Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Multiple Choice Questions (1 Mark) The outer layer of pollen grain is thick and made up of complex, non- biodegradable substance called as . (A) lignin (B) cellulose (C) pectin (D) sporopollenin Sporoderm is made up of. (A) exosporium and endosporium (B) outer integuments and inner integument (C) testa and tegmen (D) exine and intine The number of meiotic and mitotic divisions necessary for development of female gametophyte in angiosperms is . (A) 1 meiosis and 2 mitosis (B) 1 mitosis and 3 meiosis (C) 1 meiosis and 1 mitosis (D) 1 meiosis and 3 mitosis Identify the odd one with respect to pollinating agent. (A) Baobab (B) Bottle brush (C) Kadamb (D) Sausage In vitro pollen germination and pollen tube elongation can be induced by : (A) _ boric acid (B) glucose (C) lactose (D) sucrose [Note: Sucrose is mostly used for pollen germination and pollen tube elongation, however, Boric acid, glucose and lactose can also be used for inducing in vitro pollen germination and pollen tube elongation.) 6. — Self-incompatibility is found in flowers of plants (A) Calotropis (B) maize (©) Thea (D) Gloriosa 7. Porogamy refers to entry of pollen tube through . (A) _ integuments (B) chalaza (C) micropyle (D) stigma Std. XII Sci.: Biology 1 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Taret Publications” Pvt.Ltd. 8. is an example of helobial endosperm. (A) Adoxa (B) coconut (©) Asphodelus (D) sunflower 9, The single shield shaped cotyledon in monocot seed is known as (A) coleoptile (B) scutellum (C) aleurone layer (D) _perispermy) my Hid ee a 7. Porogamy refers to entry of pollen tube through (A) _ integuments (B) chalaza (C) micropyle (D) stigma Std. XII Sci.: Biology 1 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Taret Publications’ Pvt Ltd 8. is an example of helobial endosperm. (A) Adoxa (B) coconut (©) Asphodelus (D) sunflower 9. The single shield shaped cotyledon in monocot seed is known as (A) coleoptile (B) scutellum (C) aleurone layer (D) _ perisperm 10. The example of dicot endospermic seed is (A) castor (B) pea (C) mango (D) bean Single Sentence Answers (1 Mark) Why anther is called as tetrasporangiate structure? Ans: Due to presence of four pollen sacs in dithecus anther it is called as tetrasporangiate structure. At which stage pollen grains are shed from the anther in Angiosperms? Ans: At two-celled stage pollen grains are shed from the anther in Angiosperms. What is hilum with respect to ovule? Ans: Hilum is the point of attachment of funiculus to the main body of ovule. What is protandry? Ans: Protandry is a condition in which anthers mature first, but the stigma of the same flower is not receptive at that time. 5. Name any one plant in which double fertilization was discovered? Ans: Lilium and Fritillaria [Any one plant] 6. Why fertilization process in angiosperms is called as double fertilization? Ans: In fertilization process of angiosperms, both the male gametes participate, due to which fertilization occurs twice in the same embryo sac, hence it is described as double fertilization. Std. XII Sci.; Biology Ch lapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants TarZet Publication” Pt Li. 7. Which is the most common type of endosperm in angiospermic families?Std. XII Biology 2 Chapter 01; Reproduction in Lower ited ar Higher Plants Target Publications” Pvt.Ltd 7. Which is the most common type of endosperm in angiospermic families? ‘Ans: Nuclear type is the most common type of endosperm found in angiospermic families. 8. What is the role of suspensor during the development of embryo? Ans: The suspensor helps in pushing the embryo in the endosperm. 9. What is adventive polyembryony? Ans: In adventive polyembryony, embryos may develop from somatic nucellus or integuments along with normal zygotic embryo. 10. Name the hormone produced by unfertilised ovary responsible for enlargement of ovary into fruit. Ans: Auxin (Indole-3 Acetic Acid) 2 Marks Questions Middle layers Tapetum Sporogenous tissue i i | | | \ i | | i i | | | i i Endothecium | | i [Four correct Labels / Mark each] 2. Deseribe the structure of pollen grain. Ans: 1. The process of formation of microspores from diploid microspore mother cell through meiotic cell division inside the microsporangia or pollen sacs is called microsporogenesis. Std. XI Biology Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Tar fet mwicatone eu us ii, Structure of microspore: Pollen grain/microspore is a non-motile, haploid, unicellular body with single nucleus. It is surrounded by a two layered wall called sporoderm. The outer wall is called exine and the inner wall is called intine. iii. | Exine: The exine is thick and made up of complex, non-biodegradable, substance called sporopollenin and it is resistant to chemicals.Std. XII Sci.: Biology pollen sacs is called microsporogenesis. Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Taret Publications” Pvt.Ltd. iii. Structure of microspore: Pollen grain/microspore is a non-motile, haploid, unicellular body with single nucleus. It is surrounded by a two layered wall called sporoderm. The outer wall is called exine and the inner wall is called intine. Exine: The exine is thick and made up of complex, non-biodegradable, substance called sporepollenin and it is resistant to chemicals. It may be smooth or with a sculptured pattern (characteristic of the species). At some places exine is very thin showing thin areas known as germ- pores. Germ-pores are meant for the growth of emerging pollen tube during germination of pollen grain. iv. Intine: The inner wall layer, intine consists of cellulose and pectin. [Each point % Mark] 3. Draw a well labelled diagram of male gametophyte of angiosperms. Ans: [Diagram - 1 Mark, Any two correct labels (male gamete, tube nucleus and pollen tube) ¥% Mark each] 4. Describe the structure of female gametophyte of angiosperms. Ans; i. In angiosperms, female gametophyte present in ovule is haploid embryo-sac. Each embryo-sac contains egg apparatus, 3 antipodal cells and 2 polar nuclei. ii. Egg apparatus consists of large central, haploid egg cell and two supporting haploid synergid cells. Synergid shows hair like projections called filiform apparatus, which guide the pollen tube towards the egg. iii. | Antipodal cells are group of three cells present at the chalazal end. iv. The two haploid polar nuclei of large central cell fuse to form diploid secondary nucleus or definitive nucleus, just prior to fertilization. [4 points % Mark each] Std. XII Biology 4 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower end figherPiane Target Publications” vt. Lt. 5. Ans: i. Mention various adaptations for wind pollination. Adaptations in anemophilous flowers: The flowers are small, inconspicuous, colourless, without nectar and fragrance (odour). The pollen grains are light in weight, dry and produced