INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

2021, VOL. 21, NO. 11, 1088–1098

https://doi.org/10.1080/15623599.2019.1602586

Low-cost housing policies and squatters struggles in Nigeria: the Nigerian

perspective on possible solutions
Andrew Ebekozien, Abdul-Rashid Abdul-Aziz and Mastura Jaafar
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
This paper investigated the low-cost housing (LCH) policies in regard to squatters and offered a Housing policies;
descriptive comparative analysis that affords insights into the Malaysian potential squatter zero institutional framework;
programmes that could be applied to tackle the long-standing chronic urban slums in Nigerian low-cost housing; Malaysia
experience; squatters
cities. To achieve this, data were collected via in-depth oral interviews. Phenomenological type
of qualitative research and snowball type of non-probability sampling technique was adopted
respectively. MAXQDA 2018 with the support of thematic analysis was employed to analyze the
three themes generated, and five major cities in Nigeria were covered. The study found that
rural-urban migration, unemployment, high cost of the rental fee, inability to access housing
loan and shortages of LCH were the reasons people engaged in squatting. From the findings,
weak institutional framework, corruption, inadequate LCH policy, political will, and absence of
national housing database emerged as the major hindrances to the implementation of LCH pro-
grammes that could have mitigated squatting. Nigerian Government should strengthen public
housing institutions via a strong institutional framework for the sustainability of LCH pro-
grammes and tackle corruption head-on. This can be achieved if the government sees LCH pro-
vision as one of the major pillars and synergy with other constructs of welfare.

Introduction of people and poor quality of the houses within the

Provision of a dwelling place for the people is a social
responsibility and pertinent need for every human
being. This is one of the reasons Abraham Maslow
categorized housing as one of the physiological needs
in his pyramid of needs (Maslow 1943). The United
Nations (UN) Habitat II (1996), Plunz (2016),
Ebekozien et al. (2017) and Abdul-Aziz et al. (2018)
confirmed the submission of Maslow’s theory that the
right to housing cannot be overemphasized because of
its diverse significant. UN-Habitat (2011) and Wohl
(2017) reported that not less than one billion of the
world’s population currently live in uninhabitable
homes. The low-income earners (LIEs) in the devel-
oping countries have the worst hit, including Nigeria.
The development of low-cost housing (LCH) in devel-
oping nations has been an unplanned reaction to an
imbalance in the demand–supply provision of LCH
both in the formal and informal economic sector
(Ebekozien et al. 2017).
The pressure of high density in urban cities on
the housing needs of the LIEs has turned the LCH
environs to slums. This is because of the congestion
vicinity, especially in close communities to cities or
semi-cities (Shah et al. 2019). Makinde (2012)
averred that the growth of cities in these developing
countries brings luxuries and opportunities, real or
imagined which are not found in the villages or rural
areas. This attraction leads these cities in the devel-
oping countries like Nigeria to grow at a rate that
becomes difficult to manage. Ebekozien et al. (2017)
asserted that insecurity and unemployment are some
of the resultant outcomes of the scarcity of LCH,
high cost of the rental fee and illegal accommodation
(squatter).
Housing shortage in Nigeria has been of interest to
every administration. The leadership of President
Muhammadu Buhari asserted that the federal govern-
ment is working with stakeholders to raise One
Trillion Naira (US$1/NGN365) to enable the LIEs
access to funding to purchase a home (Punch 2016).
He reported that the President says, ‘ … .any Nigerian
who earns at least N30,000 (Thirty Thousand Naira
Only) ought to be able to own a home’. This paper
raises the following questions: How many Nigerian

CONTACT Andrew Ebekozien ebekoandy45@yahoo.com

ß 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

LIEs earn up to NGN30,000/month? How many
state’s governments pay regular salaries as at when
due? Some of the state’s governments have resulted to
bargain half or quarter salary payment for their
employees monthly, while some have long back-log of
arrears. The fate of the Nigerian LIEs becoming a
homeowner is uncertain. While Kemeny (2001)
avowed that more research need to be conducted to
bring housing provision as a central place of welfare
research. This is presently missing in Nigeria.
This paper would attempt to generate explained
theoretical basis and proffer possible policy solutions.
This is one novelty contribution to the body of know-
ledge in addressing squatters’ issues and offers a com-
parative analysis that affords insights into the
Malaysian potential squatter zero policy practices.
This could be applied in Nigeria in line with
Bengtsson and Ruonavaara (2011) and Alves (2017)
studies. The prior authors used comparative process
tracing as an analysis in their work. The last author
affirmed that significant differences in housing poli-
cies can be observed across countries. The Malaysian
Government housing policy tends towards homeown-
ership for eligible citizens and moved towards a
socialized approach to housing provision (Ebekozien
et al. 2018a). This paper applies the welfare regime
framework approach used in Malaysia to explore the
possible solutions to mitigate squatters increasing
growth in Nigerian urban cities.
