Partial Fractions

Omar Yasin

March 7, 2024

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Proper Fractions

Definition
P (x)
Let P (x) and Q(x) be two polynomials. The fraction Q(x)
is called a proper fraction if the degree of P (x) is less than
the degree of Q(x), otherwise it is called improper.

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Examples

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Example
3x2 + 5x + 1
Rewrite as a polynomial plus a proper fraction.
x 1

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Partial Fractions
Case I - Q(x) is a product of distinct linear factors.

P (x)
Consider the proper fraction . In this case we have
Q(x)

Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) · · · (an x + bn )

and we write
P (x) A1 A2 An
= + + ··· +
Q(x) a 1 x + b 1 a 2 x + b2 a n x + bn

Now we need to find the values of A1 , A2 , . . . An

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Example
1
Write as a sum of partial fractions.
x2 9

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Recall

Z
1 ln(ax + b)
dx = +C
ax + b a

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Example
Z
1
Evaluate dx
x2 9

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Example
Z
5x 3
Evaluate dx
x2 2x 3

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Exercise
Z
x 1
Evaluate dx
x3 5x2 6x

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Exercise
Z
x2 + 3x + 1
Evaluate dx
x+2

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Example
Z
x2 + 2x 1
Evaluate dx
2x3 + 3x2 2x

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Exercise
Z
et
Evaluate dt
e2t 2et 3

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Partial Fractions

Case II - Q(x) is a product of linear factors, some of which are

repeated.
P (x)
Consider the proper fraction . Suppose the first linear factor
Q(x)
a1 x + b1 is repeated k times; that is (a1 x + b1 )k occurs in the
factorization of Q(x).
A1
Then instead of a single term , we write
a 1 x + b1
A1 A2 Ak
+ 2
+ ··· +
a1 x + b1 (a1 x + b1 ) (a1 x + b1 )k

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Example
x2 + 1
Find the partial fractions decomposition of
x3 + 2x2 + x

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Example
x2 + 1
Find the partial fractions decomposition of
x3 + 2x2 + x

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Example
Z
1
Evaluate dx
x3 + x2

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Exercise
Z
x(3 5x)
Evaluate dx
(3x 1)(x 1)2

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Partial Fractions

Case III - Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of

which is repeated.

P (x)
Consider the proper fraction . If Q(x) has the factor
Q(x)
ax2 + bx + c, where b2 4ac < 0

we write
Ax + B
ax2 + bx + c

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Example
Find the partial fractions decomposition for
x
f (x) =
(x 1)(x2 + 1)(x2 + 2x + 2)

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Example
Z
2x2 x + 4
Evaluate dx
x3 + 4x

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Partial Fractions

Case IV - Q(x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factors.

P (x)
Consider the proper fraction . If Q(x) has the factor
Q(x)
k
ax2 + bx + c , where b2 4ac < 0

we write
A1 x + B 1 A2 x + B 2 Ak x + B k
2
+ 2 + ··· +
ax + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c) (ax2 + bx + c)k

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Example
Find the partial fractions decomposition for

x3 + x2 + 1
f (x) =
x(x 1)(x2 + x + 1)(x2 + 1)3

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Exercise
Z
1 x + 2x2 x3
Evaluate dx
x(x2 + 1)2

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