MOBILE COMPUTING

Introduction
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows anytime, anywhere
and everywhere computing.

Mobile computing refers to the set of IT technologies, products,

services and operational strategies and procedures that enable end
users to access computation, information and related resources and
capabilities while mobile. Mobile most commonly refers to access in
motion, where the user is not restricted to a given geographic
location.

Mobile computing can be defined as a computing environment over

physical mobility. The user of the mobile computing environment
will be able to access data, information or logical objects from any
device in any network while on move.
MOBILE COMPUTING
COMPONENTS OF MOBILE
COMPUTING

Global Navigation Satellite

System

Radio Frequency Identification

Mobile Mobile
Computing
Communication
Change Location while
Processing related services or
Communicating.
remote computer.
Invoke services on remote
computer.
SOME RELATED NAMES OF MOBILE COMPUTING
Ubiquitous Computing:- Integration of computer with everything. (Blending of the
computing device with the environmental objects)
Nomadic:- Moving alongside with the user.
Persasive:- Existing at everywhere. (Present everywhere)

What is Mobile Computing?

Ans:= Mobile Computing is a revolutionary field that has reshaped the way we interact
with technology in our daily lives. It involves the use of portable, wireless devices to
access and process information while on the move. These device, including smart
phones, tablets and laptops have become integral to modern society, impacting
personal, professional and societal aspects.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
WIRED AND MOBILE
NETWORK
Wired Network Mobile Network
I. High bandwidth. I. Low bandwidth.
II. Low bandwidth variation. II. High Bandwidth
III. Low chances of delay. Variation.
IV. High power and resource III. High chances of delay.
machine. IV. Low power resource
machine.
Anytime anywhere
computing.
Enables new application.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MOBILE COMPUTING
Ubiquity:- Ability of a user to perform computations from anywhere and at
anytime.
Example:- Ability to receive notifications as long as the user is in the coverage area.
Location Awareness:- Connecting the hand held device to a GPS (Global Positioning
System) to provide information about the current location of a user to a tracking
station.
Example:- To determine the density of traffic along a road.
Adaptation:- Ability of a system to adjust to bandwidth fluctuation without in
convincing the user. This is important in a mobile environment to handle problems
like noise, environment obstacles handoff, etc.
Broadcast: - Ability to deliver data simultaneously to 100’s of mobile users.
Personalization:- Services in a mobile environment can be personalized according to
a users profile. This is information with their hand- held devices.
ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF MOBILE
COMPUTING
Advantages
⚫ Flexibility – Mobile computing allows you to
work from anywhere, at any time, giving you the
flexibility to get things done when and where it’s
convenient for you.
⚫ Connectivity – Mobile computing keeps you
connected to the Internet, allowing you to access
information, stay in touch with others, and
collaborate with colleagues and classmates.
⚫ Efficiency – Mobile computing helps you be more
efficient, allowing you to complete tasks quickly
and easily while on the go.
⚫ Productivity – Mobile computing can increase
productivity, as you can take care of important
tasks and responsibilities while away from your
desk.
⚫ Innovation – Mobile computing is constantly
advancing and evolving, providing new and
innovative ways to stay connected and get things
done.
Disadvantages
⚫ Dependence – Mobile computing can lead to
a dependence on technology, making it
difficult to disconnect and enjoy life without
constant digital distraction.
⚫ Battery Life – Mobile devices have limited
battery life, requiring frequent recharging and
causing inconvenience and disruption.
⚫ Security Concerns – Mobile devices can be
vulnerable to cyberattacks and data theft,
putting personal information and sensitive
data at risk.
⚫ Cost – Mobile computing can be expensive,
with high costs for devices, data plans, and
accessories.
⚫ Physical Damage – Mobile devices are small
and fragile, making them susceptible to
physical damage from drops, spills, and other
accidents.
APPLICATION OF MOBILE
COMPUTING
Communication: Mobile computing enables voice and data communication through mobile phones and smart phones. It allows
people to make calls, send text messages, and access various communication apps for instant messaging, video calls, and
more.
Internet Access: Mobile devices provide on-the-go access to the internet. Users can browse websites, access social media, and
use web-based applications wherever they have cellular or Wi-Fi connectivity.
Email: Mobile email applications and services enable users to send, receive, and manage emails while on the move, improving
communication and productivity.
Navigation and Maps: GPS and location-based services on mobile devices help users find directions, discover nearby places,
and get real-time traffic updates. Navigation apps like Google Maps is widely used for this purpose.
Mobile Banking: Mobile computing allows users to access their bank accounts, make transactions, pay bills, and manage their
finances from their smart phones securely.
E-commerce: Mobile commerce or m-commerce enables users to shop online, make payments, and track orders through
mobile apps and websites. E-commerce platforms like Amazon and eBay have dedicated mobile applications.
Healthcare: Mobile computing plays a vital role in the healthcare industry. Mobile apps are used for remote patient monitoring,
telemedicine, health tracking, and accessing electronic health records.
Education: Mobile devices are increasingly used for online learning, accessing educational resources, and taking online
courses. Educational apps and e-books are popular tools for students and educators.
Emergency Services: Mobile computing plays a crucial role in emergency response and public safety. First responders use
mobile devices for communication, GPS(Global Positioning System ) navigation, and accessing critical information in
emergency situations.
Travel and Tourism: Mobile apps assist travelers in planning trips, booking flights and accommodations, and accessing travel
information, such as weather updates, language translation, and local guides.
Productivity: Mobile computing enhances productivity with a variety of business and productivity apps. Users can create
documents, manage tasks, and collaborate with colleagues while on the go.
APPLICATION
GENERATION OF MOBILE
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
The evolution of mobile communication technology has been a fascinating journey that
has transformed the way we connect and communicate.
Here are some key notes on the generation of mobile communication technology:
⚫ 1G (First Generation): (AMPS Advance Mobile Phone System)
⚫ 1G was introduced in the early 1980s and used analog technology.
⚫ It allowed for voice calls but had limited capacity and poor call quality.
⚫ 2G (Second Generation):
⚫ 2G arrived in the early 1990s and marked the transition to digital communication.
⚫ It introduced features like SMS (Short Message Service) and better call quality.
⚫ The introduction of SIM cards allowed users to switch phones easily.
⚫ 2.5G and 2.75G:
⚫ These intermediate steps brought data services and limited internet access to 2G networks.
⚫ GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) and EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution) were
introduced, enabling basic data connectivity.
⚫ 3G (Third Generation):
⚫ 3G technology emerged in the early 2000s, providing faster data transfer and mobile internet access.
⚫ It supported video calls, mobile browsing, and multimedia services.
⚫ Technologies like UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) and CDMA2000 played a
significant role in 3G networks.
GENERATION OF MOBILE
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
⚫ 3.5G and 3.75G:
⚫ These were further enhancements to 3G technology, offering faster data speeds and improved mobile
browsing experiences.
⚫ HSPA (High-Speed Packet Access) and HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet Access) were part of these
evolutionary steps.
⚫ 4G (Fourth Generation):
⚫ 4G technology, introduced in the late 2000s, provided significant improvements in data speed and capacity.
⚫ It enabled high-quality video streaming, online gaming, and more advanced mobile applications.
⚫ LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and WiMAX were key technologies in 4G networks.
⚫ 4.5G and 4.9G:
⚫ These were incremental improvements to 4G technology, offering even higher data speeds, lower latency, and
network efficiency.
⚫ 5G (Fifth Generation):
⚫ 5G, launched in the late 2010s, is the latest generation of mobile communication technology.
⚫ It promises significantly faster data speeds, ultra-low latency, and massive device connectivity.
⚫ 5G enables advancements in augmented reality, virtual reality, Internet of Things (IoT), and autonomous
vehicles.
1G TO 5G
FIRST GENERATION