Several studies findings indicate a dearth of hous-
ing across Nigeria, especially for the LIEs. Scholars
like Udodiong (2016), Amaefule (2017), Ebekozien
et al. (2017) and Bureau of Public Service Reform
(BRSR) (2017) have research in this direction. The
top government officials recognize this as a fact
because in 2017 Housing Summit, the federal govern-
ment through the Minister of State for Power, Works
and Housing (Mr. Suleiman Hassan) says ‘ … as at
1991 when the National Housing Policy (NHP) was
promulgated in Nigeria, the housing deficit was seven
million units. In 2017, the deficit is reported to be 17
million … ’. (p. 1). This is an indication that the
Nigerian health and education sectors would have
been affected because World Bank Press Release
(2017) opined that enhanced shelters have further
been proven to have a positive impact on public
health, education and labour force results. This paper
considered five major cities and attempt to explore
the applicability of the policy solutions used by the
Malaysian Governments to manage and mitigate the
squatter challenges in the Nigerian cities. This
research would birth helpful and feasible policies, life-
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 1089
impacting growth and attempts to solve one of the
dilemmas confronting humankind via the follow-
ing objectives:
i. To investigate the root causes of the failure of
housing policies in Nigeria.
ii. To examine the causes of the high level of squat-
ters in Nigerian cities.
iii. To suggest pragmatic solutions to achieve zero
squatters in Nigerian cities.
Review of literature
In the 1970s and early 1980s, the rise in crude oil
price motivated both the previous civilian and mili-
tary governments to mediate in the housing provision
crisis across the urban cities in form of rent control
but it failed because of lack of continuity. Inability to
sustain policy is possibly one of the major challenges
in Nigeria. The high rate of corruption may have con-
tributed to these challenges as evidence shows that
Nigeria 2017 corruption perception index position is
148th out of 180 as released by Transparency
International, a global anti-corruption watchdog
(Sahara Reporter 2018). Islam et al. (2019) opined
that sustainability is an integral part of the life-cycle
development of infrastructure. This is missing in
Nigeria. The collapse and neglect of the rent control
mechanism led to the policy of mass production of
housing in the urban centres (Ogunshakin and
Olayiwola 1992). The inconsistency of democratic
administration affected the sustainability of the hous-
ing provision policy. For example, the Structural
Adjustment Programme introduced in the early 1990s
for the purpose of economic recovery terminated the
housing programme that would have stood the test of
time. One of the novelties of this paper is to expose
the invalidity of excuses and defend that Nigerian
public housing provision failed because of lack of pol-
icy per se. This is possibly not true; past housing poli-
cies lacked the framework for sustainability.
Ibimilua and Ibitoye (2015) asserted that the 21st-
century witnesses the rural-urban migration of people
to cities for greener pasture. Although rural-urban
migration is possibly not the major variable to the
urban population growth, its significant role cannot
be over-emphasized (UN-Population Division 2011).
The National Population Commission has put
Nigeria’s present populace at 198 million individuals
with urban populace developing at a normal yearly
development rate of about 6.5% (This Day 2018). The
irony is that social amenities and infrastructure are
1090 A. EBEKOZIEN ET AL.

not growing at the same rate. The National Table 1. Selected cities in Nigeria, population (thou-
Population Commission said it grew from 17.3% in sands ‘000).
1967 to 49.4% of the total population in 2017. In City/Year 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
Aba 193 344 484 630 721 836 1015 1252 1529
2014, the World Urbanization Prospects predicts that Benin-City 163 335 689 975 1124 1311 1591 1955 2377
by the year 2050, not less than 70% Nigerians will be Enugu 163 281 394 547 649 775 953 1178 1439
residing in cities yet no visible plan by the govern- Ibadan 809 1186 1739 2236 2509 2855 3418 4165 5028
Ilorin 268 389 515 633 700 788 948 1169 1428
ment to plan towards how to manage this projection Jos 152 331 493 604 666 748 899 1108 1355
and corroborated by Iwuagwu and Iwuagwu (2015). Kaduna 266 628 961 1184 1311 1476 1768 2167 2633
Kano 542 1350 2095 2602 2895 3271 3902 4748 5724
Over the years, all attempts by the Nigerian Lagos 1414 2572 4764 7281 8859 10,788 13,121 15,826 18,857
Governments to institute a framework to address the Ogbomoso 378 485 622 798 904 1039 1256 1545 1884
Onitsha 195 257 337 533 681 867 1088 1346 1642
housing needs of the poor and disadvantaged in the Port Harcourt 266 482 680 1091 1407 1807 2264 2782 3371
cities failed. Although the NHP blueprint is there, Source: Population Division of the Department of Economics and Social
from 1991 document to the revised 2012 document Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospect (UN-
Population Division 2011).
