HPGD1203 Theories Practices Teaching Learn - Esept21 (CS)

HPGD1203
Theories and Practices

of Teaching and Learning
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HPGD1203
THEORIES AND
PRACTICES OF
TEACHING AND
LEARNING
Dr Pauline Swee Choo Goh
Dr Wong Kung Teck

Fourth edition 2021 (CS)
Third edition 2020
Second edition 2018
First edition 2011
Developed by Centre for Instructional Design and Technology, OUM.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), HPGD1203
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President of Open University Malaysia (OUM).
www.oum.edu.my

Table of Contents
Course Guide xiăxvii
Topic 1 The Changing Notion of Teaching and Learning in the Digital 1

Age
1.1 New Knowledge Ecologies in the Digital Era 2
1.1.1 Connectivism 3
1.1.2 Implications of Connectivism 4
1.2 Managing Change: Rethinking Roles and Pedagogies 5
1.2.1 Paradigm Shift in Learning in the Digital Era 5
1.2.2 New Roles for Teachers 6
1.3 Teaching and Learning in an ODL Environment 7
1.3.1 Basic System in an ODL Environment 8
1.3.2 Online Teaching and Learning 9
1.4 Teaching for Lifelong Learning 10
1.4.1 Self-directed Learning 10
1.4.2 Metacognitive Awareness 11
1.4.3 Desire towards Lifelong Learning 11
1.4.4 Features to Facilitate the Capacity for Lifelong 12
Learning
1.4.5 Conclusion of Teaching for Lifelong Learning 14
Summary 15
Key Terms 16
References 16
Topic 2 Behaviourist Theories and Their Applications 18

2.1 Ivan P. Pavlov 19
2.1.1 Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning 21
2.1.2 The Principles of Classical Conditioning for 22
Learning
2.1.3 Implications of Classical Conditioning for 23
Learning
2.2 Edward L. Thorndike 24
2.2.1 Implications of Connectionism for Learning 27
2.3 B. F. Skinner 28
2.3.1 SkinnerÊs Experiments 28
2.3.2 Positive and Negative Reinforcements 31
2.3.3 SkinnerÊs Schedules of Reinforcement 33

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.3.4 Implications of the Theory of Operant 34

Conditioning on Learning
2.4 Robert M. Gagne 34
2.4.1 GagneÊs Hierarchy of Learning 35
2.4.2 GagneÊs Five Learning Outcomes 37
2.4.3 GagneÊs Conditions of Learning ă The Nine 38
Events of Instruction and Their Application
2.4.4 Implications of GagneÊs Learning Theories 40
Summary 41
Key Terms 42
References 43
Topic 3 Constructivist Theories and Their Applications 44

3.1 Jean Piaget 46
3.1.1 PiagetÊs Four Stages of Cognitive Development 46
3.1.2 How Children Learn 48
3.1.3 Implications for Learning 49
3.2 Lev Vygotsky 50
3.2.1 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) 51
3.2.2 Sociocultural Theory 52
3.3 Jerome Bruner 53
3.3.1 BrunerÊs Discovery Learning and Representation 54
3.4 Howard Gardner 56
3.4.1 Multiple Intelligences 57
3.4.2 Rationale for Implementing Multiple 62
Intelligences in the Classroom
3.4.3 Identifying StudentsÊ Multiple Intelligences 62
Summary 64
Key Terms 65
References 65
Topic 4 Contemporary Instructional Strategies: Cooperative Learning 66

4.1 Characteristics of Cooperative Learning 67
4.2 Benefits of Cooperative Learning 70
4.3 Various Cooperative Learning Structures 71
4.3.1 Social Structure of Cooperative Learning 71
4.3.2 Seating Arrangements in Cooperative Classrooms 73
4.3.3 Cooperative Learning Approaches 75
4.4 Effective Teaching and Learning Using Cooperative 83
Learning

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
4.4.1 Managing the Learning Environment 83

4.4.2 Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning 85
Summary 89
Key Terms 90
References 90
Topic 5 Contemporary Instructional Strategies: Discovery-based 92

Learning
5.1 What is Discovery-based Learning? 93
5.1.1 Characteristics of Discovery-based Learning 94
5.1.2 Differences between Discovery-based Learning 95
and Traditional-based Learning
5.2 Various Approaches to Learning via Discovery 96
5.3 Inquiry-based Learning as a Discovery-based Learning 99
Strategy
5.4 Assessment Issues in Discovery-based Learning 106
5.4.1 Strategically Thinking about Assessing 106
Discovery-based Learning
Summary 108
Key Terms 109
References 110
Topic 6 Contemporary Instructional Strategies: Problem-based 112

Learning (PBL)
6.1 What is Problem-based Learning (PBL)? 113
6.1.1 Characteristics of PBL 114
6.1.2 Aims of PBL 115
6.1.3 Comparing PBL with Didactic Teaching 117
6.2 Elements of Problem-based Learning 118
6.3 Problem-based Learning Processes 121
6.4 Managing the PBL Environment 124
6.5 Assessment of Learning in PBL 126
Summary 132
Key Terms 133
References 133
Topic 7 Teaching and Learning with ICT 135

7.1 The Use of ICT in Teaching and Learning 137
7.2 Varying Roles of ICT in Teaching and Learning 139
7.2.1 Planning Tool 139
7.2.2 Instructional Tool 139
7.2.3 Enhance Communication and Promote Creativity 141
7.2.4 Assessment Tool 145

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.3 The Use of Generic Software for Learning 146

7.3.1 Generic Software 146
7.3.2 Integrating the Generic Software 150
7.3.3 Benefits of Generic Software 150
7.4 Recent Developments in ICT-enhanced Learning 152
7.4.1 EduWebTV 152
7.4.2 Interactive Whiteboard (IWB) 153
7.4.3 Web-based Software Tools 154
Summary 155
Key Terms 155
References 156
Topic 8 BloomÊs Taxonomy and Its Application 157

8.1 Three Learning Domains in BloomÊs Taxonomy 159
8.1.1 Descriptions of the Three Learning Domains 159
8.2 Six Levels of Cognition in BloomÊs Taxonomy 161
8.3 Levels of Affective and Psychomotor Domains in 168
BloomÊs Taxonomy
8.3.1 Affective Domain 168
8.3.2 Psychomotor Domain 170
8.4 Application of BloomÊs Taxonomy in Writing Learning 171
Outcomes
8.4.1 Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes 171
8.4.2 Writing Learning Objectives and Learning 173
Outcomes for the Cognitive Domain
Outcomes for the Affective Domain
Outcomes for the Psychomotor Domain
8.5 Application of BloomÊs Taxonomy in Assessment of 178
Learning
8.5.1 Using BloomÊs Cognitive Domain to Assess 178
Achievement
8.5.2 Using BloomÊs Affective and Psychomotor 182
Domains in Assessment
Summary 184
Key Terms 186
References 186

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Topic 9 Teaching and Learning of Thinking Skills 188

9.1 Definitions of Thinking 189
9.2 Roles of Thinking in Learning 192
9.2.1 Critical Thinking 192
9.2.2 Creative Thinking 194
9.3 Essential Teaching Skills: Teaching for Thinking 195
9.3.1 Essential Teaching Skills: What are They? 195
9.4 Teaching of Critical and Creative Thinking 199
9.4.1 Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking 199
9.4.2 Strategies for Teaching Creative Thinking 202
9.5 Assessing Thinking 207
Summary 209
Key Terms 210
References 210
Topic 10 Motivation and Learning 212

10.1 Some Theories Related to Motivation 213
10.2 General Principles of Motivation 218
10.3 Roles of Motivation in Teaching and Learning 222
10.4 Strategies to Motivate Learning 223
Summary 228
Key Terms 230
References 230

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course materials. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend
in order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the
Course Guide as you go through the course materials as it will help you to
clarify important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HPGD1203 Theories and Practices of Teaching and Learning is one of the courses
offered at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours
and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners taking the Post Graduate Diploma in
Teaching programme.
This course is designed for the study of fundamental and contemporary theories
related to teaching and learning as well as their applications in todayÊs
instructional and learning process. It is structured to guide learners to explore the
different theories of teaching and learning in light of changing roles of teachers
and learners in the digital age. The course connects theories to the planning and
designing of lessons. It aims to equip learners with the knowledge and skills of a
competent and effective teacher.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently

and optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you
begin this course, please ensure that you have the correct course materials,
understand the course requirements, and know how the course is conducted.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for
every credit hour. As such, for a 3 credit hour course, you are expected to
spend 120 study hours. Figure 1 shows the student learning time (SLT).
Figure 1: Student Learning Time
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to do the following:
1. Differentiate the various educational theories of teaching and learning.
2. Plan appropriate teaching strategies to promote learning.
3. Adopt teaching and learning using ICT to promote teaching skills.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed
as follows:
Topic 1 describes the paradigm shifts in teaching and learning in the digital
age. It highlights the roles of teachers and subscribes to the integration of
conventional pedagogical principles and the use of ICT in teaching and learning.
This topic also illustrates what lifelong learning is and how you, as teachers, can
support and prepare your students towards their quest for lifelong learning.
Topic 2 highlights behaviourist theories. To better understand the different

behaviourist theories, this topic will examine four outstanding behaviourists. It
will first examine Ivan PavlovÊs classical conditioning and Edward ThorndikeÊs
connectionism. Next, the topic will discuss B. F. SkinnerÊs operant conditioning
and finally GagneÊs theories of learning. We will also look at the implications of
behaviourism on teaching and learning.
Topic 3 focuses on constructivist perspectives. Constructivist perspectives are

grounded in the research of Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner as well as Gardner.
Constructivists believe that students actively construct their own knowledge and
that social interactions are important for knowledge construction. Implications of
constructivism on teaching and learning are discussed.
Topic 4 focuses on the characteristics of cooperative learning, as well as its

benefits and structures. It also discusses effective cooperative learning in
teaching and learning.
Topic 5 discusses the characteristics of discovery-based learning and how it

differs from traditional learning. It also describes the various approaches and
strategies to learning via discovery including inquiry-based learning. It also
discusses the various assessment issues that need to be solved in discovery-based
learning.
Topic 6 focuses on student-centred approaches to teaching and learning. This

topic will describe three student-centred approaches, namely, cooperative
learning, discovery-based learning and problem-based learning. Each approach
encourages interaction among students. These approaches also encourage
student inquiry and the exploration of issues and problems. You will also find
some differences in the three approaches − some are used to help students
improve their social skills, others are more useful for certain types of learning,
while another approach uses small group learning.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 7 discusses the importance of using and integrating ICT into your teaching
to enhance student learning. Various ICT tools are introduced together with
suggestions for its use in teaching and learning.
Topic 8 introduces one of the most used taxonomies in the world ă the BloomÊs
Taxonomy. This topic will also describe the three learning domains found in
BloomÊs taxonomy ă the Cognitive Domain, the Affective Domain and the
Psychomotor Domain. Because objectives and learning outcomes can be written
at any levels within the three domains of learning, this topic suggests ways of
writing appropriate objectives and learning outcomes to provide an optimal level
of student learning.
Topic 9 looks at better understanding „thinking skills‰ and the role they play in
student learning. The topic also looks at some approaches to help develop
studentsÊ thinking and how you can integrate this strategy into your teaching.
Topic 10 focuses on an essential aspect of learning ă student motivation to

improve academic performances. This topic takes a look at different motivational
theories that have shaped the development of student motivation. As you read
this topic, you should have several insights into the motivational aspects of
student behaviour and use some strategies to enhance student motivation.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
Self-Check: This component of the module is included in strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be located after one subtopic or a few subtopics.
It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting to
answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have understood
the subtopic(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be found
directly in the module itself.
Activity: Similar to Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to answer questions, explore short case studies or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage in
Higher Order Thinking skills (HOTs) i.e. analysing, synthesising and evaluating
instead of only recalling and defining.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. It summarises
various important parts of each topic and helps you to recap the whole topic.
By going through the summary, you should be able to gauge your knowledge
retention level. Should you find points in the summary that you do not fully
understand, it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should
go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: A list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic

contents and sources can be found in this section. The list may appear in a few
locations such as in the Course Guide (in the References section), at the end of
every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or refer to
the suggested references to obtain additional information and enhance your
overall understanding of the course.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
This is an introductory course. There is no prior knowledge needed.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Arends, R. I. (2009). Learning to teach (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive

theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bloom, B., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of
educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I:
Cognitive domain. New York, Toronto: Longmans, Green.
Eggen, P. D., & Kauchak, D. P. (2001). Strategies for teachers: Teaching content
and thinking skills. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. P. (2006). Joining together: Group theory and
group skills (9th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Slavin, R. E. (2009). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (9th ed.). New
Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education.
Woolfolk, A. (2007). Educational psychology (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources
for learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through the
OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases and several of
them are shown in Figure 2. As an OUM learner, you are encouraged to make
full use of the resources available through this library.

Topic  The Changing
Notion of
1 Teaching and
Learning in the
Digital Age
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define ecologies in the digital era;
2. Describe how to manage the changing roles and pedagogies;
3. Identify various paradigm shifts in teaching and learning in the
digital era; and
4. Explain the meaning of lifelong learning.
 INTRODUCTION
Looking back, say 20 years ago ă there were no smartphones, no cloud
computing, no tablet computers and many other types of equipment we use
today. The Internet then was expensive and limited to a selected group of people.
Computers were also expensive, and not everyone could afford to buy one. Now,
almost everyone has a smartphone! The Internet and computers have become
working tools for everyone, just like your pen and pencil.

2  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE
DIGITAL AGE
Information and communication technology (ICT) has grown rapidly and has
changed the way people work. Bill Gates once advised that education and
the workplace in the 21st century cannot follow the methods, systems and
technologies of the 20th century. Instead, education and the workplace in the
21st century should be using the new knowledge ecologies of the 21st century.
Let us look at what these knowledge ecologies of the 21st century are all about.
1.1 NEW KNOWLEDGE ECOLOGIES IN THE

DIGITAL ERA
Ecology can be defined as the relationship between an organism and the
environment. Therefore, knowledge ecology can be defined as learning and the
digital environment of the 21st century. What does it mean when we say that the
learning ecology of today has changed? It simply means that the main sources of
knowledge and information (learning) are no longer our universities or schools,
experts or teachers, but everywhere (including cyberspace)!
In cyberspace, there are millions of websites and equally millions of articles as

well as tens of millions of data and other information that can be accessed
anytime, anywhere! We can access knowledge and information from our
computer, iPad, smartphone, and any interactive communication facilities
available. We can easily chat and discuss learning with fellow teachers and with
our students. We can teach even though we are very far away from each other.
With technology, like the popular saying, „the world is our oyster‰.
Changes in the way teaching and learning can be conducted requires a relook at
the theories to explain the impact of technology in our education system. George
Siemens, an education expert from the University of Manitoba, Canada, and now
Athabasca University, identifies various trends in the information technology of
the 21st century as follows (Siemens, 2004):
(a) Students will not be studying only one discipline but various disciplines
and in various fields of knowledge;
(b) Formal learning, although still necessary, will not be the only way of
learning. In its place, learning will take place through different ways ă
through the Internet, video-conferencing, forums, practical training and
many other modes;

TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE  3
DIGITAL AGE
(c) Learning will be an ongoing process, and a „journey‰. Activities related to

learning and work will no longer be separated but coordinated;
(d) ICT will help shape our thinking; and
(e) Much of learning can and will be supported by ICT.
From these trends, George Siemens identified connectivism as a new idea to

explain teaching and learning in the digital era.
1.1.1 Connectivism
Connectivism as a learning theory is understood as a process that occurs within
the environment. The theory posits that learning can be unclear and is not
entirely under the control of an individual (Siemens, 2004). In connectivism,
learning is no longer „in a straight line‰. Connectivism is driven by the
understanding that new information is being continuously acquired. The ability
to differentiate between important and unimportant data is vital; so too, the
ability to recognise when new information has changed, to enable us to make
new decisions.
There are eight principles of connectivism, which are:
(a) There is diversity in learning and knowledge;
(b) Learning is a process of connecting the sources of information;
(c) Learning can occur outside of the human self (may reside in non-human
appliances/equipment);
(d) The ability to know more is more important than what is currently known;
(e) Encouraging and maintaining connections is needed to make learning

happen;
(f) The ability to see connections between ideas and concepts is a core skill;
(g) Connectivist learning activities are current and up-to-date; and
(h) Decision-making is a learning process. A correct answer now can be wrong

tomorrow due to a change of the „environment‰ of information that
influences the decision.

DIGITAL AGE
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Describe what you understand by „the new knowledge ecology

of the digital era‰. How does the new knowledge ecology of the
digital era affect society?
2. Explain what you understand by connectivism.
3. Before reading 1.1.2, can you think of any implications

connectivism can have on teaching and learning?
ACTIVITY 1.1
Are teachers today prepared for the new knowledge ecology of the
digital era? If yes, how so? If no, why not?
Share your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
1.1.2 Implications of Connectivism

Connectivism has implications for all aspects of life. According to Siemens (2004):
(a) An idea that is considered „different‰ today will someday be part of

everyday life. The ability of organisations (of which school is an
organisation) to encourage, foster and synthesise various interpretations of
information is essential for survival in the digital era;
(b) The challenge for organisations and governments is to ensure open and
real-time access to media services, news and information; and
(c) The design of the learning environment has changed with connectivism as
a learning model; it is like a „tectonic shift‰ in society where learning is no
longer an individual activity. The way people work and function have
changed with advances in ICT. Therefore, education cannot be too slow to
recognise and adapt to the impact of these „new tools‰ to make changes in
the learning environment and give new meaning to learning.

DIGITAL AGE
1.2 MANAGING CHANGE: RETHINKING ROLES

AND PEDAGOGIES
New ideas for learning are sure to impact teaching and learning. Teachers and
students need to understand that the development of knowledge is no longer a
monopoly of one person or an expert. Teachers need to understand that their
students can easily access a variety of online sources of knowledge anywhere in
the world and they can interact together to develop new knowledge. Teachers
need to make adjustments to traditional ways of teaching and learning, and
understand how students operate in universities and schools; for example,
information storage and recall can now be taken over by computer technology.
1.2.1 Paradigm Shift in Learning in the Digital Era

According to Kim (2002), there are three paradigm shifts, which are described in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Three Paradigm Shifts in the Digital Era
Paradigm Shifts Description
Learning is centred on  Traditionally, learning was assumed to flow like traffic on

search and discovery a „one-way street‰, where students listened passively and
accepted what the teacher said. The teacher was regarded
as the „expert‰ and authority in the classroom. However,
in the digital era, students are encouraged to be actively
seeking knowledge through various sources. They take
responsibility for their own learning. Learning activities
are authentic (real-life) and stimulating, motivating
students to acquire knowledge that is practical for their
future context and circumstances.
Learning emphasises Ć In the digital era, student learning emphasises

creativity and exploration, discovery, inquiry, creativity and the
initiative construction of knowledge as opposed to memorisation
and repetition.
Ć Teachers are encouraged to be flexible and to develop

creative approaches to planning and teaching. What we
want are students who are able to use their creativity and
initiative to solve and meet complex challenges.

DIGITAL AGE
Learning emphasises  It is essential to allow students the opportunity to interact

interaction and and collaborate while learning. Instructions need to be
collaboration planned so that interaction happens not only between
students but also between students and technology.
Teachers need to provide students with aspects of „real‰
issues and problems. Through interacting and collaborating,
students experience sharing and working together.
1.2.2 New Roles for Teachers

Teachers have new roles to play in the paradigm shift (Kim, 2002), as shown in
Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: TeachersÊ Roles in the Three Paradigm Shifts
TeachersÊ Roles Description
Change enabler  The teacher is no longer the expert, but is the change
enabler instead. Teachers are no longer the expert. Instead,
a teacherÊs role needs to shift from a „knowledge
provider‰ to someone who encourages and helps students
construct new knowledge needed for their future. As a
change enabler, the teacher helps students build their
visions for the future, encourages leadership, and guides
them towards their own self-development.
Knowledge navigator  With the advancement of technology, especially with

cloud computing, storage of data and information can
happen anywhere. This has allowed people to network
and share information. In such an environment, a teacher
can no longer be the sole-keeper of knowledge or the
„super-brain‰ that serves as the source of knowledge.
Instead, the teacher can serve as a „knowledge navigator‰
to show and teach students where and how to find
information.

DIGITAL AGE
Learning consultant Ć Teachers, now and in the future, are content specialists of
their subject matter. They play important roles to identify
issues that their students may face and try to facilitate
effective learning. They are like a „learning consultant‰.
For such a role, teachers require the necessary teaching
skills ă the methodology of teaching, planning skills,
questioning skills, facilitating appropriate teaching
strategies, motivating and much more. However, in the
digital era, teachers are also required to have digital skills
ă to search, evaluate, edit and process using ICT.
Ć Teachers must also be skilful in using the various social

media available as part of their teaching repertoire.
1.3 TEACHING AND LEARNING IN AN ODL

ENVIRONMENT
Open and distance learning (ODL) is defined as an education system that is
provided to students who are not physically „on site‰ ă meaning that students do
not attend traditional and formal classrooms. ODL, which places pedagogy
together with technology, is an instructional design system that supports
students who are self-determined and independent. Because students are self-
directed in their motivation to learn, ODL gives some flexibility and control to
the students as to how, when and where they wish to learn.
Although ODL allows for flexibility, ODL is not similar to informal learning
which lacks external support. ODL, which is sometimes called e-learning, uses a
unique distance education delivery method aided by ICT and supported by
academic staff trained in the ODL environment.

DIGITAL AGE
1.3.1 Basic System in an ODL Environment

ODL uses synchronous and asynchronous technology.
Synchronous technology means that students are „present‰ at the same time to
interact among themselves or with their teacher even though everyone may be
far apart. A set time needs to be made to ensure that everyone is „present‰.
This is made possible with Web-based VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol),
telephone, video conferencing, or live streaming (such as Skype, refer to
Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: An example of web communication ă Skype

Source: http://phuddukhata.com/skype-4-1-0-166/
When students can access study materials as and when they want to (also known
as online delivery), this is called the asynchronous technology. Students do not
have to be together, but yet they can keep in contact with each other or with their
teacher. This is made possible through message board forums, e-mail, recorded
video, print materials, or voice mail/fax.

DIGITAL AGE
1.3.2 Online Teaching and Learning

Online teaching requires a lot of the same pedagogical skills as face to face
teaching. The lesson must have clear learning objectives and learning outcomes
and activities that can actively involve students.
The teacher should also create a learning environment that provides

opportunities for the students to interact. Frequent feedback must also be given
(„e-learning‰, n.d.). The work involved in online teaching can be quite heavy.
Many teachers may find it difficult to cope with studentsÊ postings and replies.
Some teachers find it hard to communicate with their students when they
cannot see them face-to-face. Teachers also need to develop writing skills to
communicate effectively in an online environment („e-learning‰, n.d.).
The following aspects should be considered when teaching and learning through
ODL („e-learning‰ n.d.):
(a) Are expectations, programme policies and timelines made clear?
(b) Are other students in the same programme known to each other to generate
interaction when the programme progresses?
(c) Are discussions encouraged?
(d) Are diverse learning styles accommodated, that is, are the ICT capabilities
of the Internet used appropriately (for example, video clips, sound files and
visuals)?
(e) Are the activities stimulating and can they develop higher-order thinking
skills (for example, the use of case studies, compare and contrast activities,
debates, role-playing exercises)?
(f) Are assessments sufficiently carried out so that students can monitor their
own learning (for example, study questions, sample answers, assessment
guidelines, „authentic‰ assessments using real-world examples, multiple
assessment strategies in addition to quizzes, papers, and exams, self-
assessment and peer feedback)?

DIGITAL AGE
1.4 TEACHING FOR LIFELONG LEARNING
Lifelong learning is intentional learning that people engage in throughout

their lives for personal and professional fulfilment and to improve the
quality of their lives.
(Dunlap & Grabinger, 2003)
Lifelong learning is the search for knowledge, for personal or professional

development, on a voluntary and self-directed basis. It is the process of
continuous learning that motivates and empowers individuals to appreciate life
and to face its challenges (Hargreaves, 2004).
An OECD (2001) report suggests that lifelong learning combines „learningful

work‰, „learningful play‰, and „learningful community life‰. Learning is no
longer separated into age phases or into institutional forms called schools and
colleges. The report further adds that teachers play important roles in promoting
lifelong learning among their students by implementing changes in the way they
approach their teaching and their studentsÊ learning. Dunlap and Grabinger
(2003) suggest that to help students to upgrade their skills and knowledge
continually, teachers need to use teaching approaches that can help students to
be self-motivated and self-directed. They also suggest that with proper assistance
from their teachers, students will have the capacity to develop their self-directed
learning, metacognitive awareness and desire towards lifelong learning (Dunlap
& Grabinger, 2003). Let us understand better what these three capacities are.
1.4.1 Self-directed Learning

Knowles (1975, p. 18) has this to say about self-directed learning:
(It is) the process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without
the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formatting learning
goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and
implementing learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes.

DIGITAL AGE
Teachers can greatly help students towards self-directed learning. The following
are some self-directed learning activities that teachers should include (Dunlap &
Garbinger, 2003):
(a) Identify learning needs;
(b) Ensure that learning objectives and outcomes are well-established to

address the learning needs;
(c) Prepare action plans and timelines to guide learning activities;
(d) Prepare the necessary resources for students to find and use for problem-
solving; and
(e) Help students apply information to the given problems or issues.
1.4.2 Metacognitive Awareness

Metacognitive awareness is the studentsÊ own understanding of their own
intellectual processes to control and further develop it.
Students with well-developed metacognitive awareness generally are also good

at problem solving. Moreover, students with metacognitive awareness are able to
perform the following activities (Dunlap & Garbinger, 2003):
(a) Consciously take control of their own learning;
(b) Ability to plan and select learning strategies;
(c) Use self-assessment to evaluate their own learning strategies;
(d) Ability to adjust to their own learning behaviours; and
(e) Use self-reflection on their own learning.
1.4.3 Desire towards Lifelong Learning

Although teachers can greatly help their students towards the desire for lifelong
learning, students must still want and desire to engage in it. Students who
are generally more ready to accept lifelong learning show the following
characteristics (Dunlap & Garbinger, 2003):
(a) Willing to admit mistakes and to learn from them;
(b) Always wanting to build new knowledge from existing knowledge;

DIGITAL AGE
(c) Take responsibility for their own learning;
(d) Seek deep understanding and not interested in mere memorisation;
(e) See learning as an ongoing activity and not just something that happens in
schools;
(f) Have internal motivation to learn without being asked or forced to; and
(g) Do not give up easily.
Teachers must try to provide opportunities for students to develop their capacity
for self-directed learning, awareness of their metacognitive processes, and have a
desire towards continuous learning. How can you as a teacher facilitate such
capacities? The following subtopic will try to answer the question.
1.4.4 Features to Facilitate the Capacity for Lifelong

Learning
There are several features that a teacher should do to help facilitate their
studentsÊ capacity for lifelong learning as shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Four features for teachers to facilitate

their studentsÊ capacity for lifelong learning

DIGITAL AGE
Let us now discuss the features in greater detail.
(a) Develop StudentsÊ Responsibility

Students who are responsible for their learning are purposeful and active.
Teachers can encourage students by:
(i) Understanding what the students know and do not know about a
topic;
(ii) Having specific and clear learning objectives and learning outcomes;
(iii) Posing problems, issues and questions that enable them to think
critically and creatively;
(iv) Helping students plan their learning;
(v) Setting timelines for completion of the learning objectives; and
(vi) Helping students with resources that they will need to complete the
learning tasks.
(b) Encourage Reflection

In encouraging reflection, teachers will:
(i) Ask students to keep journals and diaries;
(ii) Encourage students to self-evaluate through checklists;
(iii) Help students to focus on their thinking processes;
(iv) Provide activities that can test and challenge their knowledge; and
(v) Ask students to describe their thinking, their learning, and how they
make decisions.

DIGITAL AGE
(c) Encourage Cooperation and Collaboration

Through cooperation and collaborative work, students will:
(i) Learn to share ideas, communicate and work together;
(ii) Brainstorm solutions;
(iii) Debate and critically argue through problems;
(iv) Challenge each otherÊs knowledge;
(v) Teach each other;
(vi) Learn negotiation skills; and
(vii) Evaluate, assess and review each otherÊs work.
(d) Provide Motivating and Interesting Learning Activities

Examples of motivating and interesting learning activities are those that:
(i) Relate learning to real-life situations in studentsÊ lives;
(ii) Give problems, issues and questions to solve that are authentic (real,
or those that students encounter in their everyday lives); and
(iii) Ask students to build products (a presentation, model, webpage, etc.)

to show how they solve problems and issues.
1.4.5 Conclusion of Teaching for Lifelong Learning

Lifelong learning is necessary for students to continuously achieve the high
level of skills, knowledge and flexibility to work and function effectively in the
21st century (English & Seath, 1998). You, teachers, have the ability to help
your students upgrade their skills and knowledge through the use of effective
teaching methodologies, approaches and through the use of ICT.
In the following topics of this module, you will better understand different
theories and approaches to teaching that can nurture the development of lifelong
learning skills among your students. You will want to engage your students in
authentic student-centred learning experiences where they take responsibility
for their own learning decisions and processes. These methods, strategies,
techniques and approaches will ultimately promote your studentsÊ understanding
of and engagement in lifelong learning.

DIGITAL AGE
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. What are the three capacities that Dunlap and Grabinget (2003)
suggest that teachers can help their students develop?
2. What can teachers do to facilitate their studentsÊ motivation

towards lifelong learning?
ACTIVITY 1.2
Do you think that studentsÊ lifelong learning efforts combined with ICT
are an opportunity for change or do you think that lifelong learning and
ICT diminishes a teacherÊs identity and role, and that school is no
longer a place of learning?
Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.
 The knowledge ecology of the digital age has brought about changes in how
teachers teach and students learn. Teachers are no longer the sole provider of
knowledge and studentsÊ learning environment is also no longer limited to
universities or schools.
 Knowledge acquisition has become more diverse which makes it necessary

for teachers to use information communication technology with traditional
teaching methodologies.
 Connectivism is a learning theory to help us understand the current

knowledge ecology. Connectivism is driven by the understanding that new
information is continuously being acquired.
 Changes in how teachers teach and students learn, call for a paradigm shift:
learning is centred on search and discovery; learning emphasises creativity
and initiative; and learning emphasises collaboration and interaction.
TeachersÊ roles in the paradigm shift include being a change enabler,
knowledge navigator, and learning consultant.

DIGITAL AGE
 ODL enables teachers to teach and students to learn even though they are far
apart from each other. ODL uses synchronous and asynchronous technology.
 Students who adopt lifelong learning tendencies are self-directed in their

own learning, are aware of their metacognitive capability, and continuously
desire to engage in lifelong learning.
 Teachers can help facilitate studentsÊ lifelong learning by developing their

sense of responsibility, providing motivating and interesting activities,
encouraging cooperative and collaborative work, and encouraging self-
reflection.
Asynchronous technology Lifelong learning

Change enabler Metacognitive awareness
Connectivism Open and distance learning (ODL)
Digital era Paradigm shift
Knowledge ecology Self-directed learning
Knowledge navigator Synchronous technology
Learning consultant
Dunlap, J. C., & Grabinger, S. (2003). Preparing students for lifelong learning:
A review of instructional features and teaching methodologies.
Performance Improvement Quarterly, 16(2), 6ă25.
E-leaning: Higher Ed in a Web 2.0 World. (n.d.). Retrieved August 1, 2011, from
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/tat/pdfs/e-learning.pdf
English, H., & Seath, I. (1998). Lifelong learning: The essential guide. Somerset,
England: TEC and TQMI.
Hargreaves, D. H. (2004). Learning for life: The foundations of lifelong learning.

Bristol, England: Policy Press.

DIGITAL AGE
Kim, C. Y. (2002). Teachers in digital knowledge-based society: New roles and

vision. Asia Pacific Education Review, 3(2), 144ă148.
Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers.

New York, NY: Association Press.
OECD. (2001). What schools for the future? Paris, France: OECD.
Siemens, G. (2004). A learning theory for the digital age. Retrieved August 1,
2011, from http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm

T op i c  Behaviourist
Theories and
2 Their
Applications
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain Ivan PavlovÊs classical conditioning theory;
2. Explain Edward ThorndikeÊs reinforcement theory of learning;
3. Identify B. F. SkinnerÊs theory of operant conditioning; and
4. Discuss GagneÊs conditions of learning theory.
 INTRODUCTION
Behaviourist theories focus on aspects of human behaviour that can be observed
and measured. Behaviourist psychologists believe that there are behaviours that
we can see and observe. They believe that the outcome of learning is change
in behaviour. Behaviourist theories focus on how pleasant and unpleasant
outcomes of behaviour can change a studentÊs behaviour over a period of time
(Slavin, 2009).
Among the well-known behaviourist psychologists and their works that we are
going to look at are Ivan P. Pavlov, Edward L. Thorndike, B. F. Skinner and
Robert M. Gagne.
Let us begin with one of the earliest behaviourist psychologists ă Ivan P. Pavlov.

TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  19
2.1 IVAN P. PAVLOV

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (see Figure 2.1) was born in Kyazan, Russia. He lived from
1849 to 1936. He held the title of professor in Pharmacology at the Institute of
Experimental Medicine in St Petersburg, Russia. In 1904, he won the Nobel Prize
for his study of physiology and medicine.
Figure 2.1: Ivan Pavlov

Source: Nobelprize.org (2008)
How did Pavlov become so well known in educational psychology? In almost

all education psychology books, you will see his name and his PavlovÊs Dog
experiment mentioned. Let us explore this experiment that he is so famous for.
At the end of the 1890s and early 1900s, Pavlov and his colleagues had been
studying the digestive processes (specifically the gastric function) of dogs. In
these studies, Pavlov and his colleagues wanted to see how often saliva was
produced when food was placed near the mouth of a hungry dog. They found
that even before the food was delivered to the mouth of the hungry dog, it was
already salivating. Pavlov called this phenomenon the „psychic secretion‰.
In subsequent experiments, he discovered that the dog was actually reacting to

the laboratory coats Pavlov and his colleagues were wearing. Although no food
was in sight, once the dogs saw the laboratory coat, they would salivate. This
was because every time the dog was served food, the person who served it was
wearing a laboratory coat. Therefore, the dog reacted as if the food was on its
way whenever it saw a laboratory coat.

