every day we handle many substances which are chemicals, and we even consume them. Table
salt (NaCl), sugar, and vinegar are a few chemical substances used in our daily routine.
Therefore, to have a clear understanding, one must know what exactly a chemical means and its
composition.
What is Chemical Composition?

Chemical composition can be defined as the arrangement, ratio, and type of atoms in molecules
of chemical substances. The chemical composition will vary when chemicals react. For example,
when hydrogen combines with oxygen, water is produced. The chemical composition of water
(H2O) in different from combining elements (H2 and O2). That is when the ratio of the
substance changes or when chemical changes occur in the chemicals.
It is the chemical composition of a substance that determines the properties of the substance.
Two substances may have similar chemical composition but need not have the same properties
because of different arrangements of constituent particles in them.
For example, two crystalline allotropes of carbon are diamond and graphite. these have different
arrangements of carbon atoms because which properties of diamond are different from the
properties of graphite. Diamond is transparent, has poor conductor and extremely hard whereas
graphite is opaque, good conductor and soft.
Chemical Composition of Substances

Any substance which has a clear and specific chemical composition and structure is known as a
chemical. Chemicals exist in a range of states i.e. they can be either solid or liquid. They can
change their state influenced by certain factors like pressure, temperature etc.
The chemist Joseph Proust paved the foundation of modern chemistry known as the Law of
constant composition. A chemical substance has a fixed composition. According to Proust’s
inference, “All samples of a compound have the same composition; i.e., all samples have the
same proportion, by mass, of the elements present in the compound”. For instance, water is a
chemical compound made up of two elements hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) in a definite ratio.
The purified water samples from a bore-well and a sea will also have the same compositions in
the same ratio.
An atom is the basic unit of chemical substances which consists of subatomic particles such as
electrons, neutrons, and protons. An element is a pure substance made up of only one type of
atom. These can’t be fragmented by simple or ordinary processes. Metals, non-metals, and
metalloids are three classifications of elements. Physical properties, chemical properties, and
stability are a few criteria for the classification. When elements combine in a fixed ratio,
compounds are formed. The properties of compounds are entirely different from the properties of
combining elements because their chemical composition is different. So, whenever there is a
chemical reaction, the composition of the substances changes resulting in the formation of new
substances with different compositions. The detailed study of chemical composition gives the
overall idea of a particular reaction, the condition for the reaction to occur between different
reactants and the yields of those reactions.
As we have seen, chemical substances have a fixed composition; they also have a chemical name
and formulae based on their composition. Chemists follow the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) or the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) rules for naming a
compound. On certain occasions, chemical compounds obtained have mixed impurities. A
purification process might be either a physical or a chemical process.
Stay tuned with BYJU’S to learn more interesting topics in Chemistry. Also, get various engaging
and interactive video lessons to learn more effectively.
Naming Chemical Compounds
Chemical compounds are formed when elements are joined by
chemical bonds. These bonds are so strong that the compound
behaves like a single substance. Compounds have their own
properties that are unique from the elements they are made of. A
compound is a type of molecule with more than one element. You can
go here to learn more about molecules and compounds.
How Compounds are Named
Chemists have a specific way of naming compounds. It is a standard

method of naming compounds that is used by scientists around the
world. The name is built from the elements and the construction of
the molecule.
Basic Naming Convention
First we'll cover how to name molecules with two elements (binary
compounds). The name of a compound with two elements has two
words.
To get the first word we use the name of the first element, or the
element to the left of the formula. To get the second word we use the
name of the second element and change the suffix to "ide" at the end
of the word.
Some examples of adding the "ide":

O = oxygen = oxide
Cl = chlorine = chloride
Br = bromine = bromide
F = fluorine = fluoride
Examples of binary compounds:
NaCl - sodium chloride