⚫ First generation wireless telecommunication included the
concept of cell phones. It included Mobile radio telephones
⚫ Technology: To established connectivity between two parties.
Mobile Telephone System (MTS).
⚫ Improvement in MTS Advance Mobile Telephone System
(AMTS).
⚫ It used analog radio signals and supports only voice
communication.
⚫ Audio signals: 20Hz to 20KHz (low frequency).
⚫ Again it Modulated (Carrier signals) and increases about 150
MHz and More by using FDMA, Frequency Division Multiple
Access.
⚫ Limitations: Low capacity unreliable handoff and poor voice
link, no security for voice call and no data communication.
ADVANCE MOBILE telephone
SYSTEM
⚫ Used in North America.
⚫ Used 800 MHz (Industrial Scientific and Medical Purpose
(ISM band).
⚫ From (BS) Base Station to (MS) Mobile Station- forward
communication 869 to 894MHz downlink of 25MHz.
⚫ From (MS) Mobile Station to (BS) Base Station- forward
communication 824 to 849 MHz uplink of 25MHz.
⚫ Channel Spacing is 30 KHz.
⚫ Total no of channels 832.
⚫ Location area is shared by two service provider with 416
channels.
SECOND GENERATION
⚫ Second-generation (2G) mobile networks primarily used a digital multiple access scheme known as
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) or Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), depending on
the specific standard.
⚫ TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications),
which is one of the most widely used 2G standards, employs TDMA. In TDMA, the available
frequency band is divided into time slots, and each user is assigned a specific time slot for
transmission. This allows multiple users to share the same frequency without interfering with each
other, as they are transmitting at different times.
⚫ CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): Another 2G standard, known as CDMA, uses a different
multiple access approach. CDMA assigns a unique code to each user, and multiple users can transmit
simultaneously on the same frequency. The receiver uses the codes to separate and identify the
signals from different users. CDMA was used in some 2G systems. Orthogonality (square or
box shape)
⚫ The bandwidth for 2G (second generation) mobile technology varies depending on the specific
standard used. The two main 2G standards, GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) and
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), had different bandwidth allocations:
⚫ GSM (2G): GSM operates in different frequency bands around the world. In Europe, GSM 900 and
GSM 1800 were common frequency bands. GSM 900 typically uses frequencies in the range of
890-960 MHz for uplink (mobile to base station) and 935-960 MHz for downlink (base station to
mobile). GSM 1800, also known as DCS 1800, operates in the 1710-1880 MHz range for uplink and
1805-1880 MHz for downlink.
⚫ CDMA (2G): CDMA2000, a 2G CDMA standard, operated in the 800 MHz and 1900 MHz
frequency bands in the United States. The uplink frequency range was approximately 824-849 MHz,
and the downlink frequency range was around 869-894 MHz.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE
ACCESS (TDMA),
⚫ In Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), the available time in a radio
frequency channel is divided into time slots, and each user is allocated a
specific time slot for transmission. The duration of each time slot
depends on the overall frame structure and the number of time slots per
frame.
⚫ In GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), which is a widely
used 2G standard employing TDMA, a frame duration is 4.615
milliseconds, and each frame is divided into eight time slots. Therefore,
the duration of each time slot in GSM is:
⚫ Time per Slot=Total Frame Duration/Number of Slots per Frame
4.65 ms/8
⚫ 0.581ms
⚫ So, in GSM, each time slot is approximately 0.577 milliseconds. During
this time, a user has the opportunity to transmit or receive data, and the
system rapidly switches between users in subsequent time slots to
achieve multiple access.
TDMA
⚫ TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) is a technology used in 2G mobile networks, and it is primarily associated with
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications). In GSM networks, Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) cards play a
crucial role in user identification and authentication. Here's a brief overview of how TDMA works with SIM cards in GSM:
⚫ User Identification: Each GSM subscriber is assigned a unique identifier called the International Mobile Subscriber
Identity (IMSI). This identification is stored on the SIM card.
⚫ SIM Card Insertion: When a user inserts a SIM card into a GSM-compatible mobile device and powers it on, the device
reads the IMSI and other information from the SIM.
⚫ Network Registration: The mobile device communicates with the GSM network and sends the IMSI for network
registration. The network recognizes the user based on the IMSI.
⚫ Authentication: The GSM network challenges the mobile device to prove the authenticity of the user by using the
authentication algorithms stored on the SIM card. This process involves exchanging random numbers and responses
between the SIM card and the network.
⚫ Time Slot Assignment: In a TDMA system, the available frequency band is divided into time slots, and each user is
assigned a specific time slot for transmission. The network, based on the information from the SIM card, assigns a time slot
to the mobile device for sending and receiving signals.
⚫ Secure Communication: The use of SIM cards in the authentication process ensures secure communication between the
mobile device and the GSM network. The SIM card stores cryptographic keys and other security information that is used to
encrypt voice and data transmissions.
⚫ Service Provisioning: The SIM card also contains information about the subscriber's service plan, phone book entries, and
other user-specific settings. This information helps the GSM network provide the appropriate services to the subscriber.
⚫ In summary, in GSM networks using TDMA, SIM cards are essential for user identification, authentication, and secure
communication. The information stored on the SIM card allows the network to allocate time slots for each user and provide
personalized services.
CDMA
⚫ In CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), the channel coding involves spreading the user's signal across a wider
frequency band using a unique code. This process is known as "spreading" or "channelization" and plays a crucial role in
enabling multiple users to share the same frequency band simultaneously. Here's a brief explanation:
⚫ Unique Spreading Codes:
⚫ Each user in a CDMA system is assigned a unique spreading code, often referred to as a "pseudo-random code."
⚫ These codes are designed to be orthogonal to each other, meaning that the correlation between different codes is close to zero.
This property allows multiple signals to be transmitted and received simultaneously without interference.
⚫ Spreading the Signal:
⚫ When a user wants to transmit data or voice, their original signal is multiplied (spread) by their unique spreading code.
⚫ This multiplication process effectively spreads the signal across a wider frequency band.
⚫ Increased Bandwidth Usage:
⚫ The spreading process increases the bandwidth occupied by the user's signal. The wider the spread, the more robust the system
is against interference.
⚫ Combined Transmission:
⚫ Multiple users can transmit their spread signals simultaneously on the same frequency band.
⚫ Each user's signal is uniquely encoded with their assigned spreading code, allowing multiple signals to coexist.
⚫ Orthogonal Codes for Isolation:
⚫ The orthogonal nature of the spreading codes ensures that signals from different users, when spread, do not interfere
significantly with each other.
⚫ At the receiver, the spreading codes are used to "despread" the signals, isolating the original signal of the intended user.
⚫ Interference Rejection:
⚫ The orthogonality of spreading codes helps in rejecting interference from signals spread by other codes, allowing the receiver to
focus on the desired signal.
CDMA
⚫ Traditionally, CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) networks did not use SIM (Subscriber
Identity Module) cards in the same way that GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications) networks did. The concept of SIM cards is more closely associated with
GSM technology, where the SIM card stores subscriber information and facilitates easy
swapping of devices.
⚫ However, in some cases, CDMA networks have adopted a similar concept called the R-UIM
(Removable User Identity Module) or CSIM (CDMA Subscriber Identity Module). These are
similar to SIM cards in GSM networks and can store user identity and other information.
⚫ Here's a brief explanation of how R-UIM or CSIM works in the context of CDMA:
⚫ Subscriber Information: R-UIM or CSIM cards store subscriber information, including the
user's identity, contacts, and other relevant data.
⚫ Device Authentication: When a CDMA device is powered on and attempts to connect to the
network, the R-UIM or CSIM card in the device is used to authenticate the user and the device
on the network.
⚫ Service Activation: The R-UIM or CSIM card can also store information related to the