20  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
To further test his hypothesis, Pavlov conducted another experiment. This time,
Pavlov struck a bell before the hungry dog was fed. The dog learnt to associate
the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the sound of the bell, although
no food was there, the hungry dog responded by salivating.
According to Pavlov, each stimulus (the bell) will generate a response

(salivating). Put in another way ă the response is anything that comes from the
behaviour of the stimulus.
Take an everyday example ă sometimes when we hear the sound of a fork and a
spoon clanking against each other, we immediately start to think about food. The
stimulus (the sound of the fork and spoon) has generated our response to being
hungry (hunger is the behaviour). A stimulus is anything that raises the energy
of the response.
Through his study, Pavlov concluded that learning could occur as a result of the
association between the stimulus and the response. Learning that occurs through
the association is called conditioning and learning that occurs as a result of two
stimuli is known as classical conditioning, as shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Classical conditioning

2.1.1 Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

Let us look at some basic principles associated with classical conditioning, as
shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Four basic principles associated with classical conditioning
Let us now discuss each principle in greater detail.
(a) Unconditioned Stimulus

The unconditioned stimulus is one that automatically creates a response. In
PavlovÊs dog, the food automatically caused the dog to salivate ă salivating
is a natural occurrence. The food is the unconditioned stimulus. For
example, when you smell nasi lemak, you may automatically feel hungry ă
therefore, nasi lemak is the unconditioned stimulus.
(b) Unconditioned Response

PavlovÊs dog automatically salivated in the presence of food, without any
training. The response of salivating is known as the unconditioned
response. In our nasi lemak example, the feeling of hunger is in response to
the smell of the nasi lemak. Feeling hungry is our unconditioned response.
An unconditioned response occurs naturally in response to the
unconditioned stimulus.
(c) Conditioned Stimulus

In PavlovÊs experiment, at first, when Pavlov rang the bell, the dog did not
respond. However, when Pavlov started to ring the bell each time food was
served, the dog began to associate the bell with the food. After a while, each
time Pavlov rang the bell, the dog would salivate even if there was no food.
The bell had become the conditioned stimulus.

Suppose that when you smelled nasi lemak, you also heard the sound of a
spoon clinking on a plate. Actually, the sound of the spoon clinking has no
association with the smell of the nasi lemak. However, if the sound of the
spoon clinking is paired many times with the smell of the nasi lemak, every
time you hear a spoon clinking, you will think of the nasi lemak or feel
hungry. The sound of the clinking spoon is the conditioned stimulus.
(d) Conditioned Response

In PavlovÊs experiment, the dog would salivate at the sound of the bell,
even if there was no food. Similarly, in our nasi lemak example, the
conditioned response would be feeling hungry whenever you heard the
sound of the spoon clinking even if there was no nasi lemak or its smell.
Refer to Figure 2.2 again for a pictorial depiction of the unconditioned and
conditioned stimuli and responses.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Can you think of any other situations where unconditioned and
conditioned stimuli and responses occur in our everyday lives?
2.1.2 The Principles of Classical Conditioning for

Learning
Three important concepts generated by the principles of classical conditioning for
learning are as shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Concepts Generated by the Principles of Classical Conditioning
Concepts Generated by
the Principles of Classical Description
Conditioning
Generalisation  Generalisation means that the same stimulus will
produce the same reaction.
 For example, five-year-old Amy has been conditioned
to be afraid of a white toy rabbit. Amy will also feel
afraid each time she sees any toy that is white. So, the
anxiety felt in a white toy rabbit has been generalised to
other white toys.

Discrimination  Discrimination means that individuals have the

ability to differentiate a particular stimulus from other
stimuli.
 For example, if the sound of the spoon clinking is the
conditioned stimulus, discrimination means that you
will be able to tell the difference between the spoon
clinking sound and other sounds. In the case of five-
year-old Amy, she will not be afraid if the toy is a doll
or a toy car because the two toys are very different
from the white toy rabbit.
Extinction  Extinction means that when the unconditioned
stimulus (for example, the smell of nasi lemak) is no
longer paired by the conditioned stimulus (sound of
spoon clinking), and eventually the conditioned
response (hunger) would decrease or disappear.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Can you think of how the principles of classical conditioning can be

used in your classroom?
Explain and discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
2.1.3 Implications of Classical Conditioning for

Learning
Implications of classical conditioning for learning include the following:
(a) Our students should be provided with a learning environment that gives
them pleasant emotions, such as enthusiasm, excitement and enjoyment in
their learning;
(b) Teachers must try to relate a positive experience (conditioned stimulus)

with the learning task (unconditioned stimulus) to produce the conditioned
response through activities that are interesting; and
(c) Learning situations that cause students to feel anxiety, disappointment or

anger should be avoided. For example, many students feel very anxious
about mathematics. Using classical conditioning can help lessen their
anxiety. The teacher can make the learning interesting. Once the students
find it interesting, they will give attention to the lesson.
2.2 EDWARD L. THORNDIKE

During the time of Pavlov, another psychologist was also interested in the study
of how a stimulus can condition human behaviour. He was Edward Lee
Thorndike (see Figure 2.4). He lived from 1874 to 1949. He was considered a
founder of American psychology. Like Pavlov, he was also famous for his
various experiments that involved animals, but instead of dogs, ThorndikeÊs
experiments involved cats.
Figure 2.4: Edward Thorndike

Source: adultededucation.pbworks.com
In the late 1890s and early 1900s, Thorndike started to study how animals learnt.
He believed that learning is a process of trial and error or select and connect.
Thorndike believed that learning, if done many times, would cause the desired
response. He called it his theory of connectionism. To test his trial and error
learning or connectionism, Thorndike invented an experiment that is still
popular today. His experiments used a cage called the puzzle box. A diagram of
the puzzle box is shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: One of ThorndikeÊs puzzle boxes

Source: Chance & Delaware (1999)
He placed a cat in the puzzle box. Outside the puzzle box was some fish. The cat
was encouraged to get the fish. Thorndike would monitor how long it took the
cat to escape and reach the fish. He observed that the cat tried many different
ways to escape. Eventually, the cat discovered a lever that it could step on to
open the puzzle box. After the cat had managed to escape, Thorndike would put
the cat into the puzzle box again, and he would monitor how long it took the cat
to escape again. This was repeated several times. After a few times, the cat learnt
that by stepping on the lever, it could escape. The time taken for the cat to step on
the lever became shorter and shorter.
Thorndike believed that the catÊs behaviour (stepping on the lever) produced a
pleasing effect (ability to escape). This created a connection between a stimulus
(being in the puzzle box) and the response (stepping on the lever). This response
would occur faster and faster because the cat had learnt (produced a behaviour)
that was pleasing (ability to escape).
From this experiment, Edward Thorndike generated his three laws: Law of
Readiness; Law of Exercise; and Law of Effect.

Let us see what each means.
(a) The Law of Readiness

The Law of Readiness refers to the readiness and preparedness that must be
present before any students take action. If the students are motivated and
excited to learn, they are more willing to pay attention to their teacher.
However, if they are ready and prepared to learn and then the teacher does
not enter the class, they will feel frustrated instead.
On the other hand, if the students are not ready and willing but they are
forced to do something, then learning will not be productive as it will cause
them to be frustrated.
(b) The Law of Exercise

The Law of Exercise refers to a behaviour that can be strengthened by
continuous practice but will be weakened without reinforcement. The
connection between stimulus and response is strengthened through
repetitive training. Students will be able to be very good at a skill if training
is provided. Similarly, if a student continuously repeats the mathematical
formula (stimulus), the student will be able to remember the formula more
easily (response). The Law of Exercise is often used in rote learning.
(c) The Law of Effect

The Law of Effect explains that any behaviour that is followed by a pleasing
result is likely to be repeated. If a student is given a reward after showing
good examination results, the student is likely to want to continue to do
well in future exams. In this case, the response in a connection is followed
by a pleasing event. Therefore, the strength of the connection is increased.

Let us go back to ThorndikeÊs cat experiment. When the cat was given an
electric shock when it got out of the cage, the result was pain. After a while,
the cat would not have the motivation to get out of the cage anymore.
Therefore, any behaviour that is followed by an unpleasant result is also
likely to be stopped. In this case, the response in a connection is followed by
a painful event. Therefore, the strength of the connection is decreased or
stopped completely.
ACTIVITY 2.3
1. Look up the Internet for articles on Edward Thorndike to read

more about his work on connectionism and how it is used even in
todayÊs classrooms. Present your findings in the next tutorial
session.
2. Can you think of how ThorndikeÊs three laws can be used in your
classroom? Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE
online forum.
2.2.1 Implications of Connectionism for Learning

There are some implications of the theory of connectionism for learning. Based
on the theory of connectionism, teachers should:
(a) Provide a variety of stimuli to create motivation and an enjoyable learning

environment;
(b) Have revisions, tasks, quizzes and exercises to reinforce learning;
(c) Give rewards as reinforcement for correct responses;
(d) Determine the appropriate environment for learning; and
(e) Always evaluate studentsÊ readiness and willingness.

2.3 B. F. SKINNER
B. F. Skinner or Burrhus Frederic Skinner (see Figure 2.6) was an American
psychologist, author, inventor and poet. He obtained his doctoral degree (PhD)
in psychology from Harvard University. He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of
Psychology from Harvard University in 1958 and held this title until he retired in
1974. He died at the age of 86 in 1990.
Figure 2.6: B. F. Skinner

Source: www.biography.com
2.3.1 Skinner’s Experiments

Skinner was interested in the theories of classical conditioning proposed by
Pavlov and other psychologists who said that every response was generated
from a known stimulus. Pavlov and the other psychologists argued that the
behaviours of people were passive, that is, individuals cannot control their
behaviour.
On the other hand, Skinner believed that just because a stimulus was presented,
it did not necessarily mean that an individual was going to react in any specific
way. Skinner believed that individuals can control their own behaviour and that
learning can also occur as a result of previous behaviours. Skinner was famous
for his theory of operant conditioning.

To test his theory, Skinner conducted various experiments.
(a) SkinnerÊs First Experiment

Skinner created a box which he called the Skinner box, in which he put
animals, specifically rats. A diagram of the Skinner box is shown in
Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7: A rat in the Skinner box

Source: Skinner psychology: operant conditioning (n.d.)
Skinner began his experiment by placing a hungry rat inside the Skinner
box. In the box, there was a tray, which was fixed and connected to a lever.
If the rat pressed on the lever, food would drop into the tray. At first, the
hungry rat was seen running around inside the box in search of food. When
the rat accidentally pressed the lever, food would drop out. The rat learnt
that each time it pressed on the lever, food would drop into the tray.

Skinner would take the rat out, and once the rat was put back in the box,
the rat would immediately go to the lever and press the lever, again and
again, to fill up the tray with food.
Skinner explained that the rat was moving around (or operating) in its
environment (the Skinner box) looking for food. During this moving
around or operating, the rat discovered a reinforcer ă the food. The food
(reinforcer) increased the operant which was the ratÊs behaviour (pressing
the lever) which occurred before the reinforcer. Skinner concluded that a
behaviour that was followed by a reinforcer increased the chances of the
behaviour (operant) being repeated.
(b) SkinnerÊs Second Experiment

In another experiment, Skinner disconnected the tray from the lever.
Therefore, when the rat pressed on the lever, no food dropped out. The rat
pressed the lever many times but soon learnt that no food was going to
drop out. After a while, the rat stopped pressing on the lever.
Skinner explained that when the rat learnt that there was no more food
dropping out (absence of a reinforcer), the rat stopped pressing the lever
(operant behaviour). Skinner called this the extinction of the operant
behaviour. Skinner concluded that a behaviour that was no longer followed
by the reinforcer decreased the chances of the behaviour being repeated.
SkinnerÊs work focused on the association between behaviour and its results. In
other words, if a pleasing result immediately followed a studentÊs behaviour, the
student would repeat the behaviour. Reinforcers (or reinforcements) are things
done to encourage the behaviour to be repeated. If students enjoy reading books,
they will probably read more often. If they find the stories boring, they may read
less often and choose other activities instead (Slavin, 2009). Reinforcers or
reinforcements can be either positive or negative.

2.3.2 Positive and Negative Reinforcements

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behaviour or causes the behaviour to be
repeated when it is presented. In the classroom, positive reinforcement is given
as a form of motivation in learning activities.
Examples of positive reinforcement in the classroom are words of praise after a

student has done a task or answered a question, a smile, a pat on the back, gifts
and so on. However, teachers must be sincere when giving reinforcement.
According to Brophy (1981), the following are characteristics of positive
reinforcement (praises):
(a) Praise must be sincere;
(b) Praise should be quickly given;
(c) Praise specific behaviours only;
(d) Commend students for their effort;
(e) Praise without favouritism; and
(f) Praise studentsÊ spontaneous responses.
Negative reinforcement is the immediate response that is uncomfortable or

painful that an individual would want to avoid. The negative reinforcement that
is uncomfortable (or painful) can be avoided if the individual makes the correct
response or responses as required.

For example, AhmadÊs father would scold him (negative reinforcement) for not
doing his homework given by his teachers. As Ahmad is tired of the scolding
from his father, Ahmad will make sure he completes the work given by his
teacher (correct operant behaviour). AhmadÊs actions of doing his homework
takes away the fatherÊs scolding.
In another example, Swee Lan sees fire, and she touches it. This immediately
produces pain (negative reinforcement). Swee Lan will learn not to touch fire
again so that she does not get the pain. In this case, the negative reinforcement
occurs immediately following the behaviour.
Please do not confuse negative reinforcement as punishment. It is not!
Remember that positive or negative reinforcements strengthen behaviour, but

punishment weakens behaviours (Slavin 2009).
The most common example of punishment is when you discipline your student.
For example ă you ask Ah Kow to stand in front of the class because he is talking
when you are teaching. Ah Kow will associate being punished with the
behaviour (talking in class). Ah Kow does not like the punishment. The next time
you are teaching, he will most likely not talk in class. Punishment weakens the
behaviour. Table 2.2 shows what this means.
Table 2.2: Positive/Negative Reinforcement and Positive/Negative Punishment
Increases and Strengthens Decreases and Weakens

Situation
Behaviour Behaviour
Given Positive reinforcement Positive punishment
Taken away Negative reinforcement Negative punishment

2.3.3 Skinner’s Schedules of Reinforcement

To help teachers with reinforcements, Skinner created the schedules of
reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcement refer to the number of times that
reinforcements are given. This schedule is shown in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement Meaning Example

Fixed Ratio (FR) Reinforcement is given A teacher allows her students to go to
after a fixed number of the library after they have finished 10
behaviours. mathematics problems (10 behaviours
for one reinforcement).
Variable Ratio The number of behaviours Students raise their hands to answer
(VR) required for reinforcement questions, but they will not know if
is not fixed. the teacher will give them the
reinforcement by allowing them to
answer.
Fixed Interval Reinforcement is available Students study very hard only before
(FI) only at certain times. a final examination is due. It is
suggested that it is better to give
frequent quizzes to encourage
students to learn.
Variable Interval Reinforcement is available A teacher making spot checks of her
(V1) sometimes but not at students who are doing assignments
other times, and students in class. Students are reinforced if they
do not have any idea are working well at that particular
when a behaviour will be moment. Because the students do not
reinforced. know when the teacher will next
check on them, they must do good
work all the time.
Source: Summarised from Slavin (2009, pp. 140ă141)

ACTIVITY 2.4
Go to www.bfskinner.org to learn more about SkinnerÊs work on

human behaviour and how it is related to learning in classrooms today.
In the myINSPIRE online forum, discuss the following question:
How is SkinnerÊs theory of operant conditioning different from PavlovÊs

classical conditioning?
2.3.4 Implications of the Theory of Operant

Conditioning on Learning
The following are implications of the theory of operant conditioning on learning:
(a) Behaviour can be modified or improved through the use of appropriate

positive or negative reinforcements;
(b) Using positive reinforcement allows students to focus on the positive

aspects of the situation. Punishment, when applied immediately following
the negative behaviour, can be effective. However, punishment can also
create other negative responses such as anger; and
(c) Plan and use SkinnerÊs reinforcement schedule to ensure that appropriate
behaviour is strengthened.
2.4 ROBERT M. GAGNE

Robert M. Gagne (see Figure 2.8) was born in 1916. He died in 2002 at the age
of 86. He received his doctorate (PhD) in Psychology from Brown University, the
United States in 1940. Between 1949 and 1958, Gagne became the director of the
Perceptual and Motor Skills Laboratory of the United States Air Force. It was
during his time in the air force that he began to develop many of his theories of
learning.

Figure 2.8: Robert Gagne

Source: Advanced educational psychology (photograph of Gagne) (2001)
Gagne is well known for his:
(a) Eight levels of learning which he called the hierarchy of learning. Each level
will only be achieved if the student has mastered the level before it;
(b) Five observable and measurable learning outcomes; and
(c) Instructional model which he named the nine events of instruction. This
has been GagneÊs most famous learning theory which he called the
conditions of learning.
Let us look at each of GagneÊs conditions of learning in greater detail.
2.4.1 Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning

GagneÊs hierarchy of learning is the transition from behaviourism to cognitivism.
Cognitivism is the study of studentsÊ mental or intellectual processes. Unlike
behaviourism, cognitivism focuses on mental processes that cannot be observed
or seen that students use to learn and remember new information (Slavin, 2009).

Table 2.4 explains GagneÊs eight levels of situations in which students learn. The
hierarchy of learning shows that students move from behaviourist learning to
higher cognitive processes of learning.
Table 2.4: GagneÊs Eight Levels of Situations
GagneÊs Eight Levels Hierarchy of

Description
of Situations Learning
1. Signal Learning: When a teacher puts her finger to her Behavioural
Classical lips, students will know that she wants
Conditioning ă them to keep quiet. Similarly, if a teacher
Response to a signal enters the class, the students will stand
up. Students have been conditioned to
this behaviour.
2. Stimulus-Response: Reinforcement is important to strengthen Behavioural
Operant the relationship between the stimulus
Conditioning ă and response. Muthu shows his father
Response to given his report card that shows as in all his
stimulus subjects. MuthuÊs father praises him with
„Very good, Muthu.‰ Muthu will repeat
that behaviour again (excelling in
studies) to receive praise from his father.
3. Chaining: Linking It is the process where most complex Behavioural
two or more stimulus skills (e.g. riding a bicycle or playing the
response connections piano) are learned. It is also used in the
to form a more learning of skills such as games, sports,
complex skill repairing electronic equipment, etc.
4. Verbal Association: To explain something, students will Behavioural
Linking two or more need the language skills to be able to
words or ideas relate facts and data. Students require
the language skills they have learnt
previously.
5. Discrimination: Discrimination learning is important so Behavioural
Responding in that students are able to filter out
different ways to important information from unimportant
different items information; which facilitates the process
of remembering. Ahmad likes motorbikes
and is able to discriminate (differentiate)
one brand from another although they
may look alike.

6. Concepts: Able to With conceptual learning, students are Behavioural-

classify and able to classify their surrounding world Cognitive
categorise according to colours, shapes, numbers
and so on.
7. Rules: Combining This learning involves a combination of Behavioural-
two or more two or more concepts that are related in a Cognitive
concepts sequence or series. For example, 1 + 2 = 3;
or that winds blow from high pressure to
low-pressure areas.
8. Problem Solving: Problem solving involves the use Cognitive
Combining known of principles, generalisations, concepts
rules/principles into and rules to solve problems in new
new situations to situations. There are steps in the process
solve a problem of solving problems such as knowing the
problem, finding information, making
hypotheses, choosing best solutions,
testing hypotheses, and formulating.
According to Gagne, this is the highest
level of cognitive processes.
Source: Adapted from Slavin (2009) and Woolfolk (2007)
2.4.2 Gagne’s Five Learning Outcomes

According to Gagne, studentsÊ learning outcomes that can be observed as a result
of learning are the studentsÊ capabilities. There are five capabilities (or learning
outcomes) as shown in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5: Five Capabilities or Learning Outcomes
Capability or
Description
Learning Outcome
Intellectual skills Knowing „how‰ to organise and use verbal and mathematical
symbols, concepts and rules to solve a problem
Cognitive Learning strategies needed to process information
strategies
Information Knowing „what‰ ă knowledge and facts
Motor skills Ability to coordinate movements
Attitudes Feelings and emotions developed from positive and negative
experiences
Source: Adapted from Tate, Goad & Gralish (n.d.)

2.4.3 Gagne’s Conditions of Learning – The Nine

Events of Instruction and Their Application
Let us look at GagneÊs conditions of learning and how they can be used in your
classroom. There are nine events of instruction, as shown in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6: GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction
Event of Instruction Description

Gain attention The first step is to try to raise your studentsÊ interest
and motivation to learn. Some of the ways are asking
questions, telling a story, showing a video or presenting
a case study.
Inform learner of objectives It is important to inform the students the purpose of
the lesson and also what is expected of them from the
lesson. This will help reduce anxiety in students
because they know what they should be studying.
Stimulate recall of prior Relate current lesson/subject matter to concepts that
learning students already know. In this way, students will be
able to retain concepts and new information better.
They can also make the connection to their personal
experiences, and the learning will be more meaningful.
Present stimulus material At this stage, you present the content that you want
your students to learn. To help your students
understand better, the content should be organised
meaningfully. Because a classroom will have different
levels of student abilities, it is important that you use
different methods and strategies for teaching. You can
help your students relate the new material to their own
lives by using relevant examples and real-life situations
as part of your teaching strategies.
Provide learner guidance Some examples of student guidance come in the form
of visual materials such as graphs, videos, case studies,
mnemonics and analogies.

Elicit performance Once the content/subject matter is presented and

hopefully understood, your students need an
opportunity to practise what they have learnt. This can
take in the form of exercises, group work, discussions,
presentations, etc. It is important to remember that
student practice must be:
Ć Relevant to the objective; and
Ć Provided frequently and immediately.
Provide feedback Good feedback should:
Ć Provide comments about studentsÊ performance;
Ć Be immediate and frequent; and
Ć Enable students to correct their own mistakes when
possible.
Assess performance At the end of a course, your studentsÊ performance is
assessed in order to determine if learning has occurred.
Enhance retention and Try to help your students to apply what they have
transfer learnt by providing them with situations where they
can use the new knowledge.
Source: Adapted from Gagne & Medsker (1999)
ACTIVITY 2.5
Form a small group with your coursemates. Do the following in the

myINSPIRE online forum:
(a) Expand on the information you have read by providing some

examples how you can apply it in your own lives.
(b) Describe what you think are the strengths and/or weaknesses of
operant conditioning that can help you control student behaviour
in your classroom.
(c) Discuss some of the problems you may face when you use
positive and negative reinforcements. Use examples from your
own childhood or from your own teaching experiences.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. How many conditions of learning did Gagne theorise?
A. 5
B. 9
C. 2
D. 7
2. Which of these is not a condition of learning?
A. Gain attention
B. Elicit performance
C. Cooperative learning
D. Enhance retention and transfer
3. Which of the following is not one of GagneÊs learning outcomes?
A. Intellectual skills
B. Mathematical skills
C. Cognitive strategies
D. Motor skills
2.4.4 Implications of Gagne’s Learning Theories

Implications of GagneÊs learning theories for learning are:
(a) Gagne emphasised that students must be supported to move from simple
to more complicated learning levels ă from behaviourism to cognitivism.
Teachers must ensure students have mastered the basic skills necessary to
help them in more complicated skills.

(b) To use the hierarchy of learning, a teacher can start by working backwards
from the final learning objectives, that is, teachers can ask „What are the
intellectual skills my students would need to have mastered before they can
learn the new objectives?‰ Teachers can use the hierarchy of learning to
identify these prerequisites in order for learning to take place at each level.
(c) The nine events of instruction can be arranged by the teacher to support
learning processes.
 Behaviourist theories operate on the principle of „stimulus-response.‰ All

behaviour is caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning) and can be
explained without the need to consider internal mental states or
consciousness.
 The primary means of investigating learning is by observation.
 Learning involves behavioural change. Some behaviourists proposed that if

no observable change happens, then no learning has occurred.
 Some principles of behaviourist theories are:
ă Positive or negative reinforcement increases or strengthens a behaviour.
ă Extinction is the gradual elimination of behaviour when reinforcement is

taken away.
ă Positive or negative punishment weakens a behaviour. It must not be

mistaken for negative reinforcement!
ă Schedules of reinforcement can be used to increase the number of desired

behaviours.
 Originators and important contributors of behaviourist theories are Pavlov,

Thorndike, Skinner, and Gagne (who moved towards cognitivism too):
ă Pavlov developed the theory known now as classical conditioning

through the study of dogs. According to Pavlov, learning begins with a
stimulus-response connection. In this theory, a certain stimulus leads to a
particular response.

ă Thorndike emphasised that experiences are able to strengthen or weaken

the stimulus-response connections. He suggested that rewards can
promote learning.
ă Skinner proposed the theory of operant conditioning. Skinner used

the term reinforcer or reinforcement instead of rewards. Operant
conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through reinforcers and
punishments for behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an association
is made between a behaviour and an outcome of that behaviour.
ă Gagne was well-known for his sophisticated stimulus-response theory

of eight kinds of learning which differs in the quality and quantity of
stimuli-responses involved; his hierarchy of learning; and the nine events
of instruction.
Behavioural learning theories Law of Exercise

Classical conditioning Law of Readiness
Conditioned response Negative reinforcement
Conditioned stimulus Nine events of instruction
Connectivism Operant conditioning
Discrimination Positive reinforcement
Extinction Punishment
Five learning outcomes Schedules of reinforcement
Fixed-interval schedule Unconditioned response
Fixed-ratio schedule Unconditioned stimulus
Generalisation Variable-interval schedule
Hierarchy of learning Variable-ratio schedule
Law of Effect

(Untitled photograph of B. F. Skinner). Retrieved July 25, 2011, from

http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/stafford/rs_skinner.htm
(Untitled photograph of Edward Thorndike). Retrieved July 25, 2011, from:

http://www.psicoterapiaintegrativa.com/therapists/htms/Edward_Thorn
dike.htm
Advanced educational psychology (photograph of Gagne) (2001). Retrieved

July 25, 2011, from http://faculty.weber.edu/pstewart/6030/6030.html
Brophy, J. (1981). Teacher praise: A functional analysis. Review of Educational

Research, 51, 5ă32.
Chance, P., & Delaware, L. (1999). ThorndikeÊs puzzle boxes and the origins
of the experimental analysis of behavior. Journal of the Experimental
Analysis of Behavior, 72(3), 433ă440. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from
http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jeab/articles/1999/jeab-72-03-0433.pdf
Gagne, R. M., & Medsker, K. L. (1999). The conditions of learning: Training

applications. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
Nobelprize.org. (2008). Ivan Pavlov biography. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/pavlov-
bio.html
Skinner psychology: Operant conditioning. (n.d). Retrieved July 25, 2011, from
http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
Slavin, R. E. (2009). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (9th ed.).

New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education.
Tate, A. C., Goad, T., & Gralish, M. (n.d). Psychological foundations of

curriculum. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from tech.jerrygalloway.com/
UTA/stds/PsychFoundationsofCurr_1.ppt
Bacon.

T op i c  Constructivist
Theories and
3 Their
Applications
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify Jean PiagetÊs theory of child development;
2. Explain VygostkyÊs theory of social cognitive development;
3. Explain Jerome BrunerÊs theory of cognitivism; and
4. Describe Howard GardnerÊs theory of multiple intelligences.
 INTRODUCTION
As discussed in Topic 2, behavioural learning focuses very much on studentsÊ
behaviour that we can see. Behaviourist theory does not explain much about how
students form concepts, learn from textbooks, solve problems and how they
think. Behaviourists believe that teachers are the main source of information in
studentsÊ lives.

TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  45
However, current principles of education posit that teachers are not mere feeders
of studentsÊ knowledge! Instead, students must construct (build) their own
knowledge in their minds (Slavin, 2009). You, as a teacher, only act as a facilitator
in the process of your studentsÊ learning. You must make information
meaningful and relevant to students. Students must be provided with the
opportunity to discover or apply ideas from the information by themselves.
Through studentsÊ own discovery, they are able to use their own strategies for
learning. In other words, you give your students the ladders that lead to higher
understanding, but it is the students themselves who have to climb these ladders
(Slavin, 2009). Such principles of learning are called the constructivist theories of
learning or constructivism.
Constructivism emphasises students as active learners; they play an active role

in their own learning. Constructivism sees students as always building new
information from previous learning experiences and re-learning new information
when the old information no longer works. Sometimes you will hear and read
the term student-centred teaching; this means that in a student-centred
classroom, the teacher is not the sage on the stage but only serves as a guide by
the side. In other words, it is the students who play the active role in the teaching
process.
According to Kanuka and Anderson (1998), constructivism has existed since

the time of ancient Greek philosopher Socrates! Socrates claimed that learning
occurred through the cognition (thoughts) of the students. However, it was only
in the early 20th century that the „constructivist movement‰ took hold, and
became properly studied and later applied in classrooms.
Although many psychologists contributed towards the „constructivist movement‰,

much of the constructivist theory came about from the early works of Jean Piaget,
Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner. Howard Gardner who once worked with
Bruner later expanded the theoretical framework of the constructivist theory.
Let us look at the works of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner and
Howard Gardner. Let us also understand how their work has implications for
student learning now.

46  TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
3.1 JEAN PIAGET

Jean Piaget (see Figure 3.1) was born in Switzerland in 1896. He died in Geneva
in 1980 at the age of 84. He was the eldest child of Arthur Piaget and Rebecca
Johnson. PiagetÊs father was a professor of medieval literature at a university.
Piaget obtained his doctorate in biology from the University of Neuchâtel. In
1923, Piaget married Valentine Chatenay and had three children ă Jacqueline,
Lucienne and Laurent ă whose intellectual development from infancy to
language was studied by Piaget.
Figure 3.1: Jean Piaget

Source: www.archivesjeanpiaget.ch
When Piaget was 11 years old, he wrote a short article titled Sparrow Albina
which looked at the unusual behaviour of albino sparrows. This was considered
the beginning of PiagetÊs start as a brilliant researcher, scientist and psychologist.
During his lifetime, he wrote over 60 books and hundreds of articles. Jean Piaget
remains one of the most influential researchers in the area of developmental
psychology of the 20th century.
3.1.1 Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget was very interested in how children learned. He would ask the children
questions that he created himself. From the questions, he would follow how the
children would answer or make comments. Piaget believed that the childrenÊs
unstructured answers provided him with an understanding of how they thought.
He was not interested in right or wrong answers, but he wanted to understand
how children used logic and reasoning.

He discovered that children think and reason differently at different times in

their lives. He also discovered that every normal child passes through four stages
of cognitive (intellectual) development in their lives. The four stages of cognitive
development are shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: The four stages of cognitive development
Let us discuss the stages one by one.
(a) Sensorimotor (Birth to 2 Years)

At this stage, infants build an understanding of themselves and how things
work through interactions with the environment. The infant is able to
differentiate himself and other objects.
(b) Preoperational (2 to 7 Years)

Objects are classified in simple ways, especially by important features. For
example, a dog can be replaced with a cat because both animals have four
legs.
(c) Concrete (7 to 11 Years)

The child is able to sort and classify objects. They are able to conceptualise.
For example, children learn mastery of numbers and how to give
explanations.
(d) Formal Operation (Abstract Thinking) (11 Years and Above)

By this stage, the child is capable of complex ways of thinking (logic and
reasoning). The child has the thinking ability of an adult.
Keep in mind that children will move through all the four stages, but they do not
always move from one stage to the other at the same time.

3.1.2 How Children Learn

The important concept in PiagetÊs four stages of cognitive development theory is
that learning and thinking involve the active participation of the learner. He
believed that learning and thinking occur when the learner has gained experience
from the interaction with another person, matter or things in his environment.
However, the learnerÊs ability to learn is always related to cognitive (intellectual)
development. Cognitive development must go through the following processes.
They are shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Three Cognitive Development Processes
Three Cognitive
Development Description
Process
Assimilation  Assimilation means the assimilation (fitting in) of new

information or enriching existing cognitive understanding.
 For example, when Aisha sees a rabbit, she is told that it is a
rabbit. So when Aisha next sees a cat, she calls it a rabbit. Aisha
uses her existing knowledge and has assimilated (fitted in) the
information given to her, but without any modification.
Accommodation  Accommodation means modifying existing knowledge to

understand new information.
 In the example of Aisha ă if AishaÊs mother heard her say

„rabbit‰ on seeing a cat, AishaÊs mother will correct her.
AishaÊs mother will tell her that what she saw was a cat
because it meows and does not hop. Aisha now knows that a
cat meows and does not hop (new information).
Schema  What happens is that this assimilation-accommodation process

enables Aisha to form schema (representation). When Aisha
calls the cat „rabbit‰, her mother corrects her by explaining
that a cat meows. This causes the schema (representation) of a
rabbit to be in disequilibrium (not in equilibrium or
unbalanced). The equilibrium (balance) will be available again
when Aisha makes changes to assimilate the new information
and then makes an accommodation that a cat meows and
accepts the new knowledge.

According to Piaget, the equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation

processes will be different with each childÊs stages of development and the
problems to be solved. Through these processes, the child will construct new
knowledge from their experiences. PiagetÊs theory of cognitive development is
also known as cognitive constructivism.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
What theory did Jean Piaget contribute to child development studies?

