Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092

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Next Materials
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/next-materials

Review article

Progress and perspectives of self-powered gas sensors

Lei Wang a, b, Xinqi Yao b, Yin Zhang a, Gaoqiao Luo a, Bo Wang a, Xinhai Yu b, *
a
Auhui Province Key Laboratory of Cryogenic Technology, 16th Institute of China Electronics Technology Group Corporation, Hefei 230088, PR China
b
MOE Key Laboratory of Pressure Systems and Safety, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai
200237, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ambient gas monitoring has been studied for over a century, and the field of self-powered gas sensors is
Self-powered advancing rapidly. Currently, the main solution is the conversion of ambient energy into electrical energy and its
Gas sensors use to power gas sensors. Various energy harvesters are available, such as frictional electric nanogenerators,
Energy harvester
piezoelectric nanogenerators, thermoelectric generators, and photovoltaic cells, to capture different forms of
High performance
energy. Simultaneously, energy harvesters can be designed to power gas sensors for different atmospheric
sensing requirements. Self-powered gas sensors have shown great promise in applications such as human health
monitoring, the detection of hazardous gas leaks, the prevention of drunk driving, the preservation of food and
pharmaceuticals, agricultural production, and the monitoring of the condition of industrial equipment. However,
for commercial applications, significant progress still needs to be made on self-powered gas sensors. In this re­
view, an objective overview of four typical energy harvesting devices is provided, covering types, structures,
materials, and energy sources. Self-powered gas sensors are systematically categorized, with the latest research
progress in this field presented. Future trends in self-powered gas sensing are then envisioned and the potential
for commercialisation is discussed.

1. Introduction
Portable, wearable, and infinite sensing networks are currently
popular research topics in the scientific community [1]. With the rapid
development of intelligent sensing devices in the fields of industrial
production, medical monitoring, and security detection, the wireless
self-powered sensing mode has ushered in a new phase of development
[2]. Gas sensing is crucial in wireless self-powered smart sensing net­
works. It can detect gases that are colorless, odorless, and imperceptible
to humans, thereby protecting human wellbeing and safety. The passive
sensing model is environmentally friendly, sustainable, and safer than
traditional active gas sensors. Certainly, a passive system means that
there is no external power supply, which presents a challenge for fully
autonomous self-powered sensing systems.
Recently, significant research has been conducted on power gener­
ation equipment due to energy scarcity. For instance, the frictional
electric nanogenerator (TENG) or piezoelectric nanogenerator (PENG)
that harvests mechanical friction and vibration in the environment, the
thermoelectric generator (TEG) that collects thermal energy in the
environment, and the solar cell that captures solar energy based on the
photovoltaic effect [3]. The electrical energy stored in a storage device,
such as a rechargeable battery or micro-supercapacitor, which powers or
directly supplies the gas sensor, makes the sensor self-sufficient. There is
already a growing number of researchers who are concentrating their
efforts on this area. A figure (Fig. 1) displays the current research trends
and associated keywords in self-powered gas sensors.
There have been numerous reports on the development of low-power
and ultra-low-power sensors in gas sensing applications. Firstly, low-
power sensors typically consume minimal energy in standby mode,
making them suitable for applications that require long-term operation
or battery-powered devices. They can extend battery life and reduce
energy consumption. Ultra-low-power sensors, compared to low-power
sensors, further decrease energy consumption. They often employ
advanced energy management techniques such as sleep mode and power
optimization algorithms to achieve longer battery life. In contrast to
low-power and ultra-low-power sensors, the main advantage of self-
powered sensors lies in their power management. They do not require
external power sources or batteries, allowing for long-term or even
perpetual use. This makes them highly suitable for monitoring and
detection in unmanned or hard-to-maintain environments. Additionally,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yxhh@ecust.edu.cn (X. Yu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxmate.2023.100092
Received 18 October 2023; Received in revised form 6 December 2023; Accepted 13 December 2023
Available online 30 December 2023
2949-8228/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
L. Wang et al.
self-powered sensors utilize energy sources from the environment, such
as solar, thermal, or vibration energy, reducing reliance on traditional
batteries and minimizing battery consumption and waste. Of course,
self-powered sensors, being independent of external power sources, also
possess advantages such as strong autonomy and low maintenance costs.
Self-powered gas sensors offer a plethora of benefits. (1) Energy in­
dependence: This allows the sensors to function in locations where there
is no grid electricity available or where an external power source cannot
be accessed such as remote locations, field environments, or mobile
devices. (2) Environmentally friendly: Self-powered gas sensors operate
by extracting renewable energy from the environment instead of relying
on limited resources like fossil fuels. By eliminating the need for
frequent battery replacements or the use of disposable batteries, self-
powered sensors provide enhanced sustainability by reducing resource
consumption and minimizing negative environmental impacts. (3) Cost
savings: Self-powered gas sensors do not require external power sources
and frequent battery replacements, resulting in cost savings for sensor
operation and maintenance. In addition, because of its cost-effective
energy acquisition method, it can operate efficiently for an extended
period, which reduces energy consumption and operating costs and
enhances the sensor’s service life. (4) Portability and Flexibility: Self-
powered gas sensors are compact and lightweight, enabling them to
be used in portable or embedded applications. They can be effortlessly
integrated into different devices and systems, including smartphones,
wearable devices, smart homes, and so forth. (5) Real-time monitoring
and early warning: Self-powered gas sensors can monitor gas concen­
tration and quality in real-time, enabling us to stay up-to-date with
changes and pollution levels in the gaseous environment. This is para­
mount for environmental protection, health monitoring, and safety
warnings. (6) Data Accuracy and Reliability: Research into self-powered
gas sensors can improve their measurement accuracy and signal stabil­
ity. Improvements in sensitivity, selectivity, response speed, and opti­
mization of data processing algorithms can reduce false alarms and
omissions, and enhance the accuracy and reliability of gas detection
results. (7) Emergency Response and Crisis Management: Self-powered
gas sensors can offer rapid and dependable data assistance during
emergencies, facilitating emergency responders in making timely de­
cisions and undertaking necessary actions.
Within a self-powered gas sensing network, the power module and
the sensing module are the key hubs. On one hand, the energy module
must supply adequate power for continual sensor functionality. On the
other, the sensing module must possess extreme sensitivity toward the
target gas to fulfill the requisites of diverse environmental monitoring
conditions. There have been numerous excellent reviews on self-
powered sensors and gas sensors to date [4–7]. However, research
into these two aspects of self-powered gas sensors remains fragmented.
Therefore, it is essential to present a thorough summary of the advances
and potential in the area of gas sensing that operates on self-sustained
Fig. 1. Visualization of the current research trends in the field of self-powered gas sensors and the co-occurrence of keywords. The line connecting two terms, the size
of each term ring, and the color of the ring indicate the relevance of the term, the frequency of occurrence of the term, and the average publication date, respectively.
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Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
power. In this review, you will find information about how energy
harvesters are constructed, what they are made from, and how they
work. Simultaneously, we categorize the self-powered gas sensors sys­
tematically reported to date, to determine future directions.
2. Energy harvesters
The ambient energy harvesting nanogenerators and batteries act as
the power module for the self-powered gas sensors. Currently, as shown
in Fig. 2, TENG, PENG, TEG, and solar cells are the most common power
generators in self-powered gas sensors. Biofuel cells, semiconductor
heterostructures based on photovoltaic properties, lithium-ion batteries,
and various hybridized structures are also used for self-powered gas
sensors. Therefore, many different energy sources and power generators
are available for self-powered gas sensors. The focus of this paper is on
recent advances in the basic structure, operating principles, and mate­
rials of four power generation devices. This will give a clear idea of how
to go about developing self-powered sensors.
2.1. TENG
The phenomenon of static electricity generated by friction is
exceedingly normal throughout the natural environment. Nevertheless,
frictional electricity is usually considered to be harmful, thus the har­
vesting and exploitation of frictional electricity is commonly over­
looked. In 2012, Academician Zhonglin Wang of the Georgia Institute of
Technology first reported a TENG, a device for collecting frictional
electricity [8]. So far, the research on the harvesting of frictional elec­
tricity and its application has been extensively pursued.
2.1.1. Working modes of TENG
Presently, the working modes of TENG are categorized into four,
namely vertical contact-separation mode, lateral sliding mode, single-
electrode mode, and freestanding triboelectric-layer mode [9,10], as
shown in Fig. 3. There are particular application environments for each
mode, simultaneously, the synergistic effect between the various modes
significantly enhances the properties of TENG and enlarges the appli­
cation scenarios. The vertical contact-separation mode is formed by two
materials with opposite frictional polarities [11]. Upon contact between
the two materials under external forces, frictional charges of different
polarities are generated on their surfaces, which will produce an electric
potential difference when separated. In contrast, the electrons generated
travel in the opposite direction when the surfaces of the charged ma­
terials touch again. This constant pattern of contact and separation re­
sults in the formation of an alternating current. Compared to the vertical
contact-separation mode, the lateral sliding mode is based on the rela­
tive displacement between the two materials [12]. The relative motion is
accompanied by a change in the effective contact area of the two
L. Wang et al.
Fig. 2. The four dominant energy harvesters.
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the four working models. Copyright 2022 Elsevier [10].
materials, leading to an electrical potential difference. The periodic
back-and-forth relative motion creates an alternating current. For the
single-electrode mode, the ground is taken as the reference electrode,
which directly captures the friction energy produced by the friction
material and the surrounding air without connecting the conductor
[13]. Additionally, a freestanding triboelectric-layer model was devel­
oped based on the single electrode model, which uses a set of symmet­
rical single electrode structures as mutual reference electrodes [14]. As
the friction material changes its position, the generated asymmetric
charge migrates, producing an electrical output.
In 2017, Professor Zhonglin Wang traced the origin of TENG to
Maxwell’s displacement current, which is defined as follows:
∂D ∂E ∂Ps
JD = =ε + (1)
∂t ∂t ∂t
Where D is the displacement field, ε is the permittivity constant, E is the
electric field, and Ps is the polarization field of the surface charges
generated by piezoelectric or triboelectric effects.
Of course, when calculating the electrical parameters of TENG, such
as current, one needs to consider factors such as structure, materials, and
environment. Therefore, it is necessary to further calculate the current
and voltage output parameters of TENG using charge distribution theory
and circuit theory based on specific circumstances.
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Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
2.1.2. Materials for TENG
The transfer of electrons among two friction materials is the basis of
TENG, which is classified as electrode material and active material.
Depending on the electron affinity, higher electron affinity and gaining
electrons are referred to as electron acceptor materials, conversely,
lower electron affinity and losing electrons are termed electron donor
materials [15]. The electrode materials are mainly made of Cu, Al, Au,
Ag, etc. Besides, carbon based materials like graphene are also widely
employed in electrode materials [10]. The electronic acceptor materials
are mainly polymer materials, for instance, Polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE) [16], polydimethyl-siloxane (PDMS) [17], fluorinated ethylene
propylene (FEP) [18], Kapton [19], polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
[20], polyester (PET) [21], polystyrene (PS) [22], polyvinyl alcohol
(PVA) [23], and rubber [24]. Regarding electronic donor materials,
nylon [25,26], polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) [27], polyurethane
(PU) [28], cellulose [29], indium tin oxide (ITO) [30], textiles [31],
graphene [32], and silk [33,34] are the most investigated.
Furthermore, two-dimensional materials have attracted interest with
a sharper mechanism of electron transfer than polymeric materials. For
instance, graphene, MoS2, WS2, and MXene [35,36]. However, there are
still some unresolved problems associated with 2D materials in practical
applications, such as the vulnerability to degradation of performance
resulting from temperature and humidity, and the challenge of
manufacturing large-area single-crystal films [37]. Consequently, more
studies are still warranted to refine the material components to upgrade
L. Wang et al.
the properties of TENG in terms of charge density.
2.1.3. Structure of TENG
The structural design of TENG is mostly founded on four essential
modes of operation and a variety of material selections. The mechanical
energy existing in the form of vibration and deformation is transformed
into electrical energy by Zhu et al. using the principle of contact sepa­
ration mode TENG [38]. A multilayer structure with a cavity between
the two polymer layers is shown in Fig. 4a. The cavity formed is intended
for the production and separation of electric charges. Building on the
sliding model, Tang et al. developed a liquid metal-based TENG [39].
The TNEG contains two parts, one is friction material and induction
electrode, another part is liquid metal, whose structure and working
principle are illustrated in Fig. 4b. This structure enlarges the contact
area across the electrodes and applies to the collection of liquid vibra­
tion energy. Qian et al. reported a distinctive seesaw structured TENG,
as depicted in Fig. 4c, which can efficiently harvest electrical energy
from rotational motion [40]. Reducing the wear rate remains an
essential direction for the TENG investigation. Zhang et al. designed a
new super-lubricated TENG with an ultra-low wear rate and coefficient
of friction (less than 0.01) for this generator [41]. Fig. 4d exhibits that
the generator consists of a friction sub, diamond-like carbon film, and
steel balls that simultaneously capture friction energy during the friction
process. For the single electrode mode, Su et al. reported a fully enclosed
cylindrical TENG [42]. The motor is composed of a perfluoroalkoxy
sphere with surface etched nanowires, a floating latex balloon, and an
Fig. 4. Application of different working models for the design of TENG structures. (a) Vertical contact-separation mode. Copyright 2012 American Chemical Society
[38]. (b) Lateral sliding mode. Copyright 2015 Wiley-VCH [39]. (c) Lateral sliding mode. Copyright 2017 Elsevier [40]. (d) Lateral sliding mode. Copyright 2022
Elsevier [41]. (e) Single-electrode mode. Copyright 2013 American Chemical Society [42]. (f) Freestanding triboelectric-layer mode. Copyright 2014 American
Chemical Society [43].
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Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
aluminum electrode to the end of the balloon, as shown in Fig. 4e. Lin
et al. described a TENG based on the freestanding triboelectric-layer
mode, which allows mechanical energy to be harvested from the rota­
tional motion [43]. It is structured as indicated in Fig. 4f, which is made
of the independent rotating part of the frictional electric layer and the
fixed part of the metal electrode.
2.1.4. Energy source of TENG
Throughout daily life, energy generated by friction exists every­
where, for example, energy generated by human movement, wind en­
ergy, vibration energy, wave energy, etc. can be captured and utilized
through TENG. Zhang et al. developed a device for gathering wind en­
ergy generated by high-speed moving trains [44]. As shown in Fig. 5a,
the apparatus is predicated on an elastic rotating TENG, which doubles
the energy harvesting efficiency and quadruples the durability over a
conventional rotating sliding TENG. Huang et al. proposed a magneti­
cally assisted TENG for harvesting wind and blue energy [45]. The
motor is operated by the process of contact and separation of Al/Ni
electrode and PDMS film, as demonstrated in Fig. 5b. A simplified and
affordable fiber-type generator fabricated from commercial cotton
thread, polytetrafluoroethylene aqueous suspension, and carbon nano­
tubes were exhibited by Zhong et al. [46]. Fig. 5c reveals that the
generator is capable of rapidly transforming the energy generated by
human motion into electrical energy, with an average output power
density of 0.1 μW/cm2. Fan et al. reported a rotating intermittent con­
tact TENG that was implemented on a slidable rope-driven rotor [47].
L. Wang et al.
Fig. 5. Different energy collection through TENG. (a) Wind energy. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society [44]. (b) Wind and blue energy. Copyright 2016
Elsevier [45]. (c) Human movement energy. Copyright 2014 American Chemical Society [46]. (d) Vibration energy. Copyright 2021 Elsevier [47]. (e) Ocean wave
energy. Copyright 2022 American Chemical Society [48]. (f) Ocean wave energy. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society [49].
The basic structure of this TENG is displayed in Fig. 5d. It can steadily
collect low-frequency vibration energy without manual operation, and
its normalized electrical output is stabilized at approximately 81%. On
the other hand, the ocean contains very abundant wave energy, but the
random nature and low frequency of wave motion lead to difficulties in
gathering it. Gao et al. suggested a TENG with a gyroscopic structure to
harvest ocean wave energy, whose schematic of the working principle is
shown in Fig. 5e [48]. Besides, putting the TENG underwater for 30
days, the DC output attenuation is around 8%, demonstrating relatively
good durability underwater. Xu et al. designed a gradient energy har­
vesting TENG, as illustrated in Fig. 5f, which has dual power generation
units to accommodate the variation of waves [49]. According to the
wave size, the TENG exhibits different energy transfer states. When the
wave is small, it enters the primary transfer state, and with the increase
of the wave, it changes to the secondary transfer state to realize energy
harvesting in a graded manner.
2.2. PENG
Analogous to TENG, the PENG is a device that converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy, with the distinction that the PENG is more
reliant on the piezoelectric effect [50]. Consequently, the investigation
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Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
of PENG typically focuses on the selection and structural design of
piezoelectric materials. Furthermore, the PENG was affected less by the
working environment and offered the advantages of longer service life
and stable output, which made it more applicable to actual application
studies [51].
2.2.1. Materials for PENG
The piezoelectric capacity of the material is a critical determinant of
PENG performance. Basically, whether a crystal possesses a piezoelec­
tric effect or not is determined by the spatial arrangement of the atoms
and ions that constitute the crystal [52]. Accordingly, the piezoelectric
properties of different materials vary. Presently, there are over two
hundred piezoelectric materials applied for energy harvesting [53]. This
is primarily classified into semiconductors, ceramics, polymers, and
composites. The development of piezoelectric materials in the last
decade is illustrated in Fig. 6 [54–65].
Semiconductor-based piezoelectric materials are widely used in
PENG, such as ZnO [66], GaN [67], and ZnS [68] etc. fibrous zincite
crystal structures. With a large electromechanical coupling coefficient,
moreover, the semiconductor material simultaneously possesses semi­
conductor properties and piezoelectric properties, which apply to the
preparation of PENG. The other hotly researched piezoelectric material
L. Wang et al. Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092

