CHAPTER FOUR

Animal and Plant Nutrient’s

Objectives
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to
 Describe the process of photosynthesis and write the equation
 Shoe the effect of light, CO2, water and temperature on photosynthesis
 Describe the role of stomata in photosynthesis
 Identify factors that affect rate of photosynthesis
 List the important micro - molecules such as minerals (iron, calcium,
phosphorus) and vitamins required and their functions.
 Explain why food additives are added to foods and why they can be harmful.
 Describe the function of enzymes
 Describe the structure of the human digestive system
 Describe the structure and function of the alimentary canal
 Describe the structure and function of the teeth
 Explain the role of the liver in the body regulation

INTRODUCTION
The word nutrition refers to process in which living organism obtain and consume their foods,
there are two types of nutrition which are heterotrophic and autotrophic nutrition.
Autotrophic Nutrition: is the process by which an organisms take in simple organic
materials such as water carbon dioxide and sunlight to make food like carbohydrates, proteins
and fats. And carried out by green plants.
Heterotrophic Nutrition: is the process involves taken complex food materials like
protein, carbohydrates and fats from the plants and animals this form of nutrition seen for
animals.
All living organisms need food. They need it as a source of raw materials to build new cells and
tissues as they grow. They also need food as a source of energy, animals take in food, digest it
and use the digested products to build their tissues or to produce energy.
plants also need energy and raw materials, but apart a few insect eating species, plants do not
appear to take in food. The most likely source of their raw materials would appear to be soil.

Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 1 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two

Biology)
Process of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants manufacture their own food. the process of
photosynthesis takes place mainly in the cells of the leaves, in land water is absorbed from the
soil by the roots and carried in the water vessels of the veins. Up the stem to the leaf. Carbon
dioxide is absorbed from the air through the stomata (pores in the leaf).in the leaf cells, the
carbon dioxide and water are combined to make sugar, the energy for this reaction comes from
sunlight which has been absorbed by the green pigment chlorophyll. The chlorophyll is present
int the chloroplasts of the leaf cells and it is inside the chloroplasts that the reaction takes place.
Chloroplasts are small, green structure present in the cytoplasm of the leaf cells. Chlorophyll is
the substance which gives leaves and stems their green color.
The chemical equation for photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O Sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen
There are four factors that must be present to occur photosynthesis
 Carbon dioxide
 Water
 Sunlight: the brighter the light, the faster will water molecules be split in the chlorophyll.
 Temperature: a rise the temperature will increase the rate at which carbon dioxide is
combined with hydrogen to make carbohydrate.

Site of photosynthesis

Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 2 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two

Biology)
As we know that photosynthesis takes place mainly in the green part of the plants specially the
leaves and soft part of the stem in the diagram below show in the internal structure of the leaf.

Experiment
Testing leaf for starch
Procedure
 Pluck the leaf of plant that has been exposed to sunlight for few hours.
 Place the leaf in a beaker with a boiling water for one minute.
 Transfer a boiling leaf into boiling tube containing alcohol and place the tube in hot water
for few minutes.
 When the alcohol has turned green remove the leaf.
 Rinse the leaf hot water for few seconds.
 Lay the leaf on white tile and add the leaf few drops od iodine solution.
Interpretation
 The leaf turned blue black so starch is presence in the leaf

The role of the stomata

The stomata in a leafy many affect the rate of photosynthesis according to weather they are open
or closed. When photosynthesis is taking place carbon dioxide in the leaf is being used up and its
concentration falls. At low concentration of carbon dioxide the stomata will open. When the light

Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 3 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two

Biology)
intensity falls photosynthesis will slow down and buildup of carbon dioxide from the respiration
make stomata close.in this way stomata are normally regulated by the rate of the photosynthesis.
Normally the stomata are open in the daytime and closed at night.

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES AND BALANCED DIET (FOOD AND DIET)

THE NEEDED FOR FOOD
All living organisms need food. an important differences between plants and animals is the green
plants can make their own food. But animals have to take it in ready made by eating plants or the
bodies of the other animals. In all plants and Animals food is used as follows:
 For growth: is provides the substance needed for making new cells and tissues.
 For energy: energy is required for the chemical reactions which take place in living
organisms to keep them alive. When the food is broken down during respiration, the
energy from the food is used for chemical reactions.in animals the energy is used for
activities like movement, heartbeat, and nerve impulses. Birds and mammals use energy
to maintain their body temperature.
 For replacement of damaged tissues: the substances provided by food are needed to
replace. For example the millions of our red blood cells that break down each day, and to
replace the skin which is worm away and to repair wounds.
Class of food
 Carbohydrate
 Fats
 Proteins
This part we take deeply in chapter one.

Diet
in addition to protein, carbohydrate and fats, the diet must include salts, vitamins, water and
vegetables fibre (roughage). These substances are present in balanced diet and do not normally
have to be taken in separately.