Describe it.
ACTIVITY 3.1
How can Jean PiagetÊs theory of development be used by a teacher?

Can you think of some applications? To help you, visit the following
websites to read some creative activities for teaching and learning using
Jean PiagetÊs theory. The websites are:
(a) http://www.lessonplanet.com/search?keywords=jean+piaget+ac
tivities&media=lesson
(b) http://piaget.weebly.com/educational-implications--
activities.html
Do not be limited to the above websites, find as many as you can and
incorporate them into your lesson plan.
Share your findings with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
3.1.3 Implications for Learning

In using PiagetÊs cognitive constructivism, teachers should:
(a) Focus on providing students with activities or situations that engage them
and require assimilation and accommodation;
(b) Be aware that learning materials and activities should be appropriate for
the physical and mental ability of the students. Do not ask students to do
something that they are not cognitively (intellectually) ready for;

(c) Plan for teaching methods and strategies that can actively involve students
(to explore, to manipulate, to experiment, to question, and to search out
answers for themselves) and present challenges;
(d) Focus on studentsÊ existing experience to help them build new experiences;
and
(e) Assess students based on their abilities (their strengths and weaknesses)
and avoid comparing one studentÊs ability with another.
3.2 LEV VYGOTSKY

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, or simply Vygotsky (see Figure 3.3), was a Russian
psychologist. He was born in 1896 and passed away at the young age of 38 in
1934.
Figure 3.3: Lev Vygotsky
As a teenager, Vygotsky was interested in literature and enjoyed poetry and

art. He obtained his law degree from Moscow State University in 1917. While in
university, Vygotsky studied various areas such as linguistics, psychology and
philosophy. His interest in psychology started when he attended the Institute of
Psychology in Moscow. It was there that he wrote The Psychology of Art.

Vygotsky wrote and published six books on psychology in his short lifetime. His
topics were in child development and education. Two of his major psychological
theories were:
(a) Zone of proximal development; and
(b) Sociocultural theory.
Let us look at two of these theories in greater detail and how they are used today
in learning.
3.2.1 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development is the distance (gap)
between the actual developmental level of a child as determined by his/her own
problem-solving ability and the developmental potential (what he or she can
achieve) through the guidance of an adult or more skilled peers. Figure 3.4 is a
diagram to show VygotskyÊs ZPD.
Figure 3.4: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky did not agree with the notion of measuring the intelligence of students
through the use of standardised tests. Instead, he suggested that it is more
helpful to compare their ability to solve problems on their own and their ability
to solve problems with the help of someone more knowledgeable.
In VygotskyÊs zone of proximal development, social interaction is the foundation

for cognitive growth. The communication between students and more
knowledgeable persons (e.g. teachers, parents, friends) helps the student in
building knowledge. This „help‰ in building knowledge is also known as
scaffolding.
Scaffolding is essentially a steel frame and wooden supports of the building.

Scaffolding in the context of learning is the help/guidance, instructions,
procedures provided by a teacher or a more knowledgeable person in mastering
a skill or knowledge. Assistance is given at the beginning of learning but
becomes more and more reduced and finally none at all because the student is
able to do it on his/her own.
Inside a classroom, it is not always the teacher who is the most knowledgeable.
Sometimes students working together in groups can learn from each other too.
3.2.2 Sociocultural Theory

VygotskyÊs sociocultural theory states that students learn from dynamic
interaction with their friends, teachers and society. It is through this interaction
that students slowly and continuously learn and build knowledge.
Vygotsky suggests that learning can be different in different cultures.
The importance of VygotskyÊs theory is that students learn through interactions

and these interactions not only impact the students but also the society in which
they live.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. What is VygotskyÊs learning theory about?
2. Explain what is meant by „scaffolding‰ in learning.

ACTIVITY 3.2
How can VykotskyÊs theory be used by a teacher? Think of some
applications. Visit some websites for some creative activities, and
try to adapt them to your planning and teaching.
In the myINSPIRE online forum, discuss with your colleagues whether

these activities have been successful or not.

Some implications for learning using VygotskyÊs theories are:
(a) The need for students to be given opportunities to learn in groups. Within
this group, those who have mastered a skill or knowledge are able to help
weak students who have yet to master it. Instruction or assistance from
more advanced friends in the group is effective as suggested in the zone of
proximal development.
(b) The use of scaffolding is part of the teaching method in which students
gradually take responsibility for their own learning.
3.3 JEROME BRUNER

Jerome Bruner (see Figure 3.5) was born in 1915 and died in 2016. The influential
American psychologist obtained his first degree from Duke University in 1937
and pursued and obtained a doctorate in psychology at Harvard University in
1941. Bruner played an important role in the Madison Project, a curriculum for
modern mathematics.
Figure 3.5: Jerome Bruner

Source: www.animukerji.com/newfaculty201/bruner_bio.htm

Bruner wrote and contributed in the fields of education and educational

philosophy. His book The Process of Education (1960) has become an important
reference for the formulation of modern mathematics curricula in many
countries. He also produced many works on the development of human thought
and its relationship to learning. His works emphasise the importance of
providing students with meaningful teaching-learning experiences. Among his
other well-known books are A Study of Thinking and Toward a Theory of
Instruction (both written in 1966), Acts of Meaning (1991) and The Culture of
Education (1996).
3.3.1 Bruner’s Discovery Learning and Representation

Bruner continued to develop work by Vygotsky. He believed that knowledge
and learning would be gained more effectively when students learnt through
„personal discovery‰ compared to being taught.
Like Vygotsky, Bruner also believed that teachers and other adults could support
students by scaffolding their learning. He suggested that teachers and adults
should help the students improve their current knowledge to new knowledge.
According to Bruner, when teachers and other adults learn something new, they
engage in three modes of cognitive representation, as shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Three Modes of Cognitive Representation
Mode Description
Enactive When students understand things through doing, this is termed the
enactive mode. In other words, understanding something is based on
physical actions. Many young children learn by doing rather than by
thinking. The enactive mode happens in many physical activities, such as
learning to ride a bike.
Iconic In the iconic mode, students are encouraged to record (or remember)
experiences using photographs, pictures and the use of multimedia.
Symbolic This is the studentsÊ ability to store information in the form of symbols.
According to Bruner, words are powerful symbols and students can store
a lot of information as verbal memory. Nevertheless, there are also other
symbolic systems such as drawing and painting, dancing, playing and
making models, and using numbers.

SELF-CHECK 3.3
What are the three learning experiences as suggested by Bruner?
ACTIVITY 3.3
How can a teacher use BrunerÊs learning theory? Can you think of
some applications? Visit some websites for some creative activities, and
try to adapt them in your planning and teaching.
In the myINSPIRE online forum, discuss with your colleagues whether

each has been successful or not.

BrunerÊs theories have some implications for learning. In using BrunerÊs theories,
teachers should:
(a) Teach subjects through the enactive, iconic and symbolic modes;
(b) Use the discovery learning that gives students opportunities to learn
through „finding out‰. Teachers should provide opportunities for students
to explore, hold, smell and feel to enable meaningful learning. Some of the
ways are through project work, experiments, interviews, or observations;
(c) Promote learning that results from the interaction of student and teachers,
students with students, and students with learning materials; and
(d) Use examples and analogies during the teaching and learning to help
students form concepts.

3.4 HOWARD GARDNER

Howard Gardner (see Figure 3.6) was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania in 1943 and
was a professor of Education and Cognition at the Harvard Graduate School of
Education. GardnerÊs work posits that everyone possesses different potentials or
intelligence.
Figure 3.6: Howard Gardner

Source: www.howardgardner.com/bio/bio.html
Intelligence, according to Gardner, involves the ability of solving a problem or

being involved in composing music, writing poetry or choreographing a dance,
but in the context of his/her own cultures. As such, intelligence cannot be
defined by tests such as IQ tests.
According to Gardner, people use many different ways or several sets of

cognitive processes to solve problems or to produce outcomes.
Gardner is famous for his Theory of Multiple Intelligences in which he identified

eight types of intelligences. Let us look at his eight types of intelligence in greater
detail.

3.4.1 Multiple Intelligences

There are eight types of intelligences. Figure 3.7 may help you remember the
multiple intelligences.
Figure 3.7: GardnerÊs multiple intelligences
Let us look at each of the multiple intelligences.
(a) Spatial Intelligence

This intelligence deals with the ability to visualise with the mindÊs eye.
Students with spatial capabilities enjoy viewing graphs, charts, or pictures
when reading textbooks. To understand something, they visualise by
making mind maps and patterns.
Students with spatial intelligence:
(i) Like puzzles, games or fixing Lego blocks;
(ii) Like charts, diagrams and films;

(iii) Interpret and understand maps, charts or diagrams easily;
(iv) Like to draw; and
(v) Use visual images when thinking about something or explaining

something.
The spatial capability is needed for those who are engineers in the
construction industry, and surveying. Careers which suit those with this
type of intelligence include artists, designers and architects. A spatial
person is also good with puzzles.
(b) Verbal-linguistic Intelligence

This intelligence has to do with words, spoken or written. Students with
more verbal-linguistic intelligence enjoy learning through reading, taking
notes, listening to teachers, discussions and debates. They also learn foreign
languages easily. They are able to manipulate syntax and structure of
languages easily.
Students with high verbal-linguistic intelligence are good with words and
languages. They enjoy and are good at:
(i) Reading;
(ii) Writing;
(iii) Telling stories; and
(iv) Memorising words and dates.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include writer, lawyer,
policeman, philosopher, journalist, politician, poet and teacher.
(c) Logical-mathematical Intelligence

Students with logical-mathematical intelligence are good at logic, reasoning
and abstraction work. They are good at abstract patterns of recognition,
scientific thinking and investigation, and performing complex calculations.
Students with logical-mathematical intelligence enjoy mathematics and are
good at chess games or computer programming.

Students with logical-mathematical intelligence:
(i) Are able to solve mathematical problems quickly;
(ii) Like to use a computer;
(iii) Enjoy playing chess, checkers and other games that require strategy;
(iv) Can relate an event logically; and
(v) Enjoy conducting experiments of things that are not easily

understood.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include scientist, physicist,
mathematician, logician, engineer, doctor, economist and philosopher.
(d) Bodily-kinaesthetic Intelligence

This intelligence involves the control of bodily motions and the capability
to use objects skillfully. Students with bodily-kinaesthetic are good at
physical activities such as sports or dance and might enjoy acting or
performing. They can also be good at building and making things. Such
students learn best by doing something physically.
Students with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence normally:
(i) Succeed in sports;
(ii) Enjoy challenging activities;
(iii) Demonstrate skills in handicraft such as wood carving or sewing; and
(iv) Are involved in physical activities such as swimming, motor-racing,

or cycling.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include athlete, dancer,
musician, actor, surgeon, doctor, builder, police officer and soldier.
(e) Musical Intelligence

Students with musical intelligence show sensitivity to sounds, rhythms,
tones, music and elements that involve feelings. They enjoy using songs or
rhythms to learn. Students with musical intelligence have a strong auditory
component and therefore learn best through lectures.

Students with musical intelligence can be identified if they have some of the
following characteristics:
(i) Can play a musical instrument;
(ii) Remember melodies easily;
(iii) Can identify any music note that is „off-key‰; and
(iv) Need music playing in the background when studying.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include instrumentalist, singer,
conductor, disc-jockey, orator, writer and composer.
(f) Interpersonal Intelligence

Students with high interpersonal intelligence have the ability to understand
the intentions of others, be sensitive to other peopleÊs moods and feelings,
and motivate others to work. Generally, this intelligence has to do with
interaction. They communicate effectively and easily with others. They
learn best by working with others and often enjoy discussion and debate.
Students with interpersonal intelligence normally:
(i) Have many friends;
(ii) Can empathise and understand other peopleÊs feelings;
(iii) Like playing in groups;
(iv) Participate in after-school activities; and
(v) Enjoy socialising.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include work in sales,
politician, manager, teacher and social worker.

(g) Intrapersonal Intelligence

Students with intrapersonal intelligence have the capability to be self-
reflective about their feelings, intentions, motivations and goals in life. They
have an understanding of their strengths and weaknesses. This intelligence
is difficult to be assessed.
Students who have this intelligence normally:
(i) Demonstrate the ability to work independently;
(ii) Respond with thoughtful opinions on controversial topics;
(iii) Have a high sense of self-confidence; and
(iv) Enjoy being alone in the pursuit of goals, hobbies or projects.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include philosopher,

psychologist, theologian, lawyer and writer. People with intrapersonal
intelligence also prefer to work alone.
(h) Naturalistic Intelligence

Students with naturalistic intelligence enjoy nature, nurturing and the
environment.
Characteristics of students who have this intelligence are that they:
(i) Can identify and name an animal quickly;
(ii) Like to keep pets; and
(iii) Like planting flowers, trees and making things out of natural
materials like bamboo and rattan.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include naturalist, farmer and
gardener.
The above description of GardnerÊs eight multiple intelligences are adapted from
GardnerÊs Multiple Intelligences (n.d.) and Multiple Intelligences (2009).

3.4.2 Rationale for Implementing Multiple

Intelligences in the Classroom
The rationale for implementing multiple intelligences in the classroom include:
(a) There are differences and similarities between students, and educators
should recognise that each student is unique and learns in different ways;
(b) We should support the diverse intelligence of students and help realise
their untapped potential;
(c) We should enhance creativity and motivation through exciting teaching

and learning activities that support the diverse intelligence of students;
(d) We need to diversify evaluation (instead of just pen and paper tests,
evaluation can be carried out by having presentations, project work,
performances, practical work etc.); and
(e) We should support cooperative work.
3.4.3 Identifying Students’ Multiple Intelligences

Some ways to identify studentsÊ multiple intelligences are through:
(a) Observation of student behaviours during learning;
(b) Observation of popular studentsÊ activities at leisure time;
(c) Student achievement reports; and
(d) Profiles of students.
ACTIVITY 3.4
What are the possible difficulties in implementing the multiple
intelligences theory in the classroom? Why?


The following are some implications for learning using GardnerÊs multiple
intelligences theory:
(a) Gardner believes that each student has eight different types of intelligence.
One of the intelligence is verbal-linguistic. Students who have this
intelligence are capable of using language effectively, whether orally or
in writing, including the ability to manipulate sentences, style and
pronunciation. The implication is that language proficiency is essential to
be developed as it is also used in other subjects.
(b) In schools, focus is mainly given to test cognitive intelligence such

as linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence and spatial
intelligence. Assessments and evaluation for non-cognitive intelligence
such as music, kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal are seldom held.
Musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence should
also be developed in students. With the cooperation of teachers, students
can identify how they should be assessed.
(c) Schools can work towards a balanced curriculum that gives opportunities
to students to develop their eight types of intelligence.
(d) Talents and interests of individual students could be identified and

developed. Students are given the opportunity to take part in the
curriculum of their choice.
(e) When selecting teaching and learning strategies, it must be appropriate and
match the intelligence of students. You can:
(i) Decide and choose one or two types of intelligence to be used in your
teaching;
(ii) Choose one intelligence to be used in multiple subjects; and
(iii) Use some of the intelligences in an integrated manner across different

subjects.

(f) Some questions to help you decide on each types of intelligence are:
(i) Spatial intelligence ă how can I use teaching aids, colours, art and
graphics?
(ii) Verbal-linguistic intelligence ă how can I use oral language, reading

and writing?
(iii) Logical-mathematical intelligence ă how can I insert numbers,

counting, classification in my teaching?
(iv) Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence ă how can I involve students in whole

body movement or „hands-on‰ activities?
(v) Musical intelligence ă how can I use music, sounds or rhythmic and
melodic elements in the lesson?
(vi) Interpersonal intelligence ă how can I involve students in peer

sharing, group collaboration or simulation?
(vii) Intrapersonal intelligence ă how can I give students the option to

stimulate their „sense of self‰?
(viii) Naturalistic intelligence ă how can I bring nature into the classroom
or bring students out into nature as part of the lesson?
 Constructivist theory is based on the fact that knowledge is built based on

actual experiences.
 Important contributors of constructivist theories are Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner

and Gardner:
ă According to Piaget, learning is a change of thinking or cognitive

structures. The basic concepts of cognitive learning are the schema,
disequilibrium, assimilation and accommodation.
ă According to Vygotsky, the potential differences in a childÊs learning are

in the range called the zone of proximal development (ZPD).
ă Bruner proposed three modes of learning and understanding: the

enactive mode, iconic mode and symbolic mode.
ă Gardner was well-known for his Multiple Intelligences theory where he
proposed that students should be helped to develop according to their
intelligences.
Accommodation Musical intelligence

Assimilation Naturalistic intelligence
Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence Preoperational
Cognitive constructivism Scaffolding
Concrete Schema
Constructivism Sensorimotor
Constructivist theories Sociocultural theory
Enactive mode Spatial intelligence
Iconic mode Student-centred learning
Interpersonal intelligence Symbolic mode
Intrapersonal intelligence Verbal-linguistic intelligence
Logical-mathematical intelligence Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Multiple intelligences
Campbell, L., Campbell, B., & Dickinson, D. (1996). Teaching & learning through
multiple intelligences. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
GardnerÊs Multiple Intelligences. (n.d.). Retrieved July 27, 2011, from

http://www.cap.nsw.edu.au/files/Gardner%20MI.pdf
Kanuka, H., & Anderson, T. (1998). Online social interchange, discord, and
knowledge construction. Journal of Distance Education, 13, 57ă74.
Multiple Intelligences. (2009). Retrieved July 27, 2011, from

http://www.howardgardner.com/MI/mi.html

Bacon.
T op i c  Contemporary
Instructional
4 Strategies:
Cooperative
Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the characteristics of cooperative learning;
2. Explain the benefits of cooperative learning;
3. Incorporate cooperative learning structures into lessons; and
4. Discuss how teaching and learning can be effective with
cooperative learning activities.
 INTRODUCTION
Try to recall the learning experiences you had as a student that required you to
work with others to complete a particular assignment. Your experience might
have been quite short (maybe working with your friend sitting next to you on a
mathematics or geography problem), or it may have required you to work on a
long-term project with a group. You will realise that you had been using
cooperative instructional strategies at the time, fully unaware that it was a
teaching strategy!

TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE  67
LEARNING
This topic will look at a model of instruction called cooperative learning.

Cooperative learning is a strategy that can help your students gain academic
achievement and skills, and at the same time, develop important social skills. It is
a teaching strategy that provides structured roles for your students and at the
same time promotes social interactions (Slavin, 2009).
This topic will begin with the characteristics of cooperative learning, followed
by the benefits of using this model of instruction. Subsequent subtopics will look
at how you can plan, implement, access and manage some of the structures that
are often used in cooperative learning environments.
4.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF COOPERATIVE

LEARNING
Cooperative means working together. There are three important characteristics of
cooperative learning that you should be aware of (Slavin, 2009; Arends, 2009) as
shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Three important characteristics of cooperative learning
Let us look at what each of them means.
(a) Group Goals

This means that students work together to achieve common goals in small
groups. Group goals are able to maximise an individual studentÊs own
learning as well as each member of the group. Students are divided into
small groups, and each group will be given their group goals. Lessons are
structured in such a way that the goals can only be achieved if all team
members can complete the tasks given.

68  TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE
LEARNING
According to Johnson and Johnson (2006), through group goals in a

cooperative classroom, students:
(i) Learn positive interdependence, that is, they must „sink or swim‰
together. Students know that their grades depend on the performance
of the rest of the group. Each member knows that each personÊs
efforts benefit not only himself or herself but all members of the
group;
(ii) Learn promotive interaction where they help each otherÊs learning
like how to solve problems and discuss concepts. Students become
not only committed to each other but also to their group goals; and
(iii) Learn interpersonal and small group social skills, that is, students
must know how to provide effective leadership, decision making,
trust building and communication.
In traditional classrooms, students are required to compete with each other

for grades. In other words, if a student succeeds with high grades it would
mean that his/her friends have failed or have obtained low grades. This is a
competitive classroom.
There is also another type of traditional classroom called the individualistic

classroom. It means that each studentÊs hard work has no impact on
another student because he/she works alone.
Cooperative learning is different as one studentÊs hard work will contribute

to his/her friendsÊ success.

LEARNING
Read the following situation and recall what often occurs in the classroom:
Puan Hasmah is in front of her class. She asks the students questions
and for each question that her students get correct, Puan Hasmah will
reward them with a chocolate bar. For each question, many hands go
up. Some of her students eagerly stretch out their hands in the hopes of
being called by Puan Hasmah. Others, of course, do not have their
hands up and because they are worried they will be called, they look
down at their desk or book. Puan Hasmah calls Ah Kow. Muthu who
sits next to Ah Kow knows the answer. Ah Kow is not sure of the
answer. Muthu becomes very happy and puts up and waves his hands
even harder. Muthu knows that if Ah Kow cannot answer, Puan
Hasmah will call him. In fact, the only way Muthu can get the chocolate
is if Ah Kow cannot answer.
In such a competitive classroom, students are happy if their friends fail to

answer the questions. Their own reward is if their friends fail!
(The above transcript has been adapted from the research by Kagan, 1986).
Therefore, cooperative learning tries to avoid these problems by putting

students in learning situations where group goals reward cooperation.
(b) Individual Responsibility

Although group goals are important, individual student learning is still
necessary for cooperative learning.
Individual responsibility means that each student in the group must also
have mastery of the concepts and skills being taught. The teacher will test
that all students understand the content of a particular subject by giving
them individual quizzes and tests. Alternatively, students can produce
individual reports.

LEARNING
(c) Equal Chances for Success

Group goals build group interactions; individual responsibility ensures that
each student in the group learns the content well.
Equal opportunity for success means that all students from different
genders, abilities, backgrounds, interests, races, cultures and religions are
recognised for their hard work. Higher-achieving students are expected to
help the lower-achieving students.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. What are the factors you should consider when setting up

cooperative learning groups?
2. How do cooperative learning classrooms differ from traditional

classrooms?
4.2 BENEFITS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Some of the benefits of using cooperative learning include:
(a) Lower-achieving students can benefit from the help and tutoring of their
high achieving friends in the same group. On the other hand, the high-
achieving students also benefit because by helping their friends, they are
also thinking more deeply, which leads to a greater understanding of a
particular material, idea or concept;
(b) There will be better tolerance and acceptance of other students who come
from different races, cultures or abilities; and
(c) Students learn about cooperation and collaboration. Cooperative learning

helps promote studentsÊ interpersonal skills, which is one of Howard
GardnerÊs multiple intelligence skills we discussed in Topic 3.

LEARNING
Figure 4.2 gives a summary of your studentsÊ learning outcomes when they use
cooperative learning.
Figure 4.2: Student outcomes for cooperative learning

Source: Arends (2009, p. 351)
4.3 VARIOUS COOPERATIVE LEARNING

STRUCTURES
Let us look at cooperative learning from the perspectives of the teachersÊ and
studentsÊ roles.
4.3.1 Social Structure of Cooperative Learning

The cooperative classroom is different from the traditional classroom that you are
familiar with. In the traditional classroom, the teacher is the centre of activity,
standing in front of the class to teach. The students are merely the „audience‰.
In such a classroom, students are passive listeners, or passively writing notes.
Research has shown that students who are passive learn less than those who are
active (Slavin 1995, Slavin 2009). In the cooperative learning classroom, the social
structure is different. The teacher and students take on different roles.

LEARNING
The following are some indications of a teacherÊs role and a studentÊs role in
cooperative learning (summarised and adapted from Arends, 2009).
(a) TeacherÊs Role

There are five phases in a teacherÊs role as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: TeacherÊs Role in Cooperative Learning
TeacherÊs Role Description

Phase 1 The teacher will introduce the goals to be achieved, and
explain basic concepts and skills to the whole class. The
teacher can use different ways to present information, such
as text, pictures and charts.
Phase 2 The teacher will organise the students into groups. The
teacher explains how to form learning teams and helps
each group to build teamwork and unity.
Phase 3 The teacher assists each group as they do their work.
The teacher also monitors the students to ensure that all
students are learning.
Phase 4 The teacher uses quizzes or tests to check on the studentsÊ
knowledge. Sometimes, each group can present their work.
This is also another way the teacher can know if learning
has taken place.
Phase 5 The teacher rewards both individual and group efforts and
achievements.
(b) StudentsÊ Roles

Students are required to become active and responsible for their learning.
Group goals are achieved because students act as teachers and learners in
their own group. Students must learn to „teach‰, compromise, motivate
and be tolerant as they work as group members.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
How is the role of a teacher in cooperative learning different from the

teacherÊs role in a traditional classroom?

LEARNING
4.3.2 Seating Arrangements in Cooperative

Classrooms
There are two main types of seating arrangements that are commonly used in a
cooperative learning classroom. They are:
(a) Cluster Seating Arrangement

Figure 4.3 shows the six-cluster seating arrangement while Figure 4.4 shows
the four-cluster seating arrangement.
Figure 4.3: Six-cluster seating

Source: Arends (2009)

LEARNING
Figure 4.4: Four-cluster seating

(b) Swing Seating Arrangement

Figure 4.5 shows the swing seating arrangement.
Figure 4.5: Swing seating


LEARNING
4.3.3 Cooperative Learning Approaches

When choosing cooperative learning, there are a few learning approaches that
a teacher should know and can use. This topic cannot cover all the different
learning approaches. However, four approaches are more commonly used in a
cooperative classroom as shown in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6: Cooperative learning approaches
Let us now look at Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD), the first of the
approaches we will discuss in this subtopic.
(a) Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD)

STAD was developed by Robert Slavin (1995) and is one of the most
popular cooperative learning structures.
STAD is a form of cooperative learning strategy that uses the different

abilities of students found in each group to teach concepts, skills and facts.
According to STAD:
(i) The teacher will first present new topical information to students
each week or on a regular basis. This is done through verbal or text
presentations.

LEARNING
(ii) Students are divided into groups of four (or sometimes five)
members. Each group must be heterogeneous (comprising students
of different abilities, different genders and races). One way to start
grouping is to rank the students into abilities based on test scores or
test grades. Then divide them into quartiles, and place one student
from each quartile into each group. Table 4.2 shows groups divided
into quartiles with a sample of 25 students in class.
Table 4.2: Grouping Students into Quartiles Based on Student Ability
No Names Marks Quartile

1 Rose 98
2 Asmah 95
1st
3 Swee Lan 93
4 Akeem 90
5 Mei 89
6 Arshad 85
7 Bobby 84 2nd
8 Ah Seng 83
9 Cindy 82
10 Tong 81
11 Aminah 80
3rd
12 Ah Kow 78
13 Jason 76
14 Devi 75
15 Ron 72
4th
16 Velloo 70
17 Mary 68

LEARNING
Based on Table 4.2, take the highest achievers from the first two
quartiles and pair them with the lowest achievers from the 3rd and
4th quartiles. Therefore, the first group would be Rose, Mei, Jason
and Mary. The second group would be Asmah, Arshad, Ah Kow and
Velloo. The third group would be Swee Lan, Bobby, Aminah and
Ron. The sixth group (last group) would consist of five students:
Ramasamy, Ah Seng, Tong, Cindy and Devi.
After forming the groups, you should check to see that there is a
balance of gender and race. For example, the first group has three
girls and a boy. The second group has three boys and one girl. You
can decide to move two of the students to balance the groups.
(iii) Each group will be given learning materials or worksheets to do.

Team members must help each other learn the materials through
peer-tutoring (friend helps friend), questioning each other or through
discussion.
Note: The worksheets must contain questions that have answers

that are clearly correct or incorrect! If your learning materials or
worksheets do not have clearly correct or incorrect answers, STAD
may not be the most useful structure to use.
(iv) After a week or two, each student in each group will take a test or
a quiz. They must do it individually without help from their group
members.
(v) A special scoring system is used for STAD. There is a „base score‰ and
an „improvement point‰.
What is a base score? A base score is each studentÊs average score from
past tests and quizzes. The studentÊs average examination score from the
previous term can also be used as base scores.
What is an improvement point? An improvement point is a reward given to

each student based on how well they perform on their current test or quiz
compared to their base scores.

LEARNING
Table 4.3 explains the scoring system for STAD.
Table 4.3: Scoring System for STAD
Steps in Scoring
Description
System for STAD
Step 1 Each student is given a base score
Step 2 Each student receives a score for the current test or quiz
Step 3 Each student earns an improvement point based on
how well they perform on their current test or quiz
compared to the base score. The scale for calculating
improvement point is as follows:
More than 10 points below base score 0 points
1 to 10 points below base score 10 points
Base score to 10 points above base score 20 points
More than 10 points above base score 30 points
Perfect paper 30 points
Source: Slavin (1995)
Table 4.4 shows an example of the base score, current score and
improvement point.
Table 4.4: Base Scores, Current Score and Improvement Point Used in STAD
Date ă May 20
Students Quiz ă Subtraction
Base Score Quiz Score Improvement Points
Rose 90 100 30
Asmah 90 100 30
Swee Lan 90 82 10
Akeem 85 74 0
Mei 85 98 30
Arshad 80 67 0
Bobby 75 79 10
Cindy 60 62 20
Source: Adapted from Slavin (1995)

LEARNING
(b) Jigsaw
The jigsaw approach was developed and tested by Aronson and Patnoe
(1997).
Jigsaw requires that different students become „experts‰ on a particular

topic or section of a learning task and then use their „expertise‰ to teach
other students.
According to the jigsaw approach:

(i) Students are divided into groups of five (or sometimes six) members.
Each group must be heterogeneous (students of different abilities,
genders and races). These groups are called home-groups;
(ii) Learning materials are given to each home-group in text format;
(iii) Each student in each home group is responsible for learning a topic or
section of the learning material;
(iv) Members from all home groups with the same topic or section meet to
study and help each other learn the topic or section. They are called
the expert group;
(v) Every member of the expert group returns to their home-group and
teaches other members what he/she has learnt. Figure 4.7 shows the
Jigsaw teams; and
(vi) The scoring system for Jigsaw is the same as that of STAD.
Figure 4.7: The Jigsaw teams

Source: Adapted from Moni, Depaz & Lluka (2008)
LEARNING
(c) Group Investigation

Herbert Thelen originally designed group investigation in 1960. However,
the version used today was refined by Sharon and Sharon in 1988.
STAD and Jigsaw will help your students learn facts, concepts and
skills. However, cooperative learning can also help your students learn
how to solve problems and have higher order critical thinking skills. To
achieve this, you can use group investigation approach. You use group
investigation because you want:
(i) Your students to investigate and analyse a topic;
(ii) Your students to develop thinking skills;
(iii) Your students to develop a deeper understanding of a particular

content; and
(iv) Your students to work together towards solving a problem.
In group investigation:
(i) Students are divided in groups of five (or sometimes six) members.
Each group must be heterogeneous (students of different abilities,
genders and races). Sometimes the groups are formed based on
friendships where the students choose their own members or students
with a similar interest in a particular topic.
(ii) The steps taken are shown in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Steps in Group Investigation
Steps in Group
Description
Investigation
Step 1 Students choose their own specific subtopics from a
general topic area usually prepared by the teacher.
Step 2 Students and the teacher plan on learning procedures
and set group goals.

LEARNING
Step 3 Students carry out the plan agreed in Step 2.

Students are given the opportunity to use different
activities and skills. They also use different kinds of
sources found inside and outside the school. The
teacher monitors and follows the progress of each
group, and helps when needed.
Step 4 Students analyse and evaluate the information
collected from Step 3 and plan how to present this
to their classmates. Sometimes it can also be written
as a report.
Step 5 Each group gives a presentation to their classmates.
Each group must try to present it informatively,
interestingly and clearly. This task is not found in
traditional classrooms and will be useful for many
of the students later in their lives.
(iii) There is no special scoring system, but the studentsÊ written report
and presentation are used for evaluation. A useful method is for the
teacher to use a checklist to rate the studentsÊ presentation.
(d) The Structural Approach

There are two kinds of structural approaches that are commonly used. They
are Think-Pair-Share and Numbered Heads Together.
(i) In Think-Pair-Share:
Ć The teacher asks a question related to the lesson and asks the
students to think individually about the answer for about one
minute;
Ć Next, the teacher asks the students to pair up and discuss their
answers with each other. The teacher allows about four to five
minutes for the pair to discuss; and
Ć In the final step, the teacher asks the pairs to tell the class what
they have discussed.

LEARNING
(ii) Numbered Heads Together is a four-step structure, as shown in

Table 4.6.
Table 4.6: Four-step Structure of Numbered Heads Together
Four-step
Description
Structure
Step 1 Numbering: Students are divided into groups of three to five
members. Each group must be heterogeneous. The students
in each group are given a number between 1 and 5.
Step 2 Questioning: The teacher asks the students a question.
Step 3 Heads together: Students put their „heads together‰ within
each group, and each member must make sure everyone in
the group can answer the question.
Step 4 Answering: The teacher calls out any number between 1 and
5. The students from each group with that number stand up
to provide the answers to the whole class. If an answer is
wrong, the teacher can go on to another group.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
1. How would you set up cooperative learning groups?
2. Describe the differences in how cooperative learning is conducted

and assessed in STAD, Jigsaw, Group Investigation, Think-Pair-
Share and Numbered Heads Together.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Plan a lesson using one of the cooperative learning approaches.

Implement it in your own classroom. What were the benefits to your
students when you used your planned cooperative learning approach?
Did you have difficulties in implementing it? If yes, what are the
difficulties and what are your suggestions to overcome those
difficulties?

forum.