Fig. 6. Timeline of the progress of piezoelectric materials reported in the last decade. In 2013, the ZnO nanowires obtained from boron-doped diamond tips were
used for piezoelectric materials [54]. Copyright 2013 Royal Society of Chemistry. In 2014, the Si-doped GaN nanowire was applied to piezoelectric materials [55].
Copyright 2014 Wiley-VCH. The PZT thin films were used for piezoelectric materials [56]. Copyright 2014 Wiley-VCH. In 2016, the ZnO microcantilever was
employed for piezoelectric materials [57]. Copyright 2016 Elsevier. Lead-free BaTiO3 and cellulose composites for piezoelectric materials [58]. Copyright 2016
Wiley-VCH. Cellulose nanofibers for piezoelectric materials [59]. Copyright 2016 American Chemical Society. In 2017, lead-free BaTiO3 and PVDF composites for
piezoelectric materials [60]. Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society. In 2018, PZT-5 H and PZT-8 piezoelectric ceramics were reported [61]. Copyright 2018
Elsevier. In 2019, 3D Printing PZT [62]. Copyright 2019 Springer Nature. In 2020, lead-free PVDF/SM-KNN electrospun nanocomposite was applied to piezoelectric
materials [63]. Copyright 2020 Elsevier. In 2021, the CuO-doped PZT-PZNN for piezoelectric materials [64]. Copyright 2021 Elsevier. The BNNT-ZnO QDs nano­
composites for piezoelectric materials [65]. Copyright 2021 Elsevier.

