Chapter 4

SCI 214: MODERN PHYSICS CHAPTER 4 QUANTUM THEORY OF
2nd SEMESTER S.Y. 2022-2023

LIGHT DR. MA
COURSE FACILITATOR:
VENUS B. LOZADA
CHAPTER 4
QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT
Chapter Outline
4.1 Atomic Spectra
4.1.1 History of Optics
4.1.2 Atomic Spectra
4.1.3 Hydrogen Spectrum – The Balmer Series
4.1.4 Quantum Properties of Light
4.2 The Photoelectric Effect
4.3 The Wave Nature of Electrons
4.3.1 De Broglie Waves
4.3.2 The failure of classical physics
4.3.3 Atomic energy levels
4.3.4 The Bohr Model of Hydrogen
4.1 The Difference Between Quantum Theory and Classical Physics
CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
In the field of nuclear and quantum physics, our journey unfolds in Chapter 4. This
chapter describes the historical development of optics, the fascinating discoveries of the atomic
spectrum, and the profound revelations that changed our understanding of light and matter.
We begin our exploration with the history of optics, following in the footsteps of the
pioneers who laid the foundations of the quantum revolution. We move quickly and enter the
fascinating region of the atomic spectrum. The enigmatic Balmer series of the hydrogen
spectrum invites us to understand the complex dance of electrons within atoms.
Decoding the quantum properties of light decisively changes the story to the
groundbreaking phenomenon of the photoelectric effect. The wave nature of electrons embedded
in de Broglie waves calls into question the nature of classical physics and marks the beginning of
a paradigm shift. This story is elegantly constructed through an exploration of atomic energy
levels, culminating in the elegant Bohr model of hydrogen. An important point arises when
explaining the differences between quantum theory and classical physics and revealing the
shortcomings of the classical framework at a microscopic level. join us on this intellectual
adventure through the quantum world. There, each revelation reveals a new layer of mystery and
wonder.
Welcome to Chapter 4. The dance of particles and waves opens the door to a world
beyond the limits of classical understanding.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
4.1 Explain atomic line spectra in terms of energy levels and a photon model of
electromagnetic radiation.
4.2 Describe and explain the photoelectric effect.
4.3 Provide evidence of the wave nature of electrons and describe how their wavelength
depends on speed.
4.4 Explain how quantum theory differs from classical physics.
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HISTORY OF OPTICS
Optics, science concerned with the

genesis and propagation of light, the changes that
it undergoes and produces, and other phenomena
closely associated with it. There are two major
branches of optics, physical and geometrical.
Physical optics deals primarily with the nature
and properties of light itself. Geometrical optics
has to do with the principles that govern the
image-forming properties of lenses, mirrors, and other devices that make use of light. It also
includes optical data processing, which involves the manipulation of the information content of
an image formed by coherent optical systems.
Originally, the term optics was used only in relation to the eye and vision. Later, as lenses
and other devices for aiding vision began to be developed, these were naturally called optical
instruments, and the meaning of the term optics eventually became broadened to cover any
application of light, even though the ultimate receiver is not the eye but a physical detector, such
as a photographic plate or a television camera. In the 20th century optical methods came to be
applied extensively to regions of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum not visible to the eye,
such as X-rays, ultraviolet, infrared, and microwave radio waves, and to this extent these regions
are now often included in the general field of optics.
In the present article the image-forming properties of lenses, mirrors, and other devices
that make use of light are considered. The wave and quantum nature of light, its velocity,
wavelength, polarization, diffraction, and interference may be found in light. The analysis of
light into its component colors by prisms and gratings forms the basis of the extensive field of
spectroscopy, the principles of which are discussed
in spectroscopy.
Historical background
To the ancients, the processes of image formation were full