services that the subscriber has access to. This can include features such as voice calls, text
messaging, and data services.
⚫ Network Registration: The CDMA device registers on the network using the information
stored on the R-UIM or CSIM card, allowing the network to identify and authenticate the
subscriber.
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
⚫ Data Transmission:
⚫ GPRS facilitates the efficient transfer of data packets over mobile networks. It allows users to send and receive data, including emails,
multimedia messages, and internet browsing.
⚫ Always-On Connectivity:
⚫ Unlike traditional circuit-switched networks, GPRS provides an "always-on" connection. Users don't need to dial in to establish a connection
each time they want to access data services, resulting in quicker and more convenient access.
⚫ Higher Data Transfer Rates:
⚫ GPRS offers higher data transfer rates compared to previous mobile data technologies, such as General Packet Radio Service (GSM). This
enables faster and more responsive data communication.
⚫ Cost Efficiency:
⚫ GPRS operates on a packet-switched network, which means users are billed based on the amount of data transferred rather than the duration of
the connection. This can be more cost-effective for users who primarily use data services.
⚫ Multitasking Capability:
⚫ GPRS allows users to simultaneously use voice and data services, enabling multitasking functionalities. For example, users can make a call
while browsing the internet or sending/receiving emails.
⚫ Wider Coverage:
⚫ GPRS can provide wider network coverage compared to some earlier technologies, allowing users to access data services in more locations.
⚫ Compatibility with IP:
⚫ GPRS is compatible with Internet Protocol (IP), making it easier to integrate with existing internet technologies and services.
⚫ Support for Various Applications:
⚫ GPRS supports a variety of applications, including web browsing, email, multimedia messaging, and other data-intensive services. This
versatility contributes to a richer mobile user experience.
⚫ Global Standard:
⚫ GPRS is a global standard, ensuring compatibility and interoperability across different mobile networks and devices worldwide.
⚫ Improved Network Efficiency:
⚫ GPRS optimizes network resources by efficiently allocating bandwidth based on user demand. This helps in the effective use of network
capacity and enhances overall network efficiency.
THIRD GENERATION
⚫ It's upgrade over 2G 2.5G and GPRS EDGE (Enhanced Data rates
for GSM Evolution.)
⚫ It offers faster data transfers better voice quality high speed package
Switch data up to 2 mbps.
⚫ Smartphone where introduced in this generation.
⚫ Operates on frequency band between 400 MHz to 4 GHz.
Used Two Main Networks
⚫ UMTS(Universal Mobile Telecommunication System)
⚫ CDMA 2000
Goals of 3G
⚫ Allow both data and voice communication.
⚫ To facilitated Universal personal communication.
⚫ Listen music watch movie access internet.
fourth GENERATION
⚫ Speed and Bandwidth:
⚫ 4G offers much higher data transfer speeds compared to 3G. It is designed to provide peak download
speeds of up to 100 megabits per second (Mbps) and upload speeds of up to 50 Mbps. However,
real-world speeds may vary based on network conditions and other factors.
⚫ Low Latency:
⚫ 4G networks aim to reduce latency, providing a more responsive and seamless user experience. Low
latency is crucial for applications that require real-time interactions, such as online gaming, video
conferencing, and voice calls.
⚫ Advanced Technologies:
⚫ 4G utilizes advanced technologies such as Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)
for improved spectrum efficiency and Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) for better signal
reception and data throughput.
⚫ Increased Capacity:
⚫ 4G networks have a higher capacity to handle more simultaneous connections and data traffic. This is
essential as the number of mobile devices and the demand for data-intensive applications continue to
grow.
⚫ Enhanced Multimedia Support:
⚫ 4G supports high-quality multimedia streaming, allowing users to enjoy video streaming, online
gaming, and other data-intensive applications with improved quality and reliability.
⚫ Broad Coverage:
⚫ 4G networks aim to provide broader coverage, reaching both urban and rural areas. This helps in
bringing high-speed mobile internet access to a larger population.
⚫ Interoperability:
⚫ 4G technologies are designed to be compatible with various wireless communication standards,
fifth GENERATION
⚫ Faster Speeds: One of the most significant advantages of 5G is its remarkable increase in data
transfer speeds. 5G can provide download speeds of up to 10 gigabits per second (Gbps), which
is significantly faster than the speeds offered by previous generations.
⚫ Low Latency: 5G networks aim to achieve low latency, reducing the delay between sending
and receiving data. This is crucial for applications that require real-time communication, such
as online gaming, video conferencing, and autonomous vehicles.
⚫ Increased Network Capacity: 5G is designed to handle a massive number of connected
devices simultaneously. This is particularly important in the era of the Internet of Things (IoT),
where a multitude of devices, from smart home gadgets to industrial sensors, require
connectivity.
⚫ Improved Reliability: 5G networks are designed to be more reliable than previous
generations, offering a more stable and consistent connection. This is especially important for
critical applications like healthcare, emergency services, and autonomous vehicles.
⚫ Enhanced Performance in Dense Areas: In crowded or densely populated areas, 5G can
deliver better performance compared to previous generations. The increased capacity and
efficiency of 5G make it well-suited for urban environments with a high concentration of users
and devices.
⚫ Support for Massive Machine Type Communication (mMTC): 5G is designed to support a
massive number of devices simultaneously, making it ideal for applications that involve a large
number of connected devices, such as smart cities and industrial automation.
1G MOBILE COMPUTING
Advantages
⚫ Basic Voice Communication: 1G
primarily provided basic voice
communication services. It allowed
people to make mobile phone calls,
which was a significant advancement at
the time.
⚫ Pioneering Technology: 1G was the
first step in the evolution of mobile
communication technology. It laid the
foundation for subsequent generations of
mobile networks.
⚫ Global Expansion: The introduction of
1G marked the global expansion of
mobile communication networks,
allowing people to communicate
wirelessly across larger geographical
areas.
Disadvantages
⚫ Analog Signal: 1G networks used analog signals for
communication. Analog signals are more susceptible to
interference and noise, leading to lower call quality and
reliability compared to digital signals.
⚫ Limited Capacity: 1G had limited capacity, and the number of
simultaneous users on the network was restricted. This
limitation hindered the scalability of the network to
accommodate a growing number of users.
⚫ Security Concerns: 1G networks had limited security features,
making them susceptible to unauthorized access and
eavesdropping. The lack of encryption in 1G systems posed a
significant security risk.
⚫ Inefficient Spectrum Use: The analog nature of 1G technology
resulted in inefficient use of the available radio frequency
spectrum. This limitation constrained the number of users and
services that could be supported.
⚫ No Data Services: 1G was primarily designed for voice
communication, and it lacked the capability to transmit digital
data. This limitation meant that users couldn't access the
internet or use data-intensive applications.
⚫ Large and Bulky Devices: The mobile devices used in the 1G
era were large and bulky compared to modern smartphones.
They had limited battery life and were less portable and
convenient.
⚫ Roaming Challenges: Roaming between different 1G networks
or regions was challenging, and users often faced compatibility
issues when trying to use their mobile devices in areas with
different 1G network implementations.
2G MOBILE COMPUTING
Advantages
⚫ Digital Transmission: 2G introduced digital
transmission of voice signals, offering clearer and
more reliable voice communication compared to
the earlier analog systems.
⚫ Data Services: While primarily designed for voice
communication, 2G also provided basic data
services, such as short message service (SMS) and
limited internet connectivity through General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS).
⚫ Global Roaming: 2G networks allowed users to
roam internationally, providing connectivity across
different countries and regions.
⚫ Improved Capacity: 2G networks had better
spectral efficiency, allowing more users to be
accommodated on the network simultaneously
compared to 1G (analog) systems.
⚫ Interoperability: 2G networks standardized
communication protocols, making it easier for
different devices and networks to interoperate.
Disadvantages
⚫ Limited Data Speeds: The data transfer speeds of 2G networks,
especially with GPRS, were relatively slow compared to later
generations. This limitation hindered the use of advanced data
services.
⚫ Limited Internet Capability: While 2G introduced basic internet