LEARNING
4.4 EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

USING COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Cooperative learning is a student-directed approach to teaching, and a
cooperative learning environment requires a set of management tasks you must
do before you can begin using cooperative learning (Slavin, 2009; Arends, 2009).
If you are teaching in a traditional classroom, you will stand in front and instruct
what you want the students to do. However, in cooperative learning, you will
need to organise your students into study groups and get them ready to work
cooperatively together.
Therefore, it is important to have a few rules and directions to help make the
cooperative learning environment run smoothly. At the same time, some rules
are also necessary to make sure that you are able to control the study groups and
any misbehaviour that occurs.
The following subtopics will look at some rules to help you manage a
cooperative learning classroom. It will then be followed by a few activities
that you can use to help your students move from a traditional classroom
environment to a cooperative learning environment.
4.4.1 Managing the Learning Environment

It is sometimes quite difficult to get the students ready for cooperative learning
and into their study groups. Getting them started on their work is also a difficult
process. However, some simple but important strategies can be used to get your
students ready.
(a) Verbally explain to the whole class the steps you want your students to
follow.
(b) State your steps and directions clearly. Ask a few students to repeat your
steps and directions. By asking the students to repeat, you will also know if
the students have understood your steps and directions.

LEARNING
(c) Write down these steps on the board or have it written down on a chart. By
having written steps, your students can look and read it constantly as they
start to move into their groups or when they move around during
cooperative activities. Table 4.7 shows an example of how you can carry out
the steps (modified from Arends, 2009).
Table 4.7: Managing the Learning Environment
Steps Description
Step 1 When I give the signal, tiptoe to the location where your teamÊs
name has been posted on the wall.
Step 2 Choose one team member to come up to my desk and take the
learning materials.
Step 3 Spend 10 minutes quietly reading the learning task.
Step 4 When I say „start‰, begin your discussions and activities.
Discussions must be done in a low voice so that you do not disturb
other teams.
Step 5 At my signal, you will stop your discussion and activities.
(d) Identify and clearly mark the location for each study group. You will see
that you need to construct very structured rules and directions. This is
important if it is the first time the students are getting into their study
groups for cooperative learning.
For beginning teachers, highly structured rules and directions can make
lessons run more smoothly and prevent disruptive behaviours, „lost‰
students and feelings of frustration if a cooperative class is not conducted
smoothly.
Once the students are used to cooperative learning, you can be more
flexible and reduce your rules and directions.

LEARNING
4.4.2 Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning

You cannot assume that your students can immediately understand and know
how to work together in a cooperative classroom. Students need to be prepared
for some of the skills needed to work cooperatively. For most students, the move
from a highly traditional and structured classroom to a cooperative learning
environment is difficult. However, you can help your students with some of the
skills required in cooperative learning.
(a) Sample Activities to Help Students Learn Sharing Skills
(i) Round Robin

It requires students to take turns to respond when working in a
group. The teacher asks a question that will require a few answers.
The students are given time to think. Each member takes turns to
share possible answers to the questions.
(ii) Pair Checks

Refer to Table 4.8 for steps in pair checks.
Table 4.8: Pair Checks
Steps Description
Step 1 Get students into pairs.
Step 2 Give each pair a worksheet with some problems to solve.
Step 3 Student 1 does the first problem, while student 2 acts as a
„teacher‰. When both agree on the answer, they then do the
next problem.
Step 4 Student 2 does the second problem, while student 1 acts as the
„teacher‰. They both agree on the answer.
Step 5 They then go to another pair of students and check the first
two problems together. Now all four students work to agree
on the answers to the problems.

LEARNING
(b) Sample Activities to Help Students Learn Participation Skills

Participation skills are important to avoid one student from taking control
of the discussion or conversation.
(i) Time token as shown in Table 4.9.
Table 4.9: Time Token
Steps Description
Step 1 Each student in the group is given a „token‰ which can be in
the form of a piece of cardboard cut into a round shape. On
each piece of this „token‰ is written „20 seconds of talk time‰
or „30 seconds of talk time‰.
Step 2 One member of the group monitors the time. Once the time on
the token is over, the student must stop talking.
Step 3 Repeat until every member has a chance to use the time token.
(ii) High talker tap out as shown in Table 4.10.
Table 4.10: High Talker Tap Out
Steps Description
Step 1 One member of the group is selected as the „monitor‰.
Step 2 The monitor will make sure that every member of the group
gets a chance to talk. The monitor will also encourage students
who are shy to talk.
(c) Sample Activities for Team Building

It is important that in cooperative learning there is team identity and a
sense of caring among the members of the group. A few simple activities
that you can do is to make sure that every member knows each otherÊs
name or let the group discuss and decide a name for their group. The
following are two other activities that you can use to teach group skills and
build a positive team identity.

LEARNING
(i) Look, go, create, as shown in Table 4.11.
Table 4.11: Look, Go, Create
Steps Description
Step 1 The teacher prepares pictures of different objects. The teacher
must make sure there are enough materials or equipment to
conduct this activity such as drawing papers, coloured pens
and pencils, etc.
Step 2 Place these pictures in a box; make enough for each group.
Step 3 One member of each team will be called the „viewer‰. The
„viewer‰ will pick up one picture and look at it.
Step 4 The „viewer‰ will describe or tell another team member called
the „communicator‰ what the picture is.
Step 5 The „communicator‰ will then describe or tell what
the picture is to the rest of the team. Team members
may send questions back to the „viewer‰ through the
„communicator‰.
Step 6 The team members will construct or draw the picture.
(ii) Blind obstacle course, as shown in Table 4.12.
Table 4.12: Blind Obstacle Course
Steps Description
Step 1 The teacher clears the middle of the classroom and arranges
small objects like toys or pillows in an obstacle course. Make
an obstacle course for each team.
Step 2 Blindfold one team member.
Step 3 One other team member stands nearby and gives directions to
the blindfolded member to get around the objects without
touching them. If the blindfolded member does not succeed
he/she must try again.
Step 4 Repeat Steps 2 and 3 until all team members have gone
through the obstacle course successfully.
Source: Stover (2010)

LEARNING
SELF-CHECK 4.4
1. What do you think are some of the difficulties you will encounter
when using cooperative learning? Do you think the benefits of
using cooperative learning outweigh the difficulties? Why?
2. What are the ways that can help you manage and prepare your
students for cooperative learning?
ACTIVITY 4.2
1. Analyse the following situations and decide whether they are

most appropriate for STAD, Jigsaw or Group Investigation.
(a) A Science teacher wants her students to know their
Chemistry table of elements.
(b) A Science teacher wants her students to study pollution.
She assigns students to groups and asks each group
to investigate air, water or waste pollution in certain
geographic areas.
(c) A teacher is comparing great Malay writers such as Shahnon
Ahmad, Usman Awang, and A. Samad Said. The teacher
wants his students to understand the similarities and
differences between each of the writers.
2. Encik Johan, a Physics teacher, is preparing to group his students

for STAD learning groups. The average scores for the studentsÊ
past tests results are as follows:
Jonas 97 Amir 81
Betty 94 Henry 80
Sheri 93 Lisa 79
Akeem 90 Devi 77
Kim 87 Mary 75
SweeLan 84 Rama 72
Peter 83 Mei 70
Siti 82 Ahmad 69

LEARNING
(a) Encik Johan wants to use teams of four. How will he group
the teams?
(b) What other factors can Encik Johan use instead of past test
scores?
Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
 Cooperative learning is an approach that involves students working together

in small groups.
Ć The learning environment is cooperative rather than competitive or

individualistic.
Ć The three main characteristics of cooperative learning are group goals,

individual accountability and equal opportunity for success as guiding
principles.
Ć Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD) has teams of four or five

working together to understand facts, concepts or skills. In STAD, students
compete with their past performance to earn improvement points which
contribute to team awards.
Ć Jigsaw is designed to teach organised bodies of information and develops

student experts who will teach their team members.
Ć Group investigation is where team members work together on solving

problems.
Ć Other cooperative learning approaches include Think-Pair-Share and

Numbered Heads Together.
Ć It is important to manage the cooperative learning environment well by

providing rules and directions to avoid frustration.

LEARNING
Ć Students can be prepared for cooperative learning by developing sharing

skills, participation skills, and team identity through activities such as round
robin, pair checks, time tokens, high talker tap out, look-go-create, and the
blind obstacle course.
Blind obstacle course Pair checks

Cluster seating Participation skills
Cooperative learning Positive interdependence
Cooperative instructional strategies Promotive interaction
Equal chances for success Round robin
Group goals Sharing skills
Group Investigation Student Teams-Achievement
Divisions (STAD)
High talker tap out
Swing seating
Individual responsibility
Team building
Jigsaw
Think-Pair-Share
Look, go, create
Time token
Numbered heads together
Aronson, E., & Patnoe, S. (1997). The jigsaw classroom. New York, NY: Addison-
Wesley Longman.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. P. (2006). Joining together: Group theory and
group skills (9th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

LEARNING
Kagan, S. (1986). Cooperative learning and sociocultural factors in schooling. In

Beyond language: Social and cultural factors in schooling language
minority students (pp. 231ă298). Los Angeles, CA: California State
University Evaluation, Dissemination and Achievement Center.
Moni, R. W., Depaz, I., & Lluka, L. J. (2008). Student perceptions of social
learning space: Designing and implementing a Co-operative assessment
task in pharmacology. Bioscience Education e-journal, 11. Retrieved July 28,
2011, from
http://www.bioscience.heacademy.ac.uk/journal/vol11/beej-11-9.pdf
Sharon, S., & Sharon, H. (1988). Language and learning in the cooperative
classroom. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
Slavin, R. (1995). Cooperative learning (2nd ed.). San Juan Capistrano, CA:
Resources for Teachers.

Stover, E. (2010). Indoor team building activities for elementary students.

Retrieved July 28, 2011, from http://www.ehow.com/list_6112919_indoor-
building-activities-elementary-students.html
Thelen, H. (1960). Education and the human quest. New York, NY: Harper &
Row.

Instructional
5 Strategies:
Discovery-
based Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the characteristics of discovery-based learning;
2. State the differences between discovery-based learning and the
traditional way of learning;
3. Describe various approaches and strategies to learning via
discovery;
4. Explain inquiry-based learning as a discovery-based learning
strategy; and
5. Discuss assessment issues in discovery-based learning.
 INTRODUCTION
In Topic 3, you read about the work of Jerome Bruner, who said that knowledge
and learning will be gained more effectively when students learned through
„personal discovery‰ compared to being taught. Well, Bruner was the originator
of discovery-based learning!

TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED  93
LEARNING
Discovery-based learning encourages students to be active participants. It

promotes their motivation, responsibility and independence. „Learning by
doing‰ is the motto of this approach to learning.
Discovery-based learning is part of the constructivist learning theory. Learning is

not static but is a problem-solving process where the students use their own
existing knowledge to discover new facts and knowledge. It is one approach you
can use to help your students to adapt to changes in the 21st century. When your
students leave school, they will have to face a lot of uncertainties and challenges.
Discovery-based learning is a teaching approach that meets the needs of todayÊs
competitive environment.
Let us discover what discovery-based learning is all about.
5.1 WHAT IS DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING?

As a teaching approach, discovery-based learning is different from the traditional
way of lectures, drills and practice. In its place, your students are active in their
learning, or their learning activities require them to be hands-on a lot (Bicknell-
Holmes & Hoffman, 2000). Your students are not passively sitting down taking in
information from you, but they are seeking new information because they are
interested to know more. They are motivated to discover new knowledge
through their learning activities; and you, as the teacher, must provide
opportunities for this to happen.
Let us try to understand better what discovery-based learning is all about. We

shall begin by looking at the characteristics of discovery-based learning, and then
we shall see why it is different from the conventional way of learning.

94  TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED
LEARNING
5.1.1 Characteristics of Discovery-based Learning

Discovery-based learning is unique because of the following characteristics as
shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Characteristics of Discovery-based Learning
Characteristics of Discovery-
Description
based Learning
Students explore and solve  When your students take an active role through
problems to create knowledge exploring and problem solving, they are actively
involved in their learning. They do not simply
accept information through your teaching. As a
teacher, you will encourage them to take risks,
solve problems and question issues.
Students determine how they  With discovery-based learning, your students

want to carry out their learning will learn at their own pace. You will allow
flexibility as to how your students will achieve
the learning objectives.
 Although you may plan how your activities are

to be conducted, you should allow your students
the opportunities to plan how they want to carry
out the activities. In this way, your students will
feel that they „own‰ and are responsible for their
learning.
Students use their existing  Discovery-based learning, as part of the

knowledge to create new constructivist approach to learning, is based on
knowledge the principle of using your studentsÊ existing
knowledge to build new knowledge. What this
means is that your students will use something
that they already know, extend on the knowledge
that they have, and create new knowledge or
ideas.
Source: Bicknell-Holmes & Hoffman (2000)

LEARNING
5.1.2 Differences between Discovery-based Learning

There are three main differences between discovery-based learning and the
traditional way of learning as shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Main Differences between Discovery-based Learning

Source Discovery-based Learning Traditional-based Learning

Arts (2008) Ć Students are responsible for finding Ć Requires students to
the answers to real problems, and absorb what the teacher
they are actively engaged in this is saying passively.
pursuit.
Ć What is more important is the
process of learning rather than
learning the content.
Bonwell (1998) Ć Allows students to analyse and Ć Students give the correct
interpret data so that he/she can answers ă most of the
understand what is being learnt. time through
Through analysing and memorisation.
interpreting, students can arrive at Ć Usually expects
different correct answers. students to learn in
Ć Failure is acceptable in discovery- silence and in isolation.
based learning. It does not expect
the students to get the right
answers all the time. For example,
Thomas Edison (who discovered
the light bulb) once said he was
never discouraged with failures.
Instead he said that he learnt about
the thousands of materials that
were not suitable for a light bulb!
Ć Students are encouraged to work
with their friends. They are
encouraged to discuss their ideas to
deepen their understanding.
Papert (2001) Ć Students are naturally curious, and Ć Students are generally
this is encouraged in discovery- passive, and therefore
based learning. their natural curiosity is
reduced.

LEARNING
5.2 VARIOUS APPROACHES TO LEARNING VIA

DISCOVERY
Although there are many approaches that can be used with discovery-based
learning, this subtopic will look at four popular ones as shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Four main approaches to learning via discovery
Let us look at each one in greater detail.
(a) Case-based Learning
May Lee loves potted plants. She finds that potted plants add beauty to
her house. May Lee also enjoys putting new plants into new pots.
However, she is surprised because sometimes she sees strange mushrooms
or fungus growing in her potted plants. These mushrooms normally grow
in the pots with the new plants or in very old potted plants.
May Lee is not sure what to do. So she asks her friend Tom. Tom asks
her where she always puts her potted plants and how often she waters
the plants. May Lee tells him that she likes to put her potted plants in
the corner of the hall because her plants cannot take sunlight ă so she
keeps her potted plants in cool but dark areas. She tells her friend that
she waters her plants every day.
When May Lee leaves her plants out in the sun, she realises that the
mushrooms and fungus do not grow. Nevertheless, there are still a few
of her potted plants that continue to have mushrooms and fungus
growing even though she takes them out to sun every day.
May Lee is quite at a loss what to do. She is now asking you. What do
you think is happening and what would you advise her?

LEARNING
Cases or case studies are a specific kind of learning that present students
with a small sample of an actual situation or issue (Duffy & Cunningham,
1996).
The stories in case studies contain information that you want the students
to learn or solve. In solving the sample cases, your students are encouraged
to apply knowledge from personal experiences, theory and research to
make some decisions. When your students are doing the cases, they are
trying to think like grown-ups; they are practising some problem-solving
behaviours that they encounter every day.
In using case-based learning, three things are important. They are:
(i) Planning
Your case needs to provide enough details so that your students can
identify with and work with the problem. The case must present a
specific issue that the students need to solve.
(ii) Implementing
You should encourage your students to identify what the issue is.
For example, in the potted plant example, May Lee has a problem
with mushrooms and fungus growing in her potted plants. As your
students try to identify the issue, the causes, the treatments, and the
prevention, they will use other resources such as books, the Internet
or asking other adults.
(iii) Presenting
Your students will present their solutions to their friends.
(b) Incidental Learning

Incidental learning is unique because it is generally not planned, but
learning happens as a „by-product‰ of their other activities.
Through the studentsÊ other activities, incidental learning happens through

their observation, repetition work, their interaction and problem solving
(Kerka, 2000).
For a teacher, the challenge is for you to construct an activity that will
enable your students to find out or be in contact with the facts in a
„natural‰ way. The objective is to allow exploration so that incidental
learning can take place, rather than in a rigid classroom environment („The
opportunity of incidental learning‰, n.d.).

LEARNING
Take a look at an example of an incidental learning activity (adapted from

Teaching Geography Using Incidental Learning, n.d.).
Let us suppose that you want your students to know the state capitals in
Malaysia. Let us further suppose that some of your students have a real
interest in football. Would not it be possible for those students to achieve
some football goals, and learn some geography at the same time? If you
wanted a student to know where Kedah is, and he is a fan of the Hijau-
Kuning and the Kenari (names of football teams in Kedah), who happened
to be playing in Kuala Lumpur, and you gave that student tickets to the
game, plus a car and a map, donÊt you think that he would learn sufficient
geography to get himself to Kuala Lumpur?
Since this approach is too expensive to achieve, you then develop the road
trip programme, which does the next best thing. It teaches Malaysian
geography to secondary school students by allowing them to take
simulated car trips (read the next section for an explanation of simulation
learning) around Malaysia. When the student arrives at a destination, he
can watch exciting video clips that are particular to where he is and match
his interests. So when a student „reaches‰ Kedah, you show him/her a
video clip of a football match where Hijau-Kuning is competing!
Although road trips have turned out to have a strong appeal to a

surprisingly broad range of students, the original intention was to target
the least motivated students. Students who do not like learning become
bored when they are required to study. Road Trip enables the students to
both enjoy football and learn something meaningful in a fun way.
(c) Simulation-based Learning

Simulation-based learning is very similar to role-playing. In simulation-
based learning, you create an environment where your students can
practise a difficult skill or watch you apply some skills (Bicknell-Holmes &
Hoffman, 2000). Sometimes it is difficult to bring the students to a real-life
situation; therefore, you try to create the natural environment to guide their
discovery.
With the recent interest in the Angkasawan programme which resulted in

Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor being the first Malaysian in space, you can ask
students to plan a space mission. Since an actual space mission is not
possible, you can ask your students to plan the mission through simulation.
Computers have made simulation much more interesting. There are many
kinds of software that are able to provide realistic scenarios for your
students to try out.

LEARNING
(d) Exploration-based Learning

Exploration-based learning is similar to the Socratic method. In Socratic
teaching, the focus is giving students questions, not answers. There is
questioning, answering and more questioning. In exploratory-based
learning, students solve a problem or an issue through asking questions.
5.3 INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING AS A

DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING STRATEGY
Inquiry is both a teaching strategy and a way of discovering how things work.
We use inquiry every day without noticing it. Many scientific breakthroughs are
the results of inquiry processes. Scientists first ask „why is one group of people
more susceptible to heart attacks than others?‰ Many teaching theories and
models came about because educators wanted answers to questions such as
„Why do students in one classroom learn more than another?‰ When you involve
your students in inquiry-based learning, you are encouraging their higher-order
thinking skills and developing self-directed learning.
Take a look at an example of how Puan Jamilah used inquiry-based learning in

one of her „Living Skills‰ lessons.
Puan Jamilah, a secondary school teacher of Living Skills, had just started a
unit on baking bread. She began the discussion with general baking
procedures, specifically how important it is to knead the dough.
As Puan Jamilah was explaining the procedure, Marie put up her hand and
asked, „Why are you kneading the dough so long?‰
„That is a good question, Marie. Why do you think so? ⁄. Anyone?‰
„Maybe it is to mix the dough ingredients well,‰ answered Azlina.
Amy added, „Maybe if the dough is not well kneaded, it will not rise because
the yeast is not mixed in well.‰
Puan Jamilah immediately expanded on her learning objectives and started to

write her studentsÊ ideas on the whiteboard. Then she said, „What Azlina and
Amy have said are some answers to MarieÊs question. Azlina and AmyÊs
solutions are called hypotheses. So now, we need to check to see if these ideas
are correct.‰

LEARNING
After thinking for a while, Devi put up her hand and suggested, „We could
take a batch of dough and separate it into ⁄ about⁄. maybe⁄ three parts⁄
and then knead them for different amounts of time.‰
„Excellent thinking, Devi,‰ Puan Jamilah smiled, „What do you say, everyone?
Shall we try it?‰
Many of the other students responded with, „Sure‰, „Okay‰, „Why not?‰
Puan Jamilah continued, „How long should we knead each? Our book
recommends about 10 minutes.‰
„How about five minutes for one, 10 for the second one, and 15 for the third,‰
Zara suggested.
„Then we will bake them all the same way,‰ suggested Jega.
„To be sure that we are getting a good test of AmyÊs hypothesis, what else do
we need to consider?‰ Puan Jamilah asked.
„Well, we have to use the same dough, and we have to have the same amount
of dough, wouldnÊt we?‰ offered Swee Lin.
„And we have to knead the same way for all three pieces; if the person
kneading was different, it could affect the mixing, and that is what we are
trying to test, isnÊt it?‰ asked Normah.
„Very good thinking, Normah,‰ Puan Jamilah said. „Anything else, anyone?‰
„I think there is one more thing⁄ you said that the ovens in here are different.
We would need to bake them all in the same oven, wonÊt we?‰ Man Ting
asked.
„That is great thinking, everyone⁄ Now, let us think back for a minute. We
talked about having the same dough, kneading them all the same way, and
baking them all in the same oven⁄ Why do we want to do that?‰
„Well if we have the different pieces of dough, and they came out different,
we would not know if it was the amount of time or if it was the dough,‰ Talita
suggested.

LEARNING
„Excellent thinking, Talita. What we are doing is keeping each of these

constant, and the only thing we are changing is the amount of time we knead
each piece of dough. When we keep them the same, we say that we have
controlled those variables. Okay, let us write down the variables we are
controlling.‰
„Type of dough,‰ someone said.
„Good ⁄. What else?‰
„The way we do the kneading.‰
„Excellent ⁄ what else?‰
„The oven.‰
„Good everyone. That is excellent thinking.‰
The students then followed the suggestions, separating a piece of dough into
three equal parts, carefully kneading each piece in the same way, and baking
them in the same oven: one part for five minutes, the second for 10 minutes
and the third for 15. Then they checked to see if there were differences in the
way the pieces looked. They discussed their results and related them to the
hypotheses.
Puan Jamilah asked, „Before we end this lesson, I would like us to think what
we did and why and how did we got started on this problem. Who
remembers?‰
Mei Lan answered, „Marie asked why we had to knead the bread so long.‰
„Good memory, Mei Lan. That is correct. Our inquiry started with a question.
Then we had some ideas or guesses. Who remembers what we call these ideas
and guesses?‰
„Hypotheses?‰ answers Shanie.
„Good, Shanie,‰ answers Puan Jamilah. „Hypotheses are our best guesses
about how the world works⁄.‰
The bell rang, and Puan Jamilah dismissed the class by saying, „Good work,
class. See you tomorrow.‰
(Adapted from Eggen & Kauchak, 2001)

LEARNING
Using the previous lesson, we can see how to implement inquiry-based learning.
You have seen that in Puan JamilahÊs class, the lesson began with a question,
followed by tentative answers or hypotheses. Then the information is provided
to determine the hypotheses, and the hypotheses are then tested. Finally, some
generalisations are made, and students are asked to reflect on the inquiry
process.
Let us see how Puan Jamilah implemented inquiry-based learning.
There are seven steps to implementing inquiry-based learning (adapted from

Eggen & Kauchak, 2001), as shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Seven steps in implementing inquiry-based learning
Let us now discuss the steps in greater detail.
(a) Step 1: Beginning with a Question

The investigation begins when a question is asked.
In Puan JamilahÊs class, she was explaining the importance of kneading

dough when Marie asked a question. Puan Jamilah cleverly used the
question as a queue-in to her lesson.
If no one asks a question in your class, you can instead guide your
students into identifying a question.

LEARNING
Puan Jamilah wrote MarieÊs question on the whiteboard to make sure that
everyone understood the question.
Other things you can do to ensure that students are clear about the
question are to ask your students to repeat the question or ask them to
explain the question in their own words.
(b) Step 2: Forming Hypotheses

Once the question is clear, the next step is to get the students to attempt to
answer the question. Puan Jamilah asked her students to present as many
possible answers. She accepted all the possible answers given by Amy,
Azlina and Devi. What Puan Jamilah was doing is called the process of
hypothesising.
A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a question or problem that needs

to be tested or verified with data. Sometimes, a hypothesis can also be
called „an educated guess‰ or a „hunch‰.
After Puan JamilahÊs students had developed a few hypotheses, the

hypotheses needed to be verified through data gathering. Puan KamilahÊs
students need to be clear about which hypothesis they are investigating
so that they know which variables they must control. Can you identify the
variables involved in Puan JamilahÊs class?
(c) Step 3: Data Gathering

The hypotheses are used to guide the data gathering process.
For example, in Puan JamilahÊs class, the students separated a piece of

dough into three equal parts, carefully kneaded each piece in the same way,
and baked them in the same oven ă one part for five minutes, the second for
10 minutes and the third for 15 minutes. Then they checked to see if there
were differences in the way the different pieces looked. While it could take
time to investigate hypotheses, the students learnt what information was
important and what was not.

LEARNING
(d) Step 4: Data Reporting

Students must organise and present the data they have gathered. A variety
of displays such as tables, figures, matrices or graphs can be used.
(e) Step 5: Data Analysis

In data analysis, the students assess their hypotheses from the data they
have gathered.
For example, in Puan JamilahÊs class, her students discussed and analysed
that the dough pieces kneaded for both 10 and 15 minutes are the same
height but taller than the dough kneaded for only five minutes. In this
phase, students gain valuable skills in discussing the data and analysing the
data.
(f) Step 6: Generalising

The lesson ends when students try to generalise about the result based on
the data they have.
For example, Puan JamilahÊs students tentatively concluded that the bread
(from the dough) must be kneaded for an adequate amount of time, but
kneading more than that amount of time does not matter.
Generalising will lead to other questions and therefore new inquiry

problems. For instance, Puan JamilahÊs students might ask whether
different types of flour (for example, wholemeal flour vs wheat flour) to
make the dough also affects how much time is needed to knead the
dough for it to rise. Such a process of inquiry happens all the time in our
studentsÊ lives. Soon the students will realise that the world is complex
and there are no simple structured answers!
(g) Step 7: Analysing the Inquiry-based Learning Process

In Puan JamilahÊs class, before the bell rang, she asked her students to
reflect on how they identified the inquiry and how the hypotheses guided
the inquiry process. By talking about the inquiry processes, Puan Jamilah
made ideas real and she helped her students see how inquiry plays out in
real life.

LEARNING
ACTIVITY 5.1
Read the following story and answer the questions below.
Two teachers, Puan Lim and Encik Jamal, were in the teachersÊ room
one day discussing something that happened between two students.
„I was surprised that Mariam got so angry in class,‰ Puan Lim said to
Encik Jamal.
„Why do you suppose Mariam got so angry with her best friend
June?‰
„I donÊt know for sure,‰ Encik Jamal said. „But I think Mariam is
having some trouble at home. I notice that she is very quiet when she
comes into the classroom. Also, she said some rude words to June
yesterday afternoon.‰
„Yes, I was told that, but I thought Mariam was saying it for fun.
Mariam looked happy last week, and she told me her studies were
going well. I donÊt think her home life would cause her to be angry
with June.‰
Encik Muthu was also in the teachersÊ room and overheard the
conversation between Puan Lim and Encik Jamal. „I think,‰ he said,
„that she is simply tired. Mariam has to take care of her younger
sister and brother, and now that the examination is near, she is feeling
the stress.‰
„Yes, that could be correct.‰ Puan Lim agreed.
„Mariam told me that because she wanted to do well in the
examination; she only slept five hours.‰
„Also, Mariam has to do some of the cooking at home,‰ said Encik
Jamal. „And that is a lot for a young girl to do.‰
(a) Identify the inquiry question in the above story.

(b) Identify two hypotheses that were in the question.
(c) Identify at least four comments in the story that could be called
items of data.
(d) For each item of data, identify to which hypothesis it belongs to,
and whether it supports the hypothesis (or not).

LEARNING
5.4 ASSESSMENT ISSUES IN DISCOVERY-

BASED LEARNING
For many teachers, discovery-based learning can be quite challenging because the
teacher needs to guide the students towards questions or to create a good problem.
However, if it is well planned and using the teacherÊs own creativity, discovery-
based learning can be very beneficial to the students to develop their interests,
motivation, independence and higher-order thinking skills.
Yet another issue with discovery-based learning is assessing the students.
Sometimes, the traditional way of assessment using multiple-choice questions,

true-false questions, and fill in the blanks tests may not be suitable to evaluate
students after conducting lessons using the discovery-based learning approach.
There are a few strategic questions that you may ask yourself before you decide
on the best way to assess your students after discovery-based learning. These will
be discussed in the next subtopic.
5.4.1 Strategically Thinking about Assessing

Discovery-based Learning
Basically, there are seven questions you want to ask yourself, as shown in
Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Seven questions to ask when assessing discovery-based learning

LEARNING
Let us look into the questions, one by one.
(a) Why Do I Need to Assess My Students?

Normally, you would answer that you want to be able to measure your
studentsÊ learning against what is stated in the learning outcomes. That is
correct! You would also probably want to assess your students because
there is a need to provide some form of marks and grades to assure
standards and quality. These two reasons are also correct.
However, more importantly, you want to assess your studentsÊ learning

because you want to support their learning by engaging them in activities
and providing feedback.
Therefore, your focus on assessment should be driven by how you can

promote your studentsÊ effective learning.
(b) What am I Assessing?

Besides assessing how much your students know in terms of knowledge or
content, attitudes and values are also important for your studentsÊ future
lives. In discovery-based learning, what is important is equipping them
with the skills and abilities they would need.
Learning is holistic and not merely about memorising.
(c) When Do I Start Assessing?

From your experience, you know that if you tell your students that there
will be an assessment at the end of the unit or lesson, your students will be
working hard towards „spotting‰ clues of what they will be tested on. They
will continuously ask you about the assessment. This will disturb the flow
of discovery-based learning where you want your students to take control
of their learning and acquire new knowledge.
Therefore, it would be better to conduct a series of continuous assessment

rather than one „bang‰ at the end.
(d) Who Will Do the Assessing?

In discovery-based learning, your students explore and solve problems to
create knowledge; they also determine how they want to carry out their
learning and use their existing knowledge to create new knowledge. Your
students take responsibility for their learning. In the same way, they should
also take responsibility to judge whether they have achieved the learning
outcomes. Because your students will be working with their team members
and other groups, their peers can also do the assessing.

LEARNING
(e) How am I Going to Assess?

There are many ways you can assess discovery-based learning. In the next
topic, you will find some approaches that can be used for both discovery-
based learning and problem-based learning (Topic 6). You might want to
consider how to modify or adapt those approaches or other approaches.
What is important is that you ensure balance and variety in the types of
assessment.
(f) Where Will the Assessment Take Place?

You want to show your students that learning can happen anywhere and
not just in schools. In the same way, assessment can take place wherever
the students are learning ă at home, online (if there is good Internet access)
and in the classroom.
(g) What Feedback Should I Give My Students?

Feedback is important to help your students improve their learning in the
future or to make improvements as they are learning.
Therefore, feedback has to be timely and often to help them learn.
The above questions and ideas are taken and adapted from MacDonald (2005).
The real challenge is to make assessment a rewarding, challenging and even

fun part of a similarly rewarding, challenging and fun learning experience! It
has to be taken seriously but that does not mean it has to be serious all the
time.
(MacDonald, 2005)
Ć Discovery-based learning involves the following:
ă Exploration and problem solving;
ă Students creating, integrating, and generalising knowledge;
ă Interest-based activities; and
ă Activities to encourage integration of new knowledge into the learnerÊs

existing knowledge base.

LEARNING
Ć Differences between discovery-based learning and traditional learning are:
ă Learning is active rather than passive;
ă Learning is process based rather than fact based;
ă Failure is important;
ă Feedback is necessary; and
ă Understanding is deeper.
Ć Learning approaches through discovery-based learning are:
ă Case-based learning;
ă Incidental learning;
ă Simulation-based learning; and
ă Exploration-based learning.
Ć Inquiry-based learning is a process of systematically answering questions

based on some form of evidence. Inquiry-based learning begins with a
question about some cause-effect relationship. Possible solutions or answers
(called hypotheses) to the questions are given, then data is collected and then
some generalisations are made about the conclusions. Finally, reflection is
done to understand the cognitive processes during inquiry better.
Case-based learning Hypotheses

Data analysis Incidental learning
Data gathering Inquiry-based learning
Data reporting Problem-solving
Discovery-based learning Simulation-based learning
Exploration-based learning Student explore
Generalising Variables

LEARNING
Arts, R. W. (2008). Traditional versus guided inquiry instruction in the

undergraduate physics laboratory. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from
http://campus.pc.edu/~rarts/physics.pdf
Bicknell-Holmes, T., & Hoffman, P. S. (2000). Elicit, engage, experience, explore:

Discovery learning in library instruction. Reference Services Review, 28(4),
313-322.
Bonwell, C. C. (1998). Active learning: Energizing the classroom. Green Mountain

Falls, CO: Active Learning Workshops.
Castillo, K. S. (n.d.). Discovery learning vs traditional instruction in the

secondary science classroom: The role of guided inquiry. Retrieved July 25,
2011, from http://www.csun.edu/~ksc63842/Posistion_paper.pdf
Castronova, J. A. (2002) Discovery learning for 21st century: What is it and how
does it compare to traditional learning in effectiveness in the 21st century.
Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://teach.valdosta.edu/are/Litreviews/
vol1no1/castronova_litr.pdf
Duffy, T., & Cunningham, D. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the design
and delivery of instruction. In D. Jonasse (Ed.), Handbook of research for
educational communications and technology (pp. 170ă195). New York, NY:
Macmillan.
and thinking skills. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Kerka, S. (2000). Incidental learning. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from

http://www.calpro-online.org/eric/docs/tia00086.pdf
Macdonald, R. (2005). Assessment strategies for enquiry and problem-based

learning. In Barrett, T., Mac Labhrainn, I., Fallon, H. (Eds.), Handbook of
enquiry & problem based learning. Galway: CELT.