of mystery. Indeed, for a long time there was a great discussion as
to whether, in vision, something moved from the object to the eye
or whether something reached out from the eye to the object. By
the beginning of the 17th century, however, it was known that rays
of light travel in straight lines, and
in 1604 Johannes Kepler, a
German astronomer, published a book on optics in which he
postulated that an extended object could be regarded as a
multitude of separate points, each point emitting rays of light in
all directions. Some of these rays would enter a lens, by which
they would be bent around and made to converge to a point, the
“image” of the object point whence the rays originated. The lens
of the eye was not different from other lenses, and it formed an
image of external objects on the retina, producing the sensation
of vision.
There are two main types of images to be considered: real and
virtual. A real image is formed outside the system, where the
emerging rays cross; such an image can be caught on a screen or piece of film and is the kind of
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image formed by a slide projector or in a camera. A virtual image, on the other hand, is formed
inside an instrument at the point where diverging rays would cross if they were extended
backward into the instrument. Such an image is formed in a microscope or telescope and can be
seen by looking into the eyepiece.
Kepler’s concept of an image as being formed by the crossing of rays was limited in that it took
no account of possible sharpness caused by aberrations, diffraction, or even defocusing. In 1957
the Italian physicist Vasco Ronchi went the other way and defined an image as any recognizable
nonuniformity in the light distribution over a surface such as a screen or film; the sharper the
image, the greater the degree of nonuniformity. Today, the concept of an image often departs
from Kepler’s idea that an extended object can be regarded as innumerable separate points of
light, and it is sometimes more convenient to regard an image as being composed of overlapping
patterns of varying frequencies and contrasts; hence, the quality of a lens can be expressed by a
graph connecting the spatial frequency of a parallel line object with the contrast in the image.
This concept is investigated fully under Optics and information theory below.
Optics had progressed rapidly by the early years of the 19th century. Lenses of moderately good
quality were being made for telescopes and microscopes, and in 1841 the great mathematician
Carl Friedrich Gauss published his classical book on geometrical optics. In it he expounded the
concept of the focal length and cardinal points of a lens system and developed formulas for
calculating the position and size of the image formed by a lens of given focal length. Between
1852 and 1856 Gauss’s theory was extended to the calculation of the five principal aberrations of
a lens (see below Lens aberrations), thus laying the foundation for the formal procedures of lens
design that were used for the next 100 years. Since about 1960, however, lens design has been
almost entirely computerized, and the old methods of designing lenses by hand on a desk
calculator are rapidly disappearing.
By the end of the 19th century numerous other workers had entered the field of
geometrical optics, notably an English physicist, Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt), and a
German physicist, Ernst Karl Abbe. It is impossible to list all their accomplishments here. Since
1940 there has been a great resurgence in optics based on information and communication
theory, which is treated at length below.
Light rays, waves, and wavelets

A single point of light, which may be a point in an extended object, emits light in the
form of a continually expanding train of waves, spherical in shape and centered about the point
of light.
It is, however, often much more convenient to regard an object point as emitting fans of
rays, the rays being straight lines everywhere perpendicular to the waves. When the light beam is
refracted by a lens or reflected by a mirror, the curvature of the waves is changed, and the
angular divergence of the ray bundle is
similarly changed in such a way that the
rays remain everywhere perpendicular to
the waves. When aberrations are present,
a convergent ray bundle does not shrink
to a perfect point, and the emerging
waves are then not truly spherical.
In 1690 Christiaan Huygens, a

Dutch scientist, postulated that a light
wave progresses because each point in it
becomes the center of a little wavelet
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travelling outward in all directions at the speed of light, each new wave being merely the
envelope of all these expanding wavelets. When the wavelets reach the region outside the
outermost rays of the light beam, they destroy each other by mutual interference wherever a crest
of one wavelet falls upon a trough of another wavelet. Hence, in effect, no waves or wavelets are
allowed to exist outside the geometrical light beam defined by the rays. The normal destruction
of one wavelet by another, which serves to restrict the light energy to the region of the rectilinear
ray paths, however, breaks down when the light beam strikes an opaque edge, for the edge then
cuts off some of the interfering wavelets, allowing others to exist, which diverge slightly into the
shadow area. This phenomenon is called diffraction, and it gives rise to a complicated fine
structure at the edges of shadows and in optical images.
The electrons in an atom tend to be arranged in such a way that the energy of the atom is
as low as possible. The ground state of an atom is the lowest energy state of the atom. When
those atoms are given energy, the electrons absorb the energy and move to a higher energy level.
These energy levels of the electrons in atoms are quantized, meaning again that the electron must
move from one energy level to
another in discrete steps rather
than continuously. An excited
state of an atom is a state
where its potential energy is
higher than the ground state.
An atom in the excited state is
not stable. When it returns back
to the ground state it releases
the energy that it had
previously gained often in the
form of electromagnetic
radiation (although it can be
released via heat).
Atoms can gain energy to induce these transitions from various sources. The gases in the
image below have been excited with the use of electrical current. The atoms in each of these
noble gases produce distinctive colors that can be used to identify the elements. Each of these
species contains a different number of electrons that can undergo different types of excitations.
In turn, each gas produces a signature color.
Although objects at high temperature emit a continuous spectrum of electromagnetic
radiation, a different kind of spectrum is observed when pure samples of individual elements are
heated. For example, when a high-voltage electrical discharge is passed through a sample of
hydrogen gas at low pressure, the resulting individual isolated hydrogen atoms caused by the
dissociation of H2 emit a red light. Unlike blackbody radiation, the color of the light emitted by
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the hydrogen atoms does not depend greatly on the temperature of the gas in the tube. When the
emitted light is passed through a prism, only a few narrow lines, called a line spectrum, are seen
rather than a continuous range of colors. The light emitted by hydrogen atoms is red because, of
its four characteristic lines, the most intense line in its spectrum is in the red portion of the
visible spectrum, at 656 nm. With sodium, however, we observe a yellow color because the most
intense lines in its spectrum are in the yellow portion of the spectrum, at about 589 nm.
Such emission spectra were observed for many other elements in the late 19th century, which
presented a major challenge because classical physics was unable to explain them. Part of the
explanation is provided by Planck’s equation (Equation 6.5): the observation of only a few
values of λ (or ν) in the line spectrum meant that only a few values of E were possible. Thus the
energy levels of a hydrogen atom had to be quantized; in other words, only states that had certain
values of energy were possible, or allowed. If a hydrogen atom could have any value of energy,
then a continuous spectrum would have been observed, similar to blackbody radiation. In 1885, a
Swiss mathematics teacher, Johann Balmer (1825–1898), showed that the frequencies of the
lines observed in the visible region of the spectrum of hydrogen fit a simple equation that can be
expressed as follows:
where n = 3, 4, 5, 6. As a result, these lines are known as the Balmer series. The Swedish
physicist Johannes Rydberg (1854–1919) subsequently restated and expanded Balmer’s result in
the Rydberg equation:

