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Matrix Algebra, Basics of

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M

Consistent A system of linear equations is

Matrix Algebra, Basics of
and said to be consistent if it has a
inconsistent solution, and it is called
Ayman Badawi
system of inconsistent if it has no solutions
Department of Mathematics, American
linear
University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab
equations
Emirates
Cramer rule Cramer’s rule is an explicit
formula for the solution of a
system of linear equations with
Synonyms as many equations as unknowns,
valid whenever the system has a
Addition and subtraction of matrices; Augmented unique solution. It expresses the
matrix; Consistent and inconsistent system; solution in terms of the
Cramer rule; Determinant of a matrix; Echelon determinants of the (square)
form; Elementary matrix; Invertible coefficient matrix and of
(nonsingular) matrices; Multiplication of matri- matrices obtained from it by
ces; Symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices; replacing one column by the
Transpose of a matrix constant column of right hand
sides of the equations. It is
named after Gabriel Cramer
Glossary (1704–1752)
Determinant The determinant is a value
Augmented An augmented matrix of a of a matrix associated with a square matrix.
matrix system of linear equations It can be computed from the
written in matrix form CX = B is entries of the matrix by a specific
a matrix of the form [C|B], arithmetic expression, while
where C is the coefficient matrix other ways to determine its value
of the system and B is the exist as well. Determinants
constant column of the system occur throughout mathematics.
The use of determinants in
calculus includes the Jacobian
determinant in the substitution
rule for integrals of functions of

# Springer Science+Business Media LLC 2016

R. Alhajj, J. Rokne (eds.), Encyclopedia of Social Network Analysis and Mining,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-7163-9_151-1
2 Matrix Algebra, Basics of
several variables. They are used
to define the characteristic
polynomial of a matrix that is an
essential tool in eigenvalue
problems in linear algebra
Elementary An elementary matrix is a matrix
matrix which differs from the identity
matrix (In) by one single
elementary row operation
Equivalent Two matrices are equivalent if
matrices each is obtained from the other
by applying a sequence of row
operations
Identity In Let n
2 be a positive integer.
matrix Then B = In is the square matrix,
n  n, where bij = 1 if i = j and
bij = 0 if i 6¼ j. If A is an n  m
matrix, then AIm = A and In
A = A.
Invertible A square matrix A, n  n, is said
(nonsingular) to be invertible or nonsingular if
matrix there exists a matrix n  n
denoted by A1 such that
AA1 = A1 A = In
Matrix n  m A matrix is a block consisting of
n row and m column. An entry in
a matrix B located in the i th row
and j th column of B is denoted
by bij
Symmetric A square matrix A, n  n, is said
matrix and to be symmetric if AT = A, and it
skew- is called a skew symmetric if
symmetric AT = A
matrix
Transpose of The transpose of a matrix A is
a matrix denoted by AT such that aTij ¼ aji
Definition
In this entry, we describe all basic matrix opera-
tions: Addition, subtraction, and multiplication.
We show the importance of matrices in studying
system of linear equations (augmented matrix and
row operations). We show different methods used
in calculating determinant of a square matrix. We
show the importance of determinant in solving
system of linear equations (Cramer rule) and in
finding the inverse of a matrix (Adjoint method).
Introduction
Graphs are very useful ways of presenting infor-
mation about social networks. However, when
there are many actors and/or many kinds of rela-
tions, they can become so visually complicated
that it is very difficult to see patterns. It is also
possible to represent information about social net-
works in the form of matrices. Representing the
information in this way also allows the application
of mathematical and computer tools to summarize
and find patterns. Social network analysts use
matrices in a number of different ways. So, under-
standing a few basic things about matrices from
mathematics is necessary. For example, the sim-
plest and most common matrix is binary. That is, if
a tie is present, a one is entered in a cell; if there is
no tie, a zero is entered. This kind of a matrix is the
starting point for almost all network analysis and
is called an “adjacency matrix” because it repre-
sents who is next to or adjacent to whom in the
“social space” mapped by the relations that we
have measured. The following is an example of a
binary matrix:
2 3
0 1 1
40 0 15
0 1 0
Matrices and linear algebra are surely inseparable
subjects, and they are important “concepts”
needed in many aspects of real life science. The
subject of linear algebra can be partially explained
by the meaning of the two terms comprising the
title. We can understand “linear” to mean anything
that is “straight” or “flat”. For example, in the
xy-plane we are accustomed to describing straight
lines as the set of solutions to an equation of the
form y ¼ mx þ b , where the slope m and the
y-intercept b are constants that together describe
the line. Living in three dimensions, with coordi-
nates described by triples (x, y, z), they can be
described as the set of solutions to equations of
the form ax þ by þ cz ¼ d, where a, b, c, d are
Matrix Algebra, Basics of 3