MgS - magnesium sulfide
InP = indium phosphide
What if there is more than one atom?
In cases where there is more than one atom (for example there are
two oxygen atoms in CO2) you add a prefix to the start of the element
based on the number of atoms. Here is a list of the prefixes used:
# Atoms Prefix
1 mono-
2 di-
3 tri-
4 tetra-
5 penta-
6 hexa-
7 hepta-
8 octa-
9 nona-
10 deca-
** note: the "mono" prefix is not used on the first element. For
example CO = carbon monoxide.
Examples:
CO2 = carbon dioxide
N2O = dinitrogen monoxide
CCL4 = carbon tetrachloride
S3N2 = trisulfur dinitride
How is the order of the elements determined?
When there are two elements in a compound, which element goes

first in the name?
If the compound is made of a metal element and a nonmetal element,

then the metal element is first. If there are two nonmetal elements,
then the first name is the element to the left side of the periodic table.
Examples:
• In a compound that contains iron and fluoride, the metal (iron) would
go first.
• In a compound that contains carbon and oxygen the element to the
left on the periodic table (carbon) would go first.
More Complex Naming Rules
See below for some of the more complex naming rules.
Naming Metal-Nonmetal Compounds

If one of the two compounds is a metal, then the naming convention
changes a bit. Using the stock method, a roman numeral is used after
the metal to indicate which ion is using the charge.
Examples:
Ag2Cl2 = silver (II) dichloride
FeF3 = iron (III) fluoride
Naming Polyatomic Compounds
Polyatomic compounds use a different suffix. Most of them end in "-

ate" or "-ite". There are a few exceptions that end in "-ide" including
hydroxide, peroxide, and cyanide.
Examples:
Na2SO4 = sodium sulfate

Na3PO4 = sodium phosphate
Na2SO3 = sodium sulfite
Naming Acids
Hydro acids use the prefix "hydro-" and the suffix "-ic".
HF = hydrofluoric acid
HCl - hydrochloric acid
Oxoacids containing oxygen use the "-ous" or the "-ic" suffix. The "-ic" suffix
is used for the acid that has more oxygen atoms.
H2SO4 = sulfuric acid
HNO2 = nitrous acid
HNO3 = nitric acid
Under If a person or thing is under something, they are at a
lower level than that thing, and may be covered or hidden by
it.
Under a wide shelf that holds coffee jars stands a pile of
magazines.
Synonyms: below, beneath, underneath, on the bottom of
Under In a place such as a sea, river, or swimming pool, if
someone or something is under the water, they are fully in
the water and covered by it.
Under If you go under something, you move from one side to
the other of something that is at a higher level than you.
Under Something that is under a layer of something,
especially clothing, is covered by that layer.
Under You can use under before a noun to indicate that a
person or thing is being affected by something or is going
through a particular process.
Under If something happens under circumstances or
conditions, it happens when those circumstances or
conditions exist.
Under If something happens under a law, agreement, or
system, it happens because that law, agreement, or system
says that it should happen.
Under law, your employer has the right to hire a temporary
worker to replace you.
Under If something happens under a particular person or
government, it happens when that person or government is
in power.
Under If you study or work under a particular person, that
person teaches you or tells you what to do.
Synonyms: subordinate to, subject to, reporting to, directed
by
Under If you do something under a particular name, you use
that name instead of your real name.
Under You use under to say which section of a list, book, or
system something is in
Synonyms: included in, belonging to, subsumed under,
comprised in
Under If something or someone is under a particular age or
amount, they are less than that age or amount.
Synonyms: less than, below, not as much as
Condition If you talk about the condition of a person or thing,

you are talking about the state that they are in, especially
how good or bad their physical state is.
Synonyms: state, order, shape, nick
The conditions under which something is done or happens
are all the factors or circumstances which directly affect it.
The conditions in which people live or work are the factors
which affect their comfort, safety, or health.
A condition is something which must happen or be done in
order for something else to be possible, especially when this
is written into a contract or law.
Synonyms: requirement, terms, rider, provision
Condition If someone has a particular condition, they have
an illness or other medical problem.
Synonyms: ailment, problem, complaint, weakness
Condition If someone is conditioned by their experiences or
environment, they are influenced by them over a period so
that they do certain things or think in a particular way.
Condition People are conditioned into believing that they
have no power over their situation.
Synonyms: train, teach, educate, adapt
Condition To a degree, we reflect our social conditioning in
the way we act as parents.
Synonyms: accustoming, seasoning, readying, preparation
Synonyms: training, education, teaching, accustoming
Nature is all the animals, plants, and other things in the

