The life of Ni

CONTENTS
ABOUT NICKEL  3
NICKEL PROPERTIES 4
NICKEL RESOURCES AND RESERVES 
7
NICKEL MINING 9
NICKEL PRODUCTION 11
NICKEL USE 13
FIRST USE OF NICKEL 14
END USE OF NICKEL 15
RECYCLING: A NEW LIFE FOR NI 16
OUTLOOK18
 3

About 80
Nickel WHILE THE
CONCENTRATION
OF NICKEL IN THE
EARTH’S CRUST
Nickel is a naturally occurring metallic element with a IS AT 80 PARTS
silvery-white, shiny appearance. It is the fifth most common PER MILLION, THE
element on earth and occurs extensively in the earth’s crust EARTH’S CORE
and core. Nickel, along with iron, is also a common element
in meteorites, and can even be found in small quantities in CONSISTS MAINLY
plants, animals and seawater. OF A NICKEL-IRON
ALLOY.
Nickel has been found in metallic artefacts dating back
more than 2000 years. It was first identified and isolated
as an element by the Swedish chemist, Axel Cronstedt,
in 1751. Mine production of nickel began in Norway in
1848, followed by New Caledonia in 1875 and Canada in
1886. During this period in the 19th century, nickel came to
prominence in plating and in alloys such as “nickel silver” in
which it is alloyed with copper and zinc (it does not actually
contain any silver).

Nickel’s name comes from the German term ‘Kupfernickel’

or Devil’s Copper, as the miners in the 15th century thought
the ore looked red-brown like copper – but it was too
difficult to mine.
4

Nickel
properties

HIGH MELTING RESISTS VERY DUCTILE ALLOYS

POINT, 1453 ºC CORROSION AND READILY
OXIDATION

Nickel is widely used in

hundreds of thousands
of products for consumer,
industrial, military, transport,
aerospace, marine and
architectural applications.
Its outstanding physical and
chemical properties make
nickel essential in many end-
use products.
 5

MAGNETIC CAN BE HAS CAN BE FULLY

AT ROOM DEPOSITED BY CATALYTIC RECYCLED
TEMPERATURE ELECTROPLATING PROPERTIES

PRODUCTS CONTAINING
NICKEL ARE:
 EFFICIENT IN TERMS
OF ENERGY AND
RESOURCE USE
 DURABLE WITH LOW
MAINTENANCE
 RECYCLABLE
 6

300
THE WORLD’S
NICKEL RESOURCES
ARE CURRENTLY
ESTIMATED AT
ALMOST 300
MILLION TONS.

KNOWN NICKEL
RESOURCES HAVE
SIGNIFICANTLY
INCREASED OVER
THE PAST 30 YEARS,
AS HAS NICKEL MINE
PRODUCTION.

Albania 0.9% Kazakhstan 0.7% Kosovo 0.2%

Solomon Islands Turkey 0.6% Ethiopia 0.1% Zambia 0.5%
0.9% Oman 0.6% Venezuela 0.1% Ivory Coast 0.1%
Dominican Puerto Rico 0.4% Togo 0.1% Togo 0.1%
Serbia 1.1% Republic 0.7% Macedonia 0.3% Poland 0.1% Botswana 1.3% Spain 0.1%
Cameroon 1.1% Norway 0.1%
Sweden 1.3%
India 1.1% Tanzania 1.5%
Myanmar 1.2% Australia 17.7% Australia 10.1%
Madagascar 1.3% Zimbabwe 3.1%
Greece 1.8% International Waters 3.1%
Colombia 1.8%
Burundi 2.0% Finland 4.1%
Tanzania 1.1% United States 4.3%
Guatemala 2.2%
Papua New Guinea 2.4% LATERITE SULPHIDE
WORLD RESOURCE
China 5.1% WORLD
Ivory Coast 2.4% South Africa 28.1%
RESOURCE
United States 0.2% 178 MILLION Brazil 1.4%

METRIC TONS Indonesia 18.7% 118 MILLION

New Caledonia 8.4% METRIC TONS

Canada 18.6%

Russia 2.2%
Cuba 9.1%
Russia 17.3%
Philippines 10.1%
Brazil 8.3%

Source: Gavin M. Mudd and Simon M. Jowitt, A Detailed Assessment of Global Nickel Resource Trends and Endowments, 2014 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc. Economic Geology, v. 109, pp. 1813–1814
 7

Nickel resources
and reserves *

The world’s nickel resources are currently estimated at almost 300 million tons.