constants that together determine the plane. While
we might describe planes as “flat”, lines in three
dimensions might be described as “straight”.
From a multivariate calculus course, we recall
that lines are sets of points described by equations
such as x = 3t  4, y = 7t + 2, z = 9t, where t is a
parameter that can take on any value.
Another view of this notion of “flatness” is to
recognize that the sets of points just described are
solutions to equations of a relatively simple form.
These equations involve addition and multiplica-
tion only. Here are some examples of typical
equations:
2x þ 3y  4z ¼ 134
x1 þ 5x2  x3 þ x4 þ x5 ¼ 0
9a  2b þ 7c þ 2d ¼ 7
What we will not see in a linear algebra course are
equations like:
xy þ 5yz ¼ 13x1 þ x32 =x4  x3 x4 x25 ¼ 0
cos ðabÞ þ logðc  dÞ ¼ 2
The material presented here can be found in
every textbook on basic linear algebra. Since there
are so many textbooks on basic linear algebra, and
we cannot list all of them, we refer to a few books
here. For example, Axler (1997), Bernstein
(2005), Beezer (2012), Blyth and Robertson
(2002), Kaw (2011), Lang (1986), Lay (2003),
Robbiano (2011), and Shores (2007.
System of Linear Equations
Matrices play an important role in solving a sys-
tem of linear equations as we will see later on in
this section. Let R be the set of all real numbers
and C be the set of all complex numbers. Then
Rn ¼ fða1 , a2 , . . . , an Þ=a1 , a2 , . . . , an  Rg and
Cn ¼ fða1 , a2 , . . . , an Þ=a1 , a2 , . . . , an  Cg . An
element of Rn(C n) is called a point.
A system of linear equations is a collection of
m equations with n variable x1, x2, x3, . . ., xn of the
form

A system of linear equations in several unknowns a11 x1 þ a12 x2 þ a13 x3 þ . . . þ a1n xn ¼ b1

