26

9 Ultrasound is used to produce diagnostic information about internal body structures.

(a) Explain how ultrasound waves are detected.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [3]

(b) An alternating voltage V varies with time t according to

V = Vo sin ω t.

The voltage is applied to an ultrasound probe.

The root-mean-square (r.m.s.) voltage is 66 V. The frequency of the ultrasound generated by

the probe is 4.3 MHz.

Determine the values of

(i) Vo

Vo = ...................................................... V [1]

(ii) ω.

ω = ...............................................rad s–1 [1]

(c) Table 9.1 contains information about air and soft tissue.

Table 9.1

density / kg m–3 speed of ultrasound specific acoustic

/ m s–1 impedance /

...............................
air 1.30 330 4.3 × 102
soft tissue 1600 1.7 × 106

(i) Determine the unit for the specific acoustic impedance values shown in Table 9.1. [1]

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(ii) Calculate the density of soft tissue.

density = .............................................. kg m–3 [1]

(iii) Use data from Table 9.1 to explain why ultrasound cannot be used to produce an image
inside an air-filled cavity such as the lungs.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Total: 9]

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9 Ultrasound is used to produce diagnostic information about internal body structures.

(a) Explain how ultrasound waves are detected.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [3]

(b) An alternating voltage V varies with time t according to

V = Vo sin ω t.

The voltage is applied to an ultrasound probe.

The root-mean-square (r.m.s.) voltage is 66 V. The frequency of the ultrasound generated by

the probe is 4.3 MHz.

Determine the values of

(i) Vo

Vo = ...................................................... V [1]

(ii) ω.

ω = ...............................................rad s–1 [1]

(c) Table 9.1 contains information about air and soft tissue.

Table 9.1

density / kg m–3 speed of ultrasound specific acoustic

/ m s–1 impedance /

...............................
air 1.30 330 4.3 × 102
soft tissue 1600 1.7 × 106

(i) Determine the unit for the specific acoustic impedance values shown in Table 9.1. [1]

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(ii) Calculate the density of soft tissue.

density = .............................................. kg m–3 [1]

(iii) Use data from Table 9.1 to explain why ultrasound cannot be used to produce an image
inside an air-filled cavity such as the lungs.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Total: 9]

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10 (a) X-rays for use in medical diagnosis are produced in an X-ray tube. In the X-ray tube, charged
particles are accelerated towards a metal target by an applied potential difference (p.d.).

(i) State the name of the charged particles that are accelerated by the applied p.d.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Explain how X-rays are produced at the metal target.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(iii) Calculate the minimum wavelength of X-rays produced when the applied p.d. is 5.80 kV.

wavelength = ..................................................... m [3]

(b) X-rays pass through a medium that has an attenuation coefficient of 1.4 cm–1.

Calculate the percentage of the X-ray energy that is absorbed by a 2.8 cm thickness of this
medium.

percentage absorbed = ..................................................... % [3]

[Total: 9]

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10 Ultrasound and X-rays are both types of wave that are used in medical diagnosis to form images
of internal body structures.

(a) Complete Table 10.1 to state, for each type of wave:

● the method of production of the wave

● whether the wave that is detected and used to form the image is the wave that has been
absorbed, reflected or transmitted by the internal body structure.

Table 10.1

ultrasound X-rays

method of ............................................ ............................................

production
............................................ ............................................

detected wave
(absorbed, reflected ............................................ ............................................
or transmitted)

[4]

(b) (i) For one type of wave passing through tissue, the wave has 72% of its initial intensity
after it has passed through 6.2 cm of the tissue.

Calculate the linear attenuation coefficient μ of the tissue for this wave.

μ = ................................................ cm–1 [2]

(ii) Another wave of the same type as in (b)(i) passes through 9.3 cm of the same tissue.

Calculate the percentage of the initial intensity of the wave that is attenuated by the
tissue.

percentage attenuated = ..................................................... % [2]

[Total: 8]
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9 Fluorine-18 (189F) is a radioactive nuclide that is used as a tracer in positron emission tomography
(PET scanning). Fluorine-18 decays to a nuclide of oxygen (O) according to
18 Q R
9F PX + 8 O.

(a) (i) State what is meant by a tracer.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) State the symbol of the particle that is represented by X and the values of P, Q and R.

X: ....................................................... P: .......................................................

Q: ....................................................... R: .......................................................
[2]

(b) (i) Explain how the radioactive decay of fluorine-18 results in the emission from the body of
the gamma-ray photons that are detected during a PET scan.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) Explain how the detection of the gamma-ray photons is used to produce an image of the
tissue being examined.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(c) The half-life of fluorine-18 is T.

A patient is injected with amount of substance n of fluorine-18.

(i) Determine an expression for the initial value R0 of the rate R of production of gamma-ray
photons by the tracer, in terms of n, T and the Avogadro constant NA.

R0 = ......................................................... [3]
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(ii) On Fig. 9.1, sketch the variation with time t of R.

R0

0
0 T
t

Fig. 9.1
[2]

[Total: 12]

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10 In an X-ray tube, electrons are accelerated through a potential difference of 75 kV. The electrons
then strike a tungsten target of effective mass 15 g.

The electron energy is converted into the energy of X-ray photons with an efficiency of 5.0%. The
rest of the energy is converted into thermal energy.

(a) The X-ray tube produces an image using a current of 0.40 A for a time of 20 ms.

The specific heat capacity of tungsten is 130 J kg–1 K–1.

Determine the temperature rise ΔT of the tungsten target.

ΔT = ...................................................... K [3]

(b) The linear attenuation coefficient of the X-ray photons in muscle is 0.22 cm–1.

Calculate the thickness t of muscle that will absorb 80% of the incident X-ray intensity.

t = .................................................... cm [2]

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(c) Table 10.1 shows the linear attenuation coefficient μ for the X-ray photons in different tissues.

Table 10.1

μ / cm–1
bone 3.0
blood 0.23
muscle 0.22

Two X-ray images are taken, one of equal thicknesses of bone and muscle and another of
equal thicknesses of blood and muscle.

Explain why one of these images has good contrast, but the other does not.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

[Total: 7]

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11 Positron emission tomography (PET scanning) obtains diagnostic information from a person. The
information is used to form an image.

(a) PET scanning uses a tracer.

Explain what is meant by a tracer.

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) PET scanning involves annihilation.

(i) Explain what is meant by annihilation.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) State the names of the particles involved in the annihilation process.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(c) (i) Calculate the total energy released in one annihilation event in (b).

energy = ....................................................... J [1]

(ii) Calculate the wavelength of each gamma photon released.

wavelength = ...................................................... m [2]

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(d) Explain how the gamma photons are used to produce an image.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [3]

[Total: 9]

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9 (a) (i) Explain how X-rays are produced for use in medical diagnosis.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

(ii) State why X-ray images are taken of multiple sections of the body during computed
tomography (CT) scanning.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) An X-ray image is taken of the structure shown in Fig. 9.1.

2.4 cm

soft tissue bone

Q

incident detected
X-rays X-rays

5.6 cm

Fig. 9.1

The linear attenuation coefficient of bone is 3.4 cm–1.

The linear attenuation coefficient of soft tissue is 0.89 cm–1.

The incident X-rays are parallel and have a uniform intensity I0 across the structure.

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Determine, in terms of I0, the intensity of the detected X-rays from:

(i) point P

detected intensity = ...................................................... I0 [2]

(ii) point Q.

detected intensity = ...................................................... I0 [2]

(c) Explain, with reference to your answers in (b), whether the X-ray image of the structure in
Fig. 9.1 has good contrast.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [1]

[Total: 9]

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