connectivity, the speeds were not sufficient for a rich internet
experience. Activities like browsing and streaming were often slow
and cumbersome.
⚫ Security Concerns: 2G networks were susceptible to security
vulnerabilities, making them less secure than later generations.
Encryption standards were not as robust, and security breaches were a
concern.
⚫ Limited Multimedia Support: Multimedia capabilities were limited
in 2G networks. The focus was primarily on voice communication,
and support for multimedia applications was minimal.
⚫ Coverage Issues: While 2G networks were more widely available
than their predecessors, coverage in certain remote or rural areas could
still be limited. This hindered the universal accessibility of mobile
services.
⚫ No Support for Advanced Applications: 2G networks lacked the
bandwidth and capabilities needed to support advanced applications
and services that have become commonplace in later generations, such
as video calls and high-speed internet browsing.
3G MOBILE COMPUTING
Advantages
⚫ Faster Data Transfer Rates: 3G networks offer higher
data transfer rates compared to previous generations,
enabling faster internet browsing, smoother video
streaming, and quicker downloads.
⚫ Improved Multimedia Support: 3G supports
multimedia applications with better quality, making it
suitable for video calls, online gaming, and multimedia
content consumption.
⚫ Enhanced Mobile Internet Experience: With higher
data speeds, users can have a more satisfying and
seamless experience when accessing the internet on their
mobile devices.
⚫ Wider Coverage: 3G networks typically have broader
coverage areas, providing better connectivity in both
urban and rural areas.
⚫ Advanced Services and Applications: 3G facilitates the
development and use of advanced mobile services and
applications, such as GPS navigation, mobile TV, and
video conferencing.
⚫ Increased Capacity: 3G networks have a higher capacity
for simultaneous connections, allowing more users to
access the network without significant degradation in
performance.
Disadvantages
⚫ Limited Data Speeds Compared to 4G and 5G: While 3G provides
faster data transfer rates than previous generations, it still lags behind
4G and 5G in terms of speed. This limitation can impact the user
experience for data-intensive applications.
⚫ Network Congestion: During peak usage times, 3G networks may
experience congestion, leading to slower data speeds and reduced
performance for users in crowded areas.
⚫ Higher Cost: Implementing and maintaining 3G networks can be
expensive, and these costs may be passed on to consumers through
higher service fees.
⚫ Compatibility Issues: Some older devices may not be compatible
with 3G networks, requiring users to upgrade their devices to take
advantage of the improved services.
⚫ Battery Consumption: The higher data speeds and increased
capabilities of 3G can lead to higher power consumption, reducing the
battery life of mobile devices.
⚫ Transition to Newer Technologies: As newer generations of mobile
networks (4G and 5G) become more widespread, the relevance and
support for 3G networks may decrease, potentially leading to
obsolescence in the future.
4G MOBILE COMPUTING
Advantages Disadvantages
⚫ High Speeds: ⚫ Limited Coverage:
⚫ Disadvantage: In some areas, 4G coverage may be limited or unavailable,
⚫ Advantage: 4G offers faster data transfer rates compared to especially in remote or rural locations. This can result in inconsistent
previous generations. This allows for quicker downloads, smoother connectivity.
streaming, and faster browsing experiences. ⚫ High Infrastructure Costs:
⚫ Improved Bandwidth: ⚫ Disadvantage: Building and maintaining 4G infrastructure require significant
⚫ Advantage: With increased bandwidth, 4G networks can handle investment, which can be a challenge for some regions or developing
more data traffic simultaneously, reducing congestion and providing countries.
a more reliable connection for users. ⚫ Battery Drain:
⚫
⚫
Disadvantage: The high data transfer rates of 4G can lead to increased power
Low Latency: consumption, potentially draining mobile device batteries more quickly.
⚫ Advantage: 4G networks have lower latency, meaning there is less ⚫ Compatibility Issues:
delay in data transmission. This is crucial for real-time applications ⚫ Disadvantage: Older devices may not be compatible with 4G networks,
like online gaming and video conferencing. requiring users to upgrade their devices to take advantage of the higher speeds
⚫ Enhanced Multimedia Support: and capabilities.
⚫ Interference and Congestion:
⚫ Advantage: 4G supports high-quality multimedia content, including ⚫ Disadvantage: In densely populated areas, 4G networks may experience
HD video streaming and high-resolution video calls, offering a interference and congestion, leading to slower speeds and reduced performance
better overall user experience. during peak usage times.
⚫ Advanced Technology Integration: ⚫ Security Concerns:
⚫ Advantage: 4G networks incorporate advanced technologies like ⚫ Disadvantage: While 4G networks offer enhanced security features, they are
Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) and Orthogonal Frequency not immune to cyber threats. As technology advances, new security challenges
may arise.
Division Multiple Access (OFDMA), improving efficiency and
performance. ⚫ Cost of Service:
⚫ Disadvantage: Access to 4G networks often comes at a higher cost compared
⚫ Better Security: to older technologies, making it less accessible to some users, particularly in
⚫ Advantage: 4G networks often come with improved security economically disadvantaged regions.
features, including stronger encryption protocols, which help protect ⚫ Transition Challenges:
user data and communication. ⚫ Disadvantage: The transition from older network technologies to 4G can be
⚫ Global Standardization: challenging, and some users may face compatibility issues during this
transition period.
⚫ Advantage: 4G is based on global standards, ensuring
interoperability and compatibility across different networks and
devices worldwide.
 5G MOBILE COMPUTING
Advantages
⚫ High Data Rates:
⚫ Advantage: 5G offers significantly higher data rates compared to its
predecessors, enabling faster download and upload speeds.
⚫ Impact: This is crucial for bandwidth-intensive applications like
high-quality video streaming, virtual reality (VR), and augmented
reality (AR).
⚫ Low Latency:
⚫ Advantage: 5G reduces latency, the time it takes for data to travel
between devices, leading to quicker response times.
⚫ Impact: Low latency is critical for applications like online gaming,
autonomous vehicles, and real-time communication systems.
⚫ Improved Connectivity:
⚫ Advantage: 5G provides better connectivity in densely populated
areas, stadiums, and other high-traffic locations.
⚫ Impact: This enhances the overall user experience by preventing
network congestion and improving reliability.
⚫ Enhanced Capacity:
⚫ Advantage: 5G networks can support a larger number of connected
devices simultaneously.
⚫ Impact: This is beneficial for the increasing number of IoT (Internet
of Things) devices and the growing demand for connected services.
⚫ Innovative Technologies:
⚫ Advantage: 5G enables the development of new technologies, such
as edge computing, that bring processing closer to the source of data.
⚫ Impact: This can lead to more efficient and responsive applications,
especially those requiring real-time data processing.
Disadvantages
⚫ Infrastructure Costs:
⚫ Disadvantage: Implementing 5G infrastructure requires significant
investments in new equipment, base stations, and technology
upgrades.
⚫ Impact: This may result in higher costs for telecom providers, and
these expenses could potentially be passed on to consumers.
⚫ Limited Coverage:
⚫ Disadvantage: Initial deployment of 5G may have limited coverage,
especially in rural or remote areas.
⚫ Impact: Users in these areas may not experience the full benefits of
5G until infrastructure expands.
⚫ Device Compatibility:
⚫ Disadvantage: Not all existing devices are 5G compatible, and users
may need to upgrade their smartphones and other devices to take
advantage of 5G capabilities.
⚫ Impact: This can be a barrier for some users, especially those with
older devices.
⚫ Health Concerns:
⚫ Disadvantage: Some people express concerns about potential health
risks associated with increased exposure to higher-frequency
electromagnetic radiation used in 5G networks.
⚫ Impact: Although the scientific consensus currently suggests
minimal risk, perception and public concerns could impact
widespread acceptance.
⚫ Security Challenges:
⚫ Disadvantage: As with any new technology, 5G introduces new
security challenges, including potential vulnerabilities and cyber
threats.
⚫ Impact: Adequate security measures need to be in place to safeguard
against potential cyberattacks and unauthorized access.
MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is a technique used in telecommunications and computer networking to share a transmission
medium (such as a cable or airwaves) among multiple users or data streams. The main purpose of
multiplexing is to make efficient use of available resources and enable multiple signals to coexist on the
same channel or medium.
OR
Multiplexing is the set of technique that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a
single data link.