a21 x1 þ a22 x2 þ a23 x3 þ . . . þ a2n xn ¼ b2
is naturally represented using the formalism of
a31 x1 þ a32 x2 þ a33 x3 þ . . . þ a3n xn ¼ b3
matrices.
⋮
The word “algebra” is used frequently in math-
am1 x1 þ am2 x2 þ am3 x3 þ . . . þ amn xn ¼ bm
ematical preparation courses. Most likely, we
(1)
have spent a good 10–15 years learning the alge-
bra of the real numbers, along with some intro-
where aij , bj  Rð  CÞ.
duction to the very similar algebra of complex
A point ða1 , . . . , an Þ  Rn ð  Cn Þ is said to be a
numbers. However, there are many new algebras
solution to a system of linear equations with n
to learn and use, and likely, linear algebra and
variables, x1, x2, x3, . . ., xn as in (1) if we substitute
matrix operations will be our second algebra.
a1 for x1, a2 for x2, a3 for x3, . . ., an for xn,; then,
Like learning a second language, the necessary
for every equation of the system the left side will
adjustments can be challenging at times, but the
equal the right side, i.e., each equation is true
rewards are many. And it will make learning our
simultaneously.
third and fourth algebras even easier. Perhaps,
Let F be a set. Then |F| denotes the cardinality
“groups” and “rings” are excellent examples of
of the set F, i.e., the number of the elements in F.
other algebras with very interesting properties and
applications.
Theorem 1 Let F  Rn ð Cn Þ be the set of all
The brief discussion above about lines and
solutions to a system of linear equations with n
planes suggests that linear algebra has an inher-
variables. Then either |F| = 1 (i.e., the system has
ently geometric nature, and this is true. Examples
unique solution) or F is an empty set (i.e., the
in two and three dimensions can be used to pro-
system has no solution) or |F| = 1 (i.e., the
vide valuable insight into important concepts of
system has infinitely many solutions).
this subject.
4 Matrix Algebra, Basics of
Example 1 F ¼ fð2, 1Þg is the set of all solu-
tions to the system 2x1 þ x2 ¼ 5, x1 þ 2x2 ¼ 4
(i.e., x1 ¼ 2, x2 ¼ 1 , and hence, the solution is
unique).
F ¼ fða1 , 2a1 þ 3Þ=a1  Rg is the set of all
solutions to the system 2x1 þ x2 ¼ 3,  4x1 þ
2x2 ¼ 6 (i.e., the system has infinitely many
solutions).
The system x1 þ 2x2 ¼ 0, 2x1 þ 4x2 ¼ 1 has
no solutions.
A system of linear equations is called consis-
tent if it has a solution, and it is called inconsistent
if it has no solutions. A system of linear equations
as in (1) is called homogeneous if b1 ¼ b2 ¼   
¼ bm ¼ 0.
Theorem 2 Every homogeneous system of linear
equations is consistent (i.e., (0, 0,. . .,0) is always a
solution of such system). If a system of linear
equations is consistent and it has more variables
than equations, then the system has infinitely
many solutions. In particular, if a homogenous
system has more variables than equations, then it
has infinitely many solutions.
Two systems of linear equations are equivalent
if their solution sets are equal.
Theorem 3 If we apply one or two or all of the
following equation operations to a system of lin-
ear equations as many times as we want, then the
original system and the transformed system are
equivalent.
1. Swap the locations of two equations in the list
of equations.
2. Multiply each term of an equation by a nonzero
quantity.
3. Multiply each term of one equation by some
quantity and add these terms to a second equa-
tion, on both sides of the equality. Leave the
first equation the same after this operation but
replace the second equation by the new one.
In light of Theorem 3, one can view each
equation of a system of linear equations as a row
of a matrix and each equation operation in Theo-
rem 3 as a row operation on a matrix. Hence, we
have the following well-known row operations.
Let A be an m  n matrix (i.e., A has m rows
and n columns). Then each of the following is
called a row operation on A.
1. Swap the locations of two rows.
2. Multiply each entry of a single row by a non-
zero quantity.
3. Multiply each entry of one row by some quan-
tity and add these values to the entries in the
same columns of a second row. Leave the first
row the same after this operation but replace
the second row by the new values.
We will use the following notations to describe
the row operations stated above:
1. Ri $ Rj : Swap the location of rows i and j.
2. aRi: Multiply row i by the nonzero scalar a.
3. aRi þ Rj ! Rj : Multiply row i by the scalar a
and add to row j, so that row j will change but
no change in row i.
Two matrices, A, B, of the same size, say m  n,
are said to be row-equivalent if and only if A is
obtained from B by applying a sequence of row
operations on B.
The following type of matrices is needed in
order to achieve our main goal and solve a system
of linear equations using augmented matrices.
A matrix A, m  n, is called in reduced row-
echelon form if it meets all of the following
conditions:
1. If there is a row where every entry is zero, then
this row lies below any other row that contains
a nonzero entry.
2. The leftmost nonzero entry of a row is equal to 1.
3. The leftmost nonzero entry of a row is the only
nonzero entry in its column.
4. Consider any two different leftmost nonzero
entries, one located in row i, column j and the
other located in row s, column t. If s > i, then
t > j.
A matrix A, m  n, is said to be in row-echelon
form if and only if A satisfies conditions (1), (2),
and (4) as above.
Matrix Algebra, Basics of 5

2 3
0 1 3 0 0 independent variable, we understand that xk can
Example 2 The matrix A ¼ 4 0 0 0 1 0 5 take any real (complex) value.
0 0 0 0 1 Consider the following system:
is in reduced row-echelon form.
2 3
1 1 1 1 x1 þ 2x2  x3 þ 2x4 ¼ 1
A matrix A ¼ 4 0 0 1 4 5 is in row- 2x1  4x2 þ 3x3  4x4 ¼ 2
0 0 0 1 x1  2x2 þ x3  2x4 ¼ 1
echelon form but not in reduced row-
echelon form. Whose augmented matrix is equivalent to the
 