is ceramic, a polycrystalline material consisting of several oxides and
carbonates sintered together. The ceramic materials exhibit high
piezoelectric constants, and more researched are PbTiO3-PbZrO3 (PZT)
piezoelectric ceramics [69,70]. However, the PZT material contains lead
metal, which is not beneficial to human safety and environmental pro­
tection, thus exploring environmentally friendly ceramic piezoelectric
materials is a direction for further research. In this respect, lead-free
ceramic materials such as BaTiO3 (BTO) have been explored as well,
but further research is warranted to enhance the piezoelectric coefficient
of BTO materials [71]. Compared with semiconductor and ceramic etc.
inorganic materials, polymer materials offer better flexibility and can
effectively harvest the strain energy generated by small vibrations, be­
sides, polymer piezoelectric materials are more suitable to be applied in
wearable flexible PENG. Currently, the mainly piezoelectric polymer
materials that have been investigated are PVDF [72], polyvinyl fluoride
(PVF) [73], polyvinyl chloride (PVC) [74], and cellulose [75]. Gener­
ally, composite materials display enhanced piezoelectric properties by
concentrating the strengths of various monomeric materials. Park et al.
[76] first proposed a nanocomposite generator and utilized it for
piezoelectric energy harvesting in 2012, which pioneered the advance­
ment of nanocomposite piezoelectric materials. Subsequently, re­
searchers further promoted the development of nanocomposite
piezoelectric materials by establishing a variety of lead-free, high-yield,
large-area composite nanogenerators [77–79].
2.2.2. Structure of PENG
The structure of PENG has less effect on the piezoelectric properties
than piezoelectric materials, however, different structures must be
designed to facilitate the practical application of PENG when consid­
ering the environmental suitability. The structure of PENG is relatively
straightforward, the majority of designs are parallel plate structures,
additionally, some special structures are being investigated. Ghosh et al.
[80] designed a standard parallel-plate structure bio-piezoelectric
nanogenerator, which was driven to produce an open-circuit voltage
by applying positive pressure through a finger, as shown in Fig. 7a. For
the multilayer structure, Chung et al. [81] fabricated a flexible thin film
PENG using a facile ZnO ink, which is shown schematically in Fig. 7b.
The film PENG provides the advantages of simple structure and low
manufacturing cost, which can collect the mechanical energy generated
by rolling motion and human muscle stretching. Similarly, a lead-free
NaNbO3 nanowire-PDMS composite film PENG was introduced by
Jung et al. [82] Fig. 7c demonstrates a sandwich structure with electrode
material on both sides and piezoelectric material in the middle. Hanani
et al. [83] designed a lead-free biocompatible thin-film PENG, as shown
in Fig. 7d, that is capable of generating an open-circuit voltage of 14.4 V
and a short-circuit current of 0.55 μA under finger tapping. Huang et al.
[84] reported a PET layer friction piezoelectric nanogenerator modified
by PVDF and genetically engineered recombinant spider silk protein,
where the PET layer is a shared energized layer of TENG and PENG, as
shown in Fig. 7e. This shared structure dramatically enhanced the en­
ergy conversion efficiency. Gu et al. [85] developed a novel PENG
design with three-dimensional embedded electrodes (IENG). Fig. 7f
shows that each section of the piezoelectric material is interposed by a
pair of well-matched electrodes. The neighboring parts of the piezo­
electric material are polarized in opposite directions, and all parts are
linked in parallel to form a three-dimensional device.
2.3. TEG
The temperature difference energy exists extensively in nature, while
TEG is a device that transforms temperature difference energy into
electrical energy. Based on the “Seebeck effect” that was proposed in
1821, the investigators formulated different TEGs to satisfy the power
requirements in various environments [86]. TEG offers numerous ad­
vantages such as long service life, no contamination, low cost, no
moving parts, simple and reliable operation, etc. Therefore, the devel­
opment of TEG is an essential component of energy research.
2.3.1. Working principle of TEG
The working principle of TEG is mainly related to the “Seebeck ef­
fect” and the later proposed “Peltier effect” and “Thomson effect”. The
TEG system mainly consists of the hot side, the cold side, the material

6
L. Wang et al. Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092

Fig. 7. Structural design of PENG. (a) Parallel plate structure [80]. Copyright 2016 Elsevier. (b) Multi-layer film structure [81]. Copyright 2012 Wiley-VCH. (c)
Sandwich structure [82]. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society. (d) Film structure [83]. Copyright 2020 Elsevier. (e) Hybrid shared architecture [84].
Copyright 2020 Wiley-VCH. (f) Three-dimensional embedded electrode structure [85]. Copyright 2020 Springer Nature.

connecting the two sides, and the external load [86]. The material
connecting the hot side to the cold side is further categorized into p-type
and n-type materials to enable a closed loop. The schematic diagram of
TEG power generation is shown in Fig. 8. The majority of carriers are
dissimilar in p-type and n-type materials, where the charge in p-type
materials moves from the hot side to the cold side, while in n-type
materials the opposite is true. The process of charge movement realizes
the conversion of heat energy to electrical energy.
The main electrical output parameters for measuring a TEG are the
current (I), and the voltage (V), considering the single-couple structure
shown in Fig. 8. To simplify the calculation, the following assumptions
are made: unidirectional heat flow within the TEG, no thermal exchange
between the thermocouples and the surrounding environment, and no
thermal resistance between the high-temperature and low-temperature
sides of the TEG and the external environment. Through mathematical
derivation, when m= (1 +ZT)0.5 and T = Th −2 Tc , the TEG achieves
maximum conversion efficiency. The relevant expressions are as follows:

E=(αp+αn)(Th− tc) (2)

(αp + αn )(Th − Tc )
I= (3)
(m + 1)R0

RL
V= E (4)
RL + R0
The equations α represent the Seebeck coefficient, R0 represent the
internal resistance of the thermocouple, Th and Tc represent the tem­
peratures at the hot and cold ends, respectively, m represent the ratio of
the load resistance to the internal resistance of the couple, and E denotes
the open-circuit voltage. Furthermore, ZT is a dimensionless quality
factor, which is the criterion for evaluating the superiority of thermo­
electric materials.

Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of TEG’s power generation.

7
L. Wang et al.
2.3.2. Materials for TEG
Thermoelectricity represents a simple and environmentally friendly
energy source for the 21st century, while extensive research is required
to further exploit high-performance thermoelectric conversion mate­
rials. The performance parameter thermoelectric figure of merit (ZT) is
the main measure of the properties of thermoelectric materials. In 2017,
He et al. [87] summarized the typical thermoelectric materials and their
ZT values that have been investigated, as shown in Fig. 9a. The graph
indicates that alloys composed of tellurium (Te), bismuth (Bi), antimony
(Sb) and selenium (Se) are widely researched, while SnSe and Cu2Se
possess relatively high ZT values. Subsequently, in 2018, Beretta et al.
[88] further concluded the currently commonly studied thermoelectric
materials and classified them into p- and n-type materials. As shown in
Fig. 9b, they also elaborate on the optimum temperature and timeline of
the thermoelectric material. Additionally, following the development
concept of environmental protection, Caballero-Calero et al. [89] have
concluded that sustainable and non-toxic thermoelectric materials.
Fig. 9c demonstrates that numerous families of sulfides are starting to be
synthesized, simultaneously, they display very high ZT values.
Certainly, in recent years, there has also abundant investigation of
liquid-like [90], layered [91], flexible wearable [92,93], Ag-based [94],
and carbon-based [95] thermoelectric materials, which provides a broad
future scope for the preparation of high-performance TEGs.
2.3.3. Structural design of TEG
Multiple structures are designed to meet different environmental
requirements depending on the working principle of the TEG. Yu et al.
Fig. 9. Timeline of research on thermoelectric materials. (a) Timeline of ZT maxima for representative TE material families from 1960 to 2017. Copyright 2017
American Association for the Advancement of Science [87]. (b) Optimum temperature and timeline for ZT values of p-type and n-type materials. Copyright 2018
Elsevier [88]. (c) Evolution of ZT at various temperatures for different environmentally friendly thermoelectric materials in recent years (2002 to 2021). Copyright
2021 Wiley-VCH [89].
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Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
[96] prepared a TEG for micro-energy harvesting by femtosecond laser
direct writing technique, whose structure and dimensions are shown in
Fig. 10a. An et al. [97] designed and prepared a multi-group vertical
structure TEG, as shown in Fig. 10b, which facilitates uniform and stable
heat transfer. Burton et al. [98] formulated a p-n alternating TEG by 3D
printing technique, which was connected to a copper electrode coated
with Ag coating at one side to enhance the electrical contact perfor­
mance, as shown in Fig. 10c. Kim et al. [99] reported a TEG manufac­
tured by a screen printing technique and a laser multi-scan peeling
process (Fig. 10d). A TEG composed of an array of 72 TE couplers with
good flexibility and excellent output performance at different bending
levels was realized by that technology. Hassanzadeh et al. [100]
designed a three-terminal electrode series TEG based on the basic
structure of the TEG and implemented it for self-powered temperature
sensing, as depicted in Fig. 10e. The diagram also indicates the prepa­
ration process of the TEG. For the capture of solar thermal radiation,
Tian et al. [101] devised in-plane single-stage and double-stage toroidal
TEGs, as shown in Fig. 10f. A wearable TEG was reported by Ren et al.
[102] Fig. 10g demonstrates that the TEG structure incorporates a
thermoelectric chip, a dynamic covalent polyimide, and a flowable
liquid metal wire. Furthermore, the TEG possesses outstanding
self-healing and tensile properties.
2.3.4. Energy source of TEG
The heat energy available everywhere in life can be transformed into
electric energy, while the current research is mostly on the heat energy
emitted from human skin, industrial production, and heat energy
L. Wang et al. Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092

Fig. 10. Different structures of TEG. (a) Dimensions and boundary conditions of laser direct writing TEG. Copyright 2021 Elsevier [96]. (b) Multi-group vertical
structure of TEG. Copyright 2017 Royal Society of Chemistry [97]. (c) 3D print of TEG. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society [98]. (d) Screen printing
technology and laser multi-scan peeling process for the preparation of TEG. Copyright 2016 American Chemical Society [99]. (e) Three-electrode tandem TEG.
Copyright 2022 IEEE [100]. (f) Planar ring-shaped film TEG. Copyright 2023 Elsevier [101]. (g) Flexible TEG. Copyright 2021 American Association for the
Advancement of Science [102].

generated by automobile engines. The conversion of such energy into
electrical energy offers more practical and convenient applications. Huo
et al. [103] investigated a flexible wearable TEG and employed it to
extract the heat energy generated by human skin, as shown in Fig. 11a.
The TEG device still produces a power density of 7.3 μW/cm2 at an
ambient temperature of 22 ◦ C, which facilitates the self-powered oper­
ation of wearable devices in daily life. Toan et al. [104] reported a
high-performance flexible TEG and its application in a self-powered
wireless Bluetooth sensing system. Fig. 11b demonstrates that such
TEG successfully converts the heat energy generated by the electric
kettle into electrical energy, simultaneously, the generated electrical
energy supplies the operation of the thermohygrometer. To efficiently
utilize waste heat generated from factories and power plants, Zhang
et al. [105] successfully harvested waste heat generated from devices
such as heat pipes by a porous three-dimensional thermoelectric in situ
energy harvester. The way of the TEG’s operation is shown in Fig. 11c.
An efficient TEG was developed by Kang et al. [106] to extract the
thermal energy generated during engine start-up (Fig. 11d). Besides,
Kim et al. [107] prepared a TEG to extract the heat energy generated by
the exhaust pipe and simultaneously power the cooler for cooling
(Fig. 11e).
2.4. Solar cell
Within the research of energy transformation applications, solar
energy plays an indispensable part. By 1839 [108], the photovoltaic
effect was first discovered while enabling the direct conversion of solar
energy to electrical energy. Subsequently, crystalline silicon solar cells
were invented and mass produced, which is also known as the first
generation of solar cells [109]. However, the high preparation cost and
serious contamination of crystalline silicon solar cells make it impossible
to satisfy the demand for environmental protection. Therefore, a new
generation of thin-film solar cells emerged. In 2020, the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory released the growth history of energy
conversion efficiency of various solar cells, as shown in Fig. 12 [110].
Among the thin film solar cells mainly GaAs series solar cells, organic
photovoltaic cells, and perovskite solar cells, perovskite solar cells are
outstanding owing to their low fabrication price, simplicity of structure,

9
L. Wang et al. Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092

Fig. 11. The TEG is used to extract various thermal energies. (a) Human skin heat. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society [103]. (b) Heat energy is generated by
electrical appliances. Copyright 2022 Elsevier [104]. (c) Thermal energy from factories and power plants. Copyright 2022 American Chemical Society [105]. (d) Heat
energy of car engine. Copyright 2022 Wiley-VCH [106]. (e) Heat energy of car exhaust. Copyright 2022 Elsevier [107].

