ASSIGNMENT OF HOMJ

- By Nishtha Goel
22/HIS/39
Decline of Tokugawa Shogunate
INTRO:-
Tokugawa Shogunate, which was a feudal military government that ruled Japan from 1603 to
1868. The Tokugawa period is also known as the Edo period, named after the capital city of
Edo (modern-day Tokyo). The Tokugawa Shogunate played a crucial role in Japanese history,
overseeing a long period of relative peace, economic growth, and cultural development.
However, it eventually faced internal and external challenges that led to its decline and the
beginning of the Meiji Restoration.

BACKGROUND:-
In 1600, the Emperor transferred governance to the Tokugawa family in Japan. The
Tokugawa polity was divided into two authorities, with the Emperor (Tenno) residing in
isolation at Kyoto and the Shogun, the chief military lord, situated in the capital Edo (Tokyo).
While the Emperor held a symbolic position, the administrative role was vested in the
Shogun, who served as the feudal sovereign over 250 daimyo (feudal lords), each possessing
a han (territory). The Shogun, functioning as the chief feudal authority, controlled the entire
country. In 1630, Iemitsu was patronized as the first shogun by the Emperor.
The military government of the shogun was termed the shogunate or bakufu, and its political
system was referred to as baku-han. According to J.W. Hall, there were two bakuhan
political institutions: the shogunate, serving as the national authority, and the daimyo,
functioning as regional administrators. In essence, the shogun oversaw critical areas such as
mines, seaports in Osaka, Nagasaki, and Kyoto. The remaining three-quarters of the country
were governed by autonomous daimyo within their hans (territories). Daimyo were
categorized into Shimpan (relative), who were Tokugawa family members in the
administration, Fudai (hereditary) who pledged loyalty before the Battle of Sekigahara
(1600), and Tozama (outer) who acknowledged Tokugawa rule after the battle and were not
part of the administration. Approximately one-fourth of the land was directly administered by
the Tokugawa family through their samurai.
In remote areas like Satsuma and Choshu, specific hans were allocated, eventually playing a
crucial role in a coup against the Shogunate. The sankin kotai system required daimyo to
alternate their residence between their hans and Edo, leaving their families and wives as
hostages in Edo. According to Richard Storry, this system strategically connected the
fragmented country, establishing transport routes, markets, and trading opportunities,
preventing daimyo from amassing financial power. The bakufu closely monitored daimyo
activities, marriages, and movements through the introduction of a passport system.
In Tokugawa society, Confucian principles of natural law and social hierarchy determined
social status, order, and conduct for all classes. This framework gave rise to the four-fold
class system known as sheno-ke-sho, consisting of samurai, farmers, artisans, and chonin
(merchants). Samurai, forming the ruling class with shogun, daimyo, and their retainers, held
high status, wealth, and power. There were three ranks of samurai - upper, middle, and lower.
Peasants faced exploitation and deprivation of privileges, artisans struggled due to peace
times and a lack of patronage by samurai, and chonin merchants occupied the lowest rung
with restrictions on using palanquins, wearing silk, and carrying swords. According to J.W.
Hall, the Tokugawa lifestyle involved a deference to higher authority, with the four classes
not allowed to interact with each other, each adhering to codes of conduct like Bushido (way
of the samurai) and Chonindo (way of the chonins).
The entry of Christians in Japan was prohibited starting from January 26, 1614, leading to
the destruction of churches and an order for Christians to convert. Only Chinese and Dutch
individuals were allowed, as they were not entirely Christians and held less influence.
Violation of this prohibition carried the risk of the death penalty. The construction of large
ships exceeding 50 tonnes was also restricted. These measures in 1630 effectively closed
Japan to the outside world, maintaining peace for two centuries. The Shogunate adeptly
managed Western activities in the Pacific during the 19th century, showcasing achievements
such as urbanization, road networks, agricultural and proto-industrial development in Osaka
and Edo, river channeling, and advancements in education. All Shogunate policies were
designed to preserve and strengthen its power, aiming to centralize the previously
decentralized feudal system. Scholars like J. Fairbank and G.B. Sansom suggest that the
shogunate's downfall resulted from imperfect and ineffective internal policies, leading to
decadence in feudalism.