0 1 matrix
The matrix A ¼ is a neither in row-
1 0 2 3
echelon form nor in reduced row-echelon form. 1 2 0 2 j5
E ¼ 40 0 1 0 j4 5
Theorem 4 Let A be a matrix, m  n. Then A is 0 0 0 0 j0
row-equivalent to a unique matrix, m  n, in
reduced row-echelon form. in reduced row-echelon form, which corresponds
Consider the system in (1). The augmented to the system:
matrix of the system is
x1 þ 2x2 þ 2x4 ¼ 5
2 3 x3 ¼ 4
a11 a12 ... a1n jb1
6 a21 a22 ... a2n jb2 7 0¼0
6 7
4⋮ ⋮ ... ⋮ ⋮5
am1 am2 ... amn j bm No equation of this system has a form zero =
nonzero. Therefore, the original system is consis-
where a1i, a2i, . . ., ami are the coefficients of the tent. The dependent (leading) variables are x1 and
variable xi in the system (1). In view of Theorem x3. The independent (free) variables are x2 and x4.
3, we have the following result. Thus, x2, x4 can take any real (complex) values.
We write the leading variables in terms of the
Theorem 5 Let A be the augmented matrix of a dependent variables. Thus, we have:
given system of linear equations and let E be the
reduced row-echelon form of A. Then the solution x1 ¼ 5  2x2  2x4
set of the given system is equal to the solution set x3 ¼ 4
x2 , x4  RðCÞ
of the system that has E as its augmented matrix.
Hence, the solution set of the original system is
Theorem 6 Let A be the augmented matrix of a
given system of linear equations and let E be the
F ¼ fð5  2x2  2x4 , x2 , 4, x4 Þ=x2 , x4  RðCÞg:
reduced row-echelon form of A. Then the given
system is consistent if and only if none of the
equations that correspond to the matrix E has a
form zero = nonzero. Matrix Operations
Suppose A is the augmented matrix of a con-
sistent system of linear equations and let E be the Let Mnm be the set of all n  m matrices with
reduced row-echelon form of A. Suppose j is the entries from R(C) for some positive integers n,m.
index of a column of B that contains the leading If A  Mnm, then aij denotes the entry in the
1 for some row. Then the variable xj is said to be matrix A that is located in the i th row and the j th
dependent or leading. A variable that is not depen- column of A. If A  Mnm, then we say that
dent is called independent or free. If xk is an size(A) = n  m.
6 Matrix Algebra, Basics of

Theorem 7 (Addition, subtraction, and multipli- 3. The second row of D is Dr2 ¼ 3½ 1 2 3
cation by a scalar) Let A, B be two matrices and þ 0½ 0 5 2  þ 6 ½ 3 7 4 .
a  R(C). Then A + B and A  B is defined if and
only if size(A) = size(B). Furthermore, suppose Note that BA is undefined by Theorem 8. In
that size(A) = size(B), A + B = C, A  B = D, fact, it is possible that for some matrices A, B that
and aA = F. Then cij = aij + bij, dij = aij  bij, and AB and BA are defined but AB 6¼ BA.
fij = aaij.
Theorem 9 Let i be a positive integer and A be a
Example 3 matrix. Then Ai ¼ A  A      A (i times)
    is defined if and only if A is a square matrix, i.e.,
3 4 1 2 0 1 A  Mnn for some positive integer n.
Let A ¼ ,B ¼ , and
1 0 2  4 2 1
1 4 2 Theorem 10
a ¼ 2: Then A þ B ¼ C ¼ ,
  3 2 3
5 4 0 1. Let a, b  RðCÞ, A, B  Mnm and let C  Mmk.
AB¼D¼ , and
 5 2 1 Then ðaA þ bBÞC ¼ aAC þ bBC.
6 8 2 2. Let a, b  RðCÞ, A, B  Mnm and let C  Mkn.
2A ¼
2 0 4 Then ðaA þ bBÞC ¼ aAC þ bBC.
3. Let A  Mnm , B  Mmk , and C  Mki . Then
For a matrix A  Mnm , let Ari denote the i th ABC ¼ ðABÞC ¼ AðBCÞ.
row of A and let Aci denote the i th column of A.
Theorem 11 (Matrix-form of a system of linear
Theorem 8 (Matrix multiplication) Let A be an equations) Consider the system in (1).
2 3 2 3
m  n matrix and B be a n k matrix. Then the a11 a12    a1n x1
matrix multiplication AB is defined if and only if 6 a21 a22    a2n 7 6 x2 7
C¼6 4⋮
7, X ¼ 6 7, and
n = n. Furthermore, suppose that n = n and let ⋮ ⋮ ⋮5 4⋮5
AB = D. Then the following statements hold: a a    amn xn
2 m13 m2
1. Size(D) = m k and d i, j ¼ ai, 1 b1, j þ ai, 2 b2, j b1
þ   þ ai, n bn, j [dot product]. 6 b2 7
B¼6 7
4 ⋮ 5. Then (in view of Theorem 8(2)), the
2. Dci ¼ b1i Ac1 þ b2i Ac2 þ    þ bni Acn [linear
combination of the columns of A]. bm
3. Dri ¼ ai1 Br1 þ ai2 Br2 þ    þ ain Brn [linear matrix-form of the system in (1) is CX = B, where
combination of the rows of B]. C is called the coefficient matrix of the system,
X is called the variables-column of the system, and
 