yet failed in the implementation. One of the reasons
is corruption and inadequate institutional framework programmes and participation in housing provision
over the decades. BPSR (2017) claimed that more for countries that have succeeded in LCH, for
than 108 million Nigerians are technically homeless. example, Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong (Alan
The Nigerian Bureau of Statistics in recent times put 2017). The increasing rate of slums in Nigerian cities
Nigeria’s housing deficit at 18 million. Several pro- calls for concern.
grammes have failed, for example, the Family UN-Habitat (2003, 2007) and Shah et al. (2019)
Housing Fund (FHF) (Punch 2016). What is on board described slums as areas that accommodate more
now is called the Federal Integrated Staff Housing than the planned inhabitant especially associated with
Programme, it is private driven. The Nigerian LCH and unconventional buildings with low quality
Government possibly will not get housing provision in some instances. This is possibly because of so
right in this 21st century except it is treated as one of many reasons such as unemployment, high rural-
the major pillars of the four welfare states (social urban migration for greener pastures, shortage of
security, health, education and housing) (Kemeny LCH and high rental fees. Olalekan (2014) defined
2001). Housing plays special roles among the pillars slums as ‘those areas that are yet to develop in terms
in terms of synergy with other constructs of welfare. of good planning and settlement’. Recent development
Evidence shows that government is in the front row in Nigeria shows a deviation from this definition;
of housing development for the LIEs, housing loans with modernized slum areas, that is, areas well
and subsidies in countries that have recorded success planned but accommodating more than what it was
in mass housing provision, for example, Singapore, planned to accommodate in some of these cities
Hong Kong, Austria among others (Phang 2018). (squatters). The resultant effect of squatter settlements
Table 1 presents selected major Nigerian cities and is: illegal attachment, overcrowding, poor urban living
the population projections. It shows that the urban conditions, pressure on amenities and high insecurity
population is rising especially from 1985 to 2010, and (Shah et al. 2019).
the projection continues with steady growth until
2025. The Nigerian housing policy need to reflect this
reality but this is missing. Some parts of the cities are Problems associated with LCH policies in Nigeria
already experiencing squatter challenges. The possible From the year 1960 to date, the government intro-
way out is the provision of LCH for the LIEs because duced various LCH policies. Between 1975 and 2010,
this group cannot afford to buy a home in the open several LCH programmes involving direct construc-
market without government subsidized directly or tion by the government were initiated by the Nigerian
indirectly. Udodiong (2016) averred that Lagos State Governments. Such as the National LCH Scheme
Government at the 2016 World Habitat Day says ‘the (1975–1980), Shagari’s LCH Programme (1980–1985),
housing deficit in Lagos State could be solved with the National Housing Programme (1994–1995), the
the addition of 187,500 new houses yearly within the National Prototype Housing Programme (2000–2003),
next five years. This is because there is a housing def- the Presidential Housing Mandate Scheme (PMHS)
icit, estimated at 2.5 million and the present popula- (2004–2006) and PPP housing schemes; all failed
tion is over 21 million as a state … ’ (p. 1). Records (Ibem et al. 2011; Ebekozien et al. 2017). Although
have shown that government leads in policies, Nigeria has not implemented squatter policy/

Table 2. LCH schemes by the Federal Government of
Nigeria (1962–2010).
Period Proposed housing units Actual housing units
1962–1968 61,000 500
1971–1974 59,000 7080
1975–1980 202,000 30,000
1981–1985 180,000 47,234
1986–1999 121,000 5500
2000–2003 20,000 – –
2004–2006 18,000 840
2007–2010 10,271 4440
Total 653,271 95,594
Source: Onibokun (1985), UN-Habitat (2006) and Ibem et al. (2011).
programme, the above programmes and policies
would have served the same purpose as squatter pol-
icy because the aim is same; ensuring that LIEs have
homes over their heads. Table 2 indicates that none
of the previous public housing programmes achieved
up to 50% of the target. What should we expect when
the household is increasing and the proposed housing
development target is not fulfilled? This has enhanced
the housing demand–supply gap, and one of the
resultant effects is slums (squatters struggle) in sub-
cities/cities across Nigeria.