Types of Multiplexing with signals:

Analog Multiplexing:
⚫ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
⚫ Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Digital Multiplexing:
⚫ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
⚫ Code-Division Multiplexing (CDM)
Combination of Analog and Digital Multiplexing
⚫ Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM)
 Importance of Multiplexing in communication
Multiplexing is a crucial concept in communication systems, playing a vital role in efficiently utilizing resources and facilitating the
transmission of multiple signals over a shared medium. Here are some key reasons why multiplexing is important in communication:
⚫ Optimal Resource Utilization:
⚫ Multiplexing allows multiple signals to share a common communication channel or medium simultaneously. This optimizes the use of available
resources, such as bandwidth, time, or frequency.
⚫ Without multiplexing, each signal would require a dedicated channel, leading to inefficient use of resources, especially in scenarios where the
demand for communication is high.
⚫ Cost Efficiency:
⚫ Multiplexing helps reduce the overall cost of communication infrastructure. By sharing resources among multiple signals, the need for dedicated
channels and separate transmission lines is minimized.
⚫ This is particularly relevant in scenarios where deploying individual communication channels for each signal would be economically impractical.
⚫ Increased Capacity:
⚫ Multiplexing significantly increases the capacity of a communication system. By allowing multiple signals to coexist on the same medium, the
system can handle a larger number of users or devices simultaneously.
⚫ This is especially important in telecommunications, where the demand for data transmission and communication services is constantly growing.
⚫ Flexibility and Adaptability:
⚫ Multiplexing provides flexibility in adapting to different types of communication requirements. Different multiplexing techniques, such as
time-division multiplexing (TDM), frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), and code-division multiplexing (CDM), offer solutions for various
communication scenarios.
⚫ The choice of multiplexing technique can be tailored to the specific needs of the application, allowing for efficient use of the available resources.
⚫ Improved Data Transmission Speed:
⚫ Multiplexing allows for higher data transmission rates by combining multiple signals into a single transmission path. This is especially critical in
high-speed data networks and broadband communication systems.
⚫ As technology advances, the demand for faster data transfer rates continues to increase, making multiplexing an essential component for meeting
these requirements.
⚫ Support for Different Services:
⚫ Multiplexing enables the integration of different types of services on the same communication infrastructure. For example, voice, video, and data
signals can be multiplexed together and transmitted over a common medium.
⚫ This integration supports the convergence of various communication services, leading to more versatile and interconnected communication
systems.
FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): FDM
allocates different frequency bands to each data stream.
Each source transmits its data using a specific frequency
range, and the receiver separates the signals by tuning to
the appropriate frequencies.
Examples: Radio Broadcasting, Cable Television
(CATV), Satellite Communication etc.
FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING structure
FDMA
Advantages
⚫ Synchronization is not necessary
⚫ If the channel is not used, it sits idle
⚫ Capacity can be increased can obtain efficient bit code
⚫ Very simple and easy to implement with respect to
hardware resources
⚫ The complexity of the system is low
⚫ Simple algorithmically and from a hardware standpoint
⚫ All station can operate continuously to 24 hours without
having to wait for their turn to come
⚫ The reduction of the information bit rate can make a good
effect on the capacity
⚫
⚫
No need for any network timing
FDMA is efficient, so it manages less number of a user
population
⚫ No restriction regarding the type of base-band or
modulation
⚫ Reduce cost and lowers the intersymbol interference ( ISI
) ⚫
Disadvantages
⚫ The cell site cost is high
⚫ The bandwidth of the FDMA channel is
narrow
⚫ Carry only one phone circuit at a time
⚫ As a result of nonlinear, intermodulation
products are generated
⚫ Intermodulation frequencies can cause
adjacent channel interference
⚫ Network planning is time-consuming
⚫ Spectrum planning is cumbersome and
time-consuming
⚫ Does not differ significantly from an analog
system
The presence of the guard band
⚫ Frequency allocated permanently
⚫ Maximum bit rate per channel is fixed
⚫ Crosstalk may cause interference among
frequency and disrupt the transmission
TIME DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM): In TDM, multiple
data streams are assigned specific time slots within a
predefined time frame. Each source transmits data during
its allocated time slot, and the receiver knows when to
expect data from each source by following the predefined
time schedule.
TIME DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING structure
TDMA
Advantages
⚫ TDMA can easily adapt to the transmission of data as well as voice
communication.
⚫ It has the ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.
⚫ No interference from simultaneous transmission.
⚫ TDMA is the cost-effective technology to convert an analoge
system to digital.
⚫ Share a single carrier frequency with multiple users
⚫ Mobile assisted handoff possible
⚫ TDMA provides the user with extended battery life since
transmitting the only portion of the time during conversations
⚫ Flexible bit rate
⚫ No frequency guard band required
⚫ No need of a precise narrowband filter
⚫ TDMA separates users according to time ensures that there will be
no interference from the simultaneous transmission.
⚫ TDMA allows the operator to do services like fax, voiceband data,
SMS as well as applications such as multimedia and video
conferencing.
⚫ TDMA offers substantial savings in base-station equipment, space,
and maintenance, an important factor as cell sizes grow ever
smaller.
⚫ Dual-band 800/1900 MHz.
⚫ It is the only technology that offers an efficient utilization of
hierarchal cell structures like pico, micro, and macro
Disadvantages
⚫ In TDMA each user has a predefined time slot so that
users roaming from one cell to another are not allotted a
time slot. Thus, if all the time slots in the next cell are
already occupied, a cell might well be disconnected. In
the same way, if all the time slots in the cell in which a
user happens to be in are already occupied, a user will not
receive a dial tone.
⚫ It is subjected to multipath distortion. A signal coming
from a tower and receive to handset might come from any
one of several directions so on the road signal bounced off
several different buildings before arriving which can
cause interference.
⚫ Network and spectrum planning is intensive.
⚫ Too few users result in ideal channels rural versus urban
environment.
⚫ High synchronization overhead.
⚫ Frequency/slot allocation is to be complex in TDMA.