LEARNING
Papert, S. (2001). Jean Piaget. Time [Online]. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from
http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/piaget.html
Teaching geography using incidental learning. (n.d.). Retrieved July 25, 2011,
from http://www.engines4ed.org/hyperbook/nodes/NODE-152-pg.html
The opportunity of incidental learning. (n.d.). Retrieved July 25, 2011, from
http://www.engines4ed.org/hyperbook/nodes/NODE-331-pg.html

Instructional
6 Strategies:
Problem-based
Learning (PBL)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define problem-based learning (PBL);
2. Identify the characteristics of problem-based learning;
3. Design problem-solving lessons that include the processes of
problem-based learning;
4. Explain how to manage the PBL environment successfully; and
5. Use assessments that measure students' understanding of the
problem-based process.
 INTRODUCTION
Take a look at the following lessons.
Lesson One
Puan Ong, a Living Skills subject teacher in Form two, is beginning a unit on
plants used in landscaping.

TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED  113
LEARNING (PBL)
As Puan Ong gives an overview of the unit, she holds up a few packets of
seeds explaining how the students would plant these to study plant growth.
One of Puan OngÊs student raises her hand and asks, „Puan Ong, why donÊt
seeds grow in the packets?‰ „Good question‰ replies Puan Ong, „That is one of
the first things we are going to find out.‰
She divides her students into groups to investigate factors that can cause seeds
to grow. Each group is given packets of different kinds of seeds together with
pots, soil, fertiliser and water. Each group is responsible for designing an
experiment to answer how plants grow, carrying out the experiment and
reporting to the whole class.
Lesson Two
A Form Four class has been studying areas and perimeters in Mathematics.
One day, Encik Johan announces that the mathematics laboratory is getting
new tiles and Encik Johan asks the studentsÊ help to find out how many tiles
they will need. The mathematics laboratory is not square or rectangle in shape.
After the students measure the laboratory, Encik Johan breaks the students into
groups and asks each group to find a strategy for finding the number of tiles
they will need.
Based on the above lessons, can you answer these questions?
(a) What characteristics do Lesson One and Lesson Two share?
(b) How do the ways the lessons are conducted contribute to learning?
(c) What roles do the students and teachers play in the lessons?
This topic will try to answer the above questions. We are going to look at how
giving students real problems to solve can help in their learning.
6.1 WHAT IS PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING

(PBL)?
Problem-based learning (PBL) means that we give our students problems to solve
that are real and meaningful. It is a teaching and learning approach that helps
develop studentsÊ skills such as problem solving, self-directed learning, teamwork
and interpersonal communication skills. Let us look at PBLÊs characteristics and
aims. This subtopic will also compare PBL with didactic teaching (where the
teacher does all the talking).

114  TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED
LEARNING (PBL)
6.1.1 Characteristics of PBL

PBL has five of the following characteristics (Arends, 2009; Slavin, 2009;
Tan, 2003; Eggen & Kauchak, 2001):
(a) The Lesson Begins with a Problem or a Question

The problems or questions are both socially and personally meaningful to
the students. The problems or questions are the starting point for students
to begin an investigation.
In Puan OngÊs class, she began with her studentÊs question, „Why donÊt
seeds grow in the packets?‰ Encik Johan used the tile problem to start his
studentsÊ investigation. Learning began when Puan Ong and Encik Johan
gave their students a problem or a question.
If Puan Ong and Encik Johan feel that their students may have difficulty in
doing the complex problem(s), an „overview‰ may be given to the students
before the start of their work.
(b) To Solve the Problem or the Question, Students Require Knowledge in

Other Subjects Too
For example, in Puan OngÊs Living Skills class, the experiment would
involve students using their knowledge in other subjects too. The seed
problem in Puan OngÊs class would require students to know about science,
biology and environmental studies.
(c) The Students are Responsible to Learn by Doing

The students in Puan Ong and Encik JohanÊs class are responsible for
investigating the problems and making inquiries. Students work in
cooperative groups (refer to Topic 4). Together as a group, they must
analyse, define the problem (or question), develop hypotheses, make
predictions (forecast), collect, analyse information, conduct experiments (if
needed) and draw conclusions. Puan Ong and Encik Johan must make sure
that the problem (or question) given to their students is not too easy that
their existing knowledge is enough to solve the problem.

LEARNING (PBL)
(d) Students in a PBL environment produce products at the end of their

experiment or investigation. The products can be in the form of a report, a
computer simulation, a video, a website, or a physical model.
In the case of Puan OngÊs class, her students will grow the seeds. In
Encik JohanÊs class, the product is the measurement for their mathematics
laboratory.
(e) In problem-based learning, Puan Ong and Encik Johan are facilitators. They
help the students indirectly by giving problems or asking helpful questions.
In summary, when using PBL (Barrows, 1988):
(a) The student is presented with a problem situation before he/she acquires
any content knowledge of the subject;
(b) Instead of getting knowledge in a vacuum without knowing how this

knowledge can be applied, the problem provides an authentic (real) context
for learning and engages the student because of its challenges, missing
details and complexities; and
(c) It is an education process that requires the student to go through the same
activities that are relevant and important in the real world.
6.1.2 Aims of PBL

PBL aims to develop studentsÊ effectiveness in different skills that will be
important for them in their future professional life. The following are some of
these aims.
(a) PBL aims to make students independent and helps in the development of
self-directed learning. Self-directed learning develops when students know
of and take control of their learning process.

LEARNING (PBL)
(b) PBL develops studentsÊ understanding and ability to investigate a problem

or a question systematically. Students participate in structured problem-
based activities, and by doing so, they learn how to solve similar problems
systematically.
(c) PBL helps students develop higher-order thinking skills and problem-
solving skills. Higher-order thinking skills are challenging to teach in
conventional teaching so to acquire higher-order thinking skills, teachers
use problem-based learning approaches.
(d) PBL helps students perform real-life situations and learn important
adult roles. Problem-based learning helps students participate in practical
activities that happen outside of school learning.
In PBL, students do most, if not all the thinking in order to arrive at the
desired outcome. They generate their own strategies to obtain the knowledge
required by the problem. They have their own strategies for problem
definition, gathering information, analysis of data, hypothesising and testing,
comparing their strategies and learning with and from each other. Working in
a group and meeting regularly to discuss and think through issues help to
reinforce learning in a community of learners as they benefit from the
collective intellect of the group.
(Summarised from Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980)
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. What are the characteristics of PBL?
2. What does PBL aim to do in student learning?

LEARNING (PBL)
6.1.3 Comparing PBL with Didactic Teaching

In PBL, the teacher is no longer the content expert and „giver‰ of knowledge. He
or she does not use didactic teaching (lecture mode). Instead, he is now a
facilitator and a coach. He will ask questions, keep students involved in the
learning process, monitor the groups and keep the learning process moving in
the right direction. The student, on the other hand, plays an active role in the
learning. The student is the problem solver and cooperates with other students in
this learning process. The students in PBL take control of their own learning; they
are no longer passive listeners. Table 6.1 shows the key differences between PBL
and traditional didactic teaching.
Table 6.1: Key Differences between PBL and Traditional Didactic Teaching
Problem-based Learning Didactic Teaching

The teacher act as a facilitator and coach. The teacher is the content expert and
The teacher will ask students about their knows all knowledge.
thinking and monitor their learning.
The mode of learning is driven by a The teacher speaks, students listen.
problem or a question.
Students take responsibility for learning The teacher directs, and students
and conduct self-directed learning with passively receive information.
the guidance of a facilitator (the teacher).
Students cooperate through interactions, The students learn alone.
discussions and peer teaching.
The outcomes of learning are the The students understand the content.
application of content and development
of skills such as problem-solving,
teamwork, emotional intelligence, time
management, research and creative/
critical thinking.
Students are assessed through various The students are assessed mainly through
means such as writing diaries, writing written tests and examinations.
journals, creating portfolios, presentations,
tests etc.
Source: Adapted from Curriculum design for PBL, Temasek Polytechnic (2006)

LEARNING (PBL)
6.2 ELEMENTS OF PROBLEM-BASED

LEARNING
When you want to adopt PBL, it is important that you know the key elements for
the design of PBL in your classroom. Figure 6.1 explains some key elements to
help guide you when you implement PBL in your classroom (summarised from
Arends, 2009; Barell, 2006; Curriculum design for PBL, 2006).
Figure 6.1: Key elements for the design of PBL in your classroom
Let us now discuss the key elements one by one.
(a) New Roles of Students

The following is the further description of new roles of students.
(i) Responsibility of Students

Students take the responsibility for determining what needs to be
learnt in order to solve a problem. Teachers give very little help to
students to solve the problem. Because they must work together to
solve the problem, through PBL, they learn to trust and take control of
their own study and research. Students in PBL must understand that
they must help each member in the group for the learning and the
application of knowledge and skills to solve a problem.

LEARNING (PBL)
(ii) Students Work Cooperatively

Because the problem or issue to solve is quite complex, it is not
possible for one student to work alone ă therefore, students will need
to work cooperatively in order to solve the problem or issue. What is
important to remember is that in PBL, we want the students to gain
new knowledge while they are trying to solve the problem. Therefore,
the problem or issue must not be too easy that the students can solve
using their existing prior knowledge. We want the students to discuss,
share and learn from each other.
(iii) Students Do Reflection

Although students work as a group, there must also be opportunities
for each student to do individual research and learning. Each student
must be allowed to develop, manage information and evaluate the
data they have found. Students should practise reflection as a group
and also do individual self-review of their learning amid the problem-
solving process.
(iv) Creating a Product

PBL requires students to construct products that explain or represent
their solutions to the problem. The product can be in the form of a
presentation, report, mind map, physical model, video, computer
program, or constructed website. These products are to show to the
other groups what was learnt.
(b) A Problem or a Question Begins the StudentsÊ Learning

When the teacher presents the problem of the question, the students will
decide for themselves what needs to be learnt or researched in order to
solve or explain the problem. Again, teachers give very little help to
students. It is up to the students to manage their own learning and arrive at
a solution to the problem. However, if the problem or question is really
difficult or complex, then the teacher can give an overview of the issues
before they start their group work.

LEARNING (PBL)
(c) Teachers Act as Facilitators

The teacher does not give answers or information unless he finds that the
students have great difficulty in understanding the problem or are unsure
how to begin.
In PBL, the teacher guides and facilitates studentsÊ learning by asking

questions. If the students ask, the teacher can provide information or the
teacher can use questioning to guide the students.
The teacher ensures that all students are involved in the group process. The
teacher needs to monitor to see that no one student dominates the group
functioning. The teacher also acts as a „housekeeper‰ ă to give out
reminders to the students about dates, manages logistics matters such as
resource use, laboratory time, computer time, library time and so on.
(d) Interdisciplinary Focus

Although a PBL problem may come from a particular subject, the actual
problem to be solved is chosen because its solution requires students to use
knowledge of many subjects.
(e) Resources to Support Learning

PBL changes the way resources are used. Besides notes and textbooks,
students will also need to find information from the library, online resources,
and interviews with people in the community. They will also need learning
resources such as audio-visual materials and videos. Laboratory access may
be required if necessary. Other classroom arrangements where tables and
chairs can be easily moved around to help group discussion may be
necessary too. Equipment like flip charts, whiteboards, and other stationery
items need to be made available to the students.

LEARNING (PBL)
6.3 PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING PROCESSES

In problem-based learning, there are a few processes that you will need to know
and do, as shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2: Seven processes in problem-based learning

Source: Adapted from Barrows (1988) and Barrows (1994)
Let us look at each of these processes in greater detail.
(a) Group Setting

The descriptions of group setting are as follows:
(i) Group members introduce themselves to each other;
(ii) Students set the ground rules to make sure that the group can work
well together. Some of the ground rules are responsibility, taking
turns to talk, everyone must contribute etc.; and
(iii) Identify the roles of students and teachers. Issues such as how much a
teacher can help the group are discussed.

LEARNING (PBL)
(b) Problem Identification

The descriptions of problem identification are as follows:
(i) The teacher presents the problem (issue/question) to the students.
(ii) As a group, students identify and clarify issues by:
Ć Listing facts;
Ć Asking questions; and
Ć Summarising the problem in their own words in order to establish

the groupÊs understanding of the problem.
(c) Idea Generation

The descriptions of idea generation are as follows:
(i) Students generate ideas (brainstorming) that can help them

understand or solve the problem;
(ii) Existing ideas and knowledge that are related to the problem are
written out;
(iii) Ideas might include hypotheses, proposals, suggestions, explanations

etc.; and
(iv) The ideas that have been created by the students can be divided into
two areas: learning issues and action plan.
(d) Learning Issues

The descriptions of learning issues are as follows:
(i) Students discuss what they need to find out in order to solve the
problem (learning issues) and develop an action plan. Students
distinguish what they know and what they do not know;
(ii) Learning issues are topics/areas which the students need to search
and study in order to solve the problem;
(iii) Action plans are steps the students want to take in order to get
information about the problem ă they arrange the steps in order of
importance; and
(iv) Tasks are divided among members. Together with the teacher, the
group discusses the type of resources that they will need and where
to find them.

LEARNING (PBL)
(e) Self-directed Learning

The descriptions of self-directed learning are as follows:
(i) Students go to suitable sources to research information from different

places (e.g. the school library, the Internet, books, interviews with
teachers and people); and
(ii) Students summarise the important information to be used later in

their discussion.
(f) Synthesis and Application

Students will come together as a group to solve the problem. At this stage,
the students:
(i) Share information with their members;
(ii) Create new knowledge and relate it to existing knowledge;
(iii) Assess the credibility and validity of the information gathered;
(iv) Discuss and justify the solutions to the problem; and
(v) Develop possible solutions, explanations or what kinds of products

they want to produce from the problem.
(g) Reflection and Feedback

The descriptions of reflection and feedback are as follows:
(i) Students evaluate how they performed the task;
(ii) Students reflect on their own individual problem-solving process; and
(iii) Students reflect on their solution and explanation of the problem.
Remember that processes (b) to (f) are done again and again. Students go back
and forth the processes in order to get to the solution. You, as a teacher, must
ensure that all these steps are conducted by your students in the PBL process.
You will realise that PBL is very different from what your students are used to.
Many students are used to the teacher-centred type of teaching. In PBL, the
learning environment is such that they must „⁄ reason, analyse, develop
learning issues, dig out information on their own, and get used to not having the
teacher tell them what is to be learned and whether they are right or wrong in
their thinking ⁄‰ (Barrows, 1994).

LEARNING (PBL)
It is, therefore, important that your students be prepared for PBL by getting
them ready with the skills such as self-directed learning, cooperative learning,
teamwork and problem-solving skills before you start a PBL project. You need to
show them and prepare them with these skills, or else they will feel lost when
they adopt their new roles when learning using PBL.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. What are the seven processes that a teacher should know before
starting a PBL lesson?
2. Explain each of the processes.
6.4 MANAGING THE PBL ENVIRONMENT

It is important for you to have a clear set of rules and routines to keep the lessons
moving smoothly and also to deal with studentsÊ behaviour issues. Guidelines on
how to manage group work needs to be applied in problem-based learning
instructions. Some of the more unique management issues for teachers using
PBL are summarised in Figure 6.3 (adapted from Arends, 2009; Barell, 2006;
Curriculum design for PBL, 2006).
Figure 6.3: Unique management issues for teachers using PBL

LEARNING (PBL)
Let us now discuss the issues in greater detail.
(a) Different Groups Doing Different Tasks

In PBL, different groups are doing different activities. Some groups might
be discussing while some are in the library and others are working in pairs.
You should have clear rules to tell the students about deadlines with each
step. You should have clear instructions about how to begin and end the
studentsÊ activities each day or period of the PBL project. You must also
monitor the progress made by each group and each student.
(b) Different Rates of Completion

Some groups may finish faster than others. You must be ready with
activities for those groups that have finished early to keep them occupied.
Most problems with PBL are the late finishers. You need to decide what to
do with groups who finish late ă do they get extra time, are they allowed to
do so after school hours, are the problems due to members not working
together?
(c) Monitoring StudentÊs Work, Materials and Equipment

PBL will generate different assignments, solutions and products and also at
different rates and times. Therefore, you need to:
(i) Ensure that the students understand what is required of them;
(ii) Monitor the studentsÊ work and provide feedback periodically; and
(iii) Maintain records of each group and student.
The PBL environment will use materials and equipment, and managing
these are important. You need to develop procedures for organising,
storing and distributing materials and equipment.

LEARNING (PBL)
6.5 ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING IN PBL

The most common assessments used in traditional assessments such as multiple-
choice tests are not able to properly assess student performance in PBL. Instead,
the use of authentic assessments is growing in importance. The term authentic
assessment is used to describe „assessment that directly measures student
performance through real-life tasks‰ (Wiggins, 1997). Examples include assessing
studentsÊ abilities to:
(a) Solve a problem;
(b) Conduct an inquiry investigation; and
(c) Work cooperatively in a group to solve a problem-based case.
Let us look at some common authentic assessments (adapted from Eggen &
Kauchak, 2001; Curriculum design for PBL, 2006; Macdonald, 2005)
(a) Performance Assessments

Performance assessments are tasks in which students are required to
demonstrate their level of competence or knowledge by creating a product
or a response. Performance assessment started from science subjects where
students are required to show a skill in a hands-on situation instead of
giving correct answers in a test.
For example, Puan Hamidah, a secondary school teacher, finds that her
students are not able to apply scientific information to everyday events. In
her attempt to improve her studentsÊ application of scientific information,
she focuses on everyday happenings/problems (for example: why does an
ice-cube float in one cup of clear liquid and but sink in another liquid?) that
her students must solve in groups and discuss as a class.

LEARNING (PBL)
Then on another day, she presents another problem (for example: why do
two clear liquids of the same volume, do not have the same weight?), and
the students again solve it in groups and discuss as a class.
How does Puan Hamidah assess her students when they are working?
Puan Hamidah will walk among her students, taking notes that she will use
for assessment and feedback.
Performance assessments allow Puan Hamidah to assess her studentsÊ work

while they are engaged in realistic problem-solving situations.
(b) Systematic Observation Using Criteria

Systematic observation requires teachers to specify the criteria they are
assessing. By using systematic observation, the teachers are able to assess
studentsÊ strengths and weaknesses and provide feedback while the
students are doing authentic learning activities. Two examples are shown
as follows.
Example 1:
Puan Hamidah wants to know if her students are using scientific problem
solving. She may write the following criteria:
Students are able to:
(i) State problems or questions;
(ii) State hypotheses;
(iii) Describe the way data will be collected;
(iv) Categorise and display data; and
(v) Evaluate hypotheses based on the data.

LEARNING (PBL)
Example 2:
Mr Wong, an English teacher, created the following criteria to assess his
studentsÊ communication skills, as shown in Table 6.2:
Table 6.2: Criteria to Assess StudentsÊ Communication Skills
Criteria Good Average Poor

Communication Language is plain Language is Incorrect use of
language use and short forms unnecessarily terms.
are avoided. complex. Some short
forms are used.
Clarity Language is clear. Language is clear in Language is
some parts. almost always
not clear.
Facts and Fact and opinion Fact and opinion are Only opinion is
Opinion are clearly given. not clearly given. given.
(c) Checklists and Rating Scales

Checklists are written descriptions of dimensions that must be present in an
acceptable performance. When checklists are used, the performances are
„ticked off‰ and not described as words.
Rating scales are written descriptions of dimensions and contain scales of

values on which each dimension is rated.
Examples of a checklist and rating scales are shown in Table 6.3 and
Table 6.4.
Table 6.3: Example of a Checklist
DIRECTIONS: Place a check in the underlined space for each step performed
1. Writes problems at the top of the report

2. Writes in a clear and easily understood language
3. Data is well collected and relevant to the problem
4. Presents data in a chart
5. Titles are written in the chart
6. Conclusion is consistent with the data in the chart

LEARNING (PBL)
Table 6.4: Example of a Rating Scale and the Meaning of Each Numerical Score
DIRECTIONS: Rate each of the following items by circling 4 for an excellent

performance; 3 for a good performance; 2 for fair; 1 for poor and 0 for no
performance
4 3 2 1 0 1. Writes problems at the top of the report

4 3 2 1 0 2. Writes in a clear and easily understood language
4 3 2 1 0 3. Data is well collected and relevant to the problem
4 3 2 1 0 4. Presents data in a chart
4 3 2 1 0 5. Titles are written in the charts
4 3 2 1 0 6. Conclusion is consistent with the data in the chart
(d) Assessing Group Effort

Topic 4 on cooperative learning described assessment procedures used to
assess and reward students for both individual and group work. These
methods can also be used for problem-based learning.
(e) Other methods of assessing learning in PBL are shown in Table 6.5 (taken
from Macdonald, 2005).
Table 6.5: Methods of Assessing Learning in PBL
Methods Description
Individual presentations  Students are asked to present the components of
work they have researched for their contribution
to the overall solution or management of the
problem.
Tripartite assessment  Firstly, the group submits a report for which
they receive a mark. Secondly, the individual
submits the piece of work they researched.
Finally, the individual writes an account of the
group process that is linked to the work of the
group. These three components are added
together to form the overall individual mark.
 The advantage of this is that it does not
privilege some students who do less work while
an individual student will be responsible for
gaining two-thirds of the marks.
 Most students perceive this kind of grading as
fair.

LEARNING (PBL)
Case-based individual  The student is presented with a case scenario

essay that they respond to in the form of an essay or
report.
Case-based care plan  Students are presented with a real-life scenario
based on clinical to solve or manage for a client (or a fictitious
practice/client-led project client).
Portfolios  Students should also be required to draw out
conclusions and synthesise the materials
contained in the portfolio.
Triple jump  Individual students are presented with a
problem and expected to discuss the problem
and their learning needs with an oral examiner.
Students then locate research materials and later
discuss their findings with the examiner. They
are rated on problem-solving skills, self-directed
learning skills and knowledge of the problem
area.
Self-assessment  Self-assessment allows students to think more
carefully about what they know and do not
know, and what they additionally need to know
to accomplish certain tasks.
Peer assessment and  This kind of assessment emphasises the
feedback cooperative nature of the enquiry and PBL
environment.
Reflective journals  Students hand them in or post them online each
week and receive a mark at the end of each
term.
Reports  Written communication is an important skill for
students to acquire. Requiring written reports
allows students to practise this form of
communication and can promote critical
thinking.

LEARNING (PBL)
ACTIVITY 6.1
1. The previous assessment methods for PBL are not exhaustive! You
may already be using PBL assessment methods but are unaware
of it. Can you suggest other types of assessment that are suitable
for PBL? Explain.
2. Examine the following list of objectives and describe a problem

that would allow the objectives to be met using PBL.
(a) A music teacher wants students to understand the reasons

that some sounds are considered music and other are
considered noise.
(b) A teacher of literature wants to study how traditions are

related to literature.
(c) A history teacher wants students to know the factors

affecting the decision to drop the first atomic bomb on
Hiroshima.
(d) A history teacher wants students to understand the factors

that resulted in the independence of Malaysia.
(e) A science teacher wants students to understand that objects

will float on a fluid if they are less dense than the fluid.
(f) An art teacher wants students to understand the factors that

will affect the price a painting.
3. Identify at least two areas in the subject you are teaching that can
use PBL learning. Identify at least two areas in which you will find
it difficult to implement PBL activities. Explain why.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using PBL?
Share all your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online
forum.

LEARNING (PBL)
SELF-CHECK 6.3
1. What are some of the class management issues that may arise
when conducting a PBL class?
2. What do you understand by „authentic assessment‰?
3. Why are some of common assessment methods used in traditional

assessments (such as multiple-choice tests) not able to properly
assess student performance in PBL?
Ć Problem-based learning is designed to teach students how to pursue

problems systematically; thus developing independent learners.
Ć In PBL, teachers present problem situations to students and get them to

investigate and find solutions on their own.
Ć PBL helps students develop investigative and problem-solving skills. It also

gives students an opportunity to experience „adult-type‰ roles, and it allows
them to think and become self-directed learners.
Ć Problem-based learning has seven sequential steps. In the first, students set
up their groups. In the second step, students identify the problem. The third
step is to generate ideas which would lead to discussions on the learning
issues and then deciding on an action plan (step four). In the final three steps,
students conduct research and apply it to the problem, evaluate the results,
and analyse the process.
Ć Students in PBL classrooms are actively involved in their learning, and the
environment provides a measure of intellectual freedom.
Ć Authentic assessments are especially useful in evaluating problem-based

learning because they provide teachers with ways of assessing studentsÊ
learning processes. Performance assessments, systematic observation using
criteria, checklists and rating scales provide both the teachers with
informative feedback about the learning progress.

LEARNING (PBL)
Ć Other methods of assessing learning in PBL includes individual

presentations, tripartite assessments, case-based individual essays, case-
based care plans based in clinical practice/client-led projects, portfolios,
triple jumps, self-assessments, peer assessment and feedback, reflective
journals and reports.
Authentic assessments Problem identification

Didactic teaching Rating scales
Group setting Real-life situations
Higher-order thinking skills Reflection and feedback
Idea generation Self-directed learning
Learning issues Synthesis and application
Performance assessments Systematic observation checklist
Problem-based learning (PBL)
Barell, J. (2006). Problem-based learning: An inquiry approach (2nd ed.).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Barrows, H. S. (1988). The tutorial process. Springfield, IL: Southern Illinois

University of School of Medicine.
Barrows, H. S. (1994). Practice-based learning: Problem-based learning applied to

medical education. Springfield, IL: Southern Illinois, University School of
Medicine.
Barrows, H. S., & Tamblyn, R. (1980). Problem-based learning: An approach to

medical education. New York, NY: Springer.

LEARNING (PBL)
Curriculum Design for PBL. (2006). Temasek Polytechnic Learning Academy.
Macdonald, R. (2005). Assessment strategies for enquiry and problem-based

learning. In Barrett, T., Mac Labhrainn, I., & Fallon, H. (Eds.), Handbook of
enquiry & problem based learning. Galway, Ireland: CELT. Released under
Creative Commons licence. Attribution Non-Commercial 2.0. Some rights
reserved.

Tan, O. S. (2003). Problem-based learning innovation: Using problems to power

learning in the 21st century. Singapore: Thomson Learning.
Wiggins, G. (1997). Creating a thought-provoking curriculum. American

Educator, 11, 10ă17.

Topic  Teaching and
Learning with
7 ICT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. List the advantages of using ICT in teaching and learning;
2. Describe the varying roles of ICT in teaching and learning;
3. Explain the use of generic software for learning; and
4. Discuss recent developments in ICT-enhanced learning.
 INTRODUCTION
Governments and education systems around the world take the use of
information and communications technology (ICT) in schools very seriously.
Malaysia, like many other countries, is encouraging the use of ICT as tools for
teaching to support learning (Education Ministry, 1997; Tengku Shahdan, 1994).
As you can see in most schools, there will always be a special computer room
with many standalone computers. As teachers, you must know how they can
relate to your teaching and learning. You need to be concerned about the role
computers can play to make learning happen. However, the computer is just one
of the tools of ICT. Many other ICT tools can help make teaching and learning
happen.

136  TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT
Besides computers, some ICT tools that you may be familiar with for teaching
and learning include:
(a) Interactive whiteboards;
(b) Drawing tablets (or smart tablets);
(c) Web cameras;
(d) Digital cameras;
(e) Video cameras;
(f) LCD projectors;
(g) iPads; and
(h) iPods.
Nowadays, most schools in Malaysia have also experimented with networked

ICT or SchoolNet. SchoolNet provides secure Internet access to schools in
Malaysia. With SchoolNet, high-quality broadband services can be available in
both city and rural schools. SchoolNet enables you to access to the World Wide
Web (www) through several Internet and Intranet (the schoolÊs private website)
applications.
Teachers try to look for directions in which teaching and learning can change
with the appropriate use of ICT. Teachers will need to build learning
environments with the use of ICT and think of the ways students can learn in
such an environment.
This topic will look at the use of ICT tools in schools and how teachers can
support the processes of learning and teaching. The topic describes how you can
facilitate student use of ICT tools and how your students can progress.

TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT  137
7.1 THE USE OF ICT IN TEACHING AND

LEARNING
Gregoire, Bracewell and Lafarriere (1996) as taken from John (2002) gave the
following reasons why ICT is beneficial to student learning as shown in
Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1: Four reasons why ICT tools are beneficial to student learning
However, John (2002) warns that the success of using ICT in schools for student
learning also depends on the technological skills of the teacher and the teachersÊ
attitude to using technology. Students also need learning that is efficient and
enjoyable, in a supportive environment (Laurillard, 1993). The following are
suggestions given by Laurillard:
(a) ICT must be well-matched to learning objectives;
(b) Active learning through ICT should be supported through feedback;
(c) Appropriate balance must be achieved between ICT use and traditional
teaching; and
(d) Methods are matched to available resources (time, place, equipment).

It is important for you to know that the efficiency and enjoyment of your
studentsÊ learning will be increased if:
(a) ICT use fits the learning objectives; and
(b) The choice of teaching methods for ICT use is well-matched to logistics
such as time or place constraints, access to equipment, and so on
(Laurillard, 1993).
It would not be good teaching methodology, for example, to teach everything

using ICT methods!
The above is just some advice and direction you may need to consider if you
want to succeed in the use of ICT. It is about building a learning environment
and knowing the various roles and uses of ICT in teaching and learning.
Some important questions to help you towards building a learning environment

are shown in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2: Important questions towards building a learning environment using ICT
The following subtopics will try to answer the above questions in greater detail.

7.2 VARYING ROLES OF ICT IN TEACHING

AND LEARNING
Let us look at the roles of ICT in teaching and learning.
7.2.1 Planning Tool

You can use ICT as a planning tool for teaching and learning. Planning tools
would help you to do the following:
(a) Prepare your teaching plans by using Microsoft Word, and you can make
amendments whenever you like;
(b) Prepare handouts for the classroom. Many software applications enable
you to create and design interesting handouts and reproduce them when
needed;
(c) Store and categorise information and resources for future use. All resources
can be saved in a hard-disc or USB memory stick. This can reduce storage
space, and you can retrieve your resources quickly; and
(d) Share your lesson plans with other teachers. By typing and installing the
information in the computer, you can share this information by sending it
via email.
7.2.2 Instructional Tool

When you use ICT in a classroom, a constructivist learning environment can be
created. A constructivist learning environment is a place in which you and your
students together and support each other in the use of different ICT tools to get
information.

Using ICT as a tool may create fun and enthusiasm in your students. Students
may find that learning is not boring or frustrating. Using ICT in instruction can
be:
(a) Naturally linked to other areas of learning such as writing, language and
reading;
(b) Both an individual and a shared experience;
(c) An interactive experience; and
(d) Challenging and fun.
What you need to do when using ICT in your teaching and learning are as
follows:
(a) Determine areas of the subject where ICT is applicable.
Find software, websites and other ICT tools. Do some research on the
usability of the ICT method that you have chosen.
(b) Identify the computer software and any support materials that will match
your studentsÊ needs and the curriculum you have chosen.
Select CDs with interactive lessons and projects for students to solve
problems. Find out if the ICT tool that you have selected has an added
benefit such as websites offering online lessons that your students can use
during their free time.
(c) Install the relevant software and programs on your studentsÊ computers.
Help your students get used to the software or program installed. Ensure
that the software is matched to a specific role or task that your students will
need to do.
(d) Choose a specific skill that you would like your students to do. Match the
skill with the software, and design a set of activities.
(e) Use online games (if available) to expose your students to a wide series of
topics. Display the online games on an interactive whiteboard and save
website links to studentsÊ computers.

ACTIVITY 7.1
The possibilities are very wide and your imagination has no limits
when it comes to creating activities using ICT with your instructions!
Can you suggest some activities using ICT for different subject areas?
Share them with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.
7.2.3 Enhance Communication and Promote Creativity

Social media is an important ICT technology for communication, especially to
students. It has the ability to attract students, encourage interaction and promote
creativity.
What is social media? It is basically a way for students to talk, participate, share
and network online. So how can a teacher use social media in teaching and
learning? Let us take a look at three popular social media and their uses in
teaching and learning as shown in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3: Three popular social media in teaching and learning

Let us look at each one of them.
(a) Facebook
The social networking site that began in 2004 has now become a familiar
website and is famous all over the world (see Figure 7.4).
Figure 7.4: Facebook
With Facebook, you can connect into a community to interact with others.
Although one of the uses of Facebook is to connect with friends and send
messages, it can also provide an attractive platform for teaching and
learning as it has many interesting applications. Some of the applications
are shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Some of the Applications in Facebook
Applications Description
Facebook Share Ć With Facebook Share, students can share information in
the form of short texts (or short notes), links, images, and
videos with their friends. You can use Facebook Share to
interact, discuss and share ideas on a topic, a picture or
video with the students.
Ć Students who are shy will feel more comfortable writing
and sharing.