Fig. 12. The history of growth in energy conversion efficiency of various solar cells. Copyright 2022 National Renewable Energy Laboratory USA [110].

and high efficiency. Accordingly, subsequent sections will concentrate
on the working principle, structure, and materials of perovskite solar
cells.
2.4.1. Working principle of perovskite solar cells
The mechanism of functioning of perovskite solar cells was based on
the photovoltaic effect of the semiconductor material. In other words,
the valence band electrons in the emission, barrier, and base regions
within the material under light conditions absorb the energy of the
photon which undergoes an energy level jump to the conduction band,
thus generating electron-hole pairs [111]. Simultaneously, the electron
transport layer (ETL) will selectively collect electrons and the hole
transport layer (HTL) will selectively capture holes. Subsequently, the
electrons flow through the externally loaded circuit to combine with the
holes which form a complete circuit. Furthermore, the energy level
difference between the ETL, the perovskite layer, and the HTL requires

10
L. Wang et al.
effective regulation to accomplish high energy conversion efficiency.
2.4.2. Structure of perovskite solar cell
The structure of perovskite solar cell mainly consists of HTL,
perovskite layer, ETL, transparent electrode, and top electrode. Ac­
cording to the different directions of charge transfer, perovskite solar
cells are divided into mesoporous, planar, and inverted planar structures
[112], as shown in Fig. 13.
2.4.3. Perovskite and other materials
The structure of a perovskite solar cell is categorized into five main
parts, of which the materials for the top electrode are typically metal
electrodes such as Ag and Au. Also available are non-metallic electrodes,
like carbon electrodes [113]. On the other hand, transparent conductive
electrodes require certain requirements on the light transmittance and
surface roughness of the material, which is usually indium tin oxide
(ITO). The typical materials for ETL layers are metal oxides such as TiO2,
ZnO, SnO2, etc., on the contrary, the inverted structural ETL layers are
mostly fullerenes and their derivatives. Whereas the commonly used
materials for HTL layers are organic small molecules and polymers. For
perovskite materials, the general chemical structure is ABX3, where A is
a large radius cation, B is a small radius cation, and X is a halogen ion.
Typically, there are MAPbI3 (MA = methylammonium, CH3NH+ 3 ) and
FAPbI3 (FA = formamidinium, HC(NH2)+ 2 ). Certainly, the development
of lead-free perovskite materials [114] is under further research owing
to the toxicity of lead.
2.5. Other energy harvesters
Aside from the four typical power generation rigs mentioned above,
there are several other types of nanogenerators: magnetoelectric nano­
generator (MENG), photovoltaic nanogenerator (PVNG), biofuel cell,
etc.
A MENG is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy by exploiting the magnetoelectric effect at the nanoscale.
Ferroelectric, magnetic, and conductive nanomaterials make up this
device. The Magnetoelectric Effect occurs in certain materials when a
magnetic field or voltage is applied, causing charges to separate or
creating a potential difference [115–117]. This phenomenon can be
used to convert energy from fluid flow, heat, or mechanical vibration
into electrical energy. Common working principles of MENG comprise
(1) the Magneto-Electric coupling effect: the magneto-electric coupling
effect between ferroelectric and magnetic materials is utilized to trans­
form mechanical vibrations into electrical energy. When vibrated, the
nanogenerator causes the electrical dipole moment in the ferroelectric
material to change, resulting in charge separation and thus a potential
difference. (2) Magnetostrictive effect: By utilizing the mechanical
deformation of the magnetic material when it undergoes a stretching
change in the magnetic field, a potential difference is generated. This
phenomenon is achieved by affixing magnetic materials such as thin
Fig. 13. Types of structures of perovskite solar cell.
11
Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
films or nanowires to a device that undertakes mechanical vibration or
fluid flow, leading to stretching and contracting of the magnetic mate­
rial, hence generating electrical energy. MENG offers numerous ad­
vantages due to its small size, high flexibility, and efficiency. These
characteristics render them suitable for various application scenarios
requiring small, mobile, or passive energy sources. For instance, these
principles can be utilized in the areas of miniature sensors, wearable
devices, and self-powered wireless sensor networks in order to establish
a sustainable power source for these technologies. It ought to be noted
that MENG is still being researched and developed, and comes with
numerous technical challenges and limitations. However, the contin­
uous advancement of nanotechnology and new materials herald the
significance of MENG as an eminent energy conversion technology.
Using nanoscale materials and structures, a PVNG is a device that
converts light energy into electrical energy. It typically comprises
nanomaterials, conducting layer, light absorbing layer, and electrodes.
The operating principle of PVNG is based on the photoelectric effect
[118–120]. When the surface of the material is exposed to light, the
energy of photons is absorbed and electron-hole pairs are generated. By
designing nanomaterials to absorb light efficiently in a specific spectral
range, the device achieves effective conversion of light energy. The
operation of the PVNG progresses as follows: in the initial stage, light is
absorbed by the light-absorbing layer on the surface of the phototropic
nanogenerator and photon energy is converted into excited state energy.
The second stage involves separating the excited electrons and holes
within the material to form a charge distribution. The third stage in­
volves collecting these charges; a conductive layer acts as a collector for
the electrons and holes, directing them to different electrodes and pro­
ducing current. The final stage is the external circuit, which allows the
current produced to power electronic devices or store electrical energy.
PVNG has high efficiency, flexibility, and scalability and is therefore
useful in many photovoltaic conversion applications like solar cells,
self-powered sensors, and wearable electronics. It is expected that PVNG
will provide a sustainable source of power for renewable energy sources
and low-power devices. Notably, research on this technology is still in its
early stages, with several technical barriers and limitations to be over­
come. However, advances in nanotechnology and optoelectronics are
expected to bring about the significance of PVNG as a crucial technology
for converting light energy.
A biofuel cell is a battery that utilizes biomass or biomaterials -
including glucose, alcohol, and cellulose - as fuel, converting chemical
energy into electricity through biocatalysts, such as enzymes or micro­
organisms that catalyze the redox reaction of the fuel [121–123]. Biofuel
cells are typically split into two types: microbial fuel cells (MFC) and
enzyme fuel cells (EFC). MFCs utilize the metabolites of microorgan­
isms, such as bacteria or fungi, to conduct electron transfer and re­
actions. At the anode, the microorganisms release electrons through
oxidation of the biofuel, and at the cathode, they reduce it through
combination with oxygen. In this way, MFCs can convert organic waste
directly into electricity while at the same time facilitating the treatment
L. Wang et al.
of the waste. Another one is EFC, which uses specific enzymes as cata­
lysts to induce the redox reaction of fuels under mild conditions and at
low temperatures. Well-known examples are glucose oxidase, ethanol
oxidase, and others. EFC present benefits such as high selectivity,
lengthier stability, and lower operating temperature. Biofuel cells are
appropriate for detecting certain volatile hydrocarbons, including
self-powered gas sensors.
3. Gas sensors
3.1. Classification of gas sensors
Based on the operational principles of gas sensors, they can be
classified into electrochemical, resistive, optical, surface acoustic wave
(SAW), and thermal types. Electrochemical gas sensors rely on chemical
reactions occurring between gas molecules and electrode surfaces,
resulting in changes in current or potential. The concentration of gas
molecules affects the rate of electrochemical reactions, thus causing
corresponding variations in current or potential. Resistive gas sensors
operate based on adsorption or chemical reactions between gas mole­
cules and sensitive material surfaces, leading to changes in the resistance
of the sensitive material. Variations in the concentration of target gases
induce corresponding changes in the adsorption or chemical reactions,
altering the resistance of the sensitive material accordingly. Optical gas
sensors exploit the absorption, scattering, or emission characteristics of
gas molecules towards specific wavelengths of light. Changes in gas
Fig. 14. Representative gas-sensitive materials in different dimensions are shown as follows: (a) quantum dots, Copyright 2021 American Association for the
Advancement of Science [124], (b) nanowires, Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society [125], (c) two-dimensional materials, Copyright 2018 Springer Nature
[126], and (d) metal-organic frameworks, Copyright 2021 Elsevier [127].
12
Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
concentration influence the propagation characteristics of light, allow­
ing for the detection of gas concentration by measuring variations in
light absorption, scattering, or emission. SAW gas sensors utilize the
impact of gas molecules on the propagation characteristics of surface
acoustic waves on solid surfaces. Changes in gas concentration affect the
velocity, frequency, or attenuation of the acoustic waves on the solid
surface, enabling the detection of gas concentration through the mea­
surement of acoustic wave variations. Thermal gas sensors are based on
the thermal conduction and transfer properties of gas molecules.
Changes in gas concentration influence the thermal conduction or
dissipation characteristics of the sensor, allowing for the detection of gas
concentration by measuring temperature variations in the sensor.
3.2. Materials for gas sensors
In the research of gas sensing materials, different dimensional ma­
terials (zero-dimensional, one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-
dimensional) have demonstrated their respective advantages, as shown
in Fig. 14 [124–127].
Zero-dimensional materials mainly refer to nanostructures such as
nanoparticles and quantum dots. They possess a high specific surface
area and quantum size effects, making them potentially applicable in gas
sensors. Due to their nanoscale characteristics, zero-dimensional mate­
rials can interact with gas molecules and exhibit specific sensing prop­
erties in gas sensors.
Typical one-dimensional materials, such as nanowires and
L. Wang et al.
nanotubes, have a high aspect ratio, which gives them superior surface
sensitivity and conductivity. These properties make one-dimensional
materials potentially applicable in gas sensing, for example, enabling
the detection of gases by monitoring changes in their electrical
properties.