world that are not made by people, and all the events and
processes that are not caused by people.
The nature of something is its basic quality or character.
Synonyms: quality, character, make-up, constitution
Nature Someone's nature is their character, which they show
by the way they behave.
Synonyms: temperament, character, personality, disposition
Present You use present to describe things and people that
exist now, rather than those that existed in the past or those
that may exist in the future.
Synonyms: current, existing, immediate, contemporary
The present is the period that we are in now and the things
that are happening now.
Present In grammar, the present tenses of a verb are the
ones that are used to talk about things that happen regularly
or situations that exist currently. The simple present tense
uses the base form or the 's' form of a verb, as in 'I play
tennis twice a week' and 'She works in a bank'.
Fundamental You use fundamental to describe things,

activities, and principles that are very important or
essential. They affect the basic nature of other things or are
the most important element upon which other things depend.
A fundamental human right is being withheld from these
people.
Synonyms: central, first, most important, prime
Fundamental You use fundamental to describe something
which exists at a deep and basic level and is therefore likely
to continue.
Synonyms: basic, essential, underlying, organic
Fundamental If one thing is fundamental to another, it is
necessary to it, and the second thing cannot exist, succeed,
or be imagined without it.
Fundamental Communication is fundamental to human
society.
Fundamental You can use fundamental to show that you are
referring to what you consider to be the most important
aspect of a situation, and that you are not concerned with
less important details.
Fundamental The fundamental problem lies in their inability
to distinguish between reality and invention.
Fundamental research into a subject is concerned with
gaining knowledge about the subject itself, rather than its
practical aspects.
Temperature
Temperature is how hot or cold something is. Our bodies can feel the
difference between something which is hot and something which is
cold. To measure temperature more accurately, a thermometer can be
used. Thermometers use a temperature scale to record how hot or
cold something is. The scale used in most of the world is in degrees
Celsius, sometimes called "centigrade". In the USA and some other
countries and locations, degrees Fahrenheit are more often used
while scientists mostly use kelvins to measure temperature because it
never goes below zero.
Scientifically, temperature is a physical quantity which describes how
quickly molecules are moving inside a material. In solids and liquids
the molecules are vibrating around a fixed point in the substance, but
in gases they are in free flight and bouncing off each other as they
travel. In a gas the temperature, pressure and volume of the gas are
closely related by a law of physics.
Contents
• Temperature conversions
• Useful temperatures
• Temperature and heat
• Heat capacity
• Weather
• Scales
• Absolute zero
• Absolute scales
• Kelvin scale
• Statistical mechanical HYPERLINK
"https://kids.kiddle.co/Temperature"versus HYPERLINK
"https://kids.kiddle.co/Temperature" thermodynamic temperature
scales
• Related pages
• Images for kids
• See also
Temperature conversions
• To make a temperature in degrees Celsius into degrees Fahrenheit a
person must multiply it by 9/5 and add 32: F = (9/5)C + 32.
• To make a temperature in degrees Fahrenheit into degrees Celsius a
person must subtract 32 and multiply the result by 5/9: C = (F - 32) *
5/9.
Useful temperatures
When they invented temperature scales scientists found there were
certain things which were always around the same temperature:
• Water freezes at a temperature of 0°C, 32°F, or 273.15 K.
• The temperature inside the human body is close to 37°C or 98°F.
• Water boils at 100°C, 212°F, or 373.15 K.
• The coldest possible temperature is absolute zero. Absolute zero is 0
K,-459°F, or -273.15°C. At absolute zero molecules and atoms come to
rest and so have no heat energy.
Temperature and heat

Temperature is not the same as heat. Heat is energy which moves
from one thing, cooling it, to another, heating it. Temperature is a
measure of the movements (vibration) of the molecules inside a thing.
If the thing has a high temperature, it means the average speed of its
molecules is fast. A thing may have a high temperature but because it
contains very few or light atoms it has very little heat.
Heat capacity
The amount of heat that is needed to make a substance one degree
higher is called its heat capacity. Different substances have different
heat capacities. For example, a kilogram of water has more heat
capacity than a kilogram of steel. This means that more energy is
needed to make the temperature of water 1°C hotter than is needed to
make the temperature of steel 1°C hotter.
Weather
Temperature is also important in weather and climate. It is related to
the amount of heat energy in the air. Isotherm maps are used to show
how temperature is different across an area. Temperature will be
different during different times of day, different seasons and in
different places. It is affected by how much heat reaches the place
from the suns rays (insolation), how high the place is above the level
of the sea, and how much heat is brought to the place by the
movement of winds and ocean currents.
Scales
Two thermometers showing temperature in Celsius and Fahrenheit