Many scholars have attempted to identify the prob-
lems, such as weak legislation, long registering prop-
erty period and licenses, lack of risk sharing by the
government, the absence of a national credit database,
fear of stable macroeconomic environment and lack
of basic infrastructure as the major challenges (Akeju
2007; Ibimilua and Ibitoye 2015). While Ebekozien
et al. (2017) reviewed the comparative of LCH policy
in Malaysia and Nigeria. They identified the National
Housing Fund as one of the cherished policies but
failed due to lack of absence of institutional frame-
work that opens up corruption to attack the National
Housing Fund. Fadiye (2005) and Aribigbola (2006)
identified: lax implementation, corruption, inadequate
funding, lack of technological skills for valued prod-
uct, inappropriate legislation on land tenure system,
insufficient infrastructural amenities, as well as low-
income of house buyers, thus, restrict the LIEs from
accessing housing finance. Muhammad et al. (2015)
suggested that housing policies and programmes
should be designed to address the multi-benefit objec-
tives of social, economic and environmental dimen-
sions of housing but lacked the type of housing
policies and programmes. Also, Muhammed and
Bichi (2014) gave a vague suggestion that housing
developers should be involved in LCH development
without stating the parameters.
Some of the developing countries have experienced
the challenge of housing the squatters and were able
to employ mechanism that is people friendly to
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 1091
overcome the squatters struggle. A good example is
Malaysia. This paper attempts to investigate the possi-
% Achieved bility to adopt the mechanism employed by the
0.81
12.00
Malaysian Government via the major participants’
14.85 perspective in the Nigeria context. One of the central
26.24 points to justify the consideration of Malaysian squat-
4.55
ter policies for this paper is because Malaysia is
4.67 among the few developing countries that have
43.23
14.63 recorded success in housing squatters’ policies even
with the global financial challenge. Malaysia and
Nigeria have several things in common. First, both
are developing countries, federal system of govern-
ment, colonized by British Government and inde-
pendence in 1957 for Malaysia and 1960 for Nigeria.
For both, land is a state matter, housing policy
intends to make home affordable and accessible to
the LIEs and the both NHP have gone through modi-
fications (Ebekozien et al. 2017). The Malaysian
Government role in the front row of pro-poor policies
and programmes of LCH is one of the secret of the
recorded success in housing provision. Also, Malaysia
has not experience disruption in democratic system
like Nigeria. Records have shown that corruption is
more pronounced in military dictatorship than civil-
ian government (Ebekozien et al. 2018b).
Zero-squatters LCH: the Malaysia experience
National Urbanisation Policy (2006) reported that in
Malaysia, the lack of LCH for LIEs led to the exist-
ence of squatter settlements in major urban areas in
the country. This resulted in many problems for
urban and environmental side effects such as social
symptoms, poor children’s education, crime, drugs
and misconduct. The concept behind the zero-squat-
ter policy was because the government needed to
urgently address squatter’s issues fairly and equitably
by relocation, compensation (where necessary), distri-
bution of LCH to them at a fair price either to rent
or buy or ‘rent-buy’ policy.
However, states were empowered by the federal too
and some states started this policy at the different
time. States associated with urban cities started first,
for example, Kuala Lumpur, followed by Selangor,
Johor and Sarawak. Sufian and Mohamad (2009)
reported that during this period (1990–2003) in Kuala
Lumpur and (2005–2007) in Selangor, respectively,
there was a sudden reduction in the number of squat-
ters because of the zero squatter policy undertaken by
both states. Under this policy, each state targeted the
year 2005 as zero squatters’ year. And in 2006, the
government made serious efforts to clear the
1092 A. EBEKOZIEN ET AL.
squatters. Records from the National Housing Policy
(2011) shown that more actions are needed to get it
right. Data captured under computerized open regis-
tration system managed by the MHLG, from 1st
January 2009 to 31st August 2010, show that 20,426
applicants have registered to own or rent LCH
nationwide. This pragmatic approach is missing in
Nigeria, coupled with corruption and absence of insti-
tutional framework.
The Malaysian Government during the Ninth
Malaysia Plan (MP) (2006–2010) formally imple-
mented the Programme Perumahan Rakyat Bersepadu
for the resettlement of squatters across the country.
In the tenth MP (2011–2015), to address the issue of
poor housing maintenance, the government estab-
lished Housing Maintenance Fund with an initial
funding of RM500 million (RM4.20 to 1US Dollar as
at 28th November 2018) to assist the residents of
both public and private LCH units. This fund was
based on a matching grant where half of the contribu-
tion comes from residents through their joint man-
agement body or management corporation. The
private developers were encouraged to build-then-sell
approached with incentives from the government at a
regulated selling price to protect the LIEs. Also, hous-
ing providers were accredited in the usage of skilled
and improved construction processes (10th Malaysia
Plan 2011). This include the government major role
in meeting the housing needs of targeted LCH group
in urban and rural areas by continuing supporting
existing successful programmes via financing. This
includes programmes under People Housing
Programme, My First Home Scheme, Youth Housing
Scheme and MyHome.