Two-dimensional materials have high surface areas, excellent con­
ductivity, and mechanical flexibility, represented by materials such as
graphene, MXenes, and TMDs. Two-dimensional materials have shown
excellent performance in gas sensors, being able to detect gases through
changes in electrical, optical, or mechanical properties caused by gas
molecule adsorption.
Traditional three-dimensional materials also play an important role
in gas sensing, such as metal oxides and porous materials. They are
typically used in gas sensors as support materials or as substrates for
sensing thin films, utilizing their inherent physical and chemical prop­
erties. Novel three-dimensional materials like metal-organic frame­
works (MOFs) have high surface areas and tunable pore structures,
enabling effective gas detection through adsorption, separation, and
catalysis. Through further research and development, MOFs are ex­
pected to provide more innovative solutions in the field of gas sensing.
Additionally, it is worth mentioning that the development of new
materials should focus on the green and environmentally friendly nature
of the materials themselves. For example, the rational design of lead-free
materials [128–130] would greatly benefit environmental protection
and the widespread use of non-toxic materials in gas sensors.
4. Self-powered gas sensors
Applying the power captured by the energy harvester to the gas
sensor ensures continuous power-free operation of the gas sensor. It
facilitates the usage of environmental energy and the real-time moni­
toring of hazardous gases such as toxic and explosive gases. Presently,
there are two main categories of self-powered gas sensors, one is an
integrated sensing system in which the driver module and the sensing
module are shared. The sensing pattern features a simpler structure and
facilitates integrated operation in a micro-miniaturized form. However,
the conditions of use of the integrated sensing system are more stringent.
Another is a separate structure where the drive module is separate from
the sensing module and generally possesses an energy storage module to
realize real-time self-driven operation of the sensor. Naturally, the
separated structure is more complicated compared to the integrated
structure. Therefore, the two self-powered sensing methods have their
strengths and weaknesses. Fig. 15 shows the types of self-powered sen­
sors and the corresponding performance parameter requirements.
4.1. NO2
Motor vehicle exhaust, industrial production, and the combustion of
Fig. 15. Classification and performance parameters of self-powered gas sensors.
13
Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
fossil fuels, etc. result in the toxic substance NO2 and its derivatives,
which are commonly present in the atmosphere. In particular, the high
concentration of NO2 will pollute the environment by causing acid rain
and photochemical smog. The low concentration of NO2 also poses a
severe threat to human health which can lead to lung and respiratory
system disorders. Therefore, the formulation of accurate and simple self-
powered NO2 sensors is favorable to environmental protection and
human health. Presently, more self-powered NO2 sensors have been
investigated, including TENG-driven, photovoltaic cell-driven, ion
battery-driven, and semiconductor heterostructures with self-powered
systems by changing the energy-band structure in the light of illumi­
nation. Also, the powering of NO2 sensors by PENG and hybrid struc­
tures has been investigated.
TENG-driven NO2 sensors are mostly of separated construction. For
instance, a TENG operating in vertical separation mode as an energy
harvester was established by Shen et al. [131]. Besides, a
series-connected resistive sensor was employed to detect NO2 gas.
Simultaneously, a self-powered system for the NO2 sensor was imple­
mented by using a commercially available light-emitting diode as an
alarm, as shown in Fig. 16a. Yang et al. designed a self-powered NO2
sensing system, as shown in Fig. 16b, in which he stored the electrical
energy generated by TENG in a capacitor [132]. It is beneficial to
guarantee the self-powered operation of the NO2 sensor even when the
TENG is not generating voltage or current.
For battery-driven NO2 sensors, there are typically integrated ionic
and photovoltaic cells, as well as separated photovoltaic cells. Yan et al.
reported a zinc-air battery structure sensor that is capable of simulta­
neous power supply and gas monitoring, as shown in Fig. 16c [133]. The
source of its output voltage is mainly the potential difference produced
by the reaction between the cathode and the anode. Vijjapu et al. pre­
pared a photovoltaic self-powered NO2 sensor by incorporating the
photovoltaic properties of perovskite and the gas-sensitive properties of
semiconductor metal oxides [134]. Fig. 16d shows the morphology and
NO2 sensing performance of the sensor.
Self-powered operation of NO2 sensors achieved by utilizing the
special p-n heterostructure of semiconductor composites is widely
favored among researchers. Under light conditions, the photogenerated
carriers undergo band bending at the p-n interface resulting in the
separation of electron-hole pairs. The separation of carriers is accom­
plished by the transfer of electrons to the n-type material and the
migration of holes to the p-type material. It is clearly illustrated in
Fig. 16e [135]. When the p-n heterostructures are exposed to a NO2
atmosphere, the electrons in the n-type material are captured because of
the strong electron affinity of NO2 itself. Therefore, the reduction in
electron concentration will result in an increase in resistance and a
decrease in current in the p-n material. It realizes NO2 gas sensing by
detecting changes in current or resistance. On the other hand, the
acquisition of the surface potential difference of the p-n
L. Wang et al.
Fig. 16. NO2 sensors with different energy sources. (a) TENG. Copyright 2017 Wiley-VCH [131]. (b) TENG. Copyright 2021 Royal Society of Chemistry. [132] (c)
Zinc-air battery. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society [133]. (d) Perovskite. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society [134]. (e) Charge migration in p-n
heterostructures. Copyright 2021 Wiley-VCH [135]. (f) Hybrid. Copyright 2019 American Institute of Physics [138].
heterostructured material enables the self-powered operation of the NO2
sensor.
Light is not only beneficial to boost the response of the sensor to the
gas, but the photogenerated carriers produced could in turn power the
sensor. This has been demonstrated [136,137]. Su et al. developed a
self-powered NO2 sensor that first uses TENG to realize the conversion of
mechanical energy to electrical energy, and then the generated electrical
energy is used to power both a chemical resistance type NO2 sensor and
a UV illumination device, as shown in Fig. 16f [138]. Under UV illu­
mination, the NO2 sensor exhibited a higher sensing capability. Thus,
the study realized the coupling of the friction electric effect and the
photoelectric effect. This provides ideas for the subsequent hybridized
use of multiple energy harvesters.
Currently, an increasing amount of research is dedicated to devel­
oping the performance of self-powered NO2 sensors. Table 1 summarizes
recent studies on self-powered NO2 sensors [139–153], including the
types of energy harvesters, power density of energy harvesters, and the
performance of NO2 gas sensing. These parameters are crucial for
evaluating the sensor’s performance and reliability in practical appli­
cations. Based on the reported power density of electricity generation in
references [141,153], it can be observed that TENG and PENG-driven
NO2 sensors possess lower energy density. Conversely,
photovoltaic-driven and photoelectric-driven modes in semiconductor
heterojunction structures, as reported in the literature [135–137,145,
149–152], exhibit higher energy densities. This demonstrates that the
operational modes of TENG and PENG do not possess an advantage in
14
Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
energy supply, and further research is required to enhance the energy
conversion efficiency of TENG and PENG. In terms of NO2 sensing per­
formance, while most literature presents performance parameters with
high sensitivity, the response/recovery time extends to several tens or
even hundreds of seconds. It is also challenging to achieve a
high-performance response at ppb levels for the detection limit of NO2
gas. Therefore, self-powered NO2 sensors still face numerous challenges.
Firstly, there is a need to improve the power density of the energy
harvester to ensure long-term self-powered operation of the sensor.
Secondly, there is an urgent need to enhance the response speed and
detection limit of target materials to NO2 in sensing performance, while
also evaluating the impact of temperature and humidity conditions in
the environment on the sensing performance of NO2.
4.2. NH3
A toxic gas, NH3 generally originates from industrial production and
biological metabolism. The human respiratory system will be harmed
and the skin and eyes will be strongly irritated when the human body is
exposed to 50 ppm of NH3. Consequently, the U.S. Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) mandates that the workplace con­
centration of NH3 should not exceed 25 ppm. Additionally, the human
body produces a certain concentration of NH3 from respiration, which is
normally 1 ppm. Therefore, it is not merely possible to prevent harm to
the human body by detecting the NH3 concentration but also to check
the health status of the human body. The development of self-powered
L. Wang et al. Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092

Table 1
Summary of the performance of different types of self-powered NO2 sensors.
2
Energy sources Power density/μW cm− Gas concentration/ppm Sensitivity Response time/s Recovery time/s LOD/ppm Ref.
a
TENG n.r. 100 125 121 847 5 [131]
TENG n.r. 50 15b 45 147 1 [132]
TENG n.r. 100 1680%c 566 547 20 [139]
TENG n.r. 1 82.7%d n.r. n.r. 0.01 [140]
TENG 0.0359 50 510%e n.r. n.r. 0.5 [141]
battery n.r. 1000 n.r. 115 517 20 [133]
battery n.r. 10 17502.3%f 46.2 59.3 0.0001 [142]
PVNG n.r. 1 127.2%c n.r. n.r. 0.25 [134]
PVNG n.r. 8 8%f 17 126 0.2 [143]
PVNG n.r. 10 30%f 9 9.6 1.8 [144]
PVNG 18 50 13200%f 60 10 ＜5 [145]
photovoltaic cell n.r. 100 22.7%f 72 188 1 [146]
photovoltaic cell n.r. 20 27%f n.r. n.r. 1 [147]
photovoltaic cell n.r. 10 13.7%e 129 621 2 [148]
p-n heterojunction 12 0.5 64.3%e 23 178 0.02 [135]
p-n heterojunction 1.35 5 17%g 33 218 0.5 [136]
p-n heterojunction 0.9 1.8 23%f 110 168 0.05 [137]
p-n heterojunction 6.66 10 178%f 387 728 n.r. [149]
p-n heterojunction 30 0.75 23.5%c n.r. 300 0.17 [150]
p-n heterojunction 42.3 1 84%h 200 400 0.49 [151]
p-n heterojunction 20 1 90%f 80 850 0.005 [152]
PENG 0.00218 0.12 504%e 20 10 0.03 [153]
hybrid n.r. 50 14.8c n.r. n.r. n.r. [138]
a
: S = Rg/Ra;
b
: S = Vg/Va;
c
: S% = (Vg-Va)/Va× 100;
d
: S% = (Va-Vg)/Vg× 100;
e
: S% = (Rg-Ra)/Ra× 100;
f
: S% = (Ig-Ia)/Ia× 100;
g
: S% = (Ra-Rg)/Rg× 100;
h
: S% = (Ia-Ig)/Ia× 100, where Ra and Rg are the resistances in the air and the resistances in the target gas, respectively; Va and Vg represent the output voltage in air
and test gas, respectively; Ia and Ig represent the current in air and test gas, respectively. LOD is the limit of detection verified by experimental measurements; n.r.
indicate not reported.