in large numbersStd. XII Sci.; Biology Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants TarZet Publications” Pvt Ltd. 5. Ans: i. Mention various adaptations for wind pollination. Adaptations in anemophilous flowers: The flowers are small, inconspicuous, colourless, without nectar and fragrance (odour). The pollen grains are light in weight, dry and produced in large numbers to increase chances of pollination considering wastage of pollen grains. Stigma is feathery to trap pollens carried by wind currents. Stamens are exserted with long filaments and versatile anthers. Stamens and stigmas are exposed to air currents. [Any four points / Mark each] What are the different adaptations shown by bird pollinated flowers? Ornithophilous plants shows following adaptations: Flowers are usually brightly coloured, large and showy. They secrete profuse, dilute nectar. Pollen grains are sticky and spiny. Flowers are generally without fragrance, as birds have poor sense of smell, [Any four points % Mark each] 7, Explain heterostyly and herkogamy with suitable example. Ans: ie Heterostyly (heteromorphy): Plants like Primula (Primrose) produce two or three types of flowers in which stigmas and anthers are placed at different levels (heterostyly and heteroanthy). This prevents the pollens from reaching the stigma and pollinating it. In heteromorphic flowers, pollen grains produced from anther pollinate stigmas produced at the same level. Thus self-pollination is not possible in such cases. ii, | Herkogamy: It is a mechanical device to prevent self-pollination in a bisexual flower. In plants, natural physical barrier is present between two sex organs and avoid contact of pollen with stigma of same flower, in e.g. Calotropis, pentangular stigma is positioned above the level of anthers (pollinia). {Meaning % Mark and example Mark each] 8. Give the significance of double fertilization. Ans: Significance of double fertilization: i. It is a unique feature of angiosperms. ii. It ensures that the parent plant invests a seed with a food store, only if the egg is fertilized. Std. XII Sci.: Biology 5 Crea Saad Target Publications” Pvt.Ltd iti, vi. The diploid zygote develops into an embryo which consequently develops into a new plant. The triploid PEN develops into nutritive endosperm tissue. It restores the diploid condition by fusion of haploid male gamete with haploid female gamete (i.e. through syngamy). It also helps to avoid polyembryony.Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target Publications” Pvt. Lt iii. 10. Ans: iti. Std. XII The diploid zygote develops into an embryo which consequently develops into a new plant. The triploid PEN develops into nutritive endosperm tissue. It restores the diploid condition by fusion of haploid male gamete with haploid female gamete (i.e. through syngamy). It also helps to avoid polyembryony. [Any four points, / Mark each] Mention significance of fruit and seed formation. Significance of seed and fruit Fruits provide nourishment to the developing seeds. Fruits protect the seeds in immature condition. Seeds serve as important propagating organs (units) of plant. Seeds and fruits develop special devices for their dispersal and thus help in the distribution of the species. [Two points 2 Marks] Give an account of polyembryony. Polyembryony: Polyembryony is the occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed which consequently results in the emergence of multiple seedlings. The additional embryos result from the differentiation and development of various maternal and zygotic tissues associated with the ovule of seed. In adventive polyembryony, an embryo develops directly from the diploid cell of nucellus and integuments as in Citrus. In cleavage polyembryony, zygote proembryo sometimes divides (cleaves) into many parts or units. Each unit then develops into an embryo. [Meaning - 4 Mark, Reason - 4, Mark, Types % Mark each] 3 Marks Questions Describe internal structure of anther. (Diagram is not expected). Anther wall: Parietal cell undergoes divisions to form anther wall layers. The anther wall is divided into four layers as follows: Epidermis: It is the outermost protective layer made up of tabular (flattened) cells. Endothecium: It is sub-epidermal layer made up of radially elongated cells with fibrous thickenings. Biology Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants TarBet Publications” Pvt.Ltd. Middle layers: Inner to endothecium is middle layer made up of thin walled cells (1-2 layered), which may disintegrate in mature anther. Tapetum: It is the inner most nutritive layer of anther wall. It immediately encloses the sporogenous tissue (microspore mother cells). The sporogenous tissue is composed of many diploid microspore mother cells (Pollen mother cells). These microspore mother cells in the microsporangia undergo meiosis, each becoming four microspores. The microspores divide by mitosis to produce pollen grains.Biology 6 Std. XII Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower 7 and Higher Plants Taret Publications” Pvt. Ltd. ¢. Middle layers: Inner to endothecium is middle layer made up of thin walled cells (1-2 layered), which may disintegrate in mature anther. ii, Tapetum: It is the inner most nutritive layer of anther wall. It immediately encloses the sporogenous tissue (microspore mother cells). The sporogenous tissue is composed of many diploid microspore mother cells (Pollen mother cells). These microspore mother cells in the microsporangia undergo meiosis, each becoming four microspores. The microspores divide by mitosis to produce pollen grains. [Three wall layers - / Mark each, Tapetum structure and function - 1 Mark Pollen mother cell nature/function - 4 Mark] 2. Explain the development of male gametophyte in angiosperms (diagram is not expected). Ans: Development of male gametophyte i. Before pollination in the pollen sac: a. Pollen grain/microspore marks the beginning of male gametophyte, thus it is the first cell of the male gametophyte. b. It undergoes first mitotic division to produce bigger, naked vegetative cell and small, thin walled generative cell. The vegetative cell is rich in food and having irregular shaped nucleus. . The generative cell floats in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell. e. The second mitotic division is concerned with generative cell only and gives rise to two non-motile male gametes. f. The mitotic division of generative cell takes place either in pollen grain or in the pollen tube. g. The pollen grains are shed from the anther, at this two-celled stage in most of the angiosperms. After pollination on the stigma: a. After pollination, the two-celled pollen grain gets deposited on the stigma and absorbs the sugary stigmatic secretion. b. Due to this, volume of cytoplasm increases, thus creating a pressure on the intine. c The intine comes out in the form