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where n1 and n2 are positive integers, n2 > n1, and ℛ, the Rydberg constant, has a value of
1.09737 × 107 m−1.
Like Balmer’s equation, Rydberg’s simple equation described the wavelengths of the
visible lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen (with n1 = 2, n2 = 3, 4, 5,…). More important,
Rydberg’s equation also described the wavelengths of other series of lines that would be
observed in the emission spectrum of hydrogen: one in the ultraviolet (n1 = 1, n2 = 2, 3, 4,…) and
one in the infrared (n1 = 3, n2 = 4, 5, 6). Unfortunately, scientists had not yet developed any
theoretical justification for an equation of this form.
QUANTUM PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

Wave-Particle Duality of Light
Quantum theory tells us that both light and matter consists of tiny particles which have
wavelike properties associated with them. Light is composed of particles called photons, and
matter is composed of particles called electrons, protons, neutrons. It's only when the mass of a
particle gets small enough that its wavelike properties show up.
Wave-like Behavior of Light
In the 1600s Christiaan Huygens, a Dutch physicist, showed that light behaves like a
wave.
One behavior of waves is Diffraction.

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It was James Clerk Maxwell who showed in the 1800s that light is an electromagnetic wave that
travels through space at the speed of light. The frequency of light is related to its wavelength
according to
The region from λ ≈ 400-750 nm is visible to the human eye and is therefore called the
visible region of the electromagnetic radiation. As we saw in the example above, blue light is
near the high frequency limit of our eyes. Red light, with wavelengths near 750 nm are at the low
frequency limit of our eyes. Light that contains all frequencies in the visible region will appear as
white light.
More generally, the different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum are given different
names. Below are the names given to the different regions (frequency ranges) of light according
to their frequency range.
Particle-Like Behavior of Light

At this point you may think that it's pretty obvious that light behaves like a wave. So,
why how do we know that light is really composed of particles called photons? Support for this