NH3 sensors is beneficial to the widespread availability of NH3 sensors.
Current research on self-powered NH3 sensors is dominated by TENG-
driven types (Fig. 17a) [154], which typically store the energy gener­
ated by the TENG in batteries (Fig. 17b) [155] or micro-supercapacitors
(MSCs) (Fig. 17c) [156] to ensure real-time operation of the sensors.
Also, self-powered NH3 sensors via PENG (Fig. 17d) [157] and
electromagnetic-triboelectric nanogenerator (EM-TENG) hybridization
(Fig. 17e) [158] have been investigated.
The parameter design of self-powered NH3 sensors is a critical indi­
cator of sensor performance. The reported energy harvesting methods of
self-powered NH3 sensors and their sensing performance are summa­
rized in Table 2 [159–172]. From the table of energy sources, it can be
inferred that currently the main driving mode for self-powered NH3
sensors is TENG. Compared to NO2 sensors, TENGs used as power
sources for NH3 sensors exhibit high power density. According to
reference [160], the power density of TENGs for NH3 sensors is 1251.11
μW cm− 2, and the sensitivity is 5.12% at an NH3 concentration of 1 ppb,
demonstrating not only ultra-high power density but also high NH3
response. However, TENG-driven NH3 sensors still face significant
challenges in terms of response speed and environmental adaptability.
Therefore, the future development of self-powered NH3 sensors needs to
focus on improving the response speed of the sensors. Additionally,
introducing more types of energy driving modes is also beneficial for the
utilization of NH3 sensors in various environments.
4.3. Humidity
Humidity monitoring is always an essential research subject, and it is
valuable to study how to effectively sense and control the humidity at­
mosphere. For instance, the cultivation of agricultural products, the
packaging and storage of food and drugs, the protection of industrial
instruments and equipment, and the monitoring of the climate all
require strict humidity testing equipment. Furthermore, novel humidity
monitoring, including applications for real-time monitoring of human
activities such as human respiration will be significantly beneficial for
clinical medicine diagnosis. The development of self-powered humidity
sensors is going to change the manner in which humidity sensors source
energy for non-contact finger humidity sensing, real-time monitoring of
human respiration, climate monitoring, etc.
Self-powered humidity sensors of the TENG, PENG, photovoltaic,
and battery-operated types have been studied. Besides, Lei et al.
designed an integrated potentiometric hygrometer, as shown in Fig. 18,
where water molecules of different humidity levels adsorbed on the
moisture-sensitive material exhibit different potentials [173]. Simulta­
neously, the variation of the potential enables the self-powered func­
tioning of the humidity sensor. The sensor with fast response/recovery
time (0.8/2.4 s) and long-term stability (more than 1500 cycle tests) is
derived from the tests. The sensor also has ultra-low power consump­
tion, so the power generated is sufficient to sustain the self-powered
operation of the humidity sensor for long periods.
Table 3 concludes the performance of different self-powered hu­
midity sensors [174–188]. The self-powered humidity sensor is equip­
ped to detect a wide relative humidity (RH) range (0–97% RH). The
majority of the investigations did not give the power consumption of the
self-powered humidity sensors or the power density of the energy har­
vesting devices, which should be clarified in future studies. Table 3
shows that there are various types of energy harvesters applied to
self-powered humidity sensors, including TENGs, batteries, PENGs, etc.
Particularly, the potential-type self-powered hygrometer studied in
reference [173] exhibits a fast response time of 0.8 s. For comparison,
we also list the performance of recent humidity sensors using an external
power source [184–188]. The results show that the response time of
humidity sensors using an external power source is generally less than
one second, and the recovery time is also below two seconds.

15
L. Wang et al. Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092

Fig. 17. NH4 sensors with different energy sources. (a) TENG. Copyright 2018 Elsevier [154]. (b) TENG. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society [155]. (c)
Perovskite. Copyright 2021 Elsevier [156]. (d) PENG. Copyright 2019 Elsevier [157]. (e) Hybrid. Copyright 2021 Elsevier [158].

Table 2
Summary of the performance of different types of self-powered NH3 sensors.
2
Energy sources Power density /μW cm− Gas concentration /ppm Sensitivity Response time /s Recovery time /s LOD /ppm Ref.
a
TENG n.r. 100 255% 120 137 0.01 [154]
TENG n.r. 10 45%b n.r. n.r. 0.041 [155]
TENG n.r. 10 40.85%b n.r. n.r. 0.038 [159]
TENG 1251.11 0.001 5.12%b 51 67 0.132 [160]
TENG n.r. 1000 14.7%c 40 225 500 [161]
TENG n.r. 1 32.66%a 155 n.r. n.r. [162]
TENG 17.5 15 23.9%d 19 21 n.r. [163]
TENG n.r. 100 147%a 80 240 n.r. [164]
TENG 1.084 100 24.8e 43 26 0.1 [165]
TENG 0.1361 10 6.84%b 76 62 1 [166]
TENG 25 100 37.6%c 12 14 10 [167]
TENG 0.2464 20 4.67e 22 62 0.216 [168]
TENG n.r. 0.05 36.8%d 12 19 0.025 [169]
TENG n.r. 100 2500%b n.r. n.r. n.r. [170]
TENG 0.00004 250 45.7%f 13 12 n.r. [171]
TENG n.r. 10 31%b 90 450 0.2 [172]
PVNG n.r. 100 20%b n.r. n.r. n.r. [156]
PENG n.r. 20 2.6g 18 16 n.r. [157]
hybrid n.r. 1 14.9%b 9 9 n.r. [158]
a
: S% = (Vg-Va)/Va× 100;
b
: S% = (Rg-Ra)/Ra× 100;
c
: S% = (Va-Vg)/Va× 100;
d
: S% = (Ra-Rg)/Ra× 100;
e
: S = Vg/Va;
f
: S% = (Ia-Ig)/Ia× 100;
g
: S = Va/Vg.

16
L. Wang et al. Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092

Fig. 18. Design of potentiometric self-powered humidity sensor. (a) Schematic diagram of humidity sensing mechanism. (b) Structural design of moisture-sensitive
materials. (c) and (d) The response of the sensor. Copyright 2021 Wiley-VCH [173].

Table 3
Summary of the performance of different types of self-powered humidity sensors.
2
Energy sources Power density /μW cm− Response Response time /s Recovery time /s RH range /% Ref.

TENG n.r. 7a 2.8 3.5 7-97.3 [174]

TENG 0.1102 215%b n.r. n.r. 44-80 [175]
TENG 0.009 300%c 1 3 25-99 [176]
TENG n.r. 65d 4 3 0-97 [177]
TENG n.r. 102.7d 12 20 0-97 [178]
TENG n.r. 94.45%e 254 167 18.7-91.5 [179]
battery n.r. n.r. 33.4 24.6 10.9-91.5 [180]
battery n.r. n.r. 1.05 0.8 11-84 [181]
Potentiometric n.r. 5-20f 0.8 2.4 20-90 [173]
PENG n.r. 1.18%b 5 n.r. 20-80 [182]
PENG n.r. 0.9%g 20 23 7-97.3 [183]
external power n.r. 1.6h 0.11 0.22 10-70 [184]
external power n.r. 194h 1.0 1.5 0-97 [185]
external power n.r. 50h 0.5 0.8 0-80 [186]
external power n.r. 451h 0.5 1.0 0-97 [187]
external power n.r. 0.66h 1.0 1.9 0-90 [188]
a
: R = Va/Vg;
b
: R% = (Va-Vg)/Vg× 100;
c
: R% = (Ig-Ia)/Ia× 100;
d
: R = Vg/Va;
e
: R% = (Vg-Va)/Va× 100;
f
: R = (ΔV)/ΔRH;
g
: R% = (ΔV)/ΔRH× 100;
h
: R = (Rg-Ra)/ΔRH; where ΔV is the change in voltage, ΔRH is the change in relative humidity.

Self-powered humidity sensors do not have an advantage in this regard.
Therefore, as demonstrated by the integrated self-powered hygrometer
in reference [173], self-powered humidity sensors may be more suitable
for integrated structures. This can not only enhance the performance of
humidity sensors but also simplify their structure.
4.4. H2
H2 is recognized as one of the next-generation energy sources with
significant potential for application, which is attributed to the abun­
dance of H2 in nature. Secondly, only H2O, the green product, was ob­
tained from the H2 combustion reaction. Consequently, there is a rapidly
emerging field of H2-powered fuel cells, etc., as fossil fuels are exhaus­
ted. However, H2 is not only a flammable gas with a lower flammability
limit of 4% concentration, but it is also colorless and odorless in air. Any
of these aspects require that possible leaks from H2 must be checked
expeditiously to ensure safety. Therefore, H2 sensors are demanded for
real-time monitoring in hydrogen fuel cells, H2 storage systems, and
infrastructures that utilize H2. On the other hand, the majority of H2
sensors developed so far need to be at high temperatures to obtain high
performance, which undoubtedly increases the power consumption of
H2 sensors. It is not favorable to the development of new generation H2
sensors due to high power consumption. Given that, it is urgent to
establish a new generation of self-powered H2 sensors, which should also