1 2 5 B is called the constant column of the system.
Example 4 Let A¼ and
3 0 6
2 3 Theorem 12 Let CX = B be the matrix-form of a
1 2 3
B¼ 0 4 5 5
2 . Then AB is defined by given system of linear equations with m equations
3 7 4 and n variables (hence, size(C) = m  n, size(X) =
Theorem 8. Let AB = D. Then n  1, and size(B) = m  1). Then the given
system is consistent if and only if there are some
1. Size(D) = 2  3 and d23 ¼ ð 3Þð3Þ þ ð0Þð2Þ real (complex) numbers, r1, r2,. . ., rn, such that
þ ð6Þð4Þ. B ¼ r 1 Cc1 þ r 2 Cc2 þ    þ r n Ccn is a linear com-
  bination of the columns of C.
1
2. The second column of D is Dc2 ¼ 2
3
    Example 5 Consider the system:
2 5
þ5 þ7 .
0 6
Matrix Algebra, Basics of
x1 þ 2x3  x3 ¼ 1
3x1 þ 5x2 þ 2x3 ¼ 7
x1 þ 2x2  6x3 ¼ 13
2 3
1 2 1
Then C ¼ 4 3 5 2 5 is the coefficient
21 3 2 6
x1
matrix, X ¼ 4 x2 5 is the variables-column, and
2 3 x3
1
B ¼ 4 7 5 is the constant column. Thus, the
13
matrix-form of the2 system
3 is2CX 3 = B.2 3 denoted by A1 such that AA1 = A1 A = In.
1 2 1
Since B ¼ 14 3 5 þ 04 5 5 þ 24 2 5 is a
1 2 6
linear combination of the columns of C, we con-
clude that the system is consistent by Theorem 5,
and the point (1, 0, 2) is in the solution set of the
system (i.e., x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = 2 is a solution to
the system).
Let n
1 be a positive integer. Then In is
an n  n matrix where i11 ¼ i22 ¼    ¼ inn ¼ 1
and ikj ¼ 0. We call In an identity matrix. Note that
if n = 1, then In = 1.
Theorem 13 Let A be a k  m matrix. Then
AIm = A and Ik A = A.
Theorem 14 (Row operations and matrix multi-
plication) Let A be an n  m matrix and let W be a
row operation. Assume that we applied W exactly
once on A and we obtained the matrix B, also
assume we applied W on the matrix In exactly
once and we obtained the matrix E. Then EA = B.
A matrix that is obtained from In by applying
one row operation on In exactly once is called an
elementary matrix.
Example 6 Let A be a 2  5 matrix and assume
we applied a sequence of row operations on A, and
we obtained the matrix B as below:
A R1 $ R2 A1 2R2 þ R1 ! R1 A2 3R1 B:
Since we performed exactly three row opera-
tions on A, we should be able to find three
7
elementary matrices, E1, E2, E3, such that E3 E2
E1 A = B.
 