⚫ Equalization was necessary for high data rates.
⚫ Demands high peak power on the uplink in transient
mode.
⚫ Signal processing is required for matched filtering and
correlation detection.
code DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
Code-Division Multiplexing (CDM): CDM assigns a
unique code to each source, and these codes are used to
spread and separate the data in the frequency domain. This
technique is often used in spread spectrum communication
systems, such as CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
in cellular networks.
Example: CDMA in Mobile Networks, Spread Spectrum
Communication, Wireless LANs using CDMA etc.
CDMA
Advantages Disadvantages
⚫ CDMA channel is not easily decodable hence it offers increases
cellular communication securities
⚫ Time synchronization is required
⚫ Call quality is better with more consistent sound as compared to ⚫ It can't offer international roaming, a large
GSM GSM advantage
⚫ Less interference due to hand off features reduces call dropping
⚫ Gives better coverage and needs few antenna sites and also ⚫ The CDMA system performance degrades
consumes less power with an increase in the number of users
⚫ Increase user capacity because of more users per MHz of
bandwidth than any other system so that it has 4 to 5 times capacity ⚫ A network of CDMA is not mature because it
than GSM is relatively new with GSM
⚫ Better multipath performance
⚫ The frequency reuse plan is easier to manage ⚫ In while we are using CDMA, code length
⚫ Smaller phones can be carefully selected, because it can
⚫ Greatest spectrum efficiency induce delay
⚫
⚫
Low power requirement
⚫ Increase efficiency as it can serve more users When the number of users increases, the
⚫ High voice quality as well as signal quality overall quality of service decreases.
⚫ Flexible allocation of resources ⚫ Self-jamming problem
⚫ Operate at a very low power level
⚫ CDMA does not require any synchronization ⚫ The near-far problem arises when we are
⚫ It has many numbers of users can share in the same bandwidth using CDMA techniques
⚫
⚫
Efficient practical utilization of fixed frequency spectrum
No sense of handoff when changing cells
⚫ Higher cost due to the greater equipment
⚫ Easy to add many numbers of users ⚫ Reduce capacity because gradual transfer
⚫ Increase user resources increases the use of radio resources
⚫ Impossible for hackers to decipher the code sent
space DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM): SDM is used when
multiple data streams are physically separated and
transmitted through different channels or paths, such as in
multiple antennas or fibers. This technique is often used in
advanced wireless communication systems and optical
fiber networks.
Examples: Fiber Optic Cables, Multiple Antennas in
MIMO Systems, Satellite Communication etc.
 SDMA
⚫ In Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA), the spatial domain is divided to allow multiple users to share
the same frequency band simultaneously. Instead of allocating different frequency bands to different users
(as in Frequency Division Multiple Access or FDMA), SDMA achieves simultaneous communication by
allocating different spatial locations or directions to each user.
⚫ To elaborate further:
⚫ Frequency Bandwidth: This is the range of frequencies allocated for wireless communication. In SDMA,
you are using the same frequency band for multiple users.
⚫ Spatial Division: Instead of separating users by frequency, SDMA spatially separates users. Each user is
assigned a unique spatial location or direction. This could involve the use of multiple antennas and beam
forming techniques to direct signals in different spatial directions.
⚫ The idea is to exploit the spatial dimension to reduce interference and allow multiple users to communicate
concurrently. By allocating different spatial resources to different users, SDMA enhances the overall system
capacity and efficiency.
⚫ Basic Concept: SDMA is a technique in wireless communication that involves dividing the
spatial domain instead of the frequency spectrum.
⚫ Frequency Bandwidth: Unlike Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), SDMA uses
the same frequency band for multiple users.
⚫ Spatial Division: SDMA allocates different spatial locations or directions to each user,
allowing them to share the same frequency band simultaneously.
⚫ Interference Reduction: By spatially separating users, SDMA reduces interference and
enhances the overall system capacity.
⚫
space DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING structure
 SDMA
Advantages
⚫ SDMA is a purely optical path
⚫ SDMA is frequency reuse
⚫ Mobile station battery
consumption is low
⚫ Increased spectral efficiency
⚫ SDMA is transparent to the
system if it is purely optical
⚫ Use any bandwidth or data rate
achievable in fiber
⚫ SDMA is usually combined with
other multiplexing techniques to
better utilize the individual
physical channel
Disadvantages
⚫ Some of the disadvantages of
SDMA is the fact that the number
of switches
⚫ SDMA is very expensive and
complicated to construct and
design
⚫ There are also high insertion
losses since each input must have
the capability to be split to any
output.
⚫ The reverse link may be a
problem like an
interference problem
 SPREAD SPECTRUM
⚫ Spread spectrum is a communication technique that spreads the transmission of a signal over a
wide frequency band. This is in contrast to traditional communication systems, where the entire
bandwidth of a channel is used to transmit a single signal. Spread spectrum techniques are
commonly used in wireless communication systems to achieve advantages such as increased
resistance to interference, improved security, and enhanced reliability.
⚫ There are two main types of spread spectrum techniques:
⚫ Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
⚫ In FHSS, the transmitter and receiver rapidly switch between different frequency channels
in a pseudo-random pattern.
⚫ This frequency hopping pattern is known to both the transmitter and receiver, allowing
them to synchronize and hop between channels at the same rate.
⚫ The rapid frequency changes make it difficult for unauthorized users to intercept the
signal, as they would need to know the hopping pattern to correctly receive the
information.
⚫ Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
⚫ In DSSS, each bit of the original signal is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted
signal, using a spreading code.
⚫ The spreading code is a pseudorandom sequence that spreads the signal across a wider
bandwidth.
⚫ The receiver, knowing the spreading code, can then de-spread the signal to recover the
original data.
⚫ DSSS provides a form of signal redundancy, which helps in overcoming interference and
improving signal quality.
FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM
1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): In FHSS, the
signal's carrier frequency is rapidly and pseudo-randomly switched
among a set of predetermined frequencies within a specified
frequency band. Both the transmitter and receiver follow the same
hopping pattern to maintain communication. This method helps
reduce the impact of narrowband interference and provides a
degree of security.