Australia, Indonesia, South Africa, Russia and Canada account for more
than 50% of the global nickel resources. Economic concentrations
of nickel occur in sulphide and in laterite-type ore deposits.

Despite the fact that nickel mining has significantly increased over
the past three decades, known nickel reserves and resources have
also steadily grown. Various parameters play a role in this evolution,
including better knowledge and increased exploration activities
in remote areas, driven by attractive commodity prices. Improved
technologies in mining, smelting and refining, as well as increased
capacities, also allow for lower-grade nickel ore to be processed.

There are also reckoned to be significant nickel deposits in the sea.

Manganese nodules, which are found on the deep-sea floor, contain
significant amounts of various metals, including nickel. According to
recent estimates, there are more than 290 million tons of nickel contained
in such deposits. The development of deep-sea mining technologies
is expected to facilitate access to these resources in the future.
* Reserves and resources are defined terms in mineral deposits classification and are based on their geologic certainty
and economic value. Reserves are defined as being valuable and economically, legally and technically feasible to
be extracted. Resources are potentially valuable and for which reasonable prospects exist for eventual extraction.
Reference: US Geological Survey, 1980, Principles of a Resource/Reserve classification for Minerals, Circular 831

NINE COUNTRIES
ACCOUNT FOR 75% OF
GLOBAL NICKEL RESERVES.
LATERITE-TYPE (OR OXIDE-
TYPE) RESOURCES ARE
FOUND IN INDONESIA,
THE PHILIPPINES,
BRAZIL, CUBA AND NEW
CALEDONIA. SULPHIDE-
TYPE DEPOSITS ARE
FOUND IN SOUTH
AFRICA, RUSSIA AND
CANADA. AUSTRALIA
HAS THE BIGGEST NICKEL
RESOURCES WITH BOTH
SULPHIDE- AND LATERITE-
Laterite
Sulphide TYPE ORE DEPOSITS.
8

Cradle-to-gate
Unlike most other metals, nickel
ores are found in diverse geological
formations, in different mineralogical
forms, at different depths, with varying
percentages of nickel content, and
often with other metals present. The
processing techniques used depend
on these variables which yield different
rates of metal recovery.

RESOURCES

ORE MINING
Surface - underground

Sulphidic Lateritic
Ore Ore
UPSTREAM
SUPPLIES
Electricity - fuels -
materials BENEFICIATION ORE PREPARATION

PRIMARY PRIMARY
EXTRACTION EXTRACTION

REFINING

Class 1 nickel
Ferronickel
By-products
 9

Nickel
mining
Nickel-containing ores are currently mined in more than 25
countries worldwide. The Asia Pacific region accounts for more than
70% of global nickel mine production. Indonesia, the Philippines,
Russia, Australia and Canada are the biggest nickel producers.
70%
ASIA PACIFIC ECONOMIES*
While mine production in Canada and Russia is mainly linked ACCOUNT FOR MORE THAN
to the mining of sulphide-type ore deposits, Indonesia and 70% OF GLOBAL NICKEL MINE
the Philippines predominantly mine laterites. In Australia, both PRODUCTION AND, GIVEN THE
laterite and sulphide mine production take place. Due to their ABUNDANCE OF THEIR NICKEL
geological formation, laterite-type ore deposits and mines are RESERVES, THE REGION IS
principally found in equatorial regions and production from this EXPECTED TO REMAIN AT THE
type of deposits has steadily increased in recent decades. FOREFRONT OF NICKEL MINING
IN THE FUTURE.
The main nickel mining companies include Ambatovy, Anglo
American, BHP Billiton, Glencore, JFE Mineral Company Ltd., * APEC figures include Russian production.

Lundin Mining Corporation, MMC Norilsk Nickel, Pacific Metals

Co. Ltd., Sherritt International Corporation, Eramet, South32,
Sumitomo Metals Mining Co. Ltd., Vale, and Western Areas Ltd.