Facebook Quiz Ć You can create online quizzes and ask your students to
answer the quiz questions. What is more interesting is
that the results of the quiz will be published on every
Facebook „timeline‰ and the students can receive their
grades immediately.
Facebook Note Ć This application provides a space for you and your
students to discuss a particular topic. Facebook Note
allows you to publish your discussion topics and you can
„tag‰ all the students to enable direct interaction.
Facebook Ć Facebook Application allows you to use virtual
Application educational games. One example of a virtual game
that is often played is „Geo Challenge‰. It is a game to
test studentsÊ application of geographical knowledge.
Students can also compare their scores with friends. This
game also has a „grade‰ or level of achievement for a
score.
Ć As a teacher you can select any game that is appropriate
for your students. Facebook Application also allows you
to change its contents so that it is appropriate for your
studentsÊ ages and abilities.
(b) Blog
One social media development that began implementing teaching and
learning processes is the use of the blog as a means to move regular
classroom activities to cyberspace (see Figure 7.5).
Figure 7.5: An example of a blog site

The blog can be an interesting teaching technique in which students can

write their learning activities and produce their work in journals. The
following are some of the benefits of using blogs in teaching and learning
(Wagner, 2003):
(i) Blogs contribute to improvements in learning;
(ii) Students can share their results with others;
(iii) Students can focus on content;
(iv) Students can learn about creatively creating web pages;
(v) Blogs encourage critical thinking;
(vi) Students write a blog and it encourages group work; and
(vii) Teachers can monitor the discussions in the blogs.
(c) E-forum
E-forum involves an online dialogue between you and your students
through the Internet. You will post some questions in the e-forum and your
students will respond to the questions on the Internet.
The following are some of the benefits of using e-forums in teaching and
learning (Marra, Moore & Klimczak, 2004):
(i) Encourages students to think; and
(ii) Increases the level of social relationships between students.
Several important objectives to consider when integrating social media

(Facebook, blog and e-forum) in your teaching and learning are to:
(i) Improve communication skills among students;
(ii) Facilitate cooperative and collaborative learning among students;
(iii) Develop and expand the community;
(iv) Foster a sense of responsibility; and
(v) Use new media technology that goes beyond their social functions.

ACTIVITY 7.2
How can you incorporate social media into teaching and learning?
Suggest a few activities in the myINSPIRE online forum.
7.2.4 Assessment Tool

The use of ICT increases the efficiency with which data can be processed. An
important use of ICT is for assessment purposes.
Have you heard of an e-portfolio or digital portfolio?
E-portfolio or digital portfolio is a collection of a studentÊs work stored

electronically and managed by him/her. Teachers or students can install e-files,
images, e-assignments for current or future use. Through the SchoolNet,
information saved in the e-portfolio can be accessed anytime. As a teacher, you
can limit degrees of access by having personal passwords and usernames. You
can upload your assignment onto the studentsÊ e-portfolio and conduct the
assessment anywhere you like. You avoid carrying studentÊs homework in the
form of bulky books.
By introducing the e-portfolio or digital portfolio, students can also continually

update and reflect on what they have done. Through the digital portfolio, you
can see your studentsÊ growth over time and also monitor their ability to evaluate
their own learning.
Another use of ICT for assessment purpose is to keep and track studentsÊ records
and performances. You can use ICT to record and track studentsÊ progress, use it
for online assessment, or have websites to assess studentsÊ performances. Besides
that, you can store the information in handy devices such as a pen drive which
can be carried easily.
There are many free and open-source e-portfolios online. You can search for one
that is most convenient and easiest for you and your students to use.

SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. Name some uses of ICT in teaching and learning.

2. How can ICT be used in teaching and learning?
3. What are some of the more popular social media in use today?
4. What are the factors to consider when setting up ICT for
assessment?
5. How does assessment using ICT differ from the conventional
ways of assessing?
7.3 THE USE OF GENERIC SOFTWARE FOR

LEARNING
Let us better understand some of the uses for the popular generic software you
see today.
7.3.1 Generic Software

You can immediately use ICT with some of the generic software available now.
What is generic software? Generic software is general purpose software
programs you can buy „off the shelf‰. Some of the generic software commonly
used to support learning are shown in Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.6: Examples of generic software commonly used to support learning

Let us now discuss them in greater detail.
(a) Word Processing

Perhaps no other technology resource has had as great an impact on
education as word processing. It offers many features in the process of
teaching and learning.
Word processing software allows:
(i) You to create „what-you-see-is-what-you-get‰ documents with text

and graphics;
(ii) Your students to organise or order text information into appropriate

sequences using the organise and sort facility;
(iii) Your students to carry out writing activities where their work can be
easily edited by the teacher to their peers; and
(iv) You to create notes for yourself or your students that are linked to the
Internet using the softwareÊs hyperlink facility.
Perhaps the most popular generic word processing software is Microsoft

Word. However, you can also use the free Google Docs to do word
processing. Figure 7.7 is how a free Google Docs word document looks like.
Figure 7.7: Google Docs document

(b) Presentation
Presentation software can deliver text, graphics, videos and sound.
Presentation software allows students to prepare their work in the form of
presentation slides. This enables them to present their work to the teacher
and their peers. Presentation software is also useful in creating handouts or
materials for presentations, notes, reports, forms, flyers, or newsletters.
Perhaps the most popular generic presentation software is Microsoft

PowerPoint. However, you can also use the free Google Docs to do
presentations. Figure 7.8 shows how a free Google Docs presentation looks
like.
Figure 7.8: Google Docs presentation
(c) Spreadsheet
Spreadsheets, also called worksheets, enable you to handle numerical data
such as studentsÊ marks and transfer them to categorical grades. All the
information in a spreadsheet is displayed in rows and columns. You can
insert formulas or calculation commands for counting studentsÊ marks, and
most of the calculating processes can be done in minutes. Each row-column
position is called a cell. Words, numerical values or character data can be
inserted in the spreadsheet. Figure 7.9 shows an example of using a
spreadsheet for counting studentsÊ marks.

Figure 7.9: Sample spreadsheet of students marks
Students can use the spreadsheet software to calculate formulae (for

example, in mathematics and science subjects). It can also be used to write
final laboratory experiments as an e-portfolio. The spreadsheet also has a
powerful graphical demonstration of „what-if‰ analyses which can be used
in accounting, economics and business subjects.
Perhaps the most popular generic spreadsheet software is Microsoft Excel.

However, you can also use the free Google Docs from Google to do
spreadsheets. Figure 7.10 is how a free Google Docs spreadsheet looks like.
Figure 7.10: Google Docs spreadsheet

(d) Database
A database allows you to store, organise and manipulate information,
including text and numerical data. Some of its uses are to keep the
information up to date, manage projects, prepare online assessments or to
get students to respond to prepared questions. Perhaps the most popular
generic database software is Microsoft Access. Currently, Google Docs does
not have a free database software.
7.3.2 Integrating the Generic Software

Several ways in which the four popular generic software discussed in
subtopic 7.3.1 can be used are shown in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Some Ways to Use Popular Generic Software
Ways to Use Popular

Description
Generic Software
Using information Download information using the schoolÊs Internet
resources, then use the spreadsheet or database software to
analyse the information; or use the word-processing
software to record and organise the information.
Presenting information Use the database or spreadsheet software to create charts,
then use the presentation software to create „shows‰
together with video and audio equipment to produce a
lesson (in the case of a teacher) or a presentation project
(in the case of a student); then use some form of social
media to share information.
Evaluation Use word-processing software to edit work, then use some
forms of social media to discuss and share work.
Source: Brown (2010)
7.3.3 Benefits of Generic Software

Generic software has become very common in the day-to-day teaching and
learning activities of teachers who are keen to create an interesting and engaging
classroom environment. The software also has the potential to allow teachers and
students to make more productive use of their time and also to shape and guide
the kinds of activities they are able to undertake.

In general, these programs offer several benefits such as improved productivity,

improved appearance, improved accuracy and greater interaction and collaboration
(Robert, 2010). Let us look at the benefits in greater detail as shown in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3: The Benefits of Generic Software
Benefits Description
Improved productivity  Getting organised, producing teaching and learning
materials, and accomplishing paperwork tasks all go
much faster when software tools are used.
 Using computer-related software to do these tasks can
free up valuable time that can be re-channelled towards
working with students or designing learning activities.
Improved appearance  By having and using these tools in learning, students or
teachers are able to produce much better and innovative
activities which can make the classroom „alive‰ and
more interesting. Students will also be more motivated
when producing and having attractive-looking materials.
Improved accuracy  More accurate data and resources can be stored, and it is
easier to keep correct, accurate records of events and
student accomplishments.
Greater interaction and  The use of the generic software can encourage positive
collaboration interaction and collaboration among students, thus
creating cooperative group learning activities.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
1. Name some uses of generic software.
2. What are the benefits of generic software?
ACTIVITY 7.3
1. Besides the four generic software tools, what other software do
you think are very useful for the subject(s) that you are teaching in
school?
2. Why do you think it helps?

7.4 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN

ICT-ENHANCED LEARNING
The term ICT-enhanced learning has become part of everyday language and is
used in schools just like television and radio that were once used as teaching and
learning tools. The Internet, e-mail, social media, the smartphone, CD-ROM,
DVD, and other hand-held personal devices are also used as part of teaching and
learning.
However, there are more recent developments and new inventions in the ever-
growing ICT-enhanced learning environment to assist students to learn more
effectively.
It must be noted that ICT tools for learning are growing so fast that it is difficult
for us to know all of them. However, let us look at some of the more recent
developments in the ICT-enhanced learning field.
7.4.1 EDUWEBTV
EduWebTV offers some unique features to enhance teaching and learning.
The Malaysian Education Ministry introduced EduWebTV in 2008. EduWebTV is

an interactive education portal using video in the teaching and learning process.
EduWebTV was introduced to try to reduce the digital divide between city
and rural schools. The slogan for EduWebTV is „Digital Education For All‰.
EduWebTVÊs vision is in line with the development of the teaching and learning
process which is based on creative information and communications technology,
which is a main focus of the Education Ministry.
How does it work? In EduWebTV, educational programs are broadcast live

directly via SchoolNet with the help of ICT-related equipment. The concept in
EduWebTV is that the programs are always renewed from time to time to ensure
they are up to date with the latest information. All programs also come with sign
language for students with hearing difficulties. In EduWebTV, students can
replay the video as many times as they want. This will help increase the studentsÊ
mastery of a certain topic or content.

7.4.2 Interactive Whiteboard (IWB)

The interactive whiteboard is the multi-touch, multi-user interactive learning
board that allows groups of students to work at the same time on its surface. It is
a board that is linked to a computer or laptop and allows images from the
computer or laptop to be projected clearly on the board via a projector.
The board is an interactive device, and you can touch and navigate it on the
board like working with a computer and mouse. Figure 7.11 shows what an
interactive whiteboard looks like.
Figure 7.11: Interactive whiteboard
If your school has an interactive whiteboard, it can be used to replace your

whiteboard or blackboard. You can also connect the board to your schoolÊs
audio-video systems such as DVD player and TV. It can also be connected to
your schoolÊs Internet access and to project EduWebTV programs.
Through the interactive board, you can do the following:
(a) Respond to a broad range of learning styles to create different collaborative

activities either for whole class learning, small group learning or individual
learning

(b) Use the interactive board features when you are planning to differentiate
your teaching process or to create different activities for students who are
quicker to learn and those who are slower to understand;
(c) Preview and respond to the activities on your computer at the same time as
your students are doing those activities; and
(d) Choose to project your studentsÊ work on the board for others to see.
Students can share ideas in a visually creative way, which will encourage
cooperative and collaborative communication.
7.4.3 Web-based Software Tools

There are software tools that are now available through the Internet, and many
are free of charge. As mentioned, Google Docs provides users access to online
programs for word processing, presentation and spreadsheets. The site offers
easy storage and sorting of documents online and allows for sharing of
documents among many users.
A website that provides freely available tools for teachers is OpenOffice.org. It

provides you with free access to software that you can download and use on the
local computer. There are many templates that can help you create interactive
and creative lessons for your students. You do not need to spend time to design
it. You only need to change the contents of the lesson. Interactive buttons are
ready for you to use.
ACTIVITY 7.4
1. Do you think teaching with ICT-related equipment or tools could
have a positive impact on childrenÊs engagement, retention,
interest and motivation in learning? How?
2. Would you encourage your colleagues to be involved in integrating

IWBs in teaching and learning for young learners? How?
3. Do you have any extra knowledge and experiences that could be

guidelines for novice teachers in teaching and learning with ICT?
Explain.
forum.

 Integrating ICT in classroom teaching for all levels has become more
important and crucial nowadays.
Ć The use of ICT in teaching and learning creates an interesting and creative
classroom environment.
Ć Using ICT as a tool may create fun and enthusiasm in your students.
Ć Generic software if used appropriately can enhance and motivate students in

their learning.
Ć The use of ICT in teaching and learning is more likely to occur when teachers
are able to appreciate that interactivity requires new ways of integrating ICT.
Ć EduWebTv and IWBs are more recent developments in the ever-growing

ICT-enhanced learning environment to assist students to learn more
effectively.
Ć Using ICT-related tools for teaching and learning offers several benefits such
as improved productivity, improved appearance, improved accuracy and
greater interaction and collaboration.
Ć It is important for teachers to know that efficiency in the teaching process and
enjoyment of student learning will be enhanced if ICT use fits the learning
objectives and learning outcomes.
Database Interactive whiteboard

Digital presentation Learning objectives
Educational technology Pedagogical
EduWebTv Social media
Engagement Spreadsheet
Generic software Teaching and learning
Information computer technology Video cameras
Intellectual skills Word processing

John, P. (2002, 12ă14 September). Teaching and learning with ICT: New
technology, new pedagogy? Paper presented at the BERA Conference,
University of Exeter, UK.
Laurillard, D. M. (1993). Rethinking university teaching: A Framework for the

effective use of educational technology. London, England: Routledge.
Ministry of Education. (1997). Smart school flagship application: The Malaysian

smart school ă A conceptual blueprint. Putrajaya, Malaysia: Government of
Malaysia.
Marra, R. M., Moore, J. L., & Klimczak, A. K. (2004). Content analysis of online
discussion forums: A comparative analysis of protocols. Educational
Technology Research and Development, 52(2), 23ă40.
Robert, M. D. (2010). Integrating educational technology into teaching (5th ed.).

Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Tengku Shahdan. (1994). The implementation of a national computer education

project in secondary schools in Malaysia: TeachersÊ perceptions. Athens,
GA: University of Georgia.
Wagner, C. (2003). Put another blog on the wire: Publishing learning logs as
blogs. Journal of Information Systems Education, 14(2), 131ă132.

Topic  BloomÊs
Taxonomy and
8 Its Application
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State the three learning domains in BloomÊs Taxonomy;
2. State the six levels of cognition in BloomÊs Taxonomy;
3. Explain the levels of affective and psychomotor domain in BloomÊs
Taxonomy;
4. Describe the application of BloomÊs Taxonomy in writing learning
outcomes; and
5. Describe the application of BloomÊs Taxonomy in assessment of
learning.
 INTRODUCTION
As teachers, we are constantly faced with basic questions such as „How do I
improve my studentsÊ thinking and learning?‰ and „When do I know when
thinking and learning have occurred?‰ These questions are not new. Benjamin S.
Bloom had the same questions six decades ago.

158  TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION
Bloom started his distinguished career at the University of Chicago in the United
States in the early 1940s. During his time at the university, he extensively studied
the nature of thinking. He wanted to improve student learning to encompass
learning that is planned and measured properly. He wanted students to develop
„mastery‰ in their learning and not through memorisation of facts for mindless
recall. With these aims in mind, he and his colleagues set out to develop a system
to classify thinking behaviours which can be used to help the learning processes
and also in the assessment of learning. This was known as the domains of
learning. Bloom and his colleagues named their domains of learning as the
taxonomy of learning (taxonomy is defined as a hierarchical mechanism to
classify and show relationships among things).
BloomÊs taxonomy of learning is collectively made up of the cognitive, affective

and psychomotor domains. According to Anderson and Sosniak (1994), BloomÊs
Taxonomy:
„⁄ has been transformed into a basic reference for all educators worldwide.
Unexpectedly, it has been used by curriculum planners, administrators,
researchers, and classroom teachers at all levels of education‰ (p. 1).
BloomÊs Taxonomy has also been translated into 22 languages and is one of the
most applied, used and cited references in education. It also serves as a template
for evaluation (Anderson & Sosniak, 1994).
You have just read terms like „taxonomy,‰ „domain,‰ „cognitive domain,‰
„affective domain,‰ and „psychomotor domain‰. If you are a little confused,
do not worry! The following subtopics will provide more detailed descriptions of
all these terms and the three learning domains in BloomÊs Taxonomy followed
by the application of BloomÊs Taxonomy in the classrooms.
What is a Taxonomy?
Taxonomy classifies and shows relationships
between information in a multilevel hierarchy. For
example, a food pyramid is an example of a food
taxonomy designed to help people make healthy
food choices.

TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION  159
8.1 THREE LEARNING DOMAINS IN BLOOM’S

TAXONOMY
Although we have different ways to help our students learn, todayÊs teachers
also need to have knowledge of how BloomÊs Taxonomy of learning can further
help students develop and expand their learning.
Bloom divided his learning domains into the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains. The three learning domains provide you with a structure
for planning, assessing, and evaluating your studentsÊ learning effectiveness.
Also, the three learning domains can also be used as a sort of checklist to ensure
that your teaching is planned to deliver all the necessary development for your
students. Your checklist can also be used to ensure that you cover your entire
curriculum well.
Now, let us look at one of the most easily understood and probably the most
widely applied and used taxonomy in education.
8.1.1 Descriptions of the Three Learning Domains

The three domains of learning can be categorised as cognitive domain, affective
domain and psychomotor domain, as shown in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Three domains of learning
Let us look at each of these domains in greater detail.
(a) Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain involves studentsÊ ability to think or process what
they have learnt. It is about studentsÊ intellectual abilities. It is mainly
concerned with the subject matter and the content that students are
expected to learn.

The studentsÊ ability to think or process can range from simple

memorisation of information or data to complex production and creation
of new ideas. The learning behaviours are characterised by observable
skills such as understanding information, organising ideas or evaluating
information and actions. It is mind based.
(b) Affective Domain

What students learn are not always mind-based or intellectual skills. The
affective domain focuses on the development of studentsÊ attitudes, beliefs,
values, interests and motivation. It is about how students gain new
perceptions such as self-confidence, responsibility, respect and personal
relations.
Remember that as teachers, you must be concerned about the total

development of your students and not just the development of their
cognitive ability (intellectual ability). Therefore, you must also consider
your studentsÊ attitudes, feelings and emotions when you plan your
teaching. The affective domain can help you do this planning.
(c) Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain focuses on building the physical skills which
involve activities that require action, muscle movement or manipulative
skills.
The areas that use a lot of the psychomotor domain are physical education
(sports, games), dancing, reading and writing, conducting experiments,
training, playing musical instruments, and art and crafts. Abilities such as
engine repairing, cooking, choreographing a dance movement, kicking a
football ă all require action, muscle movement and manipulative skills.
You will realise that most learning in the classroom will contain elements of all
three learning domains. However, since students spend most of their time
learning in the cognitive domain, the next subtopic will look into this in greater
detail.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
Name and describe the domains of learning in BloomÊs Taxonomy.

ACTIVITY 8.1
Think of some experiences during your own learning. What did your
teachers do to really make you believe in what they were teaching?
How did they try to change your attitudes and beliefs about a topic?
Keep those experiences in mind as you continue through this topic.
8.2 SIX LEVELS OF COGNITION IN BLOOM’S

TAXONOMY
The cognitive domain consists of six main levels as shown in Figure 8.2. Each
subsequent level shows a higher level of intellectual process. The first level must
be mastered before the next one can take place.
Figure 8.2: The six levels of cognition
Let us now discuss the levels in greater detail.
(a) Level 1: Knowledge

Knowledge involves the recall of data or information that your students
have memorised. It is your studentsÊ ability to state the facts, words, terms,
designs, methods and theories that have been studied. Knowledge is the
lowest level of the intellectual processes.
Your students know things through the use of their senses: to see, hear,
smell, touch and taste something that is around them. They get information
from various sources: listening to you explaining things, watching
something, reading books, watching TV, tasting food, and doing work.
Many of them know.

To help the review and explanation of „what‰ your students know,

knowledge can be divided into several categories. Brief descriptions of the
categories can be found in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Knowledge and Its Categories
Knowledge Category
Factual knowledge Ć Know the name of the person, the name of the
place, date, size etc.
Knowledge of terminology Ć Know the meaning of a term or a word.
Knowledge of ways and Ć Know the way or method to do something;
means of dealing with know how to manage things.
specifics
Knowledge of conventions Ć Know the norms or „acceptable‰ ways to do
things such as how to speak and give opinions
that are considered appropriate in a situation
(event, place, time, etc.).
 To work in an office, for example, workers need
to know how to speak politely, dress
appropriately, and be punctual.
Knowledge of trends and Ć Know the process, direction, and change of
sequences something over time.
Knowledge of Ć Know the class, division, set, the composition of
classifications and which is considered important in any field of
categories knowledge, problem-solving activities, to
achieve a goal, etc.
Knowledge of criteria Ć Know the criteria how the facts, principles,
opinions, attitudes, etc., are tested and
evaluated.
Knowledge of Ć Know the research methods, techniques and
methodology procedures used to review a matter. For
example, knowledge of scientific methods in the
investigation of a studentÊs learning problems.
Knowledge of the theory Ć Know the theory and structure of knowledge in
and structure of specific areas, such as the important theories in
knowledge physics, psychology, economics, etc.
Source: Adapted from Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill & Krathwohl (1956)

(b) Level 2: Comprehension

Comprehension involves the process of interpreting or translating „what
is known‰ in your own words. There are various types of processes of
comprehending something. Brief descriptions of the processes can be found
in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Comprehension and Its Meaning
Comprehension Meaning
Translate The ability to express or summarise what is known in other
appropriate forms.
For example, you are able to express mathematical symbols in
words; you can describe the contents of an essay in the form of
diagrammes; you can draw a concept map based on the
contents contained in a passage; or you are able to create
metaphors and analogies between two things.
Infer The ability to understand an idea in its entirety.
For example, you are able to explain procedures for making
things; you can interpret a variety of data types ă such as data
and information about people, products, education, etc.; or
you are able to describe a theory or a principle.
Source: Adapted from Bloom et al. (1956)
(c) Level 3: Application

Application is the ability to carry out or use a procedure learned in the
classroom in a new or given situation. For example, using a theory, you
have learnt to design teaching materials or to teach in a new way.

(d) Level 4: Analysis

Analysis is the ability to break down an idea, principle, rule or information
into smaller parts so that it can be better understood. It is also the ability to
distinguish between facts and inferences. Brief descriptions of the processes
can be found in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3: Analysis and Its Meaning
Analysis Meaning
Analysis of Ć Being able to identify the fundamentals/basics found in
elements ideas, principles, methods or information.
Ć It is the ability to see or recognise the assumption/
hypothesis that is implicit/hidden.
Ć It is also the ability to distinguish between fact and
hypothesis; the examples and principles.
Analysis of Ć The ability to see and distinguish the relationships between
relationships variables or parts in an idea; or the relationship between an
idea with another idea.
Analysis of  Being able to distinguish parts of a structure, a composition
organisational or a system within an idea, theory, or an argument.
principles  For example, the ability to recognise or distinguish the form
and the pattern of a novel, poetry or a painting.
(e) Level 5: Synthesis

Synthesis is the ability to combine or build parts of a pattern, or structure
into something new that did not exist before. The ability to synthesise is a
creative process ă the process of creating or building to form an idea, plan
or a new system. It is a high cognitive process. Other examples include
painting, writing an essay, writing a novel, constructing a building, creating
a new recipe, and many more. Brief descriptions of the processes can be
found in Table 8.4.

Table 8.4: Synthesis and Its Meaning
Synthesis Meaning
Production of a Ć Construction of communication in which the writer or
unique speaker tries to carry an idea, feeling or experience to
communication others.
Ć For example, the ability to write essays, short stories
and poetry with an arrangement of exciting styles to
communicate ideas and information to readers.
Ć Ability to organise and deliver a speech in a clear and
interesting manner to the listener.
Production of a Ć Build an action plan or a plan of operations for a
plan, or proposed particular purpose.
set of operations Ć For example, students can make plans to complete a
project within a specified period.
Ć To make recommendations to test a hypothesis, teachers
plan lessons that are appropriate for a group of students
according to their needs.
Develop a set of Ć The ability to build or develop a set of abstract relations,
abstract relations such as a theory or hypothesis which is suitable for
describing a phenomenon, or to make a classification of
facts.
Ć The ability to make deductions or propositions on the
given data.
Ć For example, students can make a hypothesis or a theory
of data or the factors given the economic subjects, or
improve the theory of history based on new facts.
Ć Ability to create new generalisations in mathematical
symbols.

(f) Level 6: Evaluation

Evaluation is the ability to make a judgement/decision/conclusion or to
give value to ideas or methods ă for a particular purpose. For example,
your student can evaluate and consider the extent to which a substance or
method meets some criteria. Your student can present and defend opinions
by making judgements about information, or the validity of an idea. Brief
descriptions of the processes can be found in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5: Evaluation and Its Meaning
Evaluation Meaning
Evaluation in terms Ć Evaluate and make judgements about a substance or
of internal evidence method for a particular purpose. A method of
assessing the extent to which they meet the criteria for
a given house.
Judgement in terms Ć Make assessments and judgements based on criteria
of external criteria selected or remembered ă external criteria.
Ć For example, comparing a theory or a generalisation of
several cultures. Evaluate a work of art or performance
based on external criteria that have been accepted as
the best.
Ć When assessing learning outcome, students are
awarded for tasks completed.
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) redefined BloomÊs original concepts with the
help of expertise in the areas of cognitive psychology, curriculum and
instruction, educational testing, measurement and assessment. The new
adaptation also took into consideration many of BloomÊs own concerns and
criticisms of his original taxonomy (Owen, 2016). The taxonomy are reworded
from nouns to verbs and the definitions are as follows:
(a) Remember
This refers to recognising or recalling knowledge from memory.
Remembering is when memory is used to produce or retrieve definitions,
facts, lists, or to recite previously learned information.
(b) Understand
This refers to constructing meaning from different types of functions such
as written or graphic messages or activities like interpreting, exemplifying,
classifying, summarising, inferring, comparing and explaining.

(c) Apply
This means carrying out or using a procedure through executing or
implementing. Applying relates to situations where the learned material is
used through products like models, presentation, interviews or simulation.
(d) Analyse
This refers to breaking materials or concepts into parts, and determining
how the parts relate to one another. Mental actions included in this function
are differentiating, organising and attributing, as well as being able to
distinguish between components or parts.
(e) Evaluate
When we evaluate, we are making judgements based on criteria and
standards through checking and critiquing. Critiques, recommendations,
and reports are some of the products that can be created to demonstrate the
processes of evaluation. In this newer taxonomy, evaluating comes before
creating as it is often a necessary percursor before one creates something.
(f) Create
This means putting elements together to form a coherent or functional
whole; or reorganising elements into a new pattern or structure through
generating, planning, or producing. Creating requires users to put parts
together in a new way, or synthesise parts into something new and
different creating a new form or product. This process is the most difficult
mental function in the new taxonomy.
The sequencing of the two levels have been rearranged and renamed; the
synthesis level was renamed with the term create and it is placed at the top level.
Table 8.6 shows the rearrangement (Nitko, 2004).
Table 8.6: Original and Revised Version of BloomÊs Taxonomy
Level Original Version Revised Version

6 Evaluation Create
5 Synthesis Evaluate
4 Analysis Analyse
3 Application Apply
2 Comprehension Understand
1 Knowledge Remember
Source: Nitko (2004)

SELF-CHECK 8.2
Name the six levels of the cognitive domain and briefly explain each
level.
8.3 LEVELS OF AFFECTIVE AND

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAINS IN BLOOM’S
TAXONOMY
Let us look at the remaining two domains in BloomÊs Taxonomy: affective and
psychomotor domains.
8.3.1 Affective Domain

The affective domain includes the manner in which your students deal with
things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm,
motivations and attitudes. The five major levels are listed from the simplest
behaviour to the most complex (Krathwohl, et al., 1964) as shown in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3: Five levels of affective domain
Brief descriptions of these levels are as follows:
(a) Level 1: Receiving

Students passively receive information from your teaching, from textbooks,
from the television, etc. In this level, you are only concerned that all your
students are paying attention and accepting the information you are giving.
You expect your students to focus on what you are telling them.

(b) Level 2: Responding

This level is higher than just „accepting‰ information or ideas. At this level,
your students respond or take an active part in something. Your students
not only listen to the information provided but give reactions to it. For
example, your students will:
(i) Complete their homework;
(ii) Follow the rules of the classroom;
(iii) Take part in discussions;
(iv) Help a friend; or
(v) Show interest in what they are learning (by doing more exercises than
required or cutting out newspaper articles and pinning them to the
classroomÊs soft board, etc.).
(c) Level 3: Valuing

This is the „value‰ given by your students to an object, information or
behaviour. The students feel responsible and committed to something that
is received or learnt.
When your students have reached the „valuing‰ level, they are able to:
(i) Demonstrate commitment that cooperation in the team is important;
(ii) Commit to learn harder to increase their language efficiency;
(iii) Recognise and appreciate the role of science in daily life;
(iv) Be sensitive to the welfare of other students; and
(v) Show commitment to solve a problem.
(d) Level 4: Organising

At this stage, your students will compare, connect, synthesise lifeÊs values
and make new values as a way of life ă such as the value of justice, truth,
love, freedom, respect for differences of opinion and so on.
Your students are aware of their need for balancing between „freedom‰
and „responsibility‰. They adopt values and principles of a healthy and
positive life and adopt a systematic plan to achieve a goal.

(e) Level 5: Characterising by a Value

Your studentsÊ value systems drive the way he/she thinks, makes decisions
and acts. For example, doing the work in an orderly manner, complying
with time and respect for teachers.
The affective domain inculcates good values among the students. It helps
studentsÊ intellect, attitudes, emotions and behaviours towards others and the
environment. Students will demonstrate attitudes and behaviours such as being
responsible, reliable, able to work individually and in teams, and respectful of
the opinions of others.
8.3.2 Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain in this topic is based on the domain established by
R. H. Dave (1970). Dave was BloomÊs student in 1967. Although there are five
levels in DaveÊs psychomotor domain, this topic will only include the three levels
that are more easily applied in the learning environment. However, you should
also explore the psychomotor domain that has been developed by E. J. Simpson
(1972) and A. J. Harrow (1972).
Table 8.7 explains the three levels of the psychomotor domain.
Table 8.7: Three Levels of the Psychomotor Domain
Level Psychomotor Domain Description

1 Imitation At this level, your student copies the action of
another person (usually a teacher) or through
multimedia. At this basic level, your studentsÊ
action is performed without much skill or
coordination. Generally, the student will follow
basic instructions to make or do something.
2 Manipulation At this level, your students will be able to perform
an action without your help. However, the action
performed is not completely accurate.
3 Precision When your student achieves the precision level, the
student is able to perform an action accurately,
efficiently and independently. At this level, your
student can perform the action without using a
manual, model or instructions. The skills have been
mastered so well that the student can perform the
action without much effort.

The next subtopic will look at how BloomÊs Taxonomy can be used in teaching
and learning.
SELF-CHECK 8.3
1. Name the levels of the affective and psychomotor domains and

briefly explain each of the levels.
2. Suggest some ways in which your students have shown that

they have achieved the levels of the affective and psychomotor
domains.
8.4 APPLICATION OF BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

IN WRITING LEARNING OUTCOMES
As teachers, you want your students to know what is expected of them, and what
they need to do or understand. In the same way, you want to be able to identify
what your students will learn, and how it will be learnt. By using BloomÊs
Taxonomy, you will plan lessons that have both learning objectives and learning
outcomes for your students.
Before we begin to apply BloomÊs Taxonomy in writing learning outcomes, it is

important to know the differences between learning objectives and learning
outcomes.
8.4.1 Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes

Learning objectives are generally stated in broad terms. Learning objectives are
general statements of what you hope your students will learn at the end of your
lesson. However, it does not tell you what your students can do to show you that
they have achieved those expected learning objectives.
The learning objectives need to be written as learning outcomes that provide

focus for your teaching, learning and assessment. Statements of learning
outcomes clearly tells you what your students can do to show you what they
have learnt.

You will see that learning outcomes always begin with a verb of specific and
observable student performance ă it shows you what they can (or cannot) do.
Table 8.8 shows the differences between a learning objective and a learning
outcome.
Table 8.8: Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes
Learning Objectives Learning Outcomes

Comprehends the Ć Defines the term in their own words.
meaning of terms Ć Identifies the meaning of the term when used in context.
Ć Lists out the terms that are similar in meaning.
Learns how to use a Ć Tells the meaning of a mind map in his or her own work.
mind map Ć Describes the features of a mind map using relevant terms.
Ć Interprets meanings at various points on a mind map.
Knows cell biology Ć Identifies the common characteristics of cells in living
organisms.
Ć Draws a cell structure and labels its parts.
Ć Describes the function of cells in plants and animals.
Source: Gronlund (2004)
It is important to note that if you teach using the national subject syllabus, there
will be various types of learning objectives and learning outcomes as references
for you. These are helpful as they show the different types of learning outcomes
to consider. However, it is still necessary for you to know how learning
objectives and learning outcomes are written.
The next subtopic shows some examples of writing learning objectives and
learning outcomes for the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
ACTIVITY 8.2
1. Can you identify the verb of specific and observable student

performance that shows you what your student can (or cannot) do
in Table 8.8?
2. What is the difference between learning objectives and learning

outcomes?