DECLINE:-
Historians concur that the onset of modern Japan is marked by the "crise de regime" of the
Tokugawa Shogunate, the rulers of Japan from 1600. Understanding its political instability,
foreign interactions, socio-economic tensions, and internal conflicts is crucial in
comprehending its decline. The question of whether the preservation of the bakufu system
was possible with an alternate policy by Tokugawa leaders is debated. Some, like Andrew
Gordon, attribute the decline to the crisis triggered by Commodore Matthew Perry's arrival
in 1853 and the subsequent opening of Japan through gunboat diplomacy. On the contrary,
G.B. Sansom suggests, "The factor contributing to its decline and opening the doors was not
external summons but an internal explosion."
The majority of historians see these two categories as the reasons behind the Tokugawa
bakufu's demise. The impact of "unequal treaties" was noteworthy for both the internal &
international policies of Tokugawa Lapan. (i) Internal Elements highlighted the internal
pressures for social, political, and economic change: According to J.W. Hall, Perry's
expeditions serve as an example of how western aggressiveness only serves as the last push
before an eventual collapse. (ii) External Factors: The impact of Japan's decision to open its
doors to Western commerce, which almost resulted in the colonization of the area. Although
not as important as the external elements, Richard Storry concurs that the internal aspects
were noteworthy
Internal Factors:
Tokugawa maintained political stability in Japan for a considerable amount of time and
avoided conflicts with different social groups. Later, these classes experienced significant
upheaval and began to express resentment toward laws that led to socioeconomic and
ideological tensions, such as control measures, sankin kotai, the expulsion of samurai from
rural areas, urbanization, the rise of the money economy, and long stretches of peace.
Meenlochna Vatts claimed that although daimyo had several advantages, the costs
associated with the Sankin Kotai system had thrown them off balance. They had to borrow
money from Chonin to cover their bills, particularly for their families' opulent Edo lifestyle.

The shift of samurai from rural areas to the towns controlled by daimyo created challenges.
T.G. Tsukahira noted that samurai lost their status and began receiving rice stipends due to
financial issues linked to practices like sankin kotai. Many daimyo reduced stipends or
dismissed samurai, turning them into ronin. Although the appearance of traditional sword-
wearing persisted, it became superficial. The primogeniture system, favoring the eldest son,
posed issues for ronin. During times of peace, some samurai pursued education, entering
various fields and gaining awareness of their rights. Some engaged in arts, literature, and
business, while others indulged in city luxuries, often funded by loans from chonin. By 1700,
the entire samurai class faced chronic debt.
By the late 19th century, many samurai had lost their martial spirit, with a significant portion
becoming as vulnerable as women and having morale as low as merchants, as noted by EH.
Norman. Facing financial challenges, samurai began marrying for wealth to sustain their
living standards. Appointments in the bakufu and han bureaucracy favored social rank within
samurai rather than merit, leading to discontent among lower-ranking samurai. G.B. Sansom
observed that important offices predominantly went to upper samurai, fueling the discontent
of the lower ranks. This dissatisfaction played a role in the movement to overthrow the
Tokugawa Shogunate and later contributed to the leadership during the Meiji era. Many
lower-ranking samurai left their daimyo, became free commoners, and shifted their loyalty
from their respective domains to the nation, especially with the arrival of Commodore Perry.
Peasants faced difficulties as they were not allowed to grow the crops they preferred, and
they had to provide free labor for building local roads and courier services. According to C.
Totman, officials viewed peasants as sources of taxes, taking away their surplus. T.G.
Tsukahira mentioned that poverty forced some peasants to push their daughters into
prostitution, and some resorted to female infanticide (mabiki) to preserve their dignity. The
commercialization of agriculture led to the rise of a wealthy peasant class (gono) that imitated
the lifestyle of samurai, causing jealousy among the poorer peasants. The wealthy peasants
achieved higher social status by educating their sons and taking trips to big cities.
Artisans, including carpenters, weavers, sculptors, and craftsworkers, also faced challenges.
With the long period of peace, there was less construction work, leading to unemployment for
unskilled artisans. Skilled artisans suffered too, as their patrons, the samurai, had become
bankrupt due to the lack of opportunities for work. The societal changes in 19th century
Japan were marked by the rise of the chonin (merchant) class, challenging the traditional
feudal order. The sankin kotai system, designed to regulate the samurai class, contributed to
the financial downfall of the samurai. The economic power of the chonin, especially in cities
like Edo and Osaka, led to increased urbanization. Sankin kotai's financial burden was
transferred to peasants through heavy rice taxes, which were then sold to merchants in urban
markets.
The shift from a rice-based economy to a money-based one made Osaka a significant
distribution center, with udasashi (rice-brokers) becoming influential. Merchants emerged as
key players, challenging the authority of daimyo, samurai, and the bakufu, as they provided
loans to these classes. The newfound wealth allowed some merchants to adopt the lifestyle of
samurai, even acquiring samurai weapons. By the 19th century, the traditional code of
conduct, Bushido, became challenging to uphold. Social classes faced psychological,
economic, and social problems, leading to a desire for change. Interactions between classes
and resentment against the Tokugawa shogunate gave rise to alliances like ainyo-ronin-
chonin, seeking to overthrow the Tokugawa regime.
Historians such as Nathaniel Peifer, Peter Duus, Barrington Moore Jr., J.K. Fairbank,
and W.G. Beasley contribute to understanding these changes. According to Moore Jr., the
breakdown of rigid social hierarchies marked the end of centralized feudalism. Fairbank
notes the diffusion of the merchant and samurai classes as a factor in the breakdown of feudal
government. Beasley emphasizes the Tokugawa's fear of foreign influence, leading to the
adoption of the sakoku policy (closed country). Chitoshi Yanaga suggests that while Perry's
arrival was a triggering event, internal pressures were already pushing Japan towards
openness.