Social relevance and impact of this paper
It is obvious that the Malaysian pro-poor housing
policies and programmes can successfully achieve the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) associated
with housing before the year 2030. The SDGs are the
outline to accomplish an improved sustainable future
for all (UN News Centre 2018). The Malaysian Zero-
Squatter LCH programme has a link with four of the
17 identified SDGs (2015–2030), which include goal 1
(no poverty), goal 3 (good health and well-being),
goal 10 (reduced inequalities) and goal 11 (sustainable
cities and communities). These four goals intercon-
nect because housing provision increases job oppor-
tunity and the resultant effect would be economic
growth with sustainable livelihood. In principle, this
would reduce inequalities, a form of wealth
distribution. Because studies have shown that inhabit-
able environment increases the well-being of the
occupants (Gambo et al. 2019; World Bank Press
Release 2017). The overall outcome is sustainable cit-
ies and communities across Malaysia. This can be
replicated in Nigeria via the Malaysian pro-poor
housing policy.
Policy can only be implementable successfully
when the right institutional framework and corrupt
clean environment is established. Corruption in
Nigeria is fantastically high to the extent that it is
being quoted that Mr. President says ‘ … .if you don’t
kill corruption, corruption will kill you … ’ (Federal
Ministry of Power, Works & Housing 2018, p. 1).
Also, Nigeria needs to develop a pro-poor friendly
mortgage institution for the LIEs to access housing
loan. Effect from 2nd January 2019, the Bank Negara
Malaysia (BNM) made RM 1 billion funds for afford-
able homes for LIEs of household income, not above
RM2,300 per month (BNM Press Release 2018). This
is one of the contributions of this study, to focus on
LCH issues and offered a comparative analysis that
affords insights into the Malaysian potential squatter
housing policy practices that made Malaysia a zero
squatter free country which could be implemented in
Nigeria to address the prolonged chronic squatter
problem. The Central Bank of Nigeria should emulate
her counterpart in Malaysia, set pro-poor standard
for the maximum household income to be qualified
for the FHF.
The theory that informed this paper
This section discusses the related concepts and theory
that support the framework of this paper with a view
to mitigating squatters in Nigerian urban cities. One
phenomenon that is certain with this study is that
housing shortage or unaffordable leads to squatting;
and dominant within the LIE group. This framework
is an attempt to address the possible policy solutions
so that LIEs can afford rent or homeownership as
applicable to nations that treat housing provision as
one of the major pillars of welfare. This paper
adopted Public Interest Theory of Regulation. It is
also called ‘public interest’ or ‘helping hand’ theory of
regulation (Pigou 1932). This is based on two
assumptions. First, unobstructed markets often fail
because of the problems of monopoly or externalities.
Second, governments are compassionate and capable
of correcting these market failures through regulation
(Hantke-Domas 2003). Scholars like Hertog et al.
(2003), Ndubueze (2009) and Iheme (2017) have used

Legislate and Regulate Via Policy,
Programme, and Regulation
Right Policies
Strong Institutional Framework
Fight Corruption
Create Jobs
Right Mortgage
Accessible/Affordable/Subsidy Fund
Right Cost
Affordable Controlled Price for LCH
Right Quality and Quantity
Standard Habitable LCH Unit
Right Place/Location
Availability of Land in Cities
Figure 1. Proposed study’s framework.
this theory of regulation as a recommendation of
what governments should do in a democratic setting.
Majority of the pro-poor housing policies in Malaysia
is anchored on this theory.
Many scholars, such as Hantke-Domas (2003),
Ndubueze (2009) and Iheme (2017) affirmed that
regulation promotes the general welfare of the masses
rather than the interests of well-organized stakehold-
ers. They recognize regulation theory as an optimistic
theory. This theory was adopted by Ndubueze (2009)
and Iheme (2017) in a similar study; hence suitable
for this study. One of the uniqueness of this theory is
the belief that it is for the ‘public interest’, thus,
applying this theory to mitigate squatting of LIEs by
the provision of affordable and accessible LCH across
the Nigerian cities via policy and institutional frame-
work cannot be over-emphasized. Figure 1 illustrates
the study’s framework of achieving mitigated squat-
ting and improved LCH provision to LIEs across the
urban cities in Nigeria. The issues as reviewed from
the existing literature, for example, weak institutional
framework that have affected sustainability, corrup-
tion, unemployment, rural-urban migration, increas-
ing population, relaxed LCH policy, absence of
subsidies, high cost of land in cities, high rejection of
housing finance among others can be addressed via
government regulation with public interest in mind.