Salt
There are sometimes called mineral salts, proteins, carbohydrates and fats provide the body with
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, Sulphur and phosphorus but there are several more elements which
the body needs and which occur as salt in the food we eat.

Iron
The red blood cells contain the pigment hemoglobin, part of the hemoglobin molecule contains
iron and this plays an important part in carrying oxygen round the body. Millions of red blood
cells breakdown each day and their iron is stored by the liver. however some irons lost and adult
need to take on about 15mgof iron each day. iron is needed all the body cells. Some sources of
iron are red meat like liver and kidneys this are richest sources of iron in the diet. But also are
Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 4 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two
Biology)
sources like eggs and green vegetables. If the diet is deficient in iron, a person may suffered from
anemia.

Calcium
Calcium in the form of calcium phosphate, is deposited in the bones and the teeth. and make
them hard. It is present in blood plasma and plays an essential part in blood clotting. The richest
sources of calcium are milk and cheese, but calcium is present in most foods in small quantities.
Many calcium salts are not soluble in water and may pass through the elementary canal without
being absorbed. Simply increasing the calcium in the diet may not have much affect unless the
calcium is in the right form, the diet is balanced and the intestine is healthy. Vitamin D and bile
salt are efficient absorption.

Iodine
This is needed in only small quantities, but it forms an essential part of the molecule of
thyroxine. Thyroxine is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland in the neck.

Dietary fibre { roughage}

When we eat vegetables and other fresh plant materials, we take in a large quantity of cells. The
cell walls of plants consist mainly of cellulose, but we do not have enzymes for digesting this
substances, and the result is this plant cell walls reach the large intestine (colon) without being
digested. This undigested part of the diet is called fibre or roughage.

Vitamins
Plants can make their vitamins in the leaves, but animals have take them in ready made either
from plants or from other animals.
If any one of the vitamins is missing from our diet, or at a low level, we will develop a vitamin-
deficiency diseases. These diseases can be cured, at least in the early stages, simply by adding
the vitamins to the diet.
Fifteen or more vitamins have been identified and they are sometimes grouped into two classes,
and they are
A. Water soluble like: vitamin C, vitamin B group.
B. Fat soluble like: vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K.
WATER
About 70% of most tissue consist of water, it is an essential part of cytoplasm. The body fluids,
blood, lymph and tissue fluid are composed mainly of water.

Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 5 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two

Biology)
Water also help the digestion process in which uses water in a chemical reactions to break down
insoluble substances to soluble ones. The water we lose by evaporation, breathing, sweating and
urination.

DIGESTION
Digestion, Absorption And use of food
Digestion is the process by which large molecules of
food are broken down into small soluble molecules.
Digestion and absorption takes place in the alimentary
canal, alimentary canal is the muscular tube running
from the mouth to anus.
The inside the alimentary canal is lined with layer of
cells forming what is called epithelium. New cells in
the epithelium are being produced all the time of
replace the cells worm away by the movement of the
food. There are two types of human digestion and are
 Mechanical digestion
 Chemical digestion

Mechanical digestion
Mechanical digestion is the cutting and griding
the food into smaller particles by the help with teeth.
This is involves by
 Peristalsis: movement of food in the alimentary canal
 Saliva: from salivary glands that break down the food and lubricates.
Chemical digestion
Chemical digestion is the is the breaking down of food molecules into small molecules by
enzymes. And those enzymes are released from these sources
 Gland that located in alimentary canal such as Gastric glands of stomach and intestinal
glands of the small intestine.
 Glands that are locate outside the alimentary canal such as salivary glands.

Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 6 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two

Biology)
TEETH
Function of teeth
Before food can be swallowed, should be bitten off which are small enough to pass down the
gullet in the stomach. Digestion made easier from large molecules of food into small molecules
by the action of chewing, biting and chewing are action carried by our teeth, jaws and muscles.
Structure of teeth
The teeth are given different names according to their position in the jaw. And are

 Incisors
 Canine
 Premolars
 Molars

Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 7 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two

Biology)
Incisors: are Eight front teeth, four upper and four lower. these teeth are doing for cutting food.
Canine :found either side of the incisors, these slightly pointed teeth help you tear food when
you bite.
Premolars: also referred bicuspids, these teeth have two pointed cusps for crushing food.
Molars: these teeth have several cusps on the biting surface, the molars assist with grinding and
breaking down of food.
The front of each of the upper and lower jaws there are four incisors. And cut the pieces of food.
Example we use this type of teeth to biting into an apple or bite the sandwich.
On each side of the incisors there is a canine tooth. Mammals like dogs have long and pointed
canines. But in humans have similar to the incisors but little pointed.
At the side of each jaw are the premolars, two on each side, they are larger than the canines. At
the back of each jaw are two or three molars. The molars are larger then the premolars.

The Premolars and Molars are similar in function. And it's crushing and gridding the food into
small pieces.