17
L. Wang et al. Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092

possess high sensing performance. That would be a significant challenge

for future research on H2 sensors.
Among the self-powered H2 sensors, Jiang et al. showed a windmill-
like TENG and employed it for H2 leakage detection [189]. It can harvest
wind energy and power the entire sensing system while the vehicle is
moving, as shown in Fig. 19. Pd/ZnO nanorods were used for
hydrogen-sensitized materials. The voltage of Pd/ZnO nanorods was
60 V at 1000 ppm H2 concentration, driven by TENG. While in the air its
voltage is 15 V. Therefore, the self-powered H2 sensor is promising to be
adopted in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and to enable H2 leakage alarms.
Alternatively, TEGs that extract temperature difference energy are
capable of being employed in self-powered H2 sensors. Pujadó et al.
proposed a self-powered hydrogen thermoelectric sensor [190]. The
device is analogous to a paper-like fabric, which supplies power to the
sensing system by capturing the thermal energy released during the
catalytic oxidation of H2, as shown in Fig. 20. At room temperature and Fig. 20. Design of TEG-driven H2 sensors. Copyright 2020 Wiley-VCH [190].
3% H2 concentration the apparatus was able to generate a power density
of 0.5 μW/cm2. The research opens up new avenues for the study of be controlled within 40 $, and secondly, it should also have the char­
self-powered H2 sensors. acteristics of miniaturization and low energy consumption. Moreover,
Apart from the above studies, researchers also developed self- the majority of current H2 sensors require operation at high tempera­
powered H2 sensors from actuation methods such as PENG and photo­ tures. It is difficult to overcome the problem of poor selectivity resulting
voltaic cells. Table 4 provides a summary of the relevant reports. We also from the high activity of hydrogen-sensitive materials (particularly
listed some representative resistive H2 sensors as a comparison semiconducting metal oxides) to other gases at high temperatures.
[191–201]. The self-powered H2 sensor was too slowly responsive when Meanwhile, the hydrogen-sensitive materials commonly require the
viewed in terms of response time and recovery time. This issue severely existence of the precious metal Pd, which definitely increases the cost of
limits the application of self-powered H2 sensors. This is because the U.S. the sensors. Hence, many challenges remain in the study of self-powered
Department of Energy established performance requirements in 2007 H2 sensors. It is not only in the change of energy consumption, the H2
for H2 detection in automobiles and stationary power systems for the sensing performance is also critical.
years 2011–2020. In the detection range needs to reach 0.1–10%, the
response time should be less than 1 s, the operating temperature in 4.5. Ethanol
− 30–80 ℃, the humidity environment of 10–98% RH, the service life
should be not less than 10 years, the cost of each hydrogen sensor should A colorless, transparent, and volatile chemical liquid, ethanol is

Fig. 19. The TENG, which captures wind energy, was used to drive the H2 sensing. (a) Schematic of a self-powered H2 sensor applied to a fuel cell vehicle. (b) and (c)
Schematic diagram of TENG design structure. (d-f) Performance testing. Copyright 2021 Elsevier [189].

18
L. Wang et al. Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092

Table 4
Summary of the performance of different types of self-powered H2 sensors.
2
Energy sources Power density /μW cm− Gas concentration /ppm Sensitivity Response time /s Recovery time /s LOD /ppm Ref.
a
TENG n.r. 10000 373% 100 n.r. 10 [191]
TENG n.r. 10000 83%b 82 99 10 [192]
TENG 15.81 30000 1457.7%a 115 126 20 [193]
TENG n.r. 1000 6.2c 350 n.r. n.r. [189]
PENG n.r. 800 446%a 350 150 10 [194]
TEG 0.5 n.r. n.r. 40 n.r. 250 [190]
photovoltaic cell n.r. 40000 25.3%d 110 n.r. n.r. [195]
photovoltaic cell n.r. 1 0.2361e n.r. n.r. 0.01 [196]
PVNG n.r. 100 5.2%f 45.14 35.4 10 [197]
external power n.r. 5000 18%g 30 19 n.r. [198]
external power n.r. 1000 10%g 12 16 50 [199]
external power n.r. 200 24.6%g 6 8 1 [200]
external power n.r. 70000 13%h 21 26 n.r. [201]
a
: S% = (Va-Vg)/Vg× 100;
b
: S% = (Va-Vg)/Va× 100;
c
: S = Va/Vg;
d
: S% = (Ig-Ia)/Ia× 100;
e
: S = Ra/Rg;
f
: S% = (Ia-Ig)/Ia× 100;
g
: S% = (Ra-Rg)/Ra× 100;
h
: S% = (Rg-Ra)/Ra× 100.

mostly found in industrial products (medical sterilizing alcohol, alco­
holic beverages and fuels, etc.). Alcohol must be managed and moni­
tored for industrial safety. Recently, the detection of drunk-driving has
been in full swing, which inevitably requires highly accurate ethanol
sensors. The traditional ethanol sensors use battery power, which not
only requires frequent battery replacement but also heavily pollutes the
environment. Therefore, a self-powered ethanol sensor is needed to
guarantee the "zero-power" operation of the sensor. A fully self-powered
ethanol sensor at room temperature was developed based on TENG by
Tian et al. [202]. The integrated self-powered ethanol sensor is designed

Fig. 21. The ethanol sensor is applied to drink-driving detection. (a-c) Schematic diagram of a self-powered ethanol sensor. (d-f) Detecting performance. Copyright
2021 American Association for the Advancement of Science [202].