The method to achieve this aim is discussed in the
subsequent section.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 1093
Improved LCH Provision
will eliminate Squatting
Research design and methodology
The study adopted the phenomenological form of
qualitative research since it is esteemed exploratory
and descriptive in nature (Stysko-Kunkowska 2014).
The need to apply this unexplored dimension and
focus on the participants’ knowledgeable background
to finding possible solutions to this real-life problem
prompted this approach (Fellows and Liu 2015). The
study data were collected through in-depth face-to-face
oral interviews and validation was done by secondary
sources (newsprints and government documents).
Snowball, a type of non-probability sampling technique
was adopted because it allows the researcher’s partici-
pants to recruit other knowledgeable participants for
the study (Creswell 2014). The study adopted
MAXQDA 2018 to support the thematic analysis.
Thematic analysis, a technique for identifying, analy-
sing and detailing subjects inside information was
embraced for this investigation (Stysko-Kunkowska
2014). The study covered five Nigerian cities, which
include Abuja, Kano, Lagos, Onitsha and Port
Harcourt because Lagos and Kano have the highest
population in the southern and northern cities respect-
ively, while the other three are in strategic locations.
Table 3 shows the participants’ background. For confi-
dentiality, the names of the cities, organizations, name
of participants and ranks were masked in Table 3. The
participants were knowledgeable in the subject matter
with vast of experience across the spectrum.
1094 A. EBEKOZIEN ET AL.
Table 3. Summary of participants’ description and locations.
Participant/City
Ministry of Housing Senior Staff (GI to G5)
Private Developers (P1 to P5)
Estate Valuers (E1 to E5)
Mortgage Bankers (B1 to B5)
LIEs (L1 to L3)
Total
Invitation letters were issued to intending partici-
pants and the interview took place between April
2018 and September 2018 across the five cities; each
interview took an average of 90 min. The participants
rank (although concealed for confidentiality) were
considered as legitimate officers and has true know-
ledge about the topic by and large. Information was
gathered by means of semi-structured and open-
ended interview strategies (Denscombe 2007;
Maunganidze 2013). It took a long time before the
researchers could persuade the government personnel
in City A, B and C respectively that their identity and
cities would be concealed. Guided by arranged inter-
view themes, questions started on a general note
before seeking after more explicit inquiries dependent
on the reactions of the members. Among the ques-
tions asked were: What do you think is the root
cause(s) of failure of Nigerian housing policy? What
do you think is the cause(s) of the high level of squat-
ters in Nigerian cities? Can you suggest possible solu-
tions that will mitigate high squatting in the Nigerian
cities? Full meeting verbatim transcripts were deliv-
ered to facilitate the understanding of the data and
empower the determination of statements for illustra-
tive purposes (Denscombe 2007). In addition to the
member checking, triangulation and researcher’s
reflexivity were adopted as a mixed validity approach
(Creswell and Creswell 2018). The study adopted
theming, narrative, in vivo, emotion and attribute
coding strategies (Saldana 2015). Forty-five codes
(highlight coding ¼ 15, emoticode ¼ 03 and text cod-
ing ¼ 27) were derived and sorted into eight catego-
ries based on reference, occurrence, frequency and
relationship. Hence, three themes emerged from the
eight categories. The themes and the connection are
the main results of the study. The results are reported
and discussed in detail in the next section.
Analysis and discussion of results
The challenges faced with the Nigerian housing have
been investigated by several scholars but none have
holistically looked at squatters struggle across the
country in regard to LCH. This paper not only dealt
on LCH but also shared a practical experience of a
model that was used by a country that has similar
Total attributes with Nigeria. Although Malaysia is a devel-
5 oping country but has gone far in terms of develop-
5
5 ment, manufacturing and industrialization. This paper
5 suggests that Nigeria can solve the LCH challenges
3
23 since Malaysia could resolve her long time squatters’
struggles. The findings and discussion are discussed
under three themes as follows:
Theme one: causes of failure of housing policies
in Nigeria
Theme one ‘root causes of failure of housing policies
in Nigeria’ gives the participants the opportunity to
identify hindrances associated with the Nigerian LCH
policies implementation. Findings show that ‘deadly
cancer corruption’, weak institutional framework, lax
policy and enforcement, lack of political will, the
absence of national housing database, unstable macro-
economic environment, inadequate funding and
inappropriate legislation on land tenure system were
the major root causes of the several failures of various
Nigerian housing policies over the years. The institu-
tional framework of the housing policy to date is not
pro-poor friendly and anti-sustainable. For example,
the Shagari Housing Programme of the early 1980s
could not stand because of the weak institutional
framework. The weak institutional framework has a
link with corruption. ‘Corruption and sound housing
policy is likely to acidic ground with a fertile seed’.