NICKEL MINE
OUTPUT (KT)

Finland
0.9%
Russia
Canada 12.1%
10.7%
Serbia
0.3%
Albania FYROM
Spain 0.2% 0.8% China. P.R.
0.4% 4.6%
Cuba Greece
2.3% 1.0%
Vietnam
0.3% Philippines
Myanmar 21.2%
Guatemala (Burma)
1.8% 1.0%
Papua New
Colombia Madagascar Indonesia Guinea
3.5% Botswana 1.8% 8.1% 1.0%
1.3%
Brazil
4.7% Zimbabwe
0.6%
New
World Total South Africa Caledonia
2.5% Australia 8.1%
2.2 MILLION 11.2%
METRIC TONS

Source: INSG Yearbook 2015. Data from 2014

10

AFRICA
Madagascar 2%

4% South Africa 2%
Zimbabwe <1%

AMERICAS
Brazil 4%

15%
Canada 8%
Colombia 2%
Cuba <1%
Dominican Rep. 1%

ASIA
China. P.R. 35%
Indonesia 1%

47% Japan 9%
Korea. Rep. 1%
Myanmar (Burma) 1%

46%
IN JUST 10 YEARS, CHINA
EUROPE
EU27 6%
Austria <1%
HAS BECOME THE GLOBAL
Finland 2%
LEADER IN NICKEL
24%
France <1%
PRODUCTION. IN 2013, MORE Greece 1%
United Kingdom 2%
THAN A THIRD OF GLOBAL FYROM 1%
NICKEL PRODUCTION Norway 5%
Russia 12%
ORIGINATED FROM CHINA. Serbia <1%
ANNUAL GROWTH RATES Ukraine 1%
OVER RECENT YEARS HAVE
BEEN AS HIGH AS 46%.

OCEANIA
10% Australia 7%
New Caledonia 3%

Source: INSG Yearbook 2015. Data from 2014. Figures are rounded.
Note that INSG allocates Russian production to Europe in accordance with UN practice.
 11

Nickel
production
Over the past ten years, global nickel output
has increased by more than 65%, while that
of China has shot up by a factor of 13.

The output of primary nickel production is generally

divided into two main product categories.

Nickel Class I describes a group of nickel

products comprising electrolytic nickel, powders
and briquettes, as well as carbonyl nickel.

Nickel Class II comprises nickel pig iron and

ferronickel. These nickel products commonly have
a lower nickel content and are used especially in
stainless steel production, where stainless steel
producers take advantage of the iron content.

I II

ROUGHLY 55% OF
THE TOTAL NICKEL
MINING OUTPUT
RELATES TO CLASS I
NICKEL PRODUCTS,
WITH CLASS II
NICKEL PRODUCTS

1.99 MILLION
ACCOUNTING FOR
THE REMAINING
45%.

METRIC TONS
TOTAL ANNUAL WORLD PRODUCTION
12

China accounted for half of

global nickel use in 2014.
Asia plays a dominant
role when it comes to
the first use with roughly
70% global market share
followed by Europe with
roughly 20% and the US
with around 8%.
 13

Nickel use
OCEANIA 0.1%
Australia 0.1%

Ukraine 0.3% AFRICA 1.1%

South Africa 1.0%
Other EU 0.3%
Other Africa 0.1%
Sweden 1.4%
United Kingdom 1.2% Brazil 1.0%
EUROPE 19.1% Spain 2.1% AMERICAS 9.8%
Slovenia 0.2% Canada 0.4%
Romania 0.1% Mexico 0.1% United States 8.1%
Poland 0.2%
Italy 3.1%
Other America 0.2%
Germany 3.7%

France 1.5%
Finland 1.6%
Czech Republic 0.3%
Belgium/Lux. 1.5%
Austria 0.6%
Russia 1.1%
Other Asia 1.1%
Turkey 0.2%
Thailand 0.2%
NICKEL WORLD USE
South Korea 4.1%

North Korea 0.1% 1.86 MILLION

Japan 7.5%
METRIC TONS

India 2.6%
Taiwan. China 2.8%
Hong Kong 0.3% ASIA 69.9%

China. P.R. 50.9%

A DISCREPANCY BETWEEN
NICKEL MINING, PRODUCTION
AND USE CAN BE OBSERVED.
THIS IS ATTRIBUTED TO
STOCKPILING AS A RESULT OF
FLUCTUATIONS IN DEMAND.
Note: The numbers shown are % of global use
Source: INSG Yearbook 2015. Data from 2014
14

First use
of Nickel
The first use of nickel is defined as the
conversion of nickel products into
intermediate products, which form the
basis for nickel-containing end-use
products. In nearly all cases, these first-
use products undergo further processing
Nickel containing
before they are ready for use. stainless steel
66%

TWO THIRDS OF
GLOBAL NICKEL
PRODUCTION IS
USED TO PRODUCE
STAINLESS STEEL.
AS AN ALLOYING
ELEMENT, NICKEL
CONTRIBUTES TO
THE LONGEVITY, 10%
Non-ferrous alloys
CORROSION
RESISTANCE AND
LOW MAINTENANCE 9%
OF STAINLESS STEEL Plating
GOODS.
8%
3% 4%
Alloy Steel

Foundry
Others
 15

Metal goods End use

18%
of Nickel
Electric and electronics
The conversion of first-use nickel products
11% into final goods results in different end uses
of nickel. Due to its outstanding physical and
chemical properties, nickel is used in a wide
range of end-use sectors.