a. It is repeated switching of frequencies during radio

transmission to reduce interference.
b. Bandwidth is split into many channels of smaller bandwidth +
guard spaces.
c. Transmission and receiver stay on these channel for certain
time.
 FHSS
⚫ Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum is used in which devices?
⚫ Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) is used in various wireless communication devices and systems. Some
common applications and devices that utilize FHSS include:
⚫ Bluetooth Technology:
⚫ Bluetooth is a wireless communication standard that uses FHSS to transmit data between devices over short
distances. It is commonly used in devices like Smartphone's, laptops, headphones, and other peripherals.
⚫ Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs):
⚫ Some early versions of wireless LANs, particularly those based on the IEEE 802.11b standard, used FHSS.
However, the more prevalent standards for WLANs, such as 802.11g and 802.11n, use other modulation
techniques like Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
⚫ Cordless Phones:
⚫ FHSS is employed in some cordless phone systems to improve the quality and security of voice
communication.
⚫ Military Communication Systems:
⚫ FHSS is used in military communication systems to enhance the security and reliability of data transmission.
The ability to hop between frequencies makes it more resistant to jamming and interception.
⚫ Satellite Communication:
⚫ FHSS can be used in satellite communication systems to improve reliability and resistance to interference.
⚫ Industrial and Commercial Applications:
⚫ FHSS is sometimes used in industrial and commercial applications for wireless sensor networks, automation,
and control systems.
⚫ It's worth noting that while FHSS has been historically used in certain applications, many modern wireless
communication standards and devices, especially those related to Wi-Fi and cellular networks, have transitioned to
other modulation techniques like Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) or Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM). These newer techniques offer improved data rates and efficiency.
⚫
FREQUENCY HOPPING
SPREAD SPECTRUM
Advantages:
⚫ Resistance to Interference:
⚫ FHSS systems are known for their robustness against interference
and jamming. The rapid frequency hopping makes it difficult for
unauthorized users to disrupt communication.
⚫ Improved Security:
⚫ FHSS enhances security by making it challenging for eavesdroppers
to intercept the communication due to the frequency changes.
⚫ Coexistence with Other Systems:
⚫ FHSS allows multiple systems to coexist in the same frequency band
without causing interference, as long as they use different hopping
sequences.
⚫ Reduced Multipath Fading:
⚫ The frequency diversity inherent in FHSS helps mitigate the effects
of multipath fading, which occurs when signals take multiple paths
to reach the receiver.
⚫ Adaptability to Dynamic Environments:
⚫ FHSS systems are well-suited for dynamic and unpredictable
environments, as they can adapt to changes in the radio frequency
landscape.
⚫ Low Probability of Intercept (LPI):
⚫ FHSS can provide a low probability of intercept, making it suitable
for applications where secure communication is crucial.
⚫ Regulatory Compliance:
⚫ FHSS systems often comply with regulatory requirements because
they spread their transmission power over a wide frequency band.
Disadvantages:
⚫ Complexity and Cost:
⚫ Implementing FHSS requires more complex hardware and can be
more costly than other communication techniques.
⚫ Reduced Data Rate:
⚫ The constant hopping of frequencies may lead to a reduced
effective data rate compared to systems that stay on a single
frequency.
⚫ Synchronization Challenges:
⚫ FHSS systems need precise synchronization between the
transmitter and receiver to ensure that they hop frequencies at the
same time. Maintaining synchronization can be challenging.
⚫ Limited Range:
⚫ The range of FHSS systems may be limited, especially in
environments with significant obstacles or when high data rates
are required.
⚫ Potential for Co-Channel Interference:
⚫ In environments with a high density of FHSS systems, there is a
potential for co-channel interference if systems share the same
hopping sequences.
⚫ Vulnerability to Smart Jamming:
⚫ While FHSS is resistant to simple jamming techniques,
sophisticated jammers capable of tracking hopping sequences can
disrupt communication.
⚫ Regulatory Restrictions:
⚫ Some regulatory bodies may impose restrictions on the use of
frequency hopping in certain frequency bands.
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD
SPECTRUM (DSSS)
1. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): DSSS spreads the signal
by multiplying it with a pseudo-random noise code sequence, which is
known as a spreading code or a chipping sequence. This increases the
signal's bandwidth, making it appear as noise to unintended receivers.
The receiver, which is synchronized with the transmitter's code, can
recover the original signal. DSSS offers improved resistance to
interference and can be used for high-data-rate communications.
a. Each bit is multiplied by secret code.
b. Code is used to access message.
c. Used to reduce overall signal interference.
d. Stream of information to be transmitted is divided into small pieces,
each of which is allocated to frequency channel.
e. Chipping code is used to divide data according to spreading ratio.
 DSSS
⚫ Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is used in various wireless communication devices and technologies. Some of the
common applications include:
⚫ Wi-Fi Networks:
⚫ DSSS is one of the modulation techniques used in the IEEE 802.11b standard for Wi-Fi communication.
⚫ It helps improve the reliability and performance of wireless local area networks (WLANs) by spreading the signal over a
wider bandwidth.
⚫ Bluetooth:
⚫ Bluetooth technology, which is used for short-range wireless communication between devices (such as smart phones,
laptops, and peripherals), employs frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and, in some cases, DSSS.
⚫ Global Positioning System (GPS):
⚫ DSSS is used in some GPS systems to spread the signal and enhance resistance to interference and jamming.
⚫ Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs):
⚫ Besides Wi-Fi, DSSS has been used in various other wireless LAN technologies to improve performance in the presence
of interference and fading.
⚫ Cordless Phones:
⚫ Some digital cordless phones use DSSS for communication, providing better signal quality and security.
⚫ Satellite Communication:
⚫ DSSS is employed in some satellite communication systems to enhance the reliability and security of data transmission.
⚫ Military Communication Systems:
⚫ In military applications, DSSS is often used to secure communication and resist jamming and interference.
⚫ Some RFID Systems:
⚫ Certain Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) systems use DSSS to spread the signal and improve communication
reliability.
Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum
Advantages:
⚫ Resistance to Interference: DSSS provides a high level of
resistance to narrowband interference and jamming. This is
because the spread spectrum signal appears as noise to narrowband
systems, making it difficult for them to interfere.
⚫ Improved Security: The wideband nature of DSSS makes it more
difficult for unauthorized users to intercept and demodulate the
signal, providing a certain level of security against eavesdropping.
⚫ Multiple Access Capability: DSSS allows multiple users to share
the same frequency band simultaneously without significant
interference. This makes it suitable for applications where multiple
devices need to communicate in the same environment.
⚫ Robustness in Fading Environments: DSSS is robust in fading
and multipath environments. The spread spectrum signals can
effectively combat the effects of fading and reflections, making it
suitable for wireless communication in various conditions.
⚫ Improved Error Performance: DSSS can offer improved error
performance compared to narrowband systems. The spread
spectrum techniques, such as error correction coding, contribute to
better reliability in data transmission.
⚫ Frequency Hopping Capability: DSSS can be combined with
frequency hopping to enhance its robustness further. Frequency
hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a technique that changes the
carrier frequency during transmission, making it more resistant to
interference and jamming.
Disadvantages:
⚫ Increased Bandwidth Requirement: DSSS requires a
wider bandwidth compared to narrowband systems. This
can be a limitation in scenarios where the available
bandwidth is limited or expensive.
⚫ Complex Implementation: The implementation of DSSS
can be more complex compared to other modulation
techniques. This complexity can result in higher costs and
more sophisticated hardware requirements.
⚫ Potential for Increased Interference: In environments
with a high density of wireless devices using DSSS, there
is a potential for increased interference among the devices,
which could degrade performance.
⚫ Power Consumption: DSSS systems may consume more
power compared to some other modulation techniques.
This can be a concern in battery-powered devices or
energy-constrained environments.
⚫ Limited Data Rate: While DSSS offers robustness and
reliability, it may not achieve the same data rates as some
other modulation schemes, such as Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM), which is often used in
high-speed wireless communication.
MAC Protocol
MAC (Media Access Control) protocol is a sub layer of the data link layer in the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) model for computer networking. It is responsible for controlling
access to the physical transmission medium, such as a network cable or a wireless channel, to
ensure that multiple devices can share the medium efficiently and without causing collisions.
MAC protocols are essential in both wired and wireless communication networks.