External Factors:
In the mid-19th century, Japan faced a series of challenges with American naval officers,
leading to Commodore Matthew Perry's arrival in 1853 and the signing of the Treaty of
Kanagawa in 1854. This treaty opened Japan to Western powers and set conditions for
extraterritoriality and port access. Richard Storry argue that the Shogunate's collapse was
inevitable due to its inability to resist the demands made by the USA, Russia, Great Britain,
and other nations. Beasley highlighted the threat posed by Western trade with China.
Townsend Harris expanded treaties in 1858, portraying the shogun as a defaulter. Andrew
Gordon noted parallels to the Opium War settlement without military conflict. Economic
policies, like debasing gold coins, caused inflation, leading to mass discontent. The
controversial selection of the 14th shogun fueled anti-Tokugawa sentiments, as did punitive
measures against dissenters. Royalist movements, such as "Sonno Joi," gained traction,
reflecting middle and lower samurai class discontent as noted by E.H. Norman.
Shishi activists violently protested against Commodore Perry's treaties, reflecting
philosophical roots in the Mito School. E.H. Norman identified the decline of the Tokugawa
as a result of conflicts between extremists (Choshu) and moderates (Satsuma). Emperor
Meiji's actions in 1864 and Choshu's victory in 1866 further weakened the Tokugawa
Shogunate. The Bakuhan system's flaws, along with financial instability, Western influence,
unequal treaties, and opposition from daimyo, contributed to its downfall. S.S. Christopher
Jones contends that Tokugawa's response wouldn't have changed the outcome. In 1868, the
Meiji Restoration marked the end of Tokugawa rule.
In the late 1860s, the Tozama clans, Satsuma and Choshu, exploited anti-Tokugawa
sentiments, leading to the overthrow of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The Satsuma-Choshu
alliance's military success in 1866 and subsequent move to Kyoto resulted in Emperor
Mutsuhito's ascension in 1868, formalizing the end of Tokugawa rule by May 1869.
Treaties and the aristocracy's discontent further fueled the rebellion, with Tozama daimyos
calling for the shogun's resignation in 1867. This pivotal period marked a decline in social
stratification, the rise of the merchant class, the end of Japan's isolation, and the restoration of
the monarchy through the Meiji Restoration in 1868.

CONCLUSION:-
In conclusion, the fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate was a complex interplay of internal and
external factors that created a perfect storm leading to its demise. The anti-Tokugawa
alliance, under the guise of restoring tradition and the emperor, capitalized on worsening
internal conditions in Japan, exacerbated by the neglect of the Shogun and inherent flaws in
the bakuhan system. The transition from feudalism to primitive capitalism brought about
social unrest, with external aggression serving as a catalyst to the accumulated pressure
within Japan. While the Shogunate's downfall may have been inevitable due to its inherent
flaws and various challenges, external events expedited the process. The culmination of
financial instability, Western influences, unequal treaties, feudal societal structures, alliances,
the sankin-kotai system, and opposition from certain daimyo ultimately led to the Tokugawa's
collapse. It remains uncertain whether different handling of events in the preceding decades
would have altered the outcome significantly. Nonetheless, the fall of the Tokugawa bakuhan
system marked a pivotal moment, paving the way for the transformative 'Meiji' Restoration.

References
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