The issue of corruption in the hands of the govern-
ment officials should be addressed right from land
acquisition, processing of building documents and
construction phase (L1, L2, P1, P2, P3 & P5).
However, the government officials denied the allega-
tion of corruption in the land registration and
approval process (G1 & G4). But findings show that
corruption plays out in a different form. This agrees
with the findings of Akeju (2007) and Ibimilua and
Ibitoye (2015). The scholars opined that corruption is
the root causes of the previous housing poli-
cies failure.
Pragmatic policy and enforcement are germane to
housing delivery, this is lacking in the Nigerian sys-
tem (B2, B4, E3, E5). Though the government officials
agree there is a weak implementation of the housing
policy but stress that finance is their major challenge
(G3, G4 & G5). Other hindrances identified are lack
of housing database, unstable microeconomic envir-
onment, and administrative inefficiencies (B1, B2, E3,
P2 & P3). This agrees with Akeju (2007), he affirmed
that investor, lender and even borrowers prefer a
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 1095

stable economy where a decision can be taken with- should address the issue of corruption and strengthen
out any apprehension of interest and inflation rates. public housing institutions via programmes and feas-
ible institutional framework that can be sustained.
Theme two: reasons for high level of squatters in Viewpoints from participants (E3, L1, P2 & B1) sug-
Nigerian cities gest that agencies saddled with the responsibility to
tackle corruption ‘head-on’ should be allowed to
Theme two ‘reasons for the high level of squatters in
operate independently. Findings agree with Gambo
Nigerian cities’, gives the participants the opportunity
et al. (2019). They urge governments at all levels to
to identify reasons based on perception of why
eschew and curb corruption, establish good constitu-
Nigerian citizens are squatters in cities. Findings show
tional framework among others. The National
that high rural-urban migration for greener pasture,
Housing Fund is one of the suitable housing policies
high unemployment, high cost of the habitable rental
that would have mitigated LIEs squatter but corrup-
fee, low earned income and scanty LCH are the major
tion killed the policy before arrival. This is one area
reasons for the high level of squatters within the
that has not been fully studied with paucity of litera-
Nigerian urban cities. This finding agrees with UN-
ture in regard to the level of corrupt practices in the
Habitat (2007). Viewpoint from participant L3 says
National Housing Fund. More studies need to be con-
‘ … I came to this city thinking it would be better;
ducted in this direction. Therefore, government
sharing one room with four persons … .’ Participant L2
should enact policies that would be all-inclusive in
says ‘ … I am planning to go back to the village, I can’t
the provision of LCH and LIEs access to finance (G3,
continue like this, although I am a graduate, no job … ’
G5, P3, L1 & P5).
Others are lack of planning for the LIEs in the urban
While the viewpoints from participants (B1 & B3)
cities by the government (P2, B2, E4, G2 & G3), banks
suggest the need for government to provide mortgage
reluctance to lend house buyers loan because of lack of
insurance for the regular salary earners that do not
collateral and weak creditworthy (P2, B1 & B2).
have any means of collateral so that this group of per-
Viewpoint from (B2, B4, E3 & E5) say that govern-
sons can access housing loan. Also, G3, G5, P1 & P4
ment not willing to share risk by providing mortgage
recommend rent subsidies as a way out for individual
insurance to first-time house buyers that have a regu-
that may want to rent house. In their opinion, this
lar source of income. This is where the Malaysian
would reduce the ‘squatting cancer’ around the major
Government’s stand differs, with policy tailored
urban cities. In Malaysia, there is a scheme that
towards the poor and disadvantaged. L2 says ‘ … there
allowed citizens that earn below RM750 per month to
are houses in City A, most of them for high-income
pay RM120 per month for apartment including main-
earners; no regulation from government compelling
tenance fees ( Ebekozien et al. 2017, 2018a). This can
these kleptocrat developers to construct LCH and
be achieved in Nigeria. Nigeria needs a strong polit-
regulate selling and rental price like what is obtain-
ical will and leadership sincerity; in addition to a
able in some other countries … ’. This allegation was
drastic fight against corruption by example. This is
confirmed from the newsprint; more than 68% of
presently missing with cases of allegation against the
Nigerian workers live in rented houses with the high
top ruling party members that came into power with
cost of a mortgage at 24% interest rate (Vanguard
the three-point agenda, which includes fight against
2017). If this issue is not tackled head-on, squatting
corruption. Example is the ‘grass-cutter in the
and slums increase would continue. This finding
Presidency’ and the ‘Kano State Governor dollar stuff-
agrees with Shah et al. (2019); they affirmed that
ing’ online video.