I 2 R1 $ R2 E 1 ¼
0 1
¼ E1
1 0 
1 2
I 2 2R2 þ R1 ! R1 E2 ¼
 0 1
3 0
I 2 3R1 E3 ¼
0 1
Hence, E3 E2 E1 A = B.
Let A be a square matrix (i.e.,A  Mnn). We say
A is nonsingular or invertible if there exists a matrix
If we cannot find a matrix B such that AB = BA =
In, then we say A is singular or non-invertible.
Theorem 15 Let A  Mnn and suppose that A is
invertible. Then A1 is unique. Furthermore, sup-
pose that BA = In for some matrix B. Then BA =
AB = In, and hence B = A1.
Theorem 16 Let A  Mnn and suppose that B is
the reduced row echelon form of A. Then A is
invertible if and only if B = In.
Theorem 17 (Calculating A1) Let A  Mnn and
suppose that we joint In to the matrix A, and we
formed a new matrix denoted by [A|In]. Then
1. Suppose that we applied a sequence of row
operations on the matrix [A|In], and we
obtained the matrix [D|F] (i.e., A is row-
equivalent to D and In is row-equivalent to
F). Then FA = D.
2. Suppose A is a square matrix (i.e., n = m), and
we applied a sequence of row operations on the
matrix [A|In], and we obtained the matrix [D|F]
where D is the reduced row-echelon form of A.
If D = In, then F = A1.
 
4 3
Example 7 Let A ¼ . We use Theorem
1 1
30(2) in order to find A1. We form the matrix
[A|I2] and we apply a sequence of row operations
on the matrix [A|I2] in order to obtain the matrix
[D|F] where D is the reduced row operation form
8 Matrix Algebra, Basics of
 
1 3
of A. We see that D = I2 and F ¼ . Theorem 21 Let A  Mnn. Then A is invertible if
1 4
Thus, F = A1 by Theorem 30(2). and only if AT is invertible. Furthermore, if A is
invertible, then (AT)1 = (A1)T.
Theorem 18

1. Let A, B  Mnn be invertible matrices. Then

Determinant and Cramer Rule
AB is invertible and (AB)1 = B1 A1.
2. Let A  Mnn be invertible and a  RðCÞ such
Let A  Mnn ðn
2Þ. Then Aij denotes the matrix
that a 6¼ 0. Then aA is invertible and ðaAÞ1
obtained from A after deleting the i th row and the
¼ 1a A1 . j th column of A. Some authors called such matrix
a minor of A. Note that size (Aij) = (n  1) 
Theorem 19 Let CX = B be the matrix-form of a (n  1). If B is a square matrix, then det (B) or |B|
given system of linear equations with n equations denotes the determinant of B.
and n variables. Then the system has a unique
solution if and only if C is invertible. Furthermore,
if C1 is the inverse of C, then X = C1 B. Theorem 22 Let A be a 2  2 matrix, say A ¼
 
a11 a12
Example 8 Consider the following system . Then det(A) = a11 a22  a12 a21.
  a21 a22
4 3
in matrix-form CX = B, where C ¼ ,
1 1
    Theorem 23 (Calculating det(A)) Let A  Mnn .
x 2
X ¼ 1 , and B ¼ by Example 7, we Then
x2   1   
x1 1 1 3 2
have X ¼ ¼C B¼ ¼
  x2 1 4 1 1. Assume that we selected the i th row of A. Then
1
. Thus, {(1, 2)} is the solution set of detðAÞ ¼ ð1Þiþ1 ai1 detðAi1 Þþ
2
ð1Þiþ2 ai2 detðAi2 Þ þ    þ ð1Þiþ
the system.
nain detðAin Þ
Let A be an n  m matrix. The transpose of A is
2. Assume that we selected the j th column of A.
denoted by AT where aTij ¼ aji , and hence size  
Then detðAÞ ¼ ð1Þjþ1 a1j det A1j þ ð1Þjþ2
(AT) = m  n.    
A square matrix A, n  n, is called symmetric if a2j det A2j þ    þ ð1Þjþn anj det Anj
AT = A, and it is called skew-symmetric if AT = A. 3. det(A) is unique and it does not rely on the row
or the column we select, and thus, it is always
Theorem 20 recommended that we select a row or a column
of A that has more zeros in order to calculate
1. Assume that A, B  Mnm and a, b  RðCÞ . det(A).
Then ðaA þ bBÞT ¼ aAT þ bBT . 2 3
2. Assume that AB is defined for some matrices 2 4 3
A, B. Then (AB)T = BT AT. Example 9 Let A ¼ 4 4 5 0 5 . To find det
3. Assume A is a square matrix and a  RðCÞ . 3 2 0
Then a(A + AT) is symmetric and a(A  AT) is (A), we observe that the 3rd column of A has more
skew-symmetric. zeros. Hence, by Theorem 9(2), we have
4. Assume A is a square matrix, then
   