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idea comes from an experiment that is called the photoelectric effect.
An important feature of this experiment is that the electron is emitted from the metal with
a specific kinetic energy (i.e. a specific speed).
Now anyone who is familiar with the behavior of waves knows that the energy associated
with a wave is related to its amplitude or intensity. For example, at the ocean the bigger the
wave, the higher the energy associated with the wave. It's not the small waves that knock you
over it's the big waves! So everyone who thought light is just a wave was really confused when
the intensity of the light was increased (brighter light) and the kinetic energy of the emitted
electron did not change. What happens is that as you make the light brighter more electrons are
emitted but all have the same kinetic energy. Well, they thought the kinetic energy of the emitted
electron must depend on something. So they varied the frequency of the light and this changed
the kinetic energy of the emitted electron.
However, there is a critical frequency for each metal, ν0, below which no electrons are
emitted. This tells us that the kinetic energy is equal to the frequency of the light times a constant
(i.e., the slope of the line). That constant is called Planck's Constant and is given the symbol h.
Now we can write an equation for the kinetic energy of the emitted electron.
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This result is not consistent with the picture of light as a wave. An explanation that is
consistent with this picture is that light comes in discrete packages, called photons, and each
photon must have enough energy to eject a single electron. Otherwise, nothing happens. So, the
energy of a single photon is:
When this was first understood, it was a very startling result. It was Albert Einstein who
first explained the photoelectric effect and he received the Nobel Prize in Physics for this work.
So, in summary-light is a particle with wave-like behavior.
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which, when light shines on a metal surface,
electrons are ejected from it. It provided important evidence that light is quantized, or carried in
discrete packets.
Experiments in the late 19th Century led to some laws about the effect:
Electrons are only emitted if the
frequency of the light is above a certain
threshold frequency.
If the frequency is high enough, the
intensity of the light governs how many
electrons are emitted.
The maximum kinetic energy of
emitted electrons is independent of the
intensity of the light, but proportional to the
frequency of the light.
In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed that this effect could be explained by thinking of light
as made up of discrete particles with energy proportional to their frequency: E=hf, where h is
known as Planck's constant. This idea was previously proposed by Max Planck to explain the
"black body" spectra of light emitted by warm objects.

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The maximum kinetic energy of an electron emitted when light of frequency f shines on a
metal is:
The photoelectric effect can be seen qualitatively on a gold leaf electroscope.

The entire apparatus is negatively charged, by touching it to the negative terminal of a
Van de Graaff generator. The gold leaf and rod repel each other, because they have like charge.
Light of a specific
frequency is shone onto the metal
plate. If the light is of a sufficiently
high frequency, electrons are
emitted from the metal plate. This
is seen macroscopically: the gold
leaf and rod get closer together as
they become less negatively
charged, and so repel less.
If the frequency of the light
is reduced, a threshold frequency is
seen, below which no electrons are
emitted.
If the metal plate is changed to a plate made of a different metal, the threshold frequency
changes. More reactive metals have lower threshold frequencies.
Other experiments (for example, the Vacuum photocell) find that the maximum kinetic
energy of the emitted electrons is proportional to the difference between the frequency of the
incident light and the threshold frequency.
where Kmax is the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons, and f0 is the threshold frequency.
Electrons require some energy to escape from the surface of the metal. This amount of
energy is called the work function and is given the symbol ϕ.
According to the wave theory of light, the energy of the incident light is spread over the
whole surface. Electrons should therefore only be emitted if the intensity of the light, given by
is high enough.
The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons and the number of electrons emitted is also
predicted to depend on the intensity of the light.
The frequency of the light should not matter apart from being included in the intensity of
the light:

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These predictions are at odds with the experimental evidence. In experiments, there is a threshold
frequency below which electrons are not emitted, but there is no threshold value of intensity, and
the maximum kinetic energy also does not depend on intensity.
Einstein explained the experimental evidence by assuming that light comes in discrete quanta or
packets of energy, which became known as photons.
 Each photon has a specific energy E=hf and only collides with one electron, as the
probability of two photons colliding with one electron is very low. Thus an electron can
only absorb a specified amount of energy for light of a specific frequency.
 If this energy is insufficient to allow an electron to escape the surface of the metal, no
electrons will be emitted. This creates a threshold frequency, above which a photon
provides an electron with enough energy to leave the surface, and below which the
electrons cannot escape. The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the
metal is the work function, ϕ. If a photon provides more energy to the electron than this,
the rest will be seen as kinetic energy. Thus:

where Kmax is the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons, ϕ is the work function of the
surface, h is Planck's constant, and f0 is the threshold frequency.
 Increasing the intensity affects the rate of electrons being emitted but does not affect their
maximum kinetic energy. This is because increasing the intensity (at the same frequency)
increases the number of photons hitting the metal per second, and the number of electrons
which absorb them, but has no effect on the energy carried by each photon. Below the
threshold frequency, even if a huge number of electrons absorb photons, none of them
have enough energy to escape the surface.
THE WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRONS (De Broglie Waves)

Previous experiments such as the photoelectric effect demonstrated the particle-nature of
light (waves). Louis de Broglie proposed that moving matter can exhibit wave properties
according to the equation:

The equation suggests
that the de Broglie wavelength
of a particle is inversely
proportional to its momentum.
de Broglie applied the concept
of matter waves to the structure
of the atom. He postulated that
electrons orbit the nucleus as
standing waves (stationary
waves).
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Standing waves are formed as a result of interference between two waves of equal frequency and
amplitude travelling in opposite directions. de Broglie explained that when electrons behave as
standing waves, they no longer emit energy in the form of radiation (since this applies to
particles). Therefore, de Broglie's matter wave theory provided an explanation for Bohr's first
postulate – electrons orbit the nucleus in 'stationary states' and do not emit energy.
de Broglie also stated that the circumference of an electron orbit is quantized, meaning it is an
integral multiple of the wavelength of the electron wave. This is represented by the following
equation:
where n = integer denoting the energy level.