Temperature scales need two values for definition: the point chosen
as zero degrees and the magnitudes of the incremental unit of
temperature.
The Celsius scale (°C) is used for common temperature
measurements in most of the world. It is an empirical scale that
developed historically, which led to its zero point 0 °C being defined
as the freezing point of water, and 100 °C as the boiling point of water,
both at atmospheric pressure at sea level. It was called a centigrade
scale because of the 100-degree interval. Since the standardization of
the kelvin in the International System of Units, it has subsequently
been redefined in terms of the equivalent fixing points on the Kelvin
scale, so that a temperature increment of one degree Celsius is the
same as an increment of one kelvin, though numerically the scales
differ by an exact offset of 273.15.
The Fahrenheit scale is in common use in the United States. Water

freezes at 32 °F and boils at 212 °F at sea-level atmospheric pressure.
Absolute zero
At the absolute zero of temperature, no energy can be removed from
matter as heat, a fact expressed in the third law of thermodynamics.
At this temperature, matter contains no macroscopic thermal energy,
but still has quantum-mechanical zero-point energy as predicted by
the uncertainty principle, although this does not enter into the
definition of absolute temperature. Experimentally, absolute zero can
be approached only very closely; it can never be reached (the lowest
temperature attained by experiment is 38 pK). Theoretically, in a body
at a temperature of absolute zero, all classical motion of its particles
has ceased and they are at complete rest in this classical sense. The
absolute zero, defined as 0 K, is exactly equal to −273.15 °C, or
−459.67 °F.
Absolute scales
Referring to the Boltzmann constant, to the Maxwell–Boltzmann
distribution, and to the Boltzmann statistical mechanical definition of
entropy, as distinct from the Gibbs definition, for independently
moving microscopic particles, disregarding interparticle potential
energy, by international agreement, a temperature scale is defined and
said to be absolute because it is independent of the characteristics of
particular thermometric substances and thermometer mechanisms.
Apart from the absolute zero, it does not have a reference
temperature. It is known as the Kelvin scale, widely used in science
and technology. The kelvin (the unit name is spelled with a lower-case
'k') is the unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI).
The temperature of a body in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium is
always positive relative to the absolute zero.
Besides the internationally agreed Kelvin scale, there is also a
thermodynamic temperature scale, invented by Lord Kelvin, also with
its numerical zero at the absolute zero of temperature, but directly
relating to purely macroscopic thermodynamic concepts, including
the macroscopic entropy, though microscopically referable to the
Gibbs statistical mechanical definition of entropy for the canonical
ensemble, that takes interparticle potential energy into account, as
well as independent particle motion so that it can account for
measurements of temperatures near absolute zero. This scale has a
reference temperature at the triple point of water, the numerical value
of which is defined by measurements using the aforementioned
internationally agreed Kelvin scale.
Kelvin scale
Many scientific measurements use the Kelvin temperature scale (unit
symbol: K), named in honor of the physicist who first defined it. It is
an absolute scale. Its numerical zero point, 0 K, is at the absolute zero
of temperature. Since May, 2019, the kelvin has been defined through
particle kinetic theory, and statistical mechanics. In the International
System of Units (SI), the magnitude of the kelvin is defined in terms of
the Boltzmann constant, the value of which is defined as fixed by
international convention.
Statistical mechanical versus thermodynamic temperature scales
Since May 2019, the magnitude of the kelvin is defined in relation to
microscopic phenomena, characterized in terms of statistical
mechanics. Previously, but since 1954, the International System of
Units defined a scale and unit for the kelvin as a thermodynamic
temperature, by using the reliably reproducible temperature of the
triple point of water as a second reference point, the first reference
point being 0 K at absolute zero.
Historically, the temperature of the triple point of water was defined as
exactly 273.16 K. Today it is an empirically measured quantity. The
freezing point of water at sea-level atmospheric pressure occurs at
very close to 273.15 K (0 °C).
Pressure is force that you produce when you press hard on
something.
Synonyms: force, crushing, squeezing, compressing
The pressure in a place or container is the force produced by
the quantity of gas or liquid in that place or container.
Pressure If there is pressure on a person, someone is trying
to persuade or force them to do something.
Synonyms: power, influence, force, obligation
Pressure If you are experiencing pressure, you feel that you
must do a lot of tasks or make a lot of decisions in very little
time, or that people expect a lot from you.
Synonyms: stress, demands, difficulty, strain
Pressure If you pressure someone to do something, you try
forcefully to persuade them to do it.
Synonyms: force, influence, persuade, compe
Medium If something is of medium size, it is neither large