8.4.2 Writing Learning Objectives and Learning

Outcomes for the Cognitive Domain
Many areas of teaching and learning will have knowledge outcomes
(remembering), comprehension outcomes (understanding the meaning of
something), and application (using information in some way). These levels look
at terms, facts, rules, procedures, concepts, principles or theories.
The other three levels ă analysis, synthesis and evaluation outcomes are also
known as higher level thinking skills. The analysis and evaluation levels
emphasise critical thinking (e.g. identifying and analysing a problem and
evaluating possible solutions). The synthesis level emphasises creative thinking
(e.g. producing a plan for solving a problem). Learning outcomes at the higher
level thinking skills will have problems or situations that are new to the students.
Table 8.9 shows examples of how learning objectives and learning outcomes are
written for the cognitive domain, while Table 8.10 shows you some of the verbs
used.
Table 8.9: Writing Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes for the Cognitive Domain

Knows geometric shapes Ć Draws a given shape (e.g. circle, square)
(knowledge) Ć Selects an object representing a given shape (e.g.
ball, box)
Ć Describes objects using the names of shapes
Understands graphs Ć Identifies the value of a given position on a graph
(comprehension) Ć Describes the trend indicated by the graph in own
words
Ć Distinguishes between statements that are
supported and unsupported by a graph
Writes an accurate paragraph Ć Uses capitals and punctuation correctly
(application) Ć Relates sentences to the main idea
Ć Arranges sentences in a meaningful sequence

Demonstrates the ability to Ć Identifies the main ideas in the problem

solve problems of bullying Ć Analyses different materials to obtain answers to
(analysis) the problem
Ć Distinguishes the cause-effect relationship of
bullying
Designs an experiment to Ć Predicts the type of soil in which plants grow best
prove that a plant grows better Ć Formulates the procedural steps and length of the
in some soils than in others experiment
(synthesis)
Ć Describes how the results will be presented
Evaluates arguments for and Ć Judge the accuracy of statements
against a proposal (evaluation) Ć Differentiate between relevant and irrelevant
statements
Ć Identifies the consistency of the facts supporting
an argument
Table 8.10: Verbs Used for Stating Learning Outcomes in the Cognitive Domain
Examples of Verbs for Stating Learning Outcomes

Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
List Summarise Solve Analyse Design Evaluate
Name Explain Illustrate Organise Hypothesise Choose
Identify Interpret Calculate Deduce Support Estimate
Show Describe Use Contrast Schematise Judge
Define Compare Interpret Compare Write Defend
Recognise Paraphrase Relate Distinguish Report Criticise
Recall Differentiate Manipulate Discuss Justify
State Demonstrate Apply Plan
Visualise Classify Modify Devise
Source: Writing Objectives Using BloomÊs Taxonomy (n.d.)


Outcomes for the Affective Domain
Writing learning outcomes for the affective domain is more difficult than the
cognitive domain. Affective domain concerns feelings and emotions. These
feelings and emotions are described by the studentsÊ willingness, preferences or
enjoyments that are difficult to describe as student performance.
Therefore, as teachers, the affective domain concerns trying to state the types of
behaviour that best describe the presence of these feelings and emotions.
Sometimes, the affective domain can also be described as attitudes, interests,
appreciations and adjustments. It is also difficult to measure the affective domain
because sometimes a student may show a certain behaviour but act completely
different. Moreover, affective behaviour is sometimes also seen as cognitive
behaviours.
Table 8.11 are examples of how learning objectives and learning outcomes can be
written for the affective domain, while Table 8.12 shows you some of the verbs
used.
Table 8.11: Writing Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes for the Affective Domain

Participates in classroom  Asks relevant questions
activities (receiving and  Volunteers for special tasks
responding)
 Helps others when requested
Shows concern for the welfare  Asks others if they need help
of others (valuing)  Shares materials with others
 Obtains permission before using other studentsÊ
things
Formulates a rationale  Describes the possible effects on society if the
concerning the role of society in environment is not protected
conserving natural resources  Describes the possible effects if the environment
(organising) is destroyed
 States personal position reflecting the balance
between the needs of society and the need to
protect the environment

Respects the scientific process  Seeks objectivity when interpreting evidence in

(characterising) science
 Questions evidence from wrong evidence in
science
 Shows judgement when scientific evidence is not
supported
Table 8.12: Verbs Used for Stating Learning Outcomes in the Affective Domain
Examples of Verbs for Stating Learning Outcomes

Receiving Responding Valuing Organisation Characterisation
Asks Answers Completes Alters Displays
Chooses Assists Describes Arranges Listens
Describes Complies Explains combines Influences
Follows Discusses Follows Compares Modifies
Gives Helps Forms Defends Performs
Holds Performs Invites Explains Practises
Identifies Practises Joins Identifies Proposes
Locates Presents Justifies Integrates Qualifies
Names Reads Proposes Modifies Questions
Points to Reports Reads Relates Revises
Replies Selects Reports Serves
Selects Tells Shares Solves
Uses Writes Uses
Verifies


Outcomes for the Psychomotor Domain
Table 8.13 shows some examples of how learning objectives and learning
outcomes can be written for the psychomotor domain, while Table 8.14 shows
you some of the verbs used.
Table 8.13: Writing Learning Objectives and

Learning Outcomes for the Psychomotor Domain

Follows proper procedures  Follows the steps listed in the project plan
(imitation)  Selects correct materials
 Uses tools correctly for each task
Writes an effective essay  Writes well-structured, relevant paragraphs
(manipulation)  Uses parts of speech correctly
 Spells all words correctly
Constructs a satisfactory  Overall appearance reflects care in construction
product (precision)  Finish is even and of high quality
 Parts (of the product) fit properly and function well
Table 8.14: Verbs Used for Stating Learning Outcomes in the Psychomotor Domain
Imitation Manipulation Precision

Dismantle Connect Focus
Drill Create Align
Change Fasten Adjust
Clean Make Calibrate
Follow Sketch Construct
Use Weigh Manipulate
Wrap Build

ACTIVITY 8.3
Choose a topic that you teach in school, then write the learning
objectives and learning outcomes for:
(a) The six levels of cognitive domain;
(b) The first three levels of the affective domain; and
(c) The three psychomotor skills related to that topic.
Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
8.5 APPLICATION OF BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

IN ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
BloomÊs Taxonomy can help in the assessment of your studentsÊ achievement.
How? The taxonomy can describe the types of performance your students should
be able to show at the end of a teaching session.
There are many ways you can use BloomÊs Taxonomy to assess your studentsÊ
achievements. This subtopic will look at a few ways. First, we will look at how to
use the taxonomy to assess achievement, and then, we will look at how to use the
taxonomy to assess affective outcomes and performance skills.
8.5.1 Using Bloom’s Cognitive Domain to Assess

Achievement
There are a few steps to follow when you use BloomÊs cognitive domain to assess
your studentsÊ achievements. The steps are as shown in Table 8.15.
Table 8.15: Using BloomÊs Cognitive Domain to Assess StudentsÊ Achievement
Steps Description
1 State the learning outcomes which must be in observable and measurable
terms.
2 Outline the course content.
3 Prepare a table of specifications that describes how many test items must be
used.
4 Construct the test items.

Let us look at each of the steps with examples.
(a) Step 1
This step is to make sure that the learning outcomes have been defined
using terms that can show observable and measurable student
performance. Table 8.16 shows an example from an Economics syllabus. It
is only for illustrative purposes.
Table 8.16: Learning Outcomes for an Economics Lesson

1. Knows basic terms  Identifies terms used in economics
(knowledge)  Uses terms correctly
2. Comprehends  Describes the differences in economic systems
economic concepts  Identifies the differences in concepts and principles
and principles in own words
(comprehension)
3. Applies economic  Identifies the principles needed to solve a practical
understanding to problem
new situation  Describes how to solve practical economic problems
(application) regarding the principles involved
4. Interprets  Differentiates between local and international
economic policies policies
(evaluation)  Differentiates between facts and inferences
Source: Adapted from Gronlund (2004)
(b) Step 2
This step is to make sure that your assessment (test, examination, etc.) has a
sample of the subject content. For this purpose, you can use the content
outline found in the syllabus or textbooks.
The following example is taken from an Economics syllabus. It is only for

illustrative purposes.
Content Outline for a Unit in Economics (System of Economy)
A. System of Economy
1. Free market economy
2. Islamic economics

B. Analysis of an Economy
1. Methodology used to analyse
2. Roles of government in managing the economy
3. Roles of government in managing an Islamic economy
C. Definition and scope of a microeconomy
1. The objective of a microeconomic policy
2. The microeconomic policy
D. Definition and scope of a macroeconomy
1. The objective of a macroeconomic policy
2. The macroeconomic policy
(c) Step 3
This step is to prepare a table of specification. A table of specification is a
two-dimensional table that relates the learning objectives or the learning
outcomes to the course content. The table of specification will show how
many test items are to be used for each cognitive domain. Table 8.17 is an
example of a table of specification for a 50-item multiple-choice test in
Economics (Systems of Economy).
Table 8.17: Table of Specification
Learning Objectives
1 2 3 4
Content areas Knows basic Comprehends Applies economic Interprets
terms economic concepts understanding to economic
(knowledge) and principles new situations policy
(comprehension) (application) (evaluation)
A. Systems of 3 4 3 0
Economy
B. Analysis of an 4 3 5 3
Economy

C. Definition and 4 6 3 2
scope of a
micro-economy
D. Definition and 4 2 4 0
scope of a
macroeconomy
Total number of 15 15 15 5
test items
Source: Adapted from Gronlund (2004)
Based on Table 8.17:
(i) The table only shows the learning objectives, but you can make it
more explicit by including the learning outcomes.
(ii) The „Total number of test items‰ shows the number of test items to be
written in each area. For example, 15 items will measure the learning
objective „Knows basic terms‰ ă including 3 items in the content area
„Systems of Economy‰, 4 items will measure the content area
„Analysis of an Economy‰, and so on.
(iii) The total number of items in each column shows how much
importance you give to each learning objective.
(iv) The total number of items in each row shows the importance you give
to each content area.
(v) You can also change the „Total number of test items‰ into percentages
(weights) to show how much attention you give to the content areas
during your teaching.
(vi) In the table, it is assumed that you give 5 test items to „Interprets
economic policy‰, therefore, it is one-third of the teaching instructions
given to each of the other learning objectives (15 items each).
(vii) Based on the number of items in each row, it can also be assumed that
content areas A and D received less teaching than areas B and C.
(d) Step 4
This step is to construct your test items that are relevant to your objectives
and learning outcomes.

8.5.2 Using Bloom’s Affective and Psychomotor

Domains in Assessment
Unlike the cognitive domain, the affective and psychomotor domains are harder
to assess. In assessment, the affective domain (e.g. attitudes, interests, values)
and the psychomotor domain (e.g. skills) will need your judgement of what your
students are doing and what they produce.
When measuring the affective and psychomotor domains, a teacher usually uses
rating scales, checklists or the studentsÊ portfolio. Let us look at each of them:
(a) Rating Scales

Rating scales offer ways to attach quality to various elements of the process
or product. For example, it is not uncommon for someone to ask us to rate
something „from 1 to 10‰, with 10 being the highest score.
Graphic rating scales let you mark a point on a line or continuum to

indicate your rating, as shown in the following example:
Numeric rating scales are sometimes used to quantify results. We might

ask the rater/observer/teacher to circle a number „1‰ to indicate that
something never occurs, „2‰ if it seldom happens, „3‰ for sometimes, „4‰
for usually, and „5‰ for always.
How Often Does the Student: Never Seldom Sometimes Usually Always
(i) Volunteer to pin up
1 2 3 4 5
articles on the soft board
(ii) Pay attention when
1 2 3 4 5
problems are explained
(iii) Ask questions 1 2 3 4 5

(b) Checklist
The following example indicates basic speech skills students might be
expected to demonstrate in making a three-minute presentation to the class.
Example 1 The student:

______ maintains eye contact with the audience
______ speaks loudly enough to be heard in all parts of the room
______ enunciates clearly
______ stands up straight (does not shift from foot to foot)
______ does not go over the allotted time
______ has notes
______ uses notes sparingly
If students are assigned to construct a fire-prevention poster, the following

checklist might be used:
Example 2 In the poster,

______ Words are correctly spelled
______ Lettering is evenly spaced
______ No extraneous markings on the poster
______ Relevant drawings/figures/graphs illustrate the message
______ Colour is used
Another example is shown as follows:
Example 3
Directions: Circle YES or NO to Indicate Your Response

YES NO 1. Examines equipment before use
YES NO 2. Uses care in setting up the equipment
YES NO 3. Follows safe procedures in using the equipment

(c) Student Portfolio

The descriptions of student portfolio are as follows:
(i) Three basic questions you need to ask before you decide to use a
student portfolio as an assessment method are:
Ć What types of evidence must be in the portfolio?
Ć Should the portfolio have classroom assignment tasks or must it

contain work collected by the students?
Ć How will I assess the portfolio?
Your learning objectives and learning outcomes should be used to

help you answer the above questions.
(ii) The portfolio is useful for assessing complex performance outcomes

(e.g. thinking skills) and affective outcomes (e.g. attitudes) because
such changes take place over time and can be difficult to see.
(iii) It can also be used together with rating scales and checklist.
ACTIVITY 8.5
Choose a topic (or a content area) that you teach in school, then:
(a) Write your Table of Specification; and
(b) Detail how you will use the student portfolio as an assessment
method, and why.
 The three domains of learning are cognitive domain, affective domain and
psychomotor domain.
 The cognitive domain involves the development of intellectual skills. There

are six major categories within the cognitive domain, which are knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

 The affective domain deals with emotions such as feelings, values,

appreciation, enthusiasm, motivations and attitudes. There are five major
categories, which are (from the simplest behaviour to the most complex):
receiving, responding, valuing, organising and characterising.
 The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination and use

of the motor-skill areas. The categories, listed from the simplest behaviour to
the most complex are: imitation, manipulation and precision.
 Most areas of teaching will include cognitively low-level thinking skills

represented by knowledge, comprehension and application.
 Higher level thinking skills are commonly called critical thinking, creative
thinking and problem solving. These are represented by thinking skills at the
analysis, synthesis and evaluation levels of the cognitive domain.
 Learning outcomes in the affective domain are more difficult to write than
the cognitive and psychomotor domains because it involves feelings which
can be difficult to observe.
 Stating learning objectives and/or learning outcomes is one of the most

important elements in the teacherÊs planning process.
 Learning objectives and learning outcomes help determine your teaching

approach.
 Learning outcomes should be stated in terms of measurable and observable

behaviours.
 Learning outcomes play a key role in the testing of student achievements by

describing the types of student behaviour or performance to be measured.

Affective domain Manipulation

Analysis Organising
Application Precision
BloomÊs taxonomy Psychomotor domain
Characterising Rating scale
Checklist Receiving
Cognitive domain Responding
Comprehension Student portfolio
Evaluation Synthesis
Imitation Table of specification
Knowledge Three learning domains
Learning objectives Valuing
Learning outcomes
Anderson , L. W., & Sosniak, L. A. (Eds.). (1994). BloomÊs taxonomy: A forty-year

retrospective. Ninety-third yearbook of the National Society for the Study
of Education, Pt. 2. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning.

Teaching and assessing: A revision of BloomÊs taxonomy of educational
objectives. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Bloom, B., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of
educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. New York,
NY: McKay.

Dave, R. H. (1970). Psychomotor levels. In R. J. Armstrong, (Ed.), Developing

and writing behavioral objectives, pp. 20ă21. Tucson, Arizona: Educational
Innovators Press.
Gronlund, N. E. (2004). Writing instructional objectives for teaching and

assessment (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Harrow, A. J. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain: A guide for

developing behavioral objectives. New York, NY: McKay.
Nitko, A. J. (2004). Educational assessment of students (4th ed.). Michigan, MI:

Merill.
Simpson, E. J. (1972). The classification of educational objectives in the

psychomotor domain. Washington, DC: Gryphon House.
Writing Objectives Using BloomÊs Taxonomy. (n.d.). Retrieved August 2, 2011,

from
http://teaching.uncc.edu/resources/best-practice-articles/goals-
objectives/objectives-using-bloom
Wilson, L. O. (2016). A succint discussion of the revision to BloomÊs classic

cognitive taxonomy by Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl and how to
use them effectively. Retrieved November 5, 2017, from
https://thesecondprinciple.com/wp-
content/uploads/2014/01/Anderson-and-Krathwohl-revised-10-2016.pdf

T op i c  Teaching and
Learning of
9 Thinking Skills
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define thinking;
2. Explain the roles of thinking in learning;
3. Demonstrate essential thinking skills in your own instruction;
4. Identify characteristics of critical and creative thinking skills; and
5. Discuss the assessment of thinking.
 INTRODUCTION
In the 21st century, it is especially important for your students to have higher
level thinking skills and to have their intellectual capacities developed to their
highest potential.
What we expect from our students is that they must not only be users of new
knowledge but also to contribute to new knowledge. Therefore, we do not just
ensure that our students master the 3Rs (reading, writing, and arithmetic skills)
but we must also emphasise thinking and scientific skills. Applying thinking
skills in teaching and learning is very important in keeping with our countyÊs
aim to embrace the knowledge economy (or K-economy).

TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS  189
Thinking skills can be taught and learnt ă it is possible for our students to be
taught to think at a much higher level.
There is a difference between low-level thinking skills and high-level thinking

skills. Low-level thinking is routine and mechanistic. It uses recall and
memorisation.
High-level thinking challenges studentsÊ thinking abilities. Students thinking at

the higher level are able to interpret, analyse, and manipulate information. They
are critical of the information, ideas and opinions. They make conclusions,
inferences, and generalisations. They solve problems, evaluate ideas, give
opinions, and make choices and decisions. They are also creative.
Critical and creative thinking are two important components of high-level

thinking. It occurs when students get new information, retain and remember,
organise, and relate it to existing knowledge; extending it to achieve a goal or
offer solutions for complex situations. You might be asking ă „So how do I teach
them all these?!‰
This topic will show you some ways to go about building your studentsÊ critical
and creative thinking skills. However, first, let us look at some definitions
of „thinking‰, „critical thinking‰ and „creative thinking‰ to help you better
understand their meanings before you start teaching high-level thinking.
9.1 DEFINITIONS OF THINKING

Enis (1985) defines „thinking‰ as a problem-solving process, while Edward de
Bono (2001) defines „thinking‰ as generating ideas and different ways to solve
a problem. Mayer (1998) also defines thinking as a process involving the
management of certain mental operations that occur in the mind that aims to
solve a problem. It can be summarised that „thinking‰ is the process of using the
mind to find meaning and understanding of things, to explore the possibility of
ideas or inventions, to make decisions and solve problems (Johnson, 2000).

190  TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS
Thinking is a process that uses the mind to solve problems. This process involves
arranging ideas or things, seeking new knowledge or skills that can be used to
solve challenging problems. Thinking can be defined as the process of organising
information, concepts or related ideas. It should be mentioned that this process
involves the use of observation, imagination, symbols, reasoning and various
stimuli (Enis, 1985; de Bono, 2001).
There are two main levels of thinking. The lower level involves concrete
thinking, while the higher level involves abstract thinking. Concrete thinking
skills are associated with memory and understanding only, while, abstract
thinking is associated with higher levels of critical and creative thinking.
Critical thinking is derived from the Greek word „kritikos‰ meaning „to
question‰, „to understand‰, and „to analyse‰. Critical thinking is the mental
ability and capacity to assess the truth and the untruth of an idea as well as
the strengths and weaknesses of an argument. This includes making logical
judgements. Some uses for critical thinking skills are to:
(a) Compare and discriminate;
(b) Review;
(c) Give explanations or reasons;
(d) Make predictions;
(e) Check and examine theories; and
(f) Make inferences.
Creative thinking is the ability to use the mind to explore various possibilities,
to produce something new and original. Creativity is a process to search and
explore various alternatives. Creativity involves the effort to explore something
new and valuable that others have never thought of yet. Some uses for creative
thinking skills are to:
(a) Create metaphors (figures of speech);
(b) Create analogies;
(c) Create definitions;

(d) Make predictions;
(e) Write hypotheses; and
(f) Design and make.
The Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013ă2025 (Ministry of Education, 2013)

emphasises thinking skills as one of the StudentsÊ Aspirations. Every student
needs to develop skills of inquiry and learn how to continue acquiring
knowledge throughout their lives, to be able to connect different pieces of
knowledge and to create new knowledge. These higher-order thinking skills and
the ability to innovate are especially critical in a rapidly evolving technological
world. Every student needs to master a range of important cognitive skills. The
Ministry of Education listed three thinking skills that should be taught to
students, which are:
(a) Creative thinking and innovation ă the ability to innovate, to generate new
possibilities, and to create new ideas and knowledge.
(b) Critical thinking and reasoning ă the ability to analyse information,

anticipate problems and approach issues critically, logically, inductively,
and deductively in order to find solutions and ultimately make decision;
and
(c) Learning capacity ă the ability to independently drive oneÊs own learning,
coupled with the appreciation of the value of lifelong learning.
These are the skills that need to be developed by the students, and schools need
to help every student to learn the thinking skills.
Let us see in the next subtopic what roles thinking plays in our learning.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Why do you think higher level thinking skills are important to nation
building?
Share your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online
forum.

9.2 ROLES OF THINKING IN LEARNING

The use of critical and creative thinking skills can help a student test the truth of
a matter or issue in order not to form conclusions or decisions that are wrong. Let
us look at some roles critical and creative thinking play in learning.
9.2.1 Critical Thinking

Critical thinking plays multiple roles in learning. It is the ability to use something
that is learnt (for example concepts, theories or principles) and apply it to reality.
This skill needs to be present in learning to enable students to solve problems
effectively.
In some cases, critical thinking is quite simple. For example, when a student goes
into the shop to buy stationery, the student will consider price, purpose and
other factors such as colour or size of the item. If one file has a price tag of RM10
whereas another has a price tag of RM15, the student will use that evidence as
one factor in making a decision about which one to buy. This is a form of critical
thinking that is common when the student goes shopping. However, critical
thinking can be more complex. Your students will need critical thinking skills
and abilities in learning when they:
(a) Want to solve problem;
(b) Need to confirm something;
(c) Want to communicate with other learners;
(d) Want to read and summarise;
(e) Want to make sure of ideas; and
(f) Want to identify relevant and irrelevant information.
Moreover, critical thinking:
(a) Helps to provide clarity in studentsÊ written or oral communication;
(b) Gives an „overview‰ă students are better able to see things from different
aspects as a whole;

(c) Plays an integral part in determining social changes, for example, in a

community or society, government, schools, businesses and so forth. It is
the product or the result of a way of thinking;
(d) Can help prevent students from becoming too influenced by the ideas or
opinions of others and help students take actions against biases and
prejudices;
(e) Helps students analyse possible half-truths, falsehoods and lies;
(f) Enables students to accept change and also be willing to change opinions;
(g) Assists students identify and distinguish between facts with opinions; and
(h) Assists students to ask critical questions, makes observations in detail,

avoids assumptions, and adopts a rule-based logical thinking.
Students who practise critical thinking usually show some of the following
characteristics:
(a) Ask meaningful and crucial questions;
(b) Evaluate statements and arguments;
(c) Admit lack of understanding;
(d) Are interested in finding new solutions;
(e) Are able to define a set of criteria or analysing ideas;
(f) Consider facts and evidence;
(g) Carefully listen to opinions of others and are able to respond;
(h) See critical thinking as a lifelong process of self-assessment and self-

reflection;
(i) Do not make judgments until all the facts are considered;
(j) Find evidence to support assumptions and beliefs;
(k) Examine a problem carefully; and
(l) May reject the information if it is incorrect or not true.

9.2.2 Creative Thinking

Creative thinking also has multiple roles to play in learning. It allows the
students to:
(a) Explore alternative goals and approaches;
(b) Assess and understand the problems and solutions, and be ready to change
the approach;
(c) Change from the abstract to the concrete, general to specific ă and vice
versa;
(d) Creatively use an analogy;
(e) Be able to accept uncertainty;
(f) Accept the risk of failure as normal; and
(g) Generate ideas and new alternative approaches to doing things.
Students who practise creative thinking usually show the following

characteristics:
(a) Have an ability to synthesise and present problems and solutions in new
ways;
(b) Sometimes challenge a concept or a principle;
(c) Are curious and want to know how something works;
(d) Seem to have „future-oriented‰ ideas. They use past and present ideas to
generate new solutions or ideas;
(e) Can quickly see the link between ideas; and
(f) Enjoy giving unique and innovative ideas.
In the next subtopics, we will look at how you can help develop critical and
creative thinking in your students.

9.3 ESSENTIAL TEACHING SKILLS: TEACHING

FOR THINKING
Teaching is complex and demanding! As a teacher, you are expected to do many
things at the same time ă maintain class order, engage inattentive students, help
students to see ideas they do not understand, and to ensure high-level thinking
happens. It is not easy. Nevertheless, we want our students to be active in their
learning in order to acquire these thinking skills. Let us look at some essential
teaching skills that are pre-requisites to being an effective teacher.
9.3.1 Essential Teaching Skills: What are They?

Whether you are teaching for thinking or teaching for understanding, there are
13 basic skills that you must possess, as shown in Figure 9.1.
Figure 9.1: Basic skills in teaching for thinking or understanding

Let us now discuss each skill in greater detail.
(a) Teacher Efficacy

Teacher efficacy means that the teacher believes he or she has an important
effect on studentsÊ achievement (Woolfolk, 2007).
A teacher with high teacher efficacy increases studentsÊ achievement by

accepting the students and their ideas; uses praise; does not give up on low-
achieving students and is student-centred in his teaching. A teacher with
high efficacy is more flexible and uses new materials, techniques and
strategies during teaching.
(b) Enthusiasm
If the teacher does not show excitement in the lesson or activities, then how
can the teacher expect the students to be motivated to think about the
problems or questions? How can a teacher expect students to be excited
about learning if the teacher starts the lesson with statements such as
(Woolfolk, 2007):
„I think this topic is boring, but we have to learn so I will start with a
question.‰
„I know you all hate mathematics.‰
„This is not my favourite topic.‰
(c) Modelling
Students model (or imitate) the behaviours they observe in their teachers
(Bandura, 1986). Therefore, a teacherÊs attitude and behaviour about the
problem or topic is imitated by the students. The studentsÊ motivation
and enthusiasm for the lesson will drop if he/she sees that the teacher
himself/herself shows a lack of interest.
(d) Caring
Caring means that the teacher understands how the students feel. Caring
teachers are committed to their studentsÊ growth and achievement
(Noddings, 1995).
(e) Teacher Expectations

Research has shown that if the teacher believes that the students can and
will learn, it will contribute towards high student achievement (Good &
Brophy, 1997; Slavin, 2009). This is known as positive teacher expectations.

Teachers must be careful not to treat high and low achieving students
differently. Students „learn‰ that they have a lower ability if the teacher
always asks them simple questions, leaves them out of discussions or does
not interact with them as much as the high achieving students.
(f) Communication
The teacher must define ideas clearly and ensure that the lessons must
be sequenced well, leading to a point. The teacher must also be able
to communicate using transition signals, i.e. verbal statements that
communicate to the students that the teacher wants to move to another idea
or topic (Arends, 2009). Some examples of verbal transition signals are:
„Based on what we know, let us move on to how ...,‰
„Now let us shift our thinking a little and focus on ....‰
(g) Organisation
Some of the characteristics of effective organisation are: a teacher who starts
on time; materials are prepared ahead; and routines that are established,
for example, the students know how to collect their materials from the
teacherÊs desk without being told (Arends, 2009).
(h) Instructional Alignment

Instructional alignment means that a teacher has objectives that match the
learning activities (Cohen, 1987). For example, if a teacher wants his orher
students to understand a particular concept and at the same time practise
critical and creative thinking, then the instruction must achieve these
objectives. The instructions, problems, questions, assignments, tests and
homework must be directly related to the teacherÊs objectives.
(i) Knowledge of Content

A teacher must understand his or her teaching content very well and time
must be spent on studying and preparing if the teacher is not familiar with
the content (Shulman, 1991).
(j) Review and Closure

Review summarises what has been taught before and forms a link to what
has been learnt and what is coming in the next lesson (Arends, 2009).
Closure is a form of review at the end of the current lesson. The closure is
important because it is the last thing that the students take away from the
class, and if the concepts/ideas are not clear, then the students may have
misconceptions that can be difficult to remove (Arends, 2009).

(k) Ability to Question Well

A teacher who uses questioning helps students to see connections between
the difficult ideas that they are studying, and consequently, helps relate
them to real-world situations. Questioning also fosters interaction between
teacher and students, and among students themselves (Eggen & Kauchak,
2001).
(l) Provide a Climate for Thinking

Teaching for thinking requires supporting elements. Some examples as to
how a teacher can create a supporting and intellectual climate are (Eggen &
Kauchak, 2001):
(i) Provide students with information and begin the lesson with an open-
ended type of question that will not shame the students or make them
feel inadequate.
(ii) Provide a climate of cooperation rather than competition.
(iii) Avoid any comparisons of studentsÊ performances.
(iv) Use words of praise to show improvement and not ability, for
example:
„Very good, everyone.‰
„You have shown good use of the information to support your idea...‰
„You have all improved a lot ...‰
(v) Point out that high achievement is not through high grades or scores
only but through improvement and progress.
(m) Increase StudentsÊ Motivation

A teacher who increases the studentsÊ critical and creative thinking also
increases the studentsÊ motivation and self esteem (Woolfolk, 2007). Why?
The student feels independent, in control, competent and has higher
achievement compared to students who are passive and who are taught
passively (e.g. using lectures). Students feel motivated when they are able
to say what they think rather than just giving memorised correct answers.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Can you think of any other essential thinking skills that are important?
Share and discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.

9.4 TEACHING OF CRITICAL AND CREATIVE

THINKING
We have looked at how important it is for teachers to possess essential skills for
teaching thinking. Now we look at some strategies to help develop studentsÊ
critical and creative thinking.
9.4.1 Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking

In teaching critical thinking, four elements are important. Therefore, it is
important that before you begin to build your studentsÊ skills in critical thinking,
you should bear in mind the following (summarised and adapted from Potts,
1994):
(a) Students who learn in groups often help each other achieve more.
Therefore, promoting interaction helps students learn more.
(b) Asking questions with no „right‰ answer encourage students to think. They
are encouraged to provide answers with no fear of giving the „wrong‰
answers. Therefore, teachers should prepare open-ended type of questions.
Some examples of these types of questions are:
(i) What are the similarities and differences between... and...?
(ii) How can we categorise...?
(iii) What are the main ideas in...?
(iv) How do you know...?
(v) Why did you choose...?
(vi) What is the evidence to support your conclusions?
(vii) What happens when⁄?
(viii) What interpretation can we make about...?
(c) Critical thinking requires students to have enough time to reflect on the
questions asked or the problems given. Therefore, teachers should give
them enough time to think before giving the answers.
(d) Critical thinking is used in other areas besides school subjects. Therefore,
the teacher should provide opportunities for the students to see how critical
thinking skills can be used in other situations in real life.

Basically, there are three strategies that you can use to build your studentsÊ skills
in critical thinking, as shown in Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2: Strategies to build studentsÊ skills in critical thinking

Source: Adapted from Potts (1996)
Let us take a look at the strategies one by one.
(a) Building Categories Strategy

This strategy helps students categorise information by discovery rather
than memorising facts. Such active learning results in better understanding
of the concepts and related materials.
For example: Distinguishing animals from plants. Students work in two

groups (Animal Group and Plant Group). Worksheets are prepared in
advance. The worksheets ask for information about lifespan, energy
sources, mobility, anatomy, etc., of several different animals and plants.
Once the information is collected, it is compiled into large wall charts (one
for animals, one for plants).
At this point, some questions are asked: What are the similarities of each
group? What are the differences between the two groups? How could the
following statement be completed: „An animal is different from a plant
because...‰ The teacher provides appropriate feedback throughout, using
open-ended questions to help students identify inadequate or inaccurate
categories.
Finally, the students are allowed to look at new information and to re-
categorise in appropriate categories.
The strategy is described here in the context of a science problem but can be
used in other discipline and with more abstract categories.

(b) Finding Problems Strategy

Sometimes the problems presented in the classroom (especially in
Mathematics and Science) are different from the way problems exist in real
life. In fact, one of the most important practical thinking skills a student can
learn is knowing how to identify a problem.
The finding problems strategy is a way of putting problems in such a way

that students use skills to solve the problems they may face in real life. The
problem should be clearly stated and solvable. Consider the following
physics problem:
Brian, all 72kg of him, bungee jumps from a 100m tower toward the river
below. He falls 35m before the bungee cord starts to stretch. This cord can
stretch 40 per cent of its length and has a breaking strength of 7,000N. Will
this become a „free fall‰ for Brian, or will he bounce back?
Teachers can help students learn to solve problems of this type by first
providing them with a set of general questions, such as: How are the objects
and situations in the problem similar to any objects or situations that have
already been discussed? Which variables are already in physics terms and
which can be converted to Physics terms? Are all of the pieces of
information in the problem relevant to its solution?
A few groups can do the same problem and then share their solutions with
others. In this way, each student can learn different ways of solving the
problem.
(c) Enhancing the Environment

The layout of the classroom can encourage studentsÊ use of critical thinking.
First, the seating is arranged so that the students and teacher can see each
other, and every student faces each other.
Second, visual aids in the classroom can encourage ongoing attention to

critical thought processes, e.g. posting signs that say, „Why do I think
that?‰ „Is it fact or opinion?‰ „How are these two things alike?‰ „What
would happen if...?‰ The suggestions that follow should question and
remind students how they should go about answering them. Most
importantly, as the students move through the curriculum in a given
subject, their attention can be directed periodically to the appropriate signs.
In this way, the signs emphasise the idea of transfer by showing that many
of the same thinking strategies and skills apply to different topics and
problems.