of a tube-like structure called pollen tube through the germ pore. d. The tube nucleus, cytoplasm and generative cell, all migrate into the pollen tube. e. The pollen tube grows through the style towards the ovule due to some chemical stimulus inside the ovary. f. The generative cell of the pollen grain divides by mitosis and forms two haploid non-motile gametes. ao Std. XII Sci.: Biology Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Tar fet mtestont ev us g. The pollen tube consisting of two male gametes and a degenerating sterile vegetative nucleus represents the male gametophyte. [Development inside anther - 1 Marks, Development over stigma - 1/2 Marks] 3. Explain water pollination in detail with its types. Ans: Definition: Pollination carried out by water is called hydrophily.g. The pollen tube consisting of two male gametes and a degenerating sterile vegetative nucleus represents the male gametophyte. [Development inside anther - 1 Marks, Development over stigma - 1% Marks] 3. Explain water pollination in detail with its types. Ans: Definition: Pollination carried out by water is called hydrophily. Two types of hydrophily: Hypohydrophily: a. In this pollination occurs below the surface of water. b. Here the pollen grains are heavier than water, thus they sink down and caught by stigmas of female flowers. c. Fore.g. In Zostera (sea grass) the pollen grains are long, ribbon like and without exine. Epihydrophily: In this pollination occurs on the surface of water. The pollen grains float on the water surface and reach the stigma of female flower. c. Vallisneria is a submerged dioecious, fresh water aquatic plant. In this, female flowers reach the water surface temporarily to ensure pollination and male flowers float on the surface of water. d. — Specific gravity of these pollen grains is equal to that of water. Due to which they float on surface of water. e. Due to water currents, pollen grains are carried to stigma and pollination occurs. {Definition - 1 Mark, Each type with example - 1 Mark] 4. Give an account of any two biotic agents for pollination along with their adaptations. i, Angiosperms use biotic agents by feeding the visitors and exploiting their mobility for pollination and also for seed dispersal. Biotic agents include: Birds, bats, insects, snail, etc. Birds: Small birds like Sun birds, humming birds perform ornithophily. Some ornithophilous plants are Bombax, Callistemon (Bottle Brush), Butea, ete. Ornithophilous plants shows following adaptations: a. Flowers are usually brightly coloured, large and showy. b. They secrete profuse, dilute nectar. c. Pollen grains are sticky and spiny. d. Flowers are generally without fragrance, as birds have poor sense of smell. Std. XII Biology Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target Publications’ Pvt. Ltd. iv. Bats (Chiropterophily) Pollination carried out by bats is called chiropterophily. Adaptations in chiropterophilous flowers: a. Flowers are dull coloured with strong fragrance. b. They secrete abundant nectar. c. Flowers produce large amount of edible pollen grains. 4. Chiropterophily is shown by plants like Anthocephalus (kadamb tree), Adansonia (Baobab tree), Kigelia (Sausage tree). [Three adaptations for each agency - 1’ Marks] 5. _ Explain any two contrivances or outbreeding devices for pollination,Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target Publications” Pvt. Ltd. Bats (Chiropterophily) Pollination carried out by bats is called chiropterophily. Adaptations in chiropterophilous flowers: a. Flowers are dull coloured with strong fragrance. b. They secrete abundant nectar. c Flowers produce large amount of edible pollen grains. d.— Chiropterophily is shown by plants like Anthocephalus (kadamb tree), Adansonia (Baobab tree), Kigelia (Sausage tree). [Three adaptations for each agency - 1; Marks] Explain any two contrivances or outbreeding devices for pollination. : Genetic diversity is an essential factor for evolution by natural selection. Continued self-pollination results in the inbreeding depression. Thus, plants have developed many devices to encourage cross pollination. The examples of outbreeding devices are as follows: Unisexuality: In this, the plant bears cither male or female flowers. It is also called as dioecism. As flowers are unisexual, self-pollination is not possible. Plants may be monoecious, e.g. Maize or dioecious, e.g. Mulberry, Papaya. Dichogamy: In this, anthers and stigmas mature at different times in a bisexual flower due to which self-pollination is prevented. It can be further divided into two types: Protandry; In this type, anthers mature first, but the stigma of the same flower is not receptive at that time. e.g. in the disc florets of sunflower. Protogyny: In this type, stigma of carpel matures earlier than anthers of the same flower. e.g. Gloriosa. Prepotency: In this, pollen grains of other flowers germinate rapidly over the stigma than the pollen grains from the same flower, e.g. Apple. Heterostyly (heteromorphy): Plants like Primula (Primrose) produce two or three types of flowers in which stigmas and anthers are placed at different levels (heterostyly and heteroanthy). This prevents the pollens from reaching the stigma and pollinating it. In heteromorphic flowers, pollen grains produced from anther pollinate stigmas produced at the same level. Thus self-pollination is not possible in such cases. Herkogamy: It is a mechanical device to prevent self-pollination in a bisexual flower. In plants, natural physical barrier is present between two sex organs and avoid contact of pollen with stigma of same flower, in e.g. Calotropis, pentangular stigma is positioned above the level of anthers (pollinia). Biology 9 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target Publications” Pvt. Ltd. vi. Self-incompatibility (self-sterility): This is a genetic mechanism due to which the germination of pollen on stigma of the same flower is inhibited, e.g. Tobacco, Thea [Any two devices, 1 and % marks for correct contrivances.] Describe the process of fertilization in angiosperms with the help of diagram.Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Taret Publications" Pvt. Ltd. vi. vi. Self-incompatibility (self-sterility): This is a genetic mechanism due to which the germination of pollen on stigma of the same flower is inhibited, e.g. Tobacco, Thea [Any two devices, 1 and 4 marks for correct contrivances.] Describe the process of fertilization in angiosperms with the help of diagram. Stigma Triple fusion Secondary nucleus + Pollen tube Style Male gamete Ovary Ovule Syngamy Egg + Male gamete Synergids Micropyle The fusion of one male gamete with egg and that of another male gamete with secondary nucleus is called as double fertilization. It is the characteristic feature of angiosperms. It was discovered by Nawaschin in the liliaceous plants like Lilium and Fritillaria. When pollen grain reaches the surface of the stigma, it germinates and forms a pollen tube. Pollen tube penetrates the stigma, style, ovary chamber and then enters ovule. The growth of pollen tube is guided by the chemicals secreted by the synergids. Usually when pollen tube enters ovule through the micropyle, it is termed as porogamy. But in some cases, it enters through chalaza which is known as chalazogamy. In some plants it enters by piercing the integuments which is called mesogamy. A pollen tube penetrates embryo sac of ovule through its micropylar end. Std. XII Biology 10 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target mtcavne en. us vii. viii. The pollen tube carrying male gametes penetrates in one of the synergids. Watery contents of synergid are absorbed by pollen tube, due to which it ruptures and release the contents, including the two non-motile male gametes. As non-motile male gametes are carried through hollow pollen tube, it is known as siphonogamy that ensures fertilization to take place. Fertilization mainly involves two processes: Syngamy and Triple fusion. Syngamy: It is the fusion of haploid male gamete with haploid femalechalazogamy. In some plants it enters by piercing the integuments which is called mesogamy. vi. A pollen tube penetrates embryo sac of owule through its micropylar end. Std. XII Sci.: Biology 10 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower . and Higher Plants TarZet Publications” Pvt. Ltd. vii. The pollen tube carrying male gametes penetrates in one of the synergids. viii. Watery contents of synergid are absorbed by pollen tube, due to which it ruptures and release the contents, including the two non-motile male gametes. ix. As non-motile male gametes are carried through hollow pollen tube, it is known as siphonogamy that ensures fertilization to take place. x. Fertilization mainly involves two processes: Syngamy and Triple fusion. a. Syngamy;: It is the fusion of haploid male gamete with haploid female gamete (egg). It results in the formation of diploid zygote which develops to form embryo. Syngamy is a type of generative fertilization. b. Triple fusion: It is the fusion of second haploid male gamete with diploid secondary nucleus. It results in the formation of Primary Endosperm Nucleus (PEN) which develops into triploid endosperm. Triple fusion is a type of vegetative fertilization. xi. In this process, both the male gametes participate, due to which fertilization occurs twice in the same embryo sac, hence it is described as double fertilization. [Process - 2 Marks, Diagram - 1 Mark] 7. Write a note on different types of endosperms in angiosperms. Ans: Following are the types if endosperms in angiosperms: i. Nuclear Type: a. It is the most common type of endosperm found in 161 angiospermic families. b. In this, the primary endosperm nucleus repeatedly divides mitotically without wall formation. Due to which large number of free nuclei are formed. c. A big central vacuole appears in the centre of cell which pushes the nuclei towards the periphery. d. Later, wall formation occurs between the nuclei, hence multicellular endosperm is formed. e. But in several cases cell wall formation remains incomplete. e.g. wheat, sunflower and coconut. f. Coconut has multicellular endosperm in the outer part and free nuclear as well as vacuolated endosperm in the centre. Cellular Type: In some plants, division of triploid primary endospermic nucleus is immediately followed by wall formation. b. So that the endosperm is cellular right from the beginning. Std. XII Sci.: Biology 11 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target mwicatone ev u c. It is mostly observed in 72 families of dicots as in members - Balsam, Petunia, Adoxa, etc. iii, Helobial Type:Std. XII Biology 1 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Taret Publications” Pvt.Ltd. iii. iv. v. xi. It is mostly observed in 72 families of dicots as in members - Balsam, Petunia, Adoxa, etc. Helobial Type: It occurs in the order Helobiales of monocotyledons. In this case, first division of primary endosperm nucleus is followed by a transverse wall, which divides the cell unequally. The smaller cell is called chalazal cell and larger cell is the micropylar cell. The nuclei in each cell divide by free nuclear divisions and then walls develop between nuclei in micropylar chamber. It is intermediate between cellular and nuclear type endosperm e.g. Asphodelus. [Each type - 1 Mark] Describe the development of dicot embryo in flowering plants. Development of dicot embryo: The zygote divides to form two-celled proembryo. The larger cell towards the micropyle is called basal or suspensor initial cell and smaller cell towards chalaza is called terminal or embryonal initial cell. The suspensor cell divides transversely in one plane to produce filamentous suspensor of 6-10 cells, The first cell of the suspensor towards the micropylar end becomes swollen and functions as a haustorium. The lowermost cell of suspensor is known as hypophysis. The suspensor helps in pushing the embryo in the endosperm. The embryonal initial undergoes three successive mitotic divisions to form octant. The planes of divisions are at right angles to each other. The lower tier of four cells of octant give rise to hypocotyl and radicle whereas four cells of upper tier form the plumule and the one or two cotyledons. The hypophysis by further division gives rise to the part of radicle and root cap. Subsequently, the cells in the upper tier of octant divide in several planes so as to become heart shaped which then forms two lateral cotyledons and a terminal plumule. Further enlargement of hypocotyl and cotyledons result in a curvature of embryo and it appears horse-shoe shaped. [Six sequential stages carrying % mark each] Std. XII Sci.: Biology 12 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target Publications” Pvt. Ltd. 9. Ans: Draw a well labelled diagram of monocot seed you have studied. Seed coat and — Endosperm fruit-wall 2 Seutellam7 Sei Chapter 01; Reproduction in Lower ms aa Higher Plants Target Publications” Pvt. Ltd. % Draw a well labelled diagram of monocot seed you have studied. Ans: ! \ ! i ! 