nor small, but approximately halfway between the two.
Medium You use medium to describe something which is
average in degree or amount, or approximately halfway
along a scale between two extremes.
Synonyms: average, mean, middle, middling
Medium If something is of a medium colour, it is neither light
nor dark, but approximately halfway between the two.
A medium is a way or means of expressing your ideas or of
communicating with people.
Synonyms: means, way, form, channel
A medium is a substance or material which is used for a
particular purpose or to produce a particular effect.
Blood is the medium in which oxygen is carried to all parts
of the body.
Synonyms: environment, setting, conditions, influences
A medium is a person who claims to be able to contact and
speak to people who are dead, and to pass messages
between them and people who are still alive.
Catalyst something that makes a chemical reaction happen

more quickly without itself being changed
Catalyst an event or person that causes great change:
a condition, event, or person that is the cause of an
important change
A catalyst is also a substance that causes or speeds a
chemical reaction without itself being changed.
Similar: spur, stimulus, impetus, prompt, encouragement,
inducement, incitement

Class Two and Words and Meaning 1 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Class Two and Words and Meaning 1 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Paper tow

Order If you do something in order to achieve a particular

Previous event or thing is one that happened or existed

Lecture is a talk someone gives in order to teach people

Peace If countries or groups involved in a war or violent

Secrecy is the act of keeping something secret, or the state

Emphasize to show that something is very important or

Slogan is a short phrase that is easy to remember.

Sort If you talk about a particular sort of something, you are

Natural If you say that it is natural for someone to act in a

Ceremonial Something that is ceremonial relates to a

Ritual A ritual is a religious service or other ceremony which

Hebdomadal happening or appearing once a week:

Passe If someone describes something as passé, they think

Attain If you attain something, you gain it or achieve it, often

A rigorous test, system, or procedure that is rigorous is very

Swage When people or things sway, they lean or swing

Emanation is a form of energy or a mass of tiny particles

Issue is an important subject that people are arguing about

Noted To be noted for something you do or have means to be

Conception of something is an idea that you have of it in

Utter If someone utters sounds or words, they say them.

Personality Your personality is your whole character and

Account If you have an account with a bank or a similar

Splendors The splendors of something is its beautiful and

Contain If something such as a box, bag, room, or place

Form of something is a type or kind of it.

Recall When you recall something, you remember it and tell

Dens Where Bucharest now stands, there once was a large,

Anxious If you are anxious to do something or anxious that

Effort If you make an effort to do something, you try very

Account If you have an account with a bank or a similar

Condition If you talk about the condition of a person or

Retain To retain something means to continue to have that

Synonyms: engross, fascinate, absorb, entrance

Earthly means happening in the material world of our life on

Order If you do something in order to achieve a particular

Contain If something such as a box, bag, room, or place

Endeavor If you endeavour to do something, you try very

Appreciation of something is the recognition and enjoyment

Apt An apt remark, description, or choice is especially

Introspective people spend a lot of time examining their own

Mournful If you are mournful, you are very sad.

Melancholy You describe something that you see or hear as

Disgust is a feeling of very strong dislike or disapproval.

Stumble (WALK) to step awkwardly while walking or running

Definite If something such as a decision or an arrangement

Aspiration Someone's aspirations are their desire to achieve

As long during the whole time that.

Seeming means appearing to be the case, but not

Slunk move smoothly and quietly with gliding steps, in a

Similar: creep, sneak, steal, slip, slide, sidle, edge, move

Fawkesin Guy. 1570–1606, English conspirator, executed for

What is the meaning of Fawkes?

Guy Fawkes (/fɔːks/; 13 April 1570 – 31 January 1606),[a] also known as

Conspirator is a person who joins a conspiracy.

Revelation is a surprising or interesting fact that is made

Enable If someone or something enables you to do a

Discretion (CAREFUL BEHAVIOUR)

Harmonious relationships, agreements, or discussion is

What is the simple definition of radiation?

Intellect is the ability to understand or deal with ideas and