slums pose major encumbrances in developing
Participant G4 says ‘ … these things are there,
nations with densely populated areas with less basic
budget year in, budget year out on housing provision
infrastructural facilities.
for all but corruption, nepotism, tribalism has eaten
the system, my brother, it is a pitiable scenario and
Theme three: suggest pragmatic solutions to
complicated’. L2 says ‘ … the government have a
achieve zero squatters in Nigerian cities
responsibility to provide homes for the masses that
Theme three ‘feasible solutions to achieve zero squat- cannot afford to maintain regular rent not leaving
ters in Nigerian cities’ gives the participants an everything in the hands of developers without regula-
opportunity to suggest a way out of this high level of tion and checking’. Viewpoints from participants G1
squatters in Nigerian cities. Findings show that major- and G3 plead with LIEs to be patient that very soon
ity of the participants agree that the government the federal government will commence the Family
1096 A. EBEKOZIEN ET AL.
Home Fund Programme. The Family Home Fund is
interest-free and no down payment for LIEs. It is a
joint venture between the Nigerian Sovereign
Investment and the Federal Ministry of Finance as
founding shareholders and PricewaterhouseCoopers
with the mission to construct over 500,000 homes
and create not less than 1.5 million jobs for Nigerians
on low-income group by the year 2030 at the average
cost of NGN3.5 million per unit (Kwen 2018). This
paper raises the following questions: How many
Nigerian LIEs can afford NGN3.5 million for one
unit of home? How many Nigerians earn up to
NGN30,000 per month as one of the conditions to
access the fund?
A country where some state governors are negoti-
ating a percentage of salary to be paid at
NGN18,000 minimum, the same government is talk-
ing about a minimum of NGN30,000 to be able to
access the housing loan. This scheme has failed
because it is already serving a different purpose as
against the primary aim of a social intervention pro-
gramme for LIEs homeownership. Viewpoints from
participants P2, P3, B1, B2 & E2 suggest that the
federal government should review the Pension Act
to allow contributors access a certain percentage of
their savings in the Nigerian Pension Scheme while
in service for the purpose of making part or full
payment for home purchase only. This is pragmatic
because this is one of the policy solutions adopted
by the Malaysian Government.
Conclusion and recommendations
The roadmap to zero squatters LCH in Nigeria can
commence by adopting the Malaysian zero-squatters’
programmes and policies. Hence, the first thing to do
is to create a database of all squatters residing in
Nigerian cities and come up with short- and long-
term plans to address this social ill. At this stage, it
has to be an all-inclusive approach in terms of LCH
provision for squatters/LIEs in urban cities. This is
because the majority of squatters are LIEs who either
migrated from the rural to urban or disengaged from
work (unemployed). Thus, the Nigerian Government
needs to be fully involved as a provider and facilitator
of LCH. The governments should start providing sol-
utions in line with international best practices because
housing is a welfare scheme. This is where consult-
ation, cooperation and knowledge sharing within the
major stakeholders are germane; while politics and
self-interest should be set aside. Attempting to make
cheap political score has hindered some novelty
housing programmes that the past successors would
have continued.
This brings us to the issue of the institutional
framework. Only a well-defined institutional frame-
work can assure sustainability. The government
should revamp the institutional framework via the
commencement of the physical planning implemen-
tation procedures of urban renewal and slum
upgrading programme. The reform policy should set
rules that would impose LCH quota development on
housing developers with control price selling and
weighty sanctions for defaulters well spelt-out so
that SDGs 2030 in regard to housing would become
a reality. The proposed imposed LCH quota devel-
opment on Nigerian housing developers in cities is
one of this study’s contributions to the body of
knowledge, hence, birthed feasible policies, life-
impacting growth and attempt to solve one of the
dilemmas confronting humankind.
The state government should make land avail-
able to genuine housing developers rather than
developers chasing after original landowners for
land. This will facilitate the provision of LCH. The
Central Bank of Nigeria should review the Federal
Housing Fund scheme to give an opportunity for
the target group to access the fund with subsidies
as a form of intervention. Also, the Nigerian
Pension Act should be amended via the National
Pension Commission to allow LIEs contributors
have access to a certain percent of their savings
while still in service for the purpose of making
down payment or part payment for the housing
loan. This is in practise in Malaysia and has
enhanced home ownership. Finally, this study’s
analysis is limited because of the approach adopted.
The primary reason was to explore the root cause
since the problem has lingered on for over four
decades yet no feasible and sustainable solutions.
Therefore, future studies could carry out similar
study with a larger sample size via quantitative
approach for wider generalization of findings.
Acknowledgments
Authors would like to acknowledge the financial support
from the Universiti Sains Malaysia via research grant num-
ber 1001/PPBGN/816296.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by
the authors.

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