1 | Seed coat and — Endosperm | | fruit-wall | ' Seutellum | ; Aleurone 1 | layer — Coleoptile | ! i | Plumule | ! \ | Radicle | | Coleohiza | ! | | | [Any six labels - % mark each] 10. Explain various categories of apomixis. Ans: Categories of apomixis: ie Recurrent apomixis: a. In this type, the embryo sac generally rises either from an archesporial cell or from some other part of the nucellus. b. In diplospory, the unreduced embryo sac is derived from the diploid megaspore mother cell e.g. Taraxacum. © In apospory, the nucellar cells give rise to apomictic embryo sac. Non-recurrent apomixis: a. In this type, megaspore mother cell undergoes usual meiotic division and a haploid embryo sac is formed. b. Here, the embryo arises either from the egg by parthenogenesis or from some other haploid cells of gametophyte through apogamy. c. Plants produced by this method are generally sterile and do not reproduce sexually, e.g. Nicotiana. Adventive Embryony: a. In this type, embryos may develop from somatic nucellus or integuments along with normal zygotic embryo. b. It is common in Mango, Orange, Lemon, etc. It gives rise to a condition called polyembryony. [I Mark each type] Std. XII Sci.: Biology 13 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target Publications” Pvt. Lt 4 Marks Questions 1. Deseribe the structure of anatropus ovule with the help of labelled diagram. ! \ {fx Chalaza ! _— Antipodals I[I Mark each type] Std. XII Sci.: Biology 13 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower end rienenniens TarZet Publications” Pt Ltd 4 Marks Questions 1. Describe the structure of anatropus ovule with the help of labelled Chalaza ‘Antipodals Secondary Nucleus i i | | | | i Embryo sac i ‘Synergids I Egg | Outer integument | Inner integument | Nucellus Hilum ! Funicle | | \ i | | | Placenta Structure of anatropous ovule: ie Anatropous ovule is the most common type of ovule in angiosperms. It consists of following parts Funiculus / Stalk / Funicle: Each ovule develops inside the ovary. Ovule is attached to the placenta by a small stalk called funiculus. Hilum: The point of attachment of funiculus to the main body of ovule is known as hilum. iv. Nucellus: The ovule consists of central parenchymatous tissue called nucellus. v. Integuments: Nucellus is usually surrounded by two protective coverings called integuments viz. outer and inner integument. vi. Micropyle: A narrow opening at the apex of the ovule is called micropyle. It anatropous ovule, micropyle is directed downwards and is present adjacent to the funiculus (funicle). Chalaza: Chalaza is the base of ovule directly opposite to micropyle. Embryo sac: Embryo sac (female gametophyte) is oval multicellular structure embedded in the nucellus. [Structure - 2 Marks, Diagram with four correct labels - 2 Marks] Std. XII Sci.: Biology 14 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target Publications” Pvt. Ltd. 2. Describe the development of female gametophyte of angiosperms with the help of diagram. Degenerated cells. .vanChapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target Publications” Pvt. Ltd. Describe the development of female gametophyte of angiosperms with the help of diagram. Degenerated cells Megaspore ZB own mother cell Mess 2 @ moat ty diploid (diploid) *~§ VP segaspore —> , L@® or embryo Mitosis (1) rep sac (Haploid) Se. haploid megaspores End nearest micropyle Mature Embryo Three sac (formate Antipodal cells gametophyte) : 4 just before ‘Two polar a Mitosis (11) fertilisation Ta ee seven nuclei Nuclear Egg present (six are fusion (Female <_ haploid, one is gamete) Mitosis (IID) diploid) Two synergids Development of female gametophyte The diploid Megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to form linear tetrad of haploid cells i.e. megaspore. Upper three megaspores degenerate and lowest one towards centre of nucellus remains functional. It acts as the first cell of female gametophyte. The functional megaspore undergoes three successive, free nuclear mitotic divisions. iv. Thus total eight nuclei are formed, four of which are located at each pole. v. One nucleus from each pole migrates towards the centre and are called polar nuclei. vi. Three nuclei towards micropylar end constitute egg apparatus. vii. Egg apparatus consists of large central, haploid egg cell and two supporting haploid synergid cells. viii. Synergid shows hair like projections called filiform apparatus, which guide the pollen tube towards the egg. ix. Antipodal cells are group of three cells present at the chalazal end. x. The two haploid polar nuclei of large central cell fuse to form diploid secondary nucleus or definitive nucleus, just prior to fertilization. xi, This seven celled and cight nucleated structure is called an embryo sac. Std. XII Biology 15 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower Rates Higher Plants Target metcaton ou. us. xii. xiii. Since embryo sac develops from a single megaspore, it is described as monosporic development. In angiosperms, the development of female gametophyte is endosporous i.e. within the megaspore. Female gametophyte is colourless, endosporic and is concealed in the ovule enclosed by ovary. [Process upto 7 celled 8 nucleate stage-2 Marks, Sequential diagrams -2 marks] Give an account of various abiotic agencies used in pollination along with thotr adantatione far nallinationChapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target Publications” Pvt. Ltd. xii. xiii. xiv. oP Since embryo sac develops from a single megaspore, it is described as monosporie development. In angiosperms, the development of female gametophyte is endosporous i.e. within the megaspore. Female gametophyte is colourless, endosporic and is concealed in the ovule enclosed by ovary. [Process upto 7 celled 8 nucleate stage-2 Marks, Sequential diagrams -2 marks] Give an account of various abiotic agencies used in pollination along with their adaptations for pollination. Abiotic agencies for pollination include wind and water. Pollination by wind: Anemophily: Pollination carried out by wind is called as anemophily. Important crop plants like wheat, rice, corn, rye, barley, oats and other plants like palms are wind pollinated. Adaptations in anemophilous flowers: 1. The flowers are small, inconspicuous, colourless, without nectar and fragrance (odour). The pollen grains are light in weight, dry and produced in large numbers to increase chances of pollination considering wastage of pollen grains, 3. Stigma is feathery to trap pollens carried by wind currents. 4. Stamens are exserted with long filaments and versatile anthers. 5. Stamens and stigmas are exposed to air currents. Pollination by water Hydrophily: Pollination carried out by water is called hydrophily. Adaptations in hydrophilous flowers: 1. Flowers are small and inconspicuous. 2. Perianth and other floral parts are unwettable. 3. Pollen grains are long and unwettable due to presence of mucilage. 