ACTIVITY 9.3
You are encouraged to research on the Internet to look at other good

strategies to develop critical thinking.

forum.
9.4.2 Strategies for Teaching Creative Thinking

Can creative thinking be taught? Yes! Although there are some strategies that
you can use to help students learn to use creative thinking, you must also change
some aspects of your pedagogical instruction, for example:
(a) You need to be more flexible and less restrictive in your class;
(b) You need to create more open-ended questions;
(c) Do not always accept one answer to be correct ă have different student
responses; and
(d) Allow students the freedom to give their thoughts and ideas.
Figure 9.3 explains three strategies that you can use to teach creative thinking.
Figure 9.3: Strategies to teach creative thinking

Let us discuss the strategies in greater detail now.
(a) Brainstorming
Brainstorming is often used to identify new ideas or alternatives.
Brainstorming is a way to generate new ideas or to „move‰ alternatives

around. New opinions or ideas are created in the form of fresh information
that has not been screened or studied carefully. These opinions and ideas
may be rejected or accepted.
Brainstorming is a strategy to create and produce many ideas in a short

period of time. It can work well if group members know each other and
have trust among each other. One thing to remember about brainstorming
is that it seeks to create new ideas, and not to judge an idea.
Before a brainstorming session, make sure each team member understands

the topics to be discussed. Do not give too much information. Limit the
time for brainstorming. Giving a time limit will encourage the students to
be more creative and spontaneous.
Encourage students to give ideas and do not force those who are shy. The
results and ideas from a brainstorming session will be used to make other
decisions, and these decisions will be discussed again in other sessions.
(b) Mind Mapping

A mind map is a way to represent ideas graphically. It is a visual thinking
tool to help students structure information.
Mind mapping imitates the brain in how information is structured in the

brain. As mind mapping is a graphical way of putting thoughts on paper,
students will find greater enjoyment, and it can be fun!

Research has shown that using mind mapping can trigger the studentsÊ
creativity. Figure 9.4 shows an example of a mind map.
Figure 9.4: An example of a mind map

Source: http://litemind.com/what-is-mind-mapping
It is very simple to draw a mind map. Here is how:
(i) It is easier to use a landscape orientation page to give more space;
(ii) Start in the middle of the page ă write or draw a picture of the
issue/problem to be developed;
(iii) Build related subtopics around the main issue/problem. Connect each
of these related subtopics to the middle with a line;
(iv) Continue to build more lower-level subtopics from this first level;

(v) Use as many colours or diagrams to represent your thoughts. Keep

labels short, or use pictures. Play with different sizes of text, colour
and alignment; and
(vi) Encourage your students to have fun and let their creativity run free.
You will be surprised at what your students can do with a mind map.
(c) Use Questions (taken and adapted from Fisher, 2006)

Some question cues can help students think creatively. Examples of
question cues:
(i) What might happen if ⁄ (if not)?
(ii) Can you imagine⁄?
(iii) Suggest an improvement on ⁄:
(iv) How many kinds of ⁄ can you think of?
(v) Think of five ways of/questions to ask about/reasons for ⁄
(vi) List ten things you could do with ⁄ (a shape, picture, object, photo,
story etc.)
(vii) What can we add ⁄ (e.g. to a word, phrase, sentence, story, picture,
design)
(viii) What can we change ⁄ (e.g. to make it different, more interesting)
(ix) What is another way to ⁄ (e.g. solve problem, investigate a mystery)
(x) What is interesting about ⁄
(xi) What shall we do next ⁄?
Some question cues to use if you want your students to think of new ideas,
unique solutions, and design original plans are:
(i) Design a game for ⁄
(ii) Invent a way to ⁄
(iii) Think of a way to improve ⁄ (an object, game, story, plan etc.)
„Creativity cannot be left to chance; it must be valued, encouraged and

expected ă and seen as essential to all teaching and learning‰ (Fisher, 2006).

Many curriculum documents often refer to „critical‰ and „creative‰ thinking as if

they were two different high-level thinking skills. You are often asked to build
your studentsÊ critical and creative thinking as if these two high-level thinking
skills are separate learning outcomes. This is not correct. Why?
When we ask our students to consider something significant (for example ă to

make predictions and recommendations, give evidence, and so on), we usually
ask questions such as „What explanation can you give?‰ or „What solutions do
you need to consider?‰ or „What else do you need to do?‰ Such questions require
critical thinking and involve creative thinking at the same time! Therefore, these
two high-level thinking skills should be viewed as a whole and not as separate
thinking activities.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
1. Describe some of the essential teaching skills a teacher should

have to enable effective teaching for thinking.
2. Explain the roles of thinking skills in your studentsÊ learning.

How can it help your students?
ACTIVITY 9.4
1. If you would like more suggestions to help enhance your

studentsÊ creative thinking, look for resources on the Internet.
2. Reflect on your teaching where your students used both critical

and creative thinking skills to learn. How did you feel?
Share your findings in Question 1 and answer in Question 2 with your

coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.

9.5 ASSESSING THINKING

It is not easy to assess critical and creative thinking. However, the use of criteria
and indicators is one way to assess critical and creative skills. Table 9.1 shows
some examples of criteria and indicators that can be used to assess critical
thinking while Table 9.2 shows some examples of the criteria and indicators that
can be used to assess creative thinking. As a teacher, you can add on to the
indicators that are relevant to the subject that you are assessing.
Table 9.1: Criteria and Indicators to Assess Critical Thinking
Assessment Criteria (Critical Thinking) Possible Indicators

Objectivity Objectivity is the ability to  Methods and/or procedures are
make judgements based on selected according to the task
reality or actual facts and is  Critical thinking skills are selected
not controlled or influenced according to the task
by studentsÊ own feelings
or prejudices  Arguments, reasoning, discussions
are evidence based
Accuracy Accuracy is the ability to  Methods and/or procedures are
make accurate assessments performed correctly
 Arguments and reasoning are
supported by accurate facts based
on data and information
 Sources of information or data have
integrity
Persistency Persistency is not only  Confident of the methods and
the ability to maintain the steps used to come to a
position or opinion but also conclusion
the ability to consider the
opinions of others to ensure  Provide accurate evidence
the accuracy and validity.  Provide evidence to support
position or opinion
Source: Adapted from Osman & Goh (2010)

Table 9.2: Criteria and Indicators to Assess Creative Thinking
Assessment Criteria (Critical Thinking) Possible Indicators

Fluency Fluency is the ability to  Ideas generated are related to the
generate many ideas, task. The ideas may not be
opinions and views and completely accurate, but they are
present them through oral, logical.
written or graphic means
 Ideas are presented in either a
diagram representing a lot of
ideas or a lot of diagrammes
representing many ideas.
Flexibility Flexibility is the ability to  Ideas may be expanded
expand or diversify the  Ideas can be modified
ideas/opinions, in many
ways.  Various explanations/rationale of
the ideas associated with the task
 Various examples related to the
task
Clarity Clarity is the ability to  The idea is described in detail
describe the ideas, opinions,  The idea is structured well and
views and ideas in detail or easily understood
systematically.
 Diagrams are labelled well
Source: Adapted from Osman & Goh (2010)
Other methods to assess critical and creative thinking are observation, oral
presentation, and essays. The selection of methods used to assess depends on the
learning objectives to be evaluated. By using a combination of different methods,
assessment of the studentsÊ critical and creative achievement will be more
accurate.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
1. What is meant by high-level thinking skills.
2. Why is it important for students to develop their critical and

creative thinking?

ACTIVITY 9.5
1. Discuss with your coursemates some key challenges in
implementing both critical and creative thinking skills in your
lessons. Can you suggest how you can overcome these challenges?
2. Create a mind map of the various steps you will take to apply
both critical and creative thinking skills.
3. When do you think teachers should begin focusing on critical and

creative thinking in students? Should it begin in pre-school or
later? Why?
forum.
 Thinking is a mental activity that involves the process of building knowledge

and understanding. When a student is thinking, the brain will react to
understand what is being received through the different senses. Thinking
involves forming concepts and making interpretations based on the existing
experiences in oneÊs memory.
 Critical thinking skills include the ability to interpret and evaluate data,
ideas and information in order to find meaning or to solve problems. It
covers skills such as comparing and contrasting, summarising, making
decisions, analysing, making inferences and solving problems.
 Creative thinking skills include the ability to expand and develop oneÊs
imagination, creativity and innovation with the aim of getting a new idea or
an original creation. Creative thinking produces and generates innovative
ideas or inventions, such as creating metaphors, analogies, or definitions.
 The teaching and learning approaches that use critical and creative thinking
requires techniques and strategies that can help develop your studentsÊ
thinking abilities.
 Ways to assess high-level thinking skills are to use criteria and indicators,
student presentations, oral tests and essays.

Ability to question well Instructional alignment

Brainstorming Knowledge of content
Build categories strategy Low-level thinking skills
Caring Mind mapping
Communication Modelling
Creative thinking Organisation
Critical thinking Provide a climate for thinking
Enhancing the environment Review and closure
Enthusiasm Teacher efficacy
Essential thinking skills Teacher expectations
Finding problems strategy Thinking
High-level thinking skills Use questions
Increase student motivation
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive

theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Cohen, S. (1987). Instructional alignment: Searching for a magic bullet.

Educational Researcher, 16(8), 16ă20.
de Bono, E. (2001). Pemikiran praktikal: Membincangkan cara-cara praktikal bagi

pemikiran yang betul. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Golden Books Centre Sdn.
Bhd.

Ennis, R. H. (1985). A logical basis for measuring critical thinking skills.

Educational Leadership, 43(2), 44ă88.
Fisher, R. (in press). Expanding minds: Developing creativity in young

learners. CATS: The IATEFL young learners SIG journal. Spring 2006.
Retrieved July 28, 2011, from http://www.teachingthinking.net/thinking/
web%20resources/robert_fisher_expandingminds.htm
Good, T., & Brophy, J. (1997). Looking in classrooms (7th ed.). New York, NY:
Harper Collins.
Johnson, A. P. (2000). Up and out: Using creative and critical thinking skills to
enhance learning. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Mayer, R. (1998). Cognitive theory for education: What teachers need to know.
In N. Lambert, & B. McCombs (Eds.), How students learn: Reforming
schools through learner-centered education (pp. 353ă378). Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.
Ministry of Education. (2013). Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013ă2025.

Putrajaya, Malaysia: Ministry of Education.
Noddings, N. (1995). Teaching the themes of care. Phi Delta Kappan, 76, 680ă685.
Osman, R., & Goh, P. S. C. (2010). Pengajaran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi
(KBAT). Unpublished Module, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.
Potts, B. (1994). Strategies for teaching critical thinking. Practical

Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 4(3). Retrieved July 28, 2011, from
http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=4&n=3

Shulman, L. S. (1991). „Ways of seeing, ways of knowing: Ways of teaching, ways

of learning about teaching.‰ Journal of Curriculum Studies 23(5), 393ă395.
What is mind mapping? (and how to get started immediately). Retrieved July 28,
2011, from http://litemind.com/what-is-mind-mapping/
Bacon.

T op i c  Motivation and
Learning
10
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify theories related to motivation;
2. Explain general principles of motivation;
3. Describe the roles of motivation in teaching and learning; and
4. Use strategies to motivate learning.
 INTRODUCTION
Students who are motivated are more dedicated and committed to their studies
compared to the students who are not motivated. Students who are motivated
are also those who take an interest in learning (Slavin, 2009). They will listen and
give full attention to the lessons. They are active both inside and outside the
classroom and are ready to receive instructions from their teachers. They may be
self-reliant and prefer to give their views and opinions in the classroom. Such
students have the drive within them to excel academically and in life overall.

TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING  213
On the other hand, some students are completely demotivated during the
teaching process in classrooms and hence have no interest in schoolwork at all.
These students become easily bored and are not attentive to the teacher.
Sometimes it is an uphill task to get these students involved in learning and to
maintain their interest in the matters being studied.
No matter how difficult it may be to motivate your students, motivation is very

important, and it is up to you to encourage and motivate your students so that
their learning can be more effective and enjoyable.
This topic will try to help you look at the application of motivational elements in
planning and teaching.
10.1 SOME THEORIES RELATED TO

MOTIVATION
The term motivation comes from the word „movers‰ which means „to move‰.
Motivation drives a person to do something to achieve or to obtain success. It
determines the direction and effectiveness of learning.
In teaching and learning, motivation is regarded as a critical component that

enables students to be actively involved, while making the learning process
meaningful, beneficial and enjoyable.
Let us take a look at some of the theories that have played a big role in
understanding motivation. Table 10.1 describes some of the theories related to
motivation.

214  TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING
Table 10.1: Theories of Motivation and Their Descriptions
Theories
Related to Description
Motivation
Behaviourist (i) Behaviourist theory focuses on the positive and negative
theory reinforcements used by teachers. Refer to Topic 2 for information
about behaviourist theories.
(ii) In summary, if a student receives positive reinforcement,
he is most likely to repeat a behaviour in the future. This means
that the student has been motivated after receiving positive
reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is able to motivate students
to provide good work. Teachers also need to be sincere in
providing any positive reinforcement.
(iii) Slavin (2009) believes that this theory cannot totally explain
human behaviour because human motivation is complex and
influenced by the personal nature of the situation and the
individual.
For example, if you are hungry and there is a bowl of rice in front
of you, you can choose not to eat the rice because you prefer fried
noodles.
(iv) Motivation requires strong incentives and/or motives that will
lead to changes in behaviour to achieve desired goals.
 Incentives are positive or negative stimuli that motivate
behaviour. Incentive is an extrinsic stimulus that makes a
person acts.
Salary or wages provides a strong incentive for an employee to
work hard. Students work hard because they are interested in
the prize that will be awarded. Getting high marks is also
another incentive for students to work hard.
 Motive, on the other hand, comes from a natural impulse
or interest that is able to affect thoughts, emotions and
behaviour.
Motive drives certain actions. What does this mean? First,
motive is something that causes a person to act in a certain
way or do a certain thing. A studentÊs motive for studying
hard would be to get good grades.
Second, motive acts as a behaviour to select the activity that
interests the student. For example, Hamid likes to visit the
library to find new resources for his homework, but Chok Kan
likes to visit the library because he gets to use the computers
there to surf the Internet.

Cognitivist (i) From the cognitive theoristsÊ perspective, a student who shows
theory excellence in academic performance is driven by internal factors ă
such as to experience success or to feel useful. A studentÊs
perception and opinion about an activity or event affects his
behaviour.
(ii) Students with high achievement motivation tend to be
independent and are responsible for their own success and failure
in learning ă they take moderate risks, plan for the future and do
not like wasting time. Students with high achievement motivation
tend to approach goals and have a tendency to avoid failure.
(iii) Atkinson (1964) suggests that teachers design tasks based on
student achievement motivation. A variety of tasks is necessary to
conform to the level of achievement motivation:
 Students with high achievement motivation and a low level of
fear of failure, prefer to try difficult tasks ă the appropriate
response of the teacher is to give them activities/tasks that are
challenging.
 Students with low achievement motivation, prefer easier tasks
ă the response of the teacher is break down the task into
smaller manageable levels.
(v) WeinerÊs attribution theory (1992) explains that motivation has
a goal of understanding why things happen. The theory is the
beliefs about the factors that lead to success or failure.
People usually attribute the factors of success or failure to their
ability, effort, luck and hard work.
Some people link the success they have to their abilities.
Some consider their failure due to the lack of effort.
Some are successful because they believe in good luck while
others believe that they failed because their abilities are lacking.
 Students who believe that their success is due to their ability,
and their failure is due to the lack of effort, usually have high
achievement motivation.
 Students who depend on their luck and believe that their
failure is caused by the weakness of their capabilities are those
who have low achievement motivation.
 Weiner (1992) showed that students are most likely to feel
satisfied when they reach goals they have set themselves,
rather than when they reach goals set by others.

Cognitivist  Weiner believes that teachers who know how to place

theory studentsÊ attribution of success or failures are able to assist the
(contÊd) studentsÊ performance.
For example, Devi believes that she passed her physics
examination because she studied very hard for it. On the other
hand, Kassim believes he failed because his teacher was unfair in
the marking. Therefore, teachers can help change perceptions of
students towards success. Teachers can help students recognise
the relationship between effort and ability as ability develops
before effort.
Humanistic (i) Basically, this theory holds the belief that students are born with
theory the desire to strive and to fulfil the potential that lies within
themselves.
(ii) The concept of „self-efficacy‰ by Bandura (1994) is that an
individual believes that he or she is in control of a situation and is
able to produce something positive. This basic theory can help
teachers shape their studentsÊ perception of their own abilities.
 According to Bandura, each individual can be encouraged
towards self-confidence and a high perception of his ability
through „verbal persuasion‰ ă that is, a teacher can use verbal
persuasion to encourage students.
 According to Bandura also, if an individual has succeeded in
the same task in the past, he is more likely to believe he will
succeed in the tasks in the present and the future, and vice
versa.
 People seek others with whom to compare their abilities,
opinions, and emotions. This is called affiliation (or a
„connection with‰). Affiliation can also result in reducing
anxiety because people feel that others accept them. However,
these motivators can also lead to conformity, competition, and
other behaviours that may seem as negative.
Therefore, teachers need to encourage studentsÊ sense
of competence, self-esteem, autonomy and self-fulfilment.

Humanistic (iii) Maslow (1968) describes his theory of motivation through the
theory hierarchy of needs. Figure 10.1 shows the hierarchy of needs. It
(contÊd) shows the different priority needs to be fulfilled to achieve a
balanced state of homeostasis (state of equilibrium) or for a
person to be comfortable or to feel safe.
Figure 10.1: MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs
 Love/belonging includes being loved by parents or accepted

by studentsÊ peers in the group.
 Esteem includes being praised when successful in the
examinations, given gifts during birthdays, or praised if
dressed well.
 Self-actualisation means someone wants to meet his/her
maximum potential in life.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
What are the theories of motivation?

10.2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION

Basic principles of motivation apply to learning in any situation. Much has been
written about the basic principles of motivation. However, the summary by
Weller (2005) has been found to be the most complete and concise. Therefore the
following principles of motivation have been taken and adapted from Weller
(2005). It is important to remember that general principle of motivation are
interrelated. A single teaching action can make use of many of them together.
(a) Create a Conducive Environment

Teachers need to create a warm and accepting learning environment to
encourage effort and good attitudes towards learning. Interesting visual
aids, such as booklets, posters, or practice equipment are able to motivate
students by capturing their attention and curiosity.
(b) Incentives Motivate Learning

Incentives include privileges and receiving praise from the teacher. The
teacher decides what kinds of incentive that is likely to motivate a student
at a particular time.
In a general learning situation, self-motivation without rewards will not

succeed. Students must find satisfaction in learning because they know
that learning will give them an understanding of a particular material or
concept. In addition, they must also obtain enjoyment when exploring
new things. Figure 10.2 describes seven factors in incentives to motivate
learning.

Figure 10.2: Factors to motivate learning
Let us discuss the factors in detail.
(i) Self-motivation is longer lasting than external motivation, which must

be continuously reinforced by praise or physical rewards
Some students need to be guided and reinforced by praise because
they lack self-motivation. Although the use of incentives is based on
the principle that learning occurs more effectively when the student
experiences feelings of satisfaction, caution should be exercised in
using physical rewards when they are not absolutely necessary. Their
use may be followed by a decline in self-motivation.
(ii) Learning is most effective when the student is ready to learn

Sometimes studentsÊ readiness to learn comes with time, and a teacher
must be there to encourage them.
(iii) Motivation is enhanced when the teacher is well-prepared and lessons

well-conducted
Teaching materials need to be meaningful to the students. One
instructional method is to relate new tasks to those that the students
already know.

Normally, students will choose activities of moderate difficulty rather

than those that are difficult (less chance of success) or very easy (high
chance of success). If the studentÊs goal is to achieve high standards,
then the student will not choose difficult tasks. So teachers need to
help students define and better understand those goals in order to
reach them.
However, students sometimes have unrealistic ideas about what they

can accomplish. Sometimes students do not understand the necessary
skills that are needed to carry out a learning activity. To identify
realistic goals, teachers must be skilled in assessing a studentÊs
progress and readiness for reaching those goals.
(iv) Because learning requires changes in beliefs and behaviour, it

normally produces a mild level of anxiety (or stress)
This is useful in motivating a student. However, severe anxiety is not
good. Teachers must be able to identify anxiety and understand its
effect on learning. They also have a responsibility to avoid causing
severe anxiety in students when they set unclear or unrealistically
high goals for them.
(v) It is important to help each student set goals and to provide

informative feedback regarding progress towards their goals
Setting a goal demonstrates an intention to achieve and activates
learning from one day to the next. It also directs the studentÊs
activities towards the goal and offers an opportunity to experience
success.
(vi) Affiliation is a strong motivator

Students seek peers with whom to compare their abilities, opinions,
and emotions. Affiliation can also result in less anxiety because of
social acceptance. However, these motivators can also lead to
conformity, competition and other behaviours that may seem as
negative.

(vii) Many behaviours result from a combination of motives

Motivation is necessary for learning. Therefore, strategies should be
planned to allow continuous motivational factors into teaching and
learning.
The following are some suggestions for the design of teaching that are found in
motivational write-ups and be used together with the general principles of
motivation (Pintrich, 2003):
(a) Provide clear and accurate feedback regarding competence and self-
efficacy, focusing on the development of competence, expertise, and skills;
(b) Design tasks that offer opportunities to be successful but also challenge
students;
(c) Provide feedback that stresses the natural processes of learning, including
the importance of effort, strategies, and potential self-control of learning;
(d) Provide opportunities to exercise some choice and control;
(e) Build supportive and caring personal relationships in the community of

learners in the classroom;
(f) Provide stimulating and interesting tasks, activities, and materials,

including some novelty and variety in tasks and activities;
(g) Provide content materials and tasks that are personally meaningful and
interesting to students;
(h) Display and model interest and involvement in the content and activities;
(i) Provide tasks, materials, and activities that are relevant and useful to
students, allowing for some personal identification with school;
(j) Classroom discourse should focus on the importance and utility of content
and activities;
(k) Use organisational and management structures that encourage personal

and social responsibility, and provide a safe, comfortable, and predictable
environment;

(l) Use cooperative and collaborative groups that allow for opportunities to
attain both social and academic goals;
(m) Classroom discourse should focus on the mastery, learning, and

understanding of the course and lesson content; and
(n) Use tasks, rewards, and evaluation structures that promote mastery,
learning, effort, progress, and self-improvement standards and less reliance
on social comparison or norm-referenced standards.
10.3 ROLES OF MOTIVATION IN TEACHING

AND LEARNING
Some important roles of motivation in teaching and learning are shown in
Figure 10.3.
Figure 10.3: Three important roles of motivation in teaching and learning
Let us now take a look at the roles one by one.
(a) The Fundamental Aspect of Motivation is to Help the Students to Start

The first step to success is simply to start. Unfortunately, the first step is the
hardest to take.
The students might be just lazy, or they will feel like there are many
obstacles that they need to overcome. Whatever it is, students need the
teacher as a catalyst (facilitator) and need to be motivated. They will start at
their own will when they are highly motivated.

(b) The Progressive Section of Motivation is to Help the Students Move on in

Difficult Times
Once the student starts, their journey begins. They will face problems and
difficulties along the way. For some students, facing the failures along the
way may discourage them. They may even stop trying. Therefore, it
becomes important for teachers to continuously motivate them when they
face difficult time and to encourage them in their learning.
(c) The Interesting Part of Motivation is to Help the Students Finish Their Job
Accordingly
Some students face a situation whereby they are trying to achieve
something important, but suddenly they feel like stopping. Many factors
can cause students to feel this way. Some of the reasons may be:
(i) They are afraid because they do not know the outcome of their
success or failure; and
(ii) They are afraid of the amount of work needed. The amount of work
that increases with their success could discourage them.
Therefore, teachers can greatly encourage and motivate them. Students who
are motivated do not fear work or will not become easily discouraged.
10.4 STRATEGIES TO MOTIVATE LEARNING

Some strategies to motivate learning (adapted from Davies, 1999) are shown in
Figure 10.4.
Figure 10.4: Strategies to motivate learning

The following (also refer to Tables 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, and 10.5) describe the
strategies to motivate learning in detail.
(a) Integrating Teaching and Learning Activities to Motivate Students

Table 10.2 explains the teaching and learning activities to motivate the
students.
Table 10.2: Teaching and Learning Activities to Motivate Students
Teaching and Learning

Description
Activity
Maintain a high but  Research has shown that studentsÊ expectations can
realistic standard be affected by the teachersÊ behaviour.
 Students are more likely to be involved eagerly in
classroom activities if the teacher behaves as
though he wants them to succeed. Therefore, have
realistic hopes for students when you are
preparing your lessons and activities and when
grading them. In this context, the definition of
„realistic‰ is to be able to push students with a
reasonable expectation so that they can enjoy doing
their best rather than being frustrated in doing the
task. You need to give early chances for success so
that your students are encouraged to achieve more.
Guide students to build  The student will feel like giving up when they do
their own achievable not succeed in reaching an unrealistic goal. Have
targets your students pay attention to their self-
improvement and not to „score‰ on a classroom
test.
 Encourage your students to check their tasks to
keep them on track of their own improvement. For
example, consider having students to submit self-
evaluation forms with one or two assignments.
Inform students what is  Students need to know what is expected of them or
expected of them else they will be aimless. If they do not understand
something, they should ask.
Reinforce students to  Avoid instructions that encourage extrinsic
self-motivate rewards.
 Instead of saying, „I require,‰ „You must,‰ or „You
should,‰ say „I think you will find⁄‰ or „I will be
interested in your reaction‰, etc.

Avoid creating too  Competition produces stress, which can disturb

much competition student learning.
among students  Try to reduce studentsÊ tendency to compare
themselves to one another in any assignments
given by the teacher. Students are more attentive,
display better comprehension, and produce more
work when they work cooperatively in groups
rather than compete with one another.
 Teachers must not criticise studentsÊ performance
in front of their friends.
Be excited about your  If you become bored with the subject, your
subject students will be bored too. Challenge yourself to
design the most exciting way to present the subject
material.
(b) Teachers Need to Create Lessons that Motivate Students

Table 10.3 lists some strategies to create lessons that motivate students.
Table 10.3: Strategies to Create Lessons that Motivate Students
Strategies Description
Prepare to interest  The teacher should find out how they feel about
students the subject matter, and what they expect from their
students. Then try to devise examples, case studies,
or homework or assignments that relate the
contents to studentsÊ interests and experiences.
When possible, let  Sometimes, let students decide their own learning.
students have some say For example, let them select which topics to
in choosing what they explore in greater depth.
will be studying
Increase the difficulty  Teachers should give students opportunities to
of the material as you succeed at the beginning of the school term. Once
go along students feel they can succeed, the teacher can
slowly increase the difficulty level.
Vary your teaching  You can break your teaching routine by using a
methods variety of teaching activities such as role-playing,
debates, brainstorming, discussion, demonstrations,
case studies, audiovisual presentations, guest
speakers or small group work.

(c) Tests, Marks and Grades to Motivate Students

Table 10.4 lists some factors in using tests, marks and grades to motivate
the students.
Table 10.4: Using Tests, Marks and Grades to Motivate the Students
Factors Description
Design tests that  If you always test on memorising details, your
encourage the kind of students will focus on memorising facts. If your
learning you want tests ask them to synthesise and evaluate the
students to achieve information they have acquired, students will
practise those skills when they study.
Avoid using grades as  The fear of low grades may get some students to
threats work hard, but other students may be worried
about grades that they cheat and give excuses for
late work.
(d) Teachers Need to Give Feedback During Lessons to Motivate Students

Table 10.5 explains some factors in giving feedback during lessons to
motivate students.
Table 10.5: Some Factors in Giving Lesson Feedback to Motivate the Students
Factors Description
Give students feedback  Teachers must return tests as soon as possible. The
as quickly as possible teacher must also give feedback about how well
students have done or how to improve. Rewards
can be as simple as saying „Good work‰ or
mentioning the names of the students.
Reward success  Both positive and negative comments influence
motivation, but students are more encouraged by
positive feedback and success.
 Praise helps studentsÊ self-confidence, competence,
and self-esteem. If a studentÊs performance is poor,
let the student know that you believe he or she can
improve and succeed over time.

Be specific when giving  If you identify a studentÊs mistake, make it clear

negative feedback that your comments are about the task or
performance, not to the student as a person. Avoid
discouraging comments.
Assist students with  By working the problem with the students, they
their homework will experience a sense of achievement and
problems confidence that will help increase their motivation
to learn.
(e) Educational Implications of Motivational Theories

It is necessary to know that for any learning to happen, motivational
strategies (like those stated above) should be included in your overall
teaching and learning plan. However, specific motivational strategies may
have to be included at the beginning of learning, during learning, and at the
end of learning (Elliot, Kratochwill, Cook & Travers, 2000).
There are two key motivational factors involved at the beginning of

learning: attitudes and needs. Attitude is about studentsÊ feeling about
themselves (confidence, esteem), their school, their teacher and their
subject. Teachers need to identify what is exactly causing studentsÊ positive
or negative attitudes.
Teachers need to be concerned about studentsÊ needs such as hunger,

feeling safe, reducing fears and anxiety.
The key motivational factor during learning is stimulation. Teachers must

ask themselves if their teaching and teaching materials contain elements
that attract (or detract) students. Are the materials stimulating enough to
motivate students towards achievement?
The key motivational factors involved at the end of learning are

competence and reinforcement. A teacher should help the students achieve
competence by making sure that they have the skills necessary to achieve
their learning goals.
Remember to use reinforcement as soon as possible. Teachers can also

reinforce while students are still learning. Reinforce with small amounts
rather than large amounts. Reinforcers such as praise, rewards, points, etc.
can be used, but be careful that reinforcers do not become meaningless to
the students.

SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. What role does motivation play in a multi-ability learning

classroom?
2. How can assessment improve studentsÊ motivation?
3. What motivates you? How does your personal motivation

compare with your classroom techniques?
4. Fill in as many motivational strategies for one of your lessons

based on the learning period.
Time Period Motivational Strategies

Beginning: When students enter the
classroom and start learning.
During: When students are
involved in the main content of the
learning process.
Ending: When students are
completing the learning process.
 Student motivation has to do with the studentsÊ need to be involved in his or

her learning process.
 Motivation is the reason or goal that influences students towards their

involvement or non-involvement in their academic activities. Although
students may be motivated to do a task, how they are motivated can be
different.

 Behaviourist theory focuses on the positive and negative reinforcements

given by teachers.
 Cognitivist theory focuses on the perspective that students who show

excellence in academic performance are driven by internal factors ă such as to
experience success or to feel useful.
 The humanistic theory holds the belief that students are born with the desire
to strive and to fulfil the potential that lies within themselves.
 General principles of motivation are as follows:
ă Create a conducive environment;
ă Incentives motivate learning;
ă Self-motivation is longer lasting than external motivation, which must be

continuously reinforced by praise or physical rewards;
ă Learning is most effective when the student is ready to learn;
ă Motivation is enhanced when the teacher is well-prepared and lessons are

well-conducted;
ă Because learning requires changes in beliefs and behaviour, it normally

produces a mild level of anxiety (or stress);
ă It is important to help each student set goals and to provide informative

feedback regarding progress towards their goals;
ă Affiliation is a strong motivator; and
ă Many behaviours result from a combination of motives.
 Motivation plays the following roles:
ă To help students start their learning/work;
ă To help students strive on when facing challenges; and
ă To help students complete their task/work accordingly.

Affiliation Incentive
Attribution theory Interest
Behaviourist theory Low achievement motivation
Cognitivist theory Motivation
Hierarchy of needs Motive
Extrinsic stimulus Natural impulse
High achievement motivation Self-efficacy
Atkinson, J. W. (1964). An introduction to motivation. Princeton, NJ: Van

Nostrand.
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of

human behavior, 4. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Davies, B. G. (1999). Motivating students. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from

http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/t
eachtip/motiv.htm
Elliot, S. N., Kratochwill, T. R., Cook, J. L., & Travers, J. F. (2000). Educational
psychology: Effective teaching and effective learning (3rd ed.). Boston, MA:
McGraw-Hill.
Maslow, A. (1968). Towards a psychology of being (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.
Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student

motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 95(4), 667ă686.


Weller, M. (2005). General principles of motivation. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from
http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/
teachtip/motivate.htm
Weiner, B. (1992). Human motivation: Metaphors, theories and research.

Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

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MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-78012140
Fax No.: 03-78875911 / 03-78875966


HPGD1203 Theories Practices Teaching Learn - Esept21 (CS)

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HPGD1203

Theories and Practices

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Developed by Centre for Instructional Design and Technology, OUM.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 The Changing Notion of Teaching and Learning in the Digital 1

Topic 2 Behaviourist Theories and Their Applications 18

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2.3.4 Implications of the Theory of Operant 34

Topic 3 Constructivist Theories and Their Applications 44

Topic 4 Contemporary Instructional Strategies: Cooperative Learning 66

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4.4.1 Managing the Learning Environment 83

Topic 5 Contemporary Instructional Strategies: Discovery-based 92

Topic 6 Contemporary Instructional Strategies: Problem-based 112

Topic 7 Teaching and Learning with ICT 135

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7.3 The Use of Generic Software for Learning 146

Topic 8 BloomÊs Taxonomy and Its Application 157

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Topic 9 Teaching and Learning of Thinking Skills 188

Topic 10 Motivation and Learning 212

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 1: Student Learning Time

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Differentiate the various educational theories of teaching and learning.

2. Plan appropriate teaching strategies to promote learning.

3. Adopt teaching and learning using ICT to promote teaching skills.

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Topic 2 highlights behaviourist theories. To better understand the different

Topic 3 focuses on constructivist perspectives. Constructivist perspectives are

Topic 4 focuses on the characteristics of cooperative learning, as well as its

Topic 5 discusses the characteristics of discovery-based learning and how it

Topic 6 focuses on student-centred approaches to teaching and learning. This

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Topic 10 focuses on an essential aspect of learning ă student motivation to

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

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Self-Check: This component of the module is included in strategic locations

Activity: Similar to Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: A list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic

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Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 NEW KNOWLEDGE ECOLOGIES IN THE

In cyberspace, there are millions of websites and equally millions of articles as

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(c) Learning will be an ongoing process, and a „journey‰. Activities related to

(d) ICT will help shape our thinking; and

(e) Much of learning can and will be supported by ICT.

From these trends, George Siemens identified connectivism as a new idea to

There are eight principles of connectivism, which are:

(a) There is diversity in learning and knowledge;

(b) Learning is a process of connecting the sources of information;

(e) Encouraging and maintaining connections is needed to make learning