There are various MAC protocols designed for different network types and
requirements. Here are a few common MAC protocols:

⚫ Ethernet MAC (IEEE 802.3): Ethernet is one of the most widely used MAC protocols in
wired networks. It uses a contention-based protocol called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) to manage access to the shared transmission medium.
However, in modern Ethernet networks, CSMA/CD is largely obsolete (outdated), and Ethernet
switches use Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) or
full-duplex communication to avoid collisions.
⚫ Wi-Fi MAC (IEEE 802.11): In wireless LANs, the Wi-Fi MAC protocol governs how devices
share the wireless channel. The IEEE 802.11 standard defines various Wi-Fi MAC protocols,
including Distributed Coordination Function (DCF), which uses a contention-based approach
similar to CSMA/CA, and Point Coordination Function (PCF), which uses a centralized access
point to manage access.
⚫ Token Ring MAC: Token Ring is an older LAN technology in which devices pass a "token"

to control access to the network. Only the device holding the token is allowed to transmit,
hidden terminal problem
⚫ In the scenario where A is transmitting data to B, and simultaneously, C is also transmitting data to B,
if both messages reach B successfully, there might not be a collision in the traditional sense. In Wi-Fi
networks, the collision avoidance mechanisms are designed to handle such situations.
⚫ In a Wi-Fi environment:
⚫ Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA): This is a protocol used in
Wi-Fi networks to avoid collisions. Before a device (A or C) transmits data, it listens to the channel
to ensure it is clear. If the channel is busy, the device will wait for a random period before attempting
to transmit again. This helps minimize the chances of collisions.
⚫ Request-to-Send (RTS) and Clear-to-Send (CTS): In more advanced scenarios, devices may use
RTS/CTS to further avoid collisions. A device (A or C) sends a Request-to-Send (RTS) frame to B,
asking for permission to transmit. If B responds with a Clear-to-Send (CTS) frame, it indicates that
the channel is clear for transmission. This mechanism helps prevent hidden node problems and
reduces the likelihood of collisions.
⚫ So, in a well-designed Wi-Fi network, even if A and C both try to send data to B simultaneously,
collision avoidance mechanisms like CSMA/CA and optional RTS/CTS should prevent actual
collisions, allowing both messages to be successfully received by B without interference.
⚫ However, it's important to note that the efficiency of the network might be affected as both A and C
contend for access to the channel, leading to some level of contention and potential delays.
Exposed Terminal Problem
⚫ Topology:
⚫ Three devices, A, B, and C, are in a wireless network.
⚫ A and B are within range of each other, and B and C are also within range.
⚫ Scenario:
⚫ A wants to send data to B.
⚫ C is communicating with another device (D) that is out of range for A.
⚫ A, fearing interference with C's transmission to D, refrains from sending data to B, even though it wouldn't
actually interfere with C's communication.
⚫ Exposed Terminal Problem:
⚫ In this case, A is the "exposed terminal" because it abstains from transmitting even though it wouldn't cause
interference with the ongoing communication between C and D.
⚫ Solution:
⚫ One solution to the Exposed Terminal Problem is the use of the Request-to-Send (RTS) and Clear-to-Send
(CTS) mechanism.
⚫ Before A sends data to B, it can send an RTS frame to B, requesting permission to send. If B responds with a
CTS frame, indicating that the channel is clear, A can go ahead and send its data without worrying about
interfering with C's communication with D.
⚫ Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA):
⚫ The basic CSMA/CA protocol also helps address the exposed terminal problem to some extent. A device first
senses the channel. If it senses activity, it may defer its transmission to avoid potential interference.
SDMA & TDMA
SDMA, TDMA, FDMA, and CDMA are all different techniques used in telecommunications
to enable multiple users or devices to share the available bandwidth in a more efficient and
organized way. Each of these techniques has its own advantages and is suited for specific
applications.
⚫ SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access):
⚫ SDMA is a technique that separates users or devices in a communication system by physical
space.
⚫ It involves using multiple antennas to create spatial diversity and reduce interference.
⚫ This technique is often used in MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) systems to improve the
overall capacity and reliability of wireless communication.
⚫ TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access):
⚫ TDMA is a method in which the available time is divided into time slots, and each user or device
is allocated a specific time slot for transmission.
⚫ Users take turns transmitting data during their assigned time slots.
⚫ TDMA is commonly used in cellular networks, such as GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications), to allow multiple users to share the same frequency band.
FDMA & CDMA
⚫ FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access):
⚫ FDMA divides the available frequency band into smaller sub-bands or channels.
⚫ Each user or device is allocated a specific frequency channel for communication.
⚫ FDMA is commonly used in analog radio communication systems and some early digital radio
systems.
⚫ CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access):
⚫ CDMA is a technique where users or devices share the same frequency band simultaneously by
encoding their signals with unique codes.
⚫ Each user's signal is spread over a wide bandwidth using their specific code.
⚫ CDMA is known for its robustness and resistance to interference, making it suitable for systems
like 3G and 4G cellular networks.

These techniques are used in various communication systems to manage the allocation of
resources and to enable multiple users or devices to communicate simultaneously. The choice
of which technique to use depends on factors like system requirements, available resources,
and the specific technology being implemented. For example, TDMA is commonly used in
time-sensitive applications like cellular networks, while CDMA is known for its efficient use
of bandwidth and robustness in the presence of interference.