For example, the circumference of the n = 1 orbit
equals to one wavelength of the electron wave. The
circumference of the n = 2 orbit equals to two
wavelengths of the electron wave.
The implication of this is that the circumference and
radius of an electron orbit must equal to specific values
as otherwise standing waves cannot form.
Combining the matter wave equation and quantization of an electron orbit's circumference gives:
This equation shows that the angular momentum of an electron is an integral multiple of
Therefore, de Broglie's matter wave theory supports Bohr's third postulate – angular momentum
of an electron is quantized.
Experimental Evidence for Matter Wave Duality

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Davisson and Germer's Nickel Crystal Experiment
Davisson and Germer were studying the surface of nickel by firing electrons at the nickel
crystal. Due to electrons' small size, they expected that this would allow them to obtain a detailed
image of Nickel's surface and lattice structure.
The slits between nickel atoms acted as a diffraction grating which caused electrons to
diffract and therefore exhibit wave nature.
After observing that the first maximum of diffraction occurred at an angle of 50º to the
vertical, the scientists found the wavelength of diffracted
electrons.
Using 2.15 Å as the lattice space of the nickel, Davisson and Germer found
the experimental value for the wavelength of an electron to be 1.65 Å.
The potential difference (54V) used to accelerate the electrons and the mass of an
electron were used to calculate the theoretical value of electron wavelength according to the
equation:

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The theoretical value of 1.67 Å was close to the experimental value, proving de Broglie's
hypothesis to be fairly accurate at the time. As such, the nickel crystal experiment provided
evidence for de Broglie's matter wave hypothesis.
Double-slit Experiment Using

Electrons
When electrons were fired at
two narrow slits separated by a small
distance, diffraction pattern was
formed on a screen behind the slits.
Electrons were projected
onto the screen in bands, with the
bands separated by dark spaces. This
pattern was like the diffraction
pattern formed by waves as observed
in Young's double-slit experiment.
This experiment confirmed
the wave nature of electrons.
Gold Foil Experiment Using Electrons

When electrons were fired at a thin gold foil, a concentric diffraction pattern was
observed. Like the nickel crystal experiment, the small lattice spacing between gold atoms
caused electrons to diffract and interfere.
A bright spot (electrons) was present centrally, surrounded by alternating concentric bright and
dark rings. The bright and dark rings were caused by constructive and destructive interference
between electrons respectively.
This experiment confirmed the wave nature of electrons.
THE FAILURE OF
CLASSICAL PHYSICS
By the late 19th century,
many physicists thought their
discipline was well on the way to
explaining most natural
phenomena. They could calculate
the motions of material objects
using Newton’s laws of classical
mechanics, and they could
describe the properties of radiant
energy using mathematical
relationships known as
Maxwell’s equations, developed
in 1873 by James Clerk
Maxwell, a Scottish physicist.
The universe appeared to be a
simple and orderly place,
containing matter, which
consisted of particles that had mass and whose location and motion could be accurately
described, and electromagnetic radiation, which was viewed as having no mass and whose exact
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position in space could not be fixed. Thus, matter and energy were considered distinct and
unrelated phenomena. Soon, however, scientists began to look more closely at a few
inconvenient phenomena that could not be explained by the theories available at the time.
The traditional introduction to quantum mechanics involves discussing the breakdown of

classical mechanics and where quantum steps in. We have three examples of this: (1) blackbody
radiation, (2) photoelectric effect and (3) hydrogen emission (of light).
First Evidence of
Classical Breakdown:
Blackbody Radiation
It has been
known for a long time
that hot things radiate
light!
Blackbody Radiators
To begin
analyzing heat
radiation, we need to be specific about
the body doing the radiating: the simplest
possible case is an idealized body which
is a perfect absorber, and therefore also
(from the above argument) a perfect
emitter. For obvious reasons, this is
called a “blackbody”. It is an idealized
physical body that absorbs all incident
electromagnetic radiation, regardless of
frequency or angle of incidence.
A physical realization of a blackbody is a cavity with a small hole with many reflections
and absorptions. Very few entering photons (light rays) will get out. The inside of the cavity has
radiation which is homogeneous and isotropic (the same in any direction, uniform everywhere).
Two experimental "laws" connected to black-body radiation:
1. Stefan-Boltzmann Law: The total (i.e., integrated) radiation intensity varies as
T4. That is
2. Wien’s Displacement Law: As the temperature of a blackbody varies, so does

the frequency at which the emitted radiation is most intense. In fact, that
frequency is directly proportional to the absolute temperature: where the
proportionality constant is 5.879×1010Hz/

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Second Evidence of Classical Breakdown: The Photoelectric Effect

Ionization is the process by
which an atom or a molecule acquires a
negative or positive charge by gaining or
losing electrons to form ions, often in
conjunction with other chemical
changes. You can read about the
discussion of ionization energies.
There are different ways to add
energy to systems (heat, electricity, bombarding of particles). Moreover, not only atoms, but
molecules and bulk matter can be ionized. The process we are interested in is injecting energy
via the absorption of light, which is called the photoelectric effect.
Only five years after Planck’s
proposed quantization, this hypothesis
was used to explain a second
phenomenon that conflicted with the
accepted laws of classical physics. In
1886, the photoelectric effect was
observed by Heinrich Hertz, by finding
that when a metallic surface is exposed
to ultraviolet light, electrons are emitted
from the surface. When certain metals
are exposed to light, electrons are ejected
from their surface. Classical physics
predicted that the number of electrons
emitted, and their kinetic energy should
depend on only the intensity of the light,
not its frequency.
Ramifications of Einstein's Photon Theory of the Photoelectron effect

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Since every photon of sufficient energy excites only one electron, increasing the light's
intensity (i.e. the number of photons/sec) only increases the number of released electrons and not
their kinetic energy.
 No time is necessary for the atom to be heated to a critical temperature and therefore the
release of the electron is nearly instantaneous upon absorption of the light.
 The photons must be above a certain energy hν≥hν0 equal or exceed the work function, a
threshold frequency exists below which no photoelectrons are observed.
Einstein's simple explanation completely accounted for the observed phenomenon in
Lenard's experiment and began an investigation into the field we now call quantum mechanics.
This new field seeks to provide a quantum explanation for classical mechanics and create a more
unified theory of physics and thermodynamics. The study of the photoelectric effect has also lead
to the creation of new photoelectron spectroscopy theory and applications.
Third Evidence of Classical Breakdown: Atomic Spectra

Most of what is known about atomic (and molecular) structure and mechanics has been
deduced from spectroscopy. A continuous spectrum can be produced by an incandescent solid or
gas at high pressure. Blackbody radiation, for example, is a continuum since the degree of
quantization from Planck's assumptions is so small the radiation curves look continuous (with
other factors discussed later). An emission spectrum can be produced by a gas at low pressure
excited by heat or by collisions with electrons.
ATOMIC ENERGY LEVELS
An absorption spectrum
results when light from a
continuous source pass through a
cooler gas, consisting of a series
of dark lines characteristic of the
composition of the gas.
Frauenhofer between 1814 and
1823 discovered nearly 600 dark
lines in the solar spectrum viewed
at high resolution. It is now
understood that these lines are
caused by absorption by the outer
layers of the Sun
and the Earth's
atmosphere.

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Gases heated to incandescence were found by Bunsen, Kirkhoff and others to emit light
with a series of sharp wavelengths. The emitted light analyzed by a spectrometer (or even a
simple prism) appears as a multitude of narrow bands of color. These so-called line spectra are
characteristic of the atomic composition of the gas.

ATOMIC ENERGY LEVELS
Our present model of the atom is based on the concept of energy levels for electrons within
an atom and on the mathematical interpretation of detailed atomic spectra. The requirements for
our model are:
1. Each electron in a particular atom has a unique energy that depends on the relationship
between the negatively charged electron and both the positively charged nucleus and the
other negatively charged electrons in the atom.
2. The energy of an electron in an atom can increase or decrease, but only by specific
amounts, or quanta.
A. Energy Levels
We picture an atom as a small nucleus surrounded by a much larger volume of space
containing the electrons. This space is divided into regions called principal energy levels,
numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, outward from the nucleus.
Each principal energy level can contain up to 2n2 electrons, where n is the number of the
level. Thus, the first level can contain up to 2 electrons, 2(12) = 2; the second up to 8 electrons,

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2(22) = 8; the third up to 18, 2(32) = 18; and so on. Only seven energy levels are needed to
contain all the electrons in an atom of any of those elements now known.
As stated earlier, the energy associated with an energy level increases as the distance
from the nucleus increases. An electron in the seventh energy level has more energy associated
with it than does one in the first energy level.
The lower the number of the principal energy level, the closer the negatively charged
electron in it is to the positively charged nucleus and the more difficult it is to remove this
electron from the atom.
B. Sublevels and Orbitals

When an electron is in a particular energy level, it is more likely to be found in some parts of that
level than in others. These parts are called orbitals. Orbitals of equivalent energy are grouped in
sublevels. Each orbital can contain a maximum of two electrons. When in a magnetic field, the
two electrons in a particular orbital differ very slightly in energy because of a property called
electron spin. The theory of electron spin states that the two electrons in a single orbital spin in
opposite directions on their axes, causing an energy difference between them. (Like many
models, this explanation is an oversimplification, but for the purpose of this course it is a useful
description.)
Each principal energy level has one sublevel containing one orbital, an s orbital, that can
contain a maximum of two electrons. Electrons in this orbital are called s electrons and have the
lowest energy of any electrons in that principal energy level. The first principal energy level
contains only an s sublevel; therefore, it can hold a maximum of two electrons.
Each principal energy level above the first contains one s orbital and three p orbitals. A
set of three p orbitals, called the p sublevel, can hold a maximum of six electrons. Therefore, the
second level can contain a maximum of eight electrons - that is, two in the s orbital and 6 in the
three p orbitals.
Each principal energy level above the second contains, in addition to one s orbital and
three p orbitals, a set of five d orbitals, called the d sublevel. The five d orbitals can hold up to 10
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electrons. Thus, the third level holds a maximum of 18 electrons: 2 in the s orbital, 6 in the three
p orbitals, and 10 in the five d orbitals.
The fourth and higher levels also have an f sublevel, containing seven f orbitals, which
can hold a maximum of 14 electrons. Thus, the fourth level can hold up to 32 electrons: 2 in the s
orbital, 6 in the three p orbitals, 10 in the five d orbitals, and 14 in the seven f orbitals. The
sublevels of the first four principal energy levels and the maximum number of electrons that the
sublevels can contain are summarized in Table 5.1.
To distinguish which s, p, d, or f sublevel we are talking about, we precede the letter by

the number of the principal energy level. For example, the s sublevel of the second principal
energy level is designated 2s; the s sublevel of the third principal energy level is designated 3s;
and so on. The number of electrons occupying a particular sublevel is shown by a superscript
after the letter of the sublevel.
The notation means that five
electrons are contained in the p
sublevel of the fourth energy
level
Orbital shapes and sizes
Each orbital has a unique shape and size. The

shapes of s and p orbitals are shown. In these diagrams,
the nucleus is at the origin of the axes. The s orbitals are
spherically symmetrical about the nucleus and increase
in size as distance from the nucleus increases. The 2s
orbital is a larger sphere than the 1s orbital, the 3s orbital
is larger than the 2s orbital, and so on..
Perspective representations of the s and the three p
orbitals of a single energy level. The clouds show the
space within which the electron is most apt to be. The
lower sketch shows how these orbitals overlap in the
energy level.
The three p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped, with the
nucleus at the center of the dumbbell. They are oriented at
right angles to one another along the x, y, and z axes,
hence we denote them as px, py, and pz. Like the s orbitals,
the p orbitals increase in size as the number of the principal energy level increases; thus a 4p
orbital is larger than a 3p orbital.
The shapes of d orbitals are

shown. The five d orbitals are
denoted by dxy, dyz, dxz, dx2-y2,
and dx2. Notice that these
shapes are more complex than
those of p orbitals, and recall

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that the shapes of p orbitals are more complex than those of s orbitals. Clearly, the shape of an
orbital becomes more complex as the energy associated with those orbital increases. We can
predict that the shapes of f orbitals will be even more complex than those of the d orbitals.
One further, important note about orbital shapes: These shapes do not represent the path
of an electron within the atom; rather, they represent the region of space in which an electron of
that sublevel is most apt to be found. Thus, a p electron is most apt to be within a dumbbell-
shaped space in the atom, but we make no pretense of describing its path.
The energy of an electron versus its orbital

Within a given principal energy level, electrons in p orbitals are always more energetic
than those in s orbitals, those in d orbitals are always more energetic than those in p orbitals, and
electrons in f orbitals are always more energetic than those in d ortitals. For example, within the
fourth principal energy level, we have:
In addition, the energy associated with an orbital increase as the number of the principal
energy level of the orbital increases. For instance, the energy associated with a 3p orbital is
always higher than that associated with a 2p orbital, and the energy of a 4d orbital is always
higher than that associated with a 3d orbital. The same is true of s orbitals:
Each orbital is not a region of space separate from the space of other orbitals. If all those
orbitals were superimposed on one another, you would see that a great deal of space is included
in more than one orbital. For example, a 3p electron can be within the space assigned to a 3d or
3s orbital as well as within its own 3p space.
There is also an interweaving of energy

levels. In order of increasing energy, all the orbitals
of the first four energy levels. Notice that the
energy of a 3d orbital is slightly higher than that of
a 4s orbital, and that of a 4d orbital is a little higher
than that of a 5s orbital. Note especially the overlap
of orbitals in the higher principal energy levels.
THE BOHR MODEL

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In 1913, a Danish physicist, Niels Bohr (1885–1962; Nobel Prize in Physics, 1922),
proposed a theoretical model for the hydrogen atom that explained its emission spectrum. Bohr’s
model required only one assumption: The electron moves around the nucleus in circular orbits
that can have only certain allowed radii. As discussed in Chapter 1 "Introduction to Chemistry",
Rutherford’s earlier model of the atom had also assumed that electrons moved in circular orbits
around the nucleus and that the atom was held together by the electrostatic attraction between the
positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electron. Although we now know that the
assumption of circular orbits was incorrect, Bohr’s insight was to propose that the electron could
occupy only certain regions of space.
Using classical physics, Bohr showed that the
energy of an electron in a particular orbit is given by
where ℛ is the Rydberg constant, h is Planck’s

constant, c is the speed of light, and n is a positive integer
corresponding to the number assigned to the orbit,
with n = 1 corresponding to the orbit closest to the
nucleus.The negative sign is a convention indicating that
the electron-nucleus pair has a lower energy when they
are near each other than when they are infinitely far apart,
corresponding to n = ∞. The latter condition is arbitrarily
assigned an energy of zero. Thus the orbit with n = 1 is
the lowest in energy. Because a hydrogen atom with its
one electron in this orbit has the lowest possible energy,
this is the ground state, the most stable arrangement for a hydrogen atom. As n increases, the
radius of the orbit increases; the electron is farther from the proton, which results in a less stable
arrangement with higher potential energy.A hydrogen atom with an electron in an orbit with n >
1 is therefore in an excited state: its energy is higher than the energy of the ground state. When
an atom in an excited state undergoes a transition to the ground state in a process called decay, it
loses energy by emitting a photon whose energy corresponds to the difference in energy between
the two states

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So the difference in energy (ΔE) between any two orbits or energy levels is given by
where n1 is the final orbit and n2 the initial orbit. Substituting from Bohr’s equation each energy
value gives
If n2 > n1, the transition is from a higher energy state (larger-radius orbit) to a lower energy state
(smaller-radius orbit). Substituting hc/λ for ΔE gives
Canceling hc on both sides gives
Except for the negative sign, this is the same equation that Rydberg obtained
experimentally. The negative sign in the equations indicates that energy is released as the
electron moves from orbit n2 to orbit n1 because orbit n2 is at a higher energy than orbit n1. Bohr
calculated the value of ℛ independently and obtained a value of 1.0974 × 107 m−1, the same
number Rydberg had obtained by analyzing the emission spectra.
In contemporary applications, electron transitions are used in timekeeping that needs to be exact.
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Telecommunications systems, such as cell phones, depend on timing signals that are accurate to
within a millionth of a second per day, as are the devices that control the US power grid. Global
positioning system (GPS) signals must be accurate to within a billionth of a second per day,
which is equivalent to gaining or losing no more than one second in 1,400,000 years.
Quantifying time requires finding an event with an interval that repeats on a regular basis.
To achieve the accuracy required for modern purposes, physicists have turned to the atom. The
current standard used to calibrate clocks is the cesium atom. Supercooled cesium atoms are
placed in a vacuum chamber and bombarded with microwaves whose frequencies are carefully
controlled. When the frequency is exactly right, the atoms absorb enough energy to undergo an
electronic transition to a higher-energy state. Decay to a lower-energy state emits radiation. The
microwave frequency is continually adjusted, serving as the clock’s pendulum. In 1967, the
second was defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 oscillations of the resonant frequency of a
cesium atom, called the cesium clock. Research is currently under way to develop the next
generation of atomic clocks that promise to be even more accurate. Such devices would allow
scientists to monitor vanishingly faint electromagnetic signals produced by nerve pathways in the