4, Nectar and fragrance are lacking in flowers. It is found in some 30 genera of aquatic monocots. E.g. Vallisneria, Zostera, Ceratophylium etc. P2 Marks for each agency] Give an account of pollen pistil interaction in detail. ; Pollen-Pistil interaction: All the events from the deposition of pollen grain on stigma to the entry of pollen tube in the ovule (through synergid) are referred as pollen- pistil interaction. It is the interaction of pollen grains with sporophytic tissue (stigma). Std. XII Biology 16 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Taret Publications” Pvt. Ltd. iti, vi. It begins with pollination and ends with fertilization. Pollination does not guarantee the transfer of right type of pollen, sometimes wrong type of pollen may also land on stigma. The pistil has the ability to recognise and accept the right or compatible pollen of the same species. Thus wrong type of pollen is discarded by pistil. Compatibility and incompatibility of the pollen-pistil is determined by special proteins.Std. XII Sci.: Biology 16 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target Publications” Pvt. Ltd. iti, vi. vii. viii. It begins with pollination and ends with fertilization. Pollination does not guarantee the transfer of right type of pollen, sometimes wrong type of pollen may also land on stigma. The pistil has the ability to recognise and accept the right or compatible pollen of the same species. Thus wrong type of pollen is discarded by pistil. Compatibility and incompatibility of the pollen-pistil is determined by special proteins. The stigmatic surface of flower refuses other wrong type or incompatible pollen grains. It ensures that only intraspecific pollen germinate successfully. The compatible pollen absorbs water and nutrients from the surface of stigma, germinates and produces pollen tube. Its growth through the style is determined by specific chemicals. The stigmatic surface provides the essential prerequisites for a successful germination, which are absent in the pollen. Pollen tube, after reaching the ovary, is pushed through the ovule and reaches the embryo sac. The tip of the pollen tube enters in one of the synergids and then ruptures to release the contents. Significance of pollen-pistil interaction: Due to pollen pistil interaction, intense competition develops even in the compatible pollen grains (gametes). {Meaning - 1 Mark, Recognition of polten and germination - I Mark, Significance - 1 Mark] Describe the process of double fertilization in angiosperms and add a note on its significance. Process of double fertilization: The fusion of one male gamete with egg and that of another male gamete with secondary nucleus is called as double fertilization. It is the characteristic feature of angiosperms. It was discovered by Nawaschin in the liliaceous plants like Lilium and Fritillaria. When pollen grain reaches the surface of the stigma, it germinates and forms a pollen tube. Pollen tube penetrates the stigma, style, ovary chamber and then enters ovule. The growth of pollen tube is guided by the chemicals secreted by the synergids. Std. XII Sci.: Biology 7 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Target matcatone ev. Usually when pollen tube enters ovule through the micropyle, it is termed as porogamy. But in some cases, it enters through chalaza which is known as chalazogamy. In some plants it enters by piercing the integuments which is called mesogamy. A pollen tube penetrates embryo sac of ovule through its micropylar end.gamete witn seconaary nucieus Is catiea as aoupie reruuzation. It is the characteristic feature of angiosperms. It was discovered by Nawaschin in the liliaceous plants like Lilium and Fritillaria. When pollen grain reaches the surface of the stigma, it germinates and forms a pollen tube. Pollen tube penetrates the stigma, style, ovary chamber and then enters ovule. The growth of pollen tube is guided by the chemicals secreted by the synergids. Std. XII Sci.: Biology 17 Chapter 01: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants Taret Publications” Pvt. Ltd. oe Usually when pollen tube enters ovule through the micropyle, it is termed as porogamy. But in some cases, it enters through chalaza which is known as chalazogamy. In some plants it enters by piercing the integuments which is called mesogamy. A pollen tube penetrates embryo sac of ovule through its micropylar end. The pollen tube carrying male gametes penetrates in one of the synergids. Watery contents of synergid are absorbed by pollen tube, due to which it ruptures and release the contents, including the two non-motile male gametes. As non-motile male gametes are carried through hollow pollen tube, it is known as siphonogamy that ensures fertilization to take place, Fertilization mainly involves two processes: Syngamy and Triple fusion. 1. Syngamy: It is the fusion of haploid male gamete with haploid female gamete (egg). It results in the formation of diploid zygote which develops to form embryo. Syngamy is a type of generative fertilization. 2. Triple fusion: It is the fusion of second haploid male gamete with diploid secondary nucleus. It results in the formation of Primary Endosperm Nucleus (PEN) which develops into triploid endosperm. Triple fusion is a type of vegetative fertilization. In this process, both the male gametes participate, due to which fertilization occurs twice in the same embryo sac, hence it is described as double fertilization. ificance of double fertilization: It is a unique feature of angiosperms. It ensures that the parent plant invests a seed with a food store, only if the egg is fertilized. The diploid zygote develops into an embryo which consequently develops into a new plant. The triploid PEN develops into nutritive endosperm tissue. It restores the diploid condition by fusion of haploid male gamete with haploid female gamete (i.e. through syngamy). It also helps to avoid polyembryony. [Process - 2 Marks, Significance (two points) - 2 Marks] Std. XIl Biology 18Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals Multiple Choice Questions (1 Mark) The primary sex organ in human males is (A) prostate gland (B) seminal vesicle (C) penis (D) testis 2. Seminal fluid is in nature. (A) acidic (B) neutral (©) sugary (D) alkaline 3. Which of the following is not a part of uterus? (A) Body (B) Cervix (C) Fundus (D) Cornua 4, Menarch, menstrual cycle and menopause are controlled by (A) _ thyrotropic hormone (B) gonadotropic hormone (C)_ somatotropic hormone —(D) corticotropin 5. Nebenkern is . (A) acrosome of sperm (B) neck of sperm (C) middle piece of sperm (D) mitochondrion of sperm 6. Nervous system develops from of embryonic layer. (A) endoderm (B) chorion (C) ectoderm (D) mesoderm 7. The average period of pregnancy in human lasts for days of pregnancy. (A) 280 (B) 270 (C) 266 (D) 290 8. is not a permanent method of birth control. (A) Vasectomy (B) Tubectomy (C) Withdrawal (D) Castration 9. The organism which causes Gonorrhoea is (A) Treponema (B) Neisseria (C) Entamoeba (D) Salmonella Std. XII Sci.: Biology 1 Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals TarBet Publications® Pvt. Ltd. 10. How many pairs of testis are present in human male? (A) 2 pairs (B) 1 pair (C)_ only one testis (D) only one ovary Single Sentence Answers (1 Mark) 1. Name the enzyme secreted by the prostate gland. Ans: The enzyme secreted by prostate gland is acid phosphatase.ei and Higher Animals Ta get Publications Pvt. Ltd. 10. How many pairs of testis are present in human male? (A) 2 pairs (B) 1 pair (C) only one testis (D) only one ovary Single Sentence Answers (1 Mark) 1. Name the enzyme secreted by the prostate gland. Ans: The enzyme secreted by prostate gland is acid phosphatase. . What is glans penis? Ans: The swollen tip of externa genitalia or penis is called as glans penis. 