Structure of teeth
Different parts of the teeth
Now that you know the type of teeth that make up smile let's find out about the parts of a tooth,
the tooth consist of several parts, each with an important functions. Here are the main component
of a tooth.
Crown: this is the top of the tooth. The shape of the crown enables different functions. For
example, the incisors are sharp and are for cutting into food, while the molars have a flat surface
for grinding.
Gumline: This is where the gum tooth meets.

Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 8 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two

Biology)
Root: the root acts as an anchor that keeps your teeth in place. It is embedded in the jawbone.
Enamel: is the outer layer of the tooth. It is the hardest and most mineralized tissue in the body.
Dentine: this is the layer underneath the tooth enamel surface. Dentin makes up the majority of
tooths structure.
Pulp: is found in the center of the tooth, the pulp is soft tissue that consist of nerve tissue and
blood vessels.
Cement: this id bone-like substance which covers the root of the tooth,

Milk teeth and permanent teeth

Mammals have two set of teeth in their lifetimes. In human, the first set or milk teeth grow
through the gum during first year of life and consist for four incisors, two canines and four
molars in each jaw.
The age between 6 up to 12 years these teeth gradually fall out and replaced by permanent teeth,
include four premolars and six molars in each jaw. The last of these molars is the wisdom teeth,
wisdom teeth may not grow until the age of 17 years or later. But permanent teeth are lost for any
reason and not grow again.

Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 9 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two

Biology)
DIGESTION
Digestion is mainly a chemical
process and consist of breaking
down large molecules to small
molecules. Some food are
absorbed with out digested like
glucose that could pass through
the walls of the elementary canal
and enter the blood vessels most
food are solids and cannot get into
blood vessels, so the solid foods is
dissolved to make a solution by
the chemicals called enzymes.

Mouth
First the food is taken into the
mouth by the process called
digestion. In the mouth the food
is chewed and mixed with saliva,
saliva is a digestive juice
produced by three pairs of glands
whose ducts lead into the mouth.
Saliva contains one enzyme,
salivary amylase (some times
called ptyalin).

Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 10 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two

Biology)
Stomach
The stomach has elastic walls which stretch as the food collect it. The main function of the
stomach is to store the food in specific time (like fat and carbohydrates for 1 to 2 hours depends
on its nature).
Glands in the lining of the stomach produce gastric juice containing the enzyme pepsin.
Pepsin is a protease or proteinase. For example it acts on proteins and beaks down in soluble
compound called peptides.
The stomach lining also produces HCL acid which makes a weak solution in the gastric juice.
The acid provides the best degree of acidity for pepsin to work in and kills many bacteria taken
in with the food. The passage of the food from one part to another is controlled by sphincter
muscles. For example cardiac sphincter found between esophagus and stomach, that prevent
backflow of stomach acids and contact into the esophagus, while pyloric sphincter is found
between duodenum and stomach.

Small intestine
Most of digestion of the food takes place in small intestine, its long tube have a length about
4-5 meter highly coiled to fit into abdomen. The small intestine divided into two region, the first
region is called Duodenum which is 30 cm and the second region is called Ilium and this region
is divided into two part jejunum and ileum proper, the inner walls of the small intestine is
covered by finger like projection called villi, they are increased absorption capacity.
Most the food absorption takes place in the duodenum and, pancreatic juice from the pancreas
and bile from the liver are poured into the duodenum to act on food there. The pancreas is a
digestive glands lying below the stomach. the pancreas juices include:
 Pancreatic amylase: which break down starch into maltose.
 Trypsin: which breakdown protein into small peptides.
 Carboxypeptides: which break down peptide into aminoacids.
 Pancreatic lipase: digest fat into fatty acids and Glycerol.
The walls of the duodenum contains intestinal gland called Lieberkhun and crypts which
secreted digestive enzymes.

Absorption of digested food

Water, simple sugar and salts are absorbed in stomach, but most of adsorption takes place in
small intestine. Substance like monosaccharides, ( glucose,fructose and galactose), amino acids,
fatty acids and Glycerol, vitamins, in- organic substances are absorbed in small intestine.
The monosaccharides and aminoacids are transported into the liver to store as a glycogen for
later use. Most of absorption in small intestine takes place in the ilium.

Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 11 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two

Biology)
Bile is the yellow greenish fluid that is secreted from the hepatocytes, it pass through bile duct
to the small intestine to help the digestion of food, after secretion bile is stored and concentrated
in the gallbladder, is the fundamental and unique secretion of the liver,

LARGE INTESTINE ( Colon and rectum)

The large intestine consists colon and rectum, the functions of large intestine are
1 :Packaged un dogestable food materials, and form feces.
2: Absorbed water and leave the dry materials.
3: Absorb vitamins and minerals
Rectum stored undigestible material (feces) at lest feces discharged by process called Egestion.

Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 12 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two

Biology)
 FIVE STAGES OF THE DIGESTION PROCESS

END

Prepared by: Dr Hamse A. Roble Page 13 of 13 Chapter 4 (Form Two

Biology)