Engineering
28%

Architecture,
10% Building &
Construction

14%
Tubular products

14%
Transport
5%

Others

Source: Heinz Pariser 2014

16

Recycling: a
new life for Ni
Similar to other metals, nickel is fully recyclable. Because nickel-
containing products have value, an infrastructure for gathering and
processing these materials exists. While society is more likely to see
metal recycling today as an environmental activity, it has existed for
thousands of years as a profitable economic activity. In most countries,
the economics of gathering, sorting, preparing, transporting and
using scrap metal employs more people and is of greater economic
importance than the mining and refining of ores.

Nickel is one of the most valuable common non-ferrous metals, along

with aluminium, copper, lead and zinc (Al, Cu, Pb, Zn). Given its value
as a commodity, the commercial motivation to use nickel effectively in
the first place is very strong. There is a similarly compelling incentive for
recovering and recycling nickel effectively at all stages of the production
and use cycle.

Recycling efficiencies are calculated based on a set of widely agreed

and accepted recycling indicators, which are reviewed on a regular basis
in the nickel industry. The global efficiency of recycling nickel from end-
of-life products for the reference year 2005 was calculated to be at 63%.
Losses that occur after use mainly relate to nickel-containing materials
ending up in landfills and so called “non-functional recycling”, i.e., nickel
that ends up in other material streams such as carbon steel where the
outstanding properties of nickel are not further exploited. Depending
on the region and the specific end uses, nickel-recycling efficiencies can
DUE TO ITS HIGH vary greatly. In the case of nickel-containing stainless steel, very high
ECONOMIC VALUE recycling efficiencies can be reached.
AND ITS USE
IN STAINLESS
STEEL AND
NICKEL ALLOYS,
THE RECYCLING
EFFICIENCIES
OF NICKEL ARE
AMONG THE
HIGHEST IN
THE METALS
INDUSTRY.
 17

FULLY
RECYCLABLE
Nickel is a natural resource,
which cannot be consumed.
It is fully recyclable again and
again without loss of quality,
contributing to the Circular
Economy (CE) model.

RETURN

USE MAKE
18

Outlook
It is hard to imagine a world without nickel. It is an essential material used
in many critical applications that bring widespread benefits to society, from
the fundamental necessities of clean air, clean water, safe food preparation,
and health care, to everyday items in the home as diverse as kitchenware
and computers. One of the best-known nickel-containing materials is
stainless steel, which has now been in use for over 100 years.

In industry, nickel catalysts and alloys are at the heart of an efficient

and modern chemical industry, including oil refining, allowing
the production of low sulphur fuels. Nickel enables clean power
generation, and has a role in all renewable energy solutions.

It can be found in advanced green technology that increases energy

efficiency and reduces carbon emissions. In architecture, nickel alloys
combine functionality and high recyclability with aesthetics.

The best-known properties of nickel – toughness, malleability and enhanced

corrosion resistance – allow superior performance in difficult environments and at
extremely high temperatures. These properties are why nickel-containing materials
play such an important role in providing energy, transport, food and clean water,
and why they will continue to contribute to a durable and sustainable economy and
society. New applications for nickel in millions of parts and processes going forward
will continue to make sizeable contributions relative to the small amounts used.

Nickel-containing materials have the further advantage of being ideally suited

for recycling because of their end-of-life value; they are easily identified and
can be turned into new, high-quality materials in an efficient manner.

The production and use of nickel adds value in all regions of the world in the form
of employment, taxes, investment and the utility of the end products themselves.

But beyond nickel’s enormous contribution to society, the nickel industry

is also committed to ensuring the responsible management of nickel
and nickel-containing materials throughout their life cycles.
Disclaimer:

Material has been prepared for the

general information of the reader
and should not be used or relied
upon for specific applications
without first securing competent
advice. While the material is
believed to be technically correct,
Nickel Institute, its members, staff
and consultants do not represent
or warrant its suitability for any
general or specific use and assume
no liability or responsibility of
any kind in connection with the
information herein.

Copyright © Nickel Institute 2016.

All rights reserved.

Design inextremis.be mp5051

Photos : fotolia.com except p. 8:
Shutterstock
Visit our website
www.nickelinstitute.org

Contact
communications@nickelinstitute.org