3. What is atresia with respect to ovary in human females? Ans: The large scale destruction of primordial follicles during growth is called as Atresia. 4. Name the hydrolytic enzyme secreted by the acrosome. Ans: Hyaluronidase is secreted by the acrosome. 5. What is morula? Ans: The 16-32 celled stage which develops during cleavage by the end of 4" day after fertilization is called as morula. . What is the function of inner cell mass? Ans; The ‘embryo proper” develops from the inner ¢ell mass. 7. Name the embryonic layer from which heart, blood and blood vessels develop. Ans: The heart, blood and blood vessels develop from the mesoderm. 8. Identify the permanent birth control method in given diagram. Ans: The permanent birth control method in given diagram is called as tubectomy. Std. XII Sci.: Biology Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals Ta rget Publications’ Pvt. Ltd. 9. What is the use of tablet ‘Saheli?? ‘Ans: Saheli is an oral contraceptive pill. 10. Identify the IUD in the given diagram.Std. XII Sci.: Biology Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower ™ a Higher Animals Target Publications’ Pvt. Ltd. 9. What is the use of tablet ‘Saheli’? Ans: Saheli is an oral contraceptive pill. 10. Identify the IUD in the given diagram. Ans: The IUD in the given diagram is Lippes Loop. 2 Marks Questions 1. Draw a well labelled diagram of L.S. human testis. Spermatic cord Blood vessels Seminiferous tubule i | 1 ! 1 ! 1 ! ! ! | and nerves Vas deferens | 1 1 1 Head of Vasa efferentia ! | epididymis | 1 Rete testis I | 1 . . ! Body of Tunica vaginalis | | epididymis | \ Tunica albuginea | ! | Tail of Lobules ' epididymis Septum | | ! ! 1 ! 1 ! L.S. human testis [Four correct labels - /% Mark each] Std. XII Sci.: Biology Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals Tar ® et ruviications’ rr. u1a. 2. Deseribe the structure of Graafian follicle. Ans: Structure of Graafian follicle: i. The Graafian follicle is a mature ovarian follicle. ii. The secondary oocyte is located eccentrically (away from the centre) and is surrounded by a non-cellular layer of zona pellucida secreted by the vitelline membrane of oocyte,[Four correct labels - % Mark each] Std. XII Sci.: Biology Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals Tar Bet nsteaion on us 2. Deseribe the structure of Graafian follicle. Ans: Structure of Graafian follicle: i. The Graafian follicle is a mature ovarian follicle. ii. | The secondary oocyte is located eccentrically (away from the centre) and is surrounded by a non-cellular layer of zona pellucida secreted by the vitelline membrane of oocyte, iti. There are three layers covering the Graafian follicle. They are as follows: The outermost protective and fibrous covering is called theea externa. . _ Inner to it is cellular theca interna which produces the hormone estrogen. c. Inner to the theea interna, the follicular cells form the membrana granulosa. iv. From the membrana granulosa, the cells differentiate into discus proligerus and the corona radiata cells, v. Oocyte and the surrounding granulosa cells are together termed as Cumulus oophorus. vi. A fluid filled cavity called antrum lies between the oocyte and the membrana granulosa. It is filled with a fluid called liquor folliculi. {Four correct points - Each point - 4% Mark] oP 3. Write a short note on fallopian tube. Ans: Fallopian tubes: These are a pair of muscular ducts lying horizontally over the peritoneal cavity. The proximal part of the tube lies close to the ovary and distally it opens into the uterus. Each tube is 10 to 12 cm in length. It is internally lined by ciliated epithelium. It can be divided into three regions: i. Infundibulum: The proximal funnel like part with an opening called ostium surrounded by many finger-like processes called fimbriae (of these at least one is long and connected to the ovary). The cilia and the movement of fimbriae help in transporting the ovulated egg to the ostium. ii, Ampulla: It is the middle, long and straight part of the oviduct. Fertilization of the ovum takes place in this region. iii, Isthmus / Cornua: The distal narrow part of the duct opening into the uterus. Functions: a. Fallopian tubes carry the released egg from the ovary to the uterus. b. — Ampulla provides the site for fertilization of the ovum. [Three correct parts - 1 and % Marks, Any one function - 4 Mark] Std. XII Sci.: Biology 4 Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals Tai rget Publications’ Pvt.Ltd. 4. Give an account of external genitalia in human females. Ans: External genitalia (Vulva): The external genital organs of female include parts external to the vagina, collectively called vulva (covering or wrapping), or pudendum. They include the following parts:Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals Ta rget Publications Pvt. Lis. 4. Ans: 5. Give an account of external genitalia in human females. External genitalia (Vulva): The external genital organs of female include parts external to the vagina, collectively called vulva (covering or wrapping), or pudendum. They include the following parts; Vestibule: It is a median vertical depression of vulva enclosing the urethral and vaginal opening. Labia minora: These are another pair of thin folds inner to the labia majora with which they merge posteriorly to form the fourchette (frenulum), while towards anterior end they converge into a hood-like covering around the clitoris. Clitoris: A small conical and sensitive projection lying at the anterior end of labia minora. It has a pair of erectile tissue i.e. corpora cavernosa which is homologous to the penis. Labia majora: These are a pair of fleshy folds of skin forming the boundary of vulva. They are homologous to the scrotum. They surround and protect the other parts of external genitalia and enclose the urethral and vaginal openings in the vestibule. Mons pubis: It is a fleshy elevation above the labia majora. The Mons pubis and outer part of labia majora show pubic hair. [Any four parts - /; Mark each] Explain the structure of secondary oocyte. Ans: The secondary oocyte is the unfertilized egg which is released from the ovary (ovulated). Size and structure: It is non-cleidoic (without shell) and microlecithal (yolk is present in very small quantity). It is approximately 0.1mm (100 microns) in size. It is a rounded, nonmotile, haploid female gamete. The egg shows polarity ie. the side having germinal vesicle and first polar body is called animal pole while the side opposite to it is called vegetal pole. Nucleus: The nucleus of the egg appears large and is called germinal vesicle. Typical nucleus or pronucleus is formed at the time of fertilization. Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm of egg is also called ooplasm. It is devoid of centrioles. Membranes: The egg is surrounded by various coverings. The egg membrane is called vitelline membrane. It secretes a non-cellular, glycoproteinous membrane with the zona pellucida on its outside, Std. XII Sci.: Biology Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals Ta rget Publications" Pvt. Ld. Adhering to the outer surface of zona pellucida are several radially elongated cells forming the corona radiata. These cells are derived from the innermost layer of granulosa cells. They are firmly held to the zona pellucida and to each other by hyaluronic acid (mucopolysaccharide). Between the vitelline membrane and the zona pellucida is a fluid filled perivitelline space. The first polar body lies in this space. [Any four points - /% Mark each]Std. XII Sci.: Biology Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals Tai rget Publications’ Pvt.Ltd. Std. XII Sci.: Biology Adhering to the outer surface of zona pellucida are several radially elongated cells forming the corona radiata. These cells are derived from the innermost layer of granulosa cells. They are firmly held to the zona pellucida and to each other by hyaluronic acid (mucopolysaccharide). Between the vitelline membrane and the zona pellucida is a fluid filled perivitelline space. The first polar body lies in this space. [Any four points - % Mark each] Write an account of cleavage during embryonic development in humans. Cleavage: Cleavage is the process of early mitotic division of the zygote into a hollow multicellular blastula. It does not involve the growth of the daughter cells. The cells formed by cleavage are called blastomeres. Since, there is no growth phase between the cleavages, the size of blastomeres will be reduced with every successive cleavage. As the size reduces, the metabolic rate increases. Subsequent cleavages are thus faster than earlier one. This requires rapid replication of DNA and high consumption of oxygen. Process of cleavage: In humans, cleavage is holoblastic i.e. the whole zygote gets divided. The cleavage planes may be longitudinal or meridional and equatorial or horizontal. It is radial and indeterminate ie. fate of each blastomere is not predetermined. The 1‘ cleavage in the zygote is meridional and occurs at about 30 hours after fertilization. It divides longitudinally into two blastomeres, one slightly larger than the other. The 2" cleavage is also longitudinal but at the right angle to the 1“ one and occurs after 30 hours of I*‘ cleavage. The 3“ cleavage is horizontal. After 3" cleavage the embryo is in 8-cell stage. While the cleavages occur, the young embryo is gradually being pushed towards the uterus. By the end of 4" day after fertilization, embryo is a solid ball of 16-32 cells and externally looking like mulberry. This stage is thus called morula. Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals Ta rget Publications’ Pvt.Ltd. a. b. Morula: The morula shows cells of two types: smaller, clearer cells towards the outer side inner cell mass of larger cells. Cells are compactly arranged. Till the formation of morula, the zona pellucida is retained around the embryo and thus, there is no change in the overall size from zygote to7 Se ei Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals Tar fet runeston on us Morula: The morula shows cells of two types: smaller, clearer cells towards the outer side inner cell mass of larger cells. Cells are compactly arranged. Till the formation of morula, the zona pellucida is retained around the embryo and thus, there is no change in the overall size from zygote to morula. The morula reaches the isthmus and gains entry into the uterus by the end of day 4. {Any four points with morula stage - 1 Mark each] Identify the parts labelled in the given diagram. ; C — Mesoderm; D - Coelom [Each label - Mark] A - Amniotic Cavity; B — Ectoden What is lactation? Which hormone is responsible for its regular secretion? Lactation is the process by which the mammary glands of the female start producing milk at the end of pregnancy. Prolactin is the hormone that is responsible for its regular secretion. [Two correct points - I Mark each] Mention any two different goals of RCH programme. The goals of Reproductive and Child Healthcare (RCH) programme are as follows: To create awareness among people about various aspects related to reproduction. Std. XII Sci.: Biology Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals Ta ret Publications’ Pvt. Ltd. 10. To provide facilities to people in order to understand and build up reproductive health. To provide support for building up a reproductively healthy society. To bring about a change mainly in three critical health indicators i.e. reducing total infertility rate, infant mortality rate and maternal mortality rate. [Two correct points - I Mark each] What is MTP? Up to which month is it allowed?Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals Tai rget Publications’ Pvt.Ltd. ii. To provide facilities to people in order to understand and build up reproductive health. iii. To provide support for building up a reproductively healthy society. iv. To bring about a change mainly in three critical health indicators i.e. reducing total infertility rate, infant mortality rate and maternal mortality rate. [Two correet points - I Mark each] 10. | What is MTP? Up to which month is it allowed? i. The intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called Medical termination of Pregnancy (MTP) or induced abortion, ii. MTP is essential in cases of unwanted pregnancies or in defective development of foetus. It is safe during the first trimester of pregnancy. According to MTP Act pregnancy may be terminated: Within first 12 weeks b. More than 12 weeks but lesser than 20 weeks [Four correct points - % Mark each] Pr 3 Marks Questions 1. Describe the histology of testis with help of labelled diagram. Tunica albuginea Interstitial cells (Leydig cells) Sperm bundle Germinal epithelium ' \ \ \ \ i i | | | i i . | Sertoli cell \ | \ \ \ \ | Basement membrane \ | \ Std. XII Sci.: Biology Chapter 02: Reproduction in Lower me al Higher Animals Tar det mutes on. us Histology of Testis: i. Externally, testis is covered by three layers. These are: a. Tunica vaginalis: It is the outermost incomplete peritoneal covering made up of connective tissue and epithelium. b. Tunica albuginea: It is the middle layer formed by collagenous connective tissue. c. Tunica vasculosa/vascularis: It is the innermost layers. It is a thin and membranous layer. ii. Each testis is divided into about 200-300 testicular lobules by fibres fram tunica alhnaineas Rach Inhnla hac 1 ta 4 hiahly eniled