19
L. Wang et al.
for simplicity, i.e. the output signal of the TENG directly reflects the
concentration of ethanol gas. Applying this ethanol sensor to
drink-driving detection, as shown in Fig. 21, the output voltage of the
sensor in ethanol gas and air demonstrates a remarkable variation.
Furthermore, ethanol sensors based on PENG [203–207] and
multi-energy harvester hybridization [208] have been investigated.
4.6. CO2
An odorless, colorless greenhouse gas, CO2 has no negative effects on
the human body at normal concentrations. However, according to the
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning En­
gineers (ASHRAE), CO2 concentrations in buildings should be below
1000 ppm. When exceeded, it may endanger human health by causing
fatigue, headaches, and respiratory tract inflammation. Besides, the
reduction of forests and the burning of hydrocarbons will further raise
the concentration of CO2 in the air. By March 29, 2022, the concentra­
tion of CO2 in the air had reached 413.05 ppm. Further increases will
seriously jeopardize the environment and human health. Thus, it is
necessary to monitor the CO2 concentration. Undoubtedly, the devel­
opment of self-powered CO2 sensors is consistent with the future
development of green and environmentally friendly sensing networks.
The reported self-powered CO2 sensors include TENG-driven [209–211],
solar cell-driven [212,213], and TENG-PENG hybridized [214] drive
methods. However, the majority of studies have been conducted on high
concentration CO2 monitoring, while few investigations on low con­
centration self-powered CO2 sensors. Additionally, the
room-temperature selectivity and environmental adaptability of
self-powered CO2 sensors remain to be further investigated.
4.7. H2S
H2S possesses toxicity, corrosiveness, and a pungent odor (rotten egg
odor), and it is also flammable. According to the literature, humans’
inability to perceive H2S gas at concentrations higher than 10 ppm is
attributed to the reason that high concentrations of H2S will irritate the
Fig. 22. Self-powered H2S sensor based on thermoelectric effect. (a-b) Structural schematic diagram of a self-powered H2S sensor. (c) Sensor test systems. Copyright
2021 American Chemical Society [219].
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Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
nose and cause numbness. Certainly, low concentrations of H2S are a
hazard to human health. With H2S, the respiratory system is rapidly
eroded, causing coma or death in acute cases. Therefore, high perfor­
mance and reliable H2S sensors are essential. Surely, like other gas
sensors, self-powered H2S sensors are also a critical research area for the
future.
Among the studies of self-powered H2S sensors, more studies have
been undertaken with PENG to offer electrical energy. Simultaneously,
the majority of H2S-sensitive materials are metal oxides (e.g., CuO, ZnO,
SnO2, and their composites). What means is that H2S sensors require
high temperatures in order to attain a high level of response perfor­
mance. It also necessitates that the energy harvester needs to yield
higher power densities for self-powered operation of the sensors. The
group of Prof. Lili Xing and Prof. Xinyu Xue at Northeastern University
(Shenyang, China) has worked on a variety of self-powered H2S sensors
based on PENG [215–218]. High sensing performance, including
sensitivity, response time (generally higher than 10 s), stability, and
selectivity, has been obtained by H2S-sensitive characterization of
multiple metal oxides. However, for the monitoring of H2S, ppb level
sensors are required and the leaks are acquired in a timely manner. It
imposes stringent requirements both on the H2S sensor and on the
self-powered H2S sensor. Besides the PENG-driven H2S sensor,
Hossein-Babaei et al. proposed the first TEG-driven H2S sensor based on
the Seebeck effect [219]. The device is driven by a temperature gradient
without an external power supply, which allows the detection of H2S
gases in the air at a concentration of one part per million. Fig. 22 is a
schematic diagram of the structure of the sensor and the sensing test
system. The sensing parameters of that self-powered sensor were eval­
uated to be equivalent to chemo-resistive sensors, but with better safety.
Regarding the photovoltaic effect, Liu et al. fabricated a photovoltaic
self-powered H2S sensor by utilizing the photoelectron harvesting ability
of p-n heterojunction [220]. The mechanism enabled the capture of
visible light by altering the built-in electric field induced by the Fermi
energy levels, thus implementing the sensor’s self-actuation. The
aforementioned study confirms the feasibility of self-powered H2S
sensor development which also paves the way for potential research in
L. Wang et al.
the future.
4.8. Others
Among the common combustible gases, CO [221] and CH4 [222,223]
are also subjects for focused monitoring. It is generally self-powered
functioning via the photovoltaic effect of materials such as metal
nanoparticles or metal oxides. Additionally, methanol water vapor is
commonly used as a fuel or raw material. A TENG-driven methanol
sensor was developed by Ma et al. [224]. The porous structure of ZIF-8
and the heterostructure of ZIF-8 @ZnO were exploited to realize high
sensitivity and high selectivity for methanol gas at room temperature. It
showed a response time to methanol of 5.9 s and a recovery time of 2.2 s.
That reflects that the MOF-modified metal oxides are beneficial in
enhancing the selectivity and responsiveness of the target gas.
It is well known that SO2 is a typical gaseous pollutant that seriously
damages human health and the ecological environment. Therefore, it is
essential to create reliable self-powered SO2 sensors to fulfill the
powerless operation mode. The self-powered SO2 sensor (TENG driven)
developed by Wang et al. has a power density of 1.85 W/m2 and an
open-circuit voltage of 332 V [225]. The response in 30 ppm SO2 gas is
170%, which is 14 times higher than the corresponding resistive sen­
sor⋅H2O2 has a wide range of applications, on the one hand, in the in­
dustry as a disinfectant in food processing, papermaking, textiles, and
wastewater treatment, on the other hand, as a by-product of oxidizing
enzymes in human physiological processes. Presently, most of the
self-powered H2O2 sensors developed are bioelectrochemical sensors
[226–230]. Self-powering of the sensor is accomplished by trapping
electrons through an electrochemical reaction involving H2O2. O2 is
essential for life activities, but the oxidation reactions in which O2 is
involved pose a challenge for the production and storage of food and
pharmaceuticals [231,232]. Hence, O2 sensors have been employed for
O2 monitoring in smart food packaging. Won et al. reported a flexible
self-powered O2 sensor [231]. The electrochemical cell-based O2 sensor
realizes real-time O2 monitoring without an external power supply.
Accordingly, inert gases have stabilizing properties that inhibit the
occurrence of oxidation or reduction reactions. Liu et al. obtained the
response under different inert gases by the discharge process of TENG
[233]. The open-circuit voltage gain of the TENG is 250% when ionizing
air, while the gain is 180% when ionizing helium and 330% when
ionizing argon. That study pioneered the investigation of self-powered
noble gases. Furthermore, some self-powered operation modes for vol­
atile hydrocarbons [234–238] (e.g., acetone, formaldehyde, etc.) and
VOC gases [239–242] have also been reported. However, there are fewer
related studies and more research is still warranted to enrich the further
development of the self-powered gas sensing family.
5. Challenges and opportunities
Challenges faced in self-powered gas sensor research: energy har­
vesting efficiency, power supply stability, sensor performance and ac­
curacy, energy management and optimization, and environmental
adaptability.
(1) Energy harvesting efficiency: Self-powered sensors rely on energy
harvested from the environment, making energy harvesting effi­
ciency a critical concern. Energy sources in different environ­
ments may be unstable or insufficient, leading to sensor
malfunctions or decreased performance.
(2) Power supply stability: Self-powered sensors must manage en­
ergy fluctuations and instability during the energy harvesting
process to ensure a stable power supply. Designing appropriate
energy storage and management systems is essential for
addressing energy supply fluctuations and irregularities.
(3) Sensor performance and accuracy: Achieving high-precision gas
detection and sensing with limited energy presents a challenge
21
Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
for self-powered sensors. Energy constraints may impact sensor
sensitivity, response speed, and accuracy, necessitating opti­
mized sensor designs and signal processing techniques to enhance
performance.
(4) Energy management and optimization: Effective energy man­
agement is crucial for prolonging sensor lifespan and maximizing
available energy utilization. This requires the design of suitable
power management strategies and algorithms to balance the
relationship between energy supply and sensor demands.
(5) Environmental adaptability: Performance variations may exist
for self-powered sensors under different environmental condi­
tions. For instance, solar energy supply may be constrained under
overcast or low-light conditions, while temperature fluctuations
can affect energy harvesting efficiency and sensor performance.
Additionally, varying humidity levels may reduce energy har­
vesting efficiency and potentially corrode or damage sensor
components and materials, thereby compromising sensor per­
formance and lifespan. As a result, self-powered sensors need to
exhibit a certain level of environmental adaptability.
Solving the aforementioned challenges will open up new avenues for
self-powered gas sensor research. These challenges provide researchers
with opportunities to explore innovative solutions and advancements in
the field. By focusing on improving various aspects, such as energy
harvesting efficiency, power supply stability, sensor performance and
accuracy, energy management and optimization, and environmental
adaptability, researchers can make significant contributions to the
development of self-powered gas sensors.
6. Conclusions and outlook
In gas sensing research, self-powered gas sensors have attracted
increasing attention. This is due to the fact that they operate without a
power supply. One viable option is the use of energy conversion devices
such as nanogenerators to power gas sensors. TENG can easily convert
wind, sea, and vibration energy in the environment into electrical en­
ergy based on the frictional electrical effect. Four types of TENGs have
been developed, and the appropriate structure can be selected according
to different application environments. TENGs have been widely used in
self-powered monitoring of gases such as NO2, NH3, and H2, and they are
generally of split structure (divided into the power module, energy
storage module, and sensing module) to realize long-term self-powered
operation of sensors. The TENG-powered gas sensors suffer from low
power density and slow gas sensing response, according to the existing
reports. Therefore, the materials and structures of TENG and sensors
need to be studied in more detail. Like TENG, PENG works by capturing
mechanical energy from its surroundings. PENG is simple to construct
and is widely used in various gas sensing devices. Many researchers have
demonstrated that PENG has higher power density in self-powered gas
sensors. However, PENGs are used in more demanding environments.
They are more dependent on the presence of external forces. TEGs uti­
lizing the Seebeck effect are implemented to extract energy from tem­
perature differences produced by various thermal gradients. This energy
is obtainable from both human skin and heat-emitting devices, such as
pipes and car engines. Consequently, TEGs provide a feasible method for
self-powered operation of portable and wearable technological devices.
Presently, it is anticipated that TEGs can be utilized for self-powered H2
and H2S gas detection. Specifically, the thermal energy can be obtained
from exothermic heat during catalytic reactions. Nevertheless, limited
research has been conducted in this field. Solar cells based on the
photovoltaic effect are a significant method for achieving self-powering
gas sensors. The commonly used silicon cells and the perovskite cells,
which are at the forefront of research, are essential areas of solar cell
studies. Furthermore, some p-n heterostructures with photovoltaic ef­
fects are also an important research direction for self-powered gas sen­
sors due to the unique Schottky barrier and energy band structure of p-n
L. Wang et al.
heterostructures. Finally, the environmental adaptability and long-term
operational stability of self-powered gas sensors are further improved by
hybridizing different types of power generators.
Broadly speaking, research in this field has focused on increasing the
energy density of power generation devices and making sensing devices
more sensitive, responsive, and selective. Furthermore, energy sources
are diverse. These factors are essential for the commercialization of self-
powered gas sensors. However, there are still practical issues that need
to be addressed to successfully apply self-powered gas sensors in various
fields. These include managing the power of the sensing system, con­
ditioning the sensed signal, optimizing power consumption manage­
ment, and system integration and application expansion.
(1) Power Management: Firstly, the materials and structures of
power generation equipment, such as TENG and PENG, require
optimization to enhance power generation efficiency and stabil­
ity. Secondly, it is crucial to research and develop energy storage
devices, such as MSCs, that possess large capacity and miniatur­
ization attributes. This will facilitate the creation of portable and
wearable gas sensing devices.
(2) Conditioning of the sensing signal: Optimizing sensing perfor­
mance is crucial for ensuring sensor reliability. The monitoring of
different gases can have varying impacts on performance. For
instance, responding to the leakage of hazardous gases such as
H2, NH3, and H2S requires a rapid response time, while detecting
volatile gases like ethanol necessitates high sensitivity and
selectivity. Secondly, the optimized design of the sensing circuits
improves signal identifiability, reduces noise signal, and am­
plifies the signal.
(3) Optimizing power consumption management: To address the
power consumption management issues of self-powered gas
sensors, researchers are committed to developing more efficient
circuits and energy-saving strategies. By optimizing the circuit
structure and algorithm design of the sensors, and adopting
intelligent power management techniques, the energy consump­
tion of the sensors may be reduced and their working time
prolonged.
(4) System integration and application expansion: Besides the
research on the sensors themselves, researchers are also exploring
system integration and application expansion of self-powered gas
sensors. For example, multiple sensors are integrated in the same
system to enable multi-gas monitoring or multi-parameter
detection. Simultaneously, wireless communication and
Internet technologies are combined to realize remote collection
and monitoring of sensor data.
Therefore, future research on self-powered gas sensors should
concentrate on the aforementioned areas. Additionally, the gas sensors
should be optimized for the market, considering reliability, stability,
cost-effectiveness, and miniaturization. Undoubtedly, self-powered gas
sensors have been demonstrated to possess the benefits of sustainability,
cost-effectiveness, simplicity, and environmental protection. In future
research, a new field will emerge, which integrates materials, physics,
chemistry, energy, automation, information technology, and other dis­
ciplines, to achieve multidisciplinary synergy.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Lei Wang: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Data curation,
Methodology, Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing. Xinqi
Yao: Investigation, Resources. Yin Zhang: Investigation. Gaoqiao Luo:
Supervision. Bo Wang: Resources. Xinhai Yu: Writing – review &
editing, Supervision.
22
Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The authors do not have permission to share data.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the National Key Research
and Development Program of China [2018YFA0704604].
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L. Wang et al.
Lei Wang works as an assistant engineer at the Auhui Province
Key Laboratory of Cryogenic Technology, which is affiliated
with the 16th Research Institute of China Electronics Tech­
nology Group Corporation. In 2023, he obtained a master’s
degree in energy power from the East China University of
Science and Technology. He has published 5 papers and is
currently focusing on the investigation of self-powered gas
sensing systems and their mechanisms.
Xinqi Yao is currently pursuing a PhD in Power Engineering
and Engineering Thermophysics, under the supervision of Prof.
X. Yu, at the East China University of Science and Technology.
His research focuses on nanomaterials and nanostructures,
specifically exploring their applications in sensing and catal­
ysis. To date, he has published 7 papers.
Yin Zhang works as a senior engineer at the Auhui Province Key
Laboratory of Cryogenic Technology, which is affiliated with
the 16th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology
Group Corporation. In 2016, he received his master’s degree in
engineering thermophysics from Nanjing University of Aero­
nautics and Astronautics. He has authored and co-authored 14
papers, 9 patents. His research interests lie in the area of power
generation equipment and sensing technologies.
28
Next Materials 2 (2024) 100092
Gaoqiao Luo works as a researcher senior engineer at the Auhui
Province Key Laboratory of Cryogenic Technology, which is
affiliated with the 16th Research Institute of China Electronics
Technology Group Corporation. He received his master’s de­
gree from Xi’an Jiaotong University in 2013. He has presided
over or participated in a number of scientific research and
development projects, and published dozens of papers as
author and co-author.
Bo Wang works as the senior expert at the Auhui Province Key
Laboratory of Cryogenic Technology, which is affiliated with
the 16th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology
Group Corporation. In 2010, he received his PhD degree in
engineering thermophysics from Zhejiang University, China.
Currently, his research interest is power generation equipment.
Xinhai Yu received MA and PhD degrees, respectively, from
East China University of Science and Technology in 1999 and
2006. Then he worked as associated professor at East China
University of Science and Technology until 2012. He was a
vsiting scholar at University of Southern California from
2012–2013. Now he is working at East China University of
Science and Technology as a full professor. His current research
interests are the development of nanomaterials and nano­
devices for sensors and renewable energy. He has authored and
co-authored 95 scientific papers, 32 patents, and 1 book.