A ¼ 12 A þ AT þ 12 A  AT , i.e., A is a sum
of a symmetric matrix and a skew-symmetric
matrix.
Matrix Algebra, Basics of 9

  2 3
3þ1 4 5 2 1 2 1
detðAÞ ¼ ð1Þ 3 det ¼ 69 6 2 1 2 67
3 2 Example 10 Let A ¼ 6 4 4
7. We
2 5 15
Let A  Mnn . If aij = 0 whenever i > j, then 2 1 2 3
A is called an upper triangular matrix. If aij = 0 when- use Theorem 10 in order to calculate det(A).
ever i < j, then A is called a lower triangular matrix.
If aij = 0 whenever i 6¼ j, then A is called a AR1 þ R2 ! R2 ,  2R1 þ R3 ! R3 , R1 þ R4 ! R4
diagonal matrix. If A is upper triangular or lower
triangular or diagonal, then A is said to be a 2 3
2 1 2 1
triangular matrix. 60 2 4 7 7
B¼6
40
7
0 1 1 5
Theorem 24 Let A  Mnn be a triangular matrix. 0 0 0 2
Then detðAÞ ¼ a11 a22 :  :an1n1 ann .
Since B is obtained from A by applying row
Theorem 25 operation number three exactly three times on
A and row operation number three has no effect
1. Let A  Mnn be an invertible upper triangular on det(A), we conclude that det(A) = det(B) by
matrix. Then A1 is an upper triangular matrix. Theorem 28(3). Hence, det(A) = det(B) = 8 by
2. Let A  Mnn be an invertible lower triangular Theorem 25.
matrix. Then A1 is a lower triangular matrix.
3. Let A  Mnn be an invertible diagonal matrix. Example 11 Let A  M44 and suppose that
Then A1 is a diagonal matrix. 2 3
2 2 2 2
6 0 1 1 4 7
Theorem 26 Let A  Mnn . If one of the follow- A R1 $ R2 B 2R3 C ¼ 6 7
4 0 0 2 3 5. By
ing statements hold, then det(A) = 0. 0 0 0 4
1. Two rows or two columns of A are identical. Theorem 25, det(C) = 16. By Theorem 28(1),
2. One row of A is a multiple of another row of A, 16 = det(C) = 2 det(B), and hence det(B) = 8. By
or one column of A is a multiple of another Theorem 28(2), 8 = det(B) =  det(A), and hence
column of A. det(A) = 8.
3. One row or one column of A is entirely zeros.
Theorem 29 (Characterizing invertible matrices
Theorem 27 (The effect of row operations on in terms of determinant) Let A  Mnn . Then A is
determinant) Let A  Mnn . Then, invertible (nonsingular) if and only if det(A) 6¼ 0.
1. Suppose that we applied row operation number
one exactly once on A : A Ri $ Rj B. Then Theorem 30 (Characterizing consistent and
det(B) =  det(A). inconsistent systems of linear equations in terms
2. Suppose that we applied row operation number of determinant) Let CX = B be the matrix-form of
two exactly once on A : A aRi B . a system of linear equations with n equations and
3. Suppose that we applied row operation number n variables (i.e., size (C) = n  n). Then:
three exactly once on A : A aRi þ Rj ! Rj B .
Then det(B) = det(A). 1. The system has a unique solution if and only if
det(C) 6¼ 0.
Theorem 28 (Most used method to find a deter- 2. Assume that the given system is consistent.
minant) Let A  Mnn . It is always recommended Then the system has infinitely many solutions
that we apply row operations on A in order to if and only if det(C) = 0.
transform A to a triangular matrix, then we use
Theorem 28 and Theorem 25 to calculate det(A).
10 Matrix Algebra, Basics of

Theorem 31 Example 13 Consider the system in the

2 3
1 2 1
1. Let A, B  Mnn. Then det(AB) = det(A) det(B), matrix form CX = B, where C ¼ 4 1 1 2 5,
and it is not always true that det(A + B) = det(A) 2 4 2
2 3 2 3
+ det(B). x1 1
2. Let A  Mnn . Then det(AT) = det(A). X ¼ 4 x2 5 and B ¼ 4 2 5 .Then det(C) = 12,
3. Let A  Mnn be an invertible matrix. Then det x 2
 1  23 3 2 3
A ¼ det1ðAÞ. 1 2 1 1 1 1
C1 ¼ 4 2 1 2 5, C2 ¼ 4 1 2 2 5,
4. Let A  Mnn and a  RðCÞ. Then det(aA) = an
2 4 2 2 2 2
det(A). 2 3
1 2 1
C3 ¼ 4 1 1 2 5 . Thus, by Theorem 13
Theorem 32 (Adjoint method: calculating A1
2 4 2
using determinant) Let A  Mnn be an invertible
we have: x1 ¼ detðC1 Þ=detðCÞ ¼ 12=12 ¼ 1,
matrix. Then the (i, j)-entry of A1 =
x2 ¼ detðC2 Þ=detðCÞ ¼ 12=12 ¼ 1, and x3 ¼
  detðC3 Þ=detðCÞ ¼ 0=12 ¼ 0.
ð1Þiþj det Aji
a1 ¼
ij
detðAÞ
Conclusions
(Recall: Aij is the matrix obtained from A after
deleting the j th row and i th column of A.)
In this entry, we explicitly explained and stated all
2 3 major results on basic matrix operations. We illus-
3 2 1
trated all different methods used in solving system
Example 12 Let A ¼ 4 0 2 3 5 . Then
of linear equations using matrices. The concept of
0 0 1
elementary matrices and their strong relation with
det(A) = a 11 a 22 a 33 = (3)(2)(1) = 6 by Theorem
row operations is explained in details. Major
25. Hence, A is invertible by Theorem 30. Thus,
5 results on determinant and its use are illustrated
ð1Þ detðA32 Þ
the (2, 3)-entry of A1 ¼ a1 23 ¼ by clearly in this article.
 detðAÞ
3 1
Theorem 12. Now, A32 ¼ and
0 3
det(A32) = 9. Thus, a1 9 3
23 ¼ 6 ¼ 2 . Cross-References
Let CX = B be the matrix-form of a system of
linear equations with n equations and n variables, ▶ Eigenvalues, Singular Value Decomposition
say x1, x2,. . ., xn . Then Ci indicates the matrix ▶ Least Squares
obtained from C after replacing the i th column of ▶ Matrix Decomposition
C by the constant column B.

Theorem 33 (Cramer rule: solving n  n system

of linear equations) Let CX = B be the matrix-
form of a system of linear equations with
n equations and n variables, say x1, x2,. . ., xn and
suppose that det(C) 6¼ 0 (and hence, the
system has a unique solution by Theorem 31).
ð Ci Þ
Then xi ¼ det
detðCÞ .
References
Axler S (1997) Linear algebra done right. Springer, Berlin
Beezer RA (2012) A first course in linear algebra. Congru-
ent Press, Tacoma
Bernstein DS (2005) Matrix mathematics: theory, facts,
and formulas with application to linear systems theory.
Princeton University Press, Princeton
Blyth TS, Robertson EF (2002) Basic linear algebra.
Springer, Berlin
Kaw A (2011) Introduction to matrix algebra, 2nd edn.
University of South Florida, Tampa
Matrix Algebra, Basics of 11

Lang S (1986) Introduction to linear algebra. Springer, Robbiano L (2011) Linear algebra for everyone. Springer,
Berlin Berlin
Lay DC (2003) Linear algebra and its applications, 3rd edn. Shores TS (2007) Applied linear algebra and matrix anal-
Pearson, Toronto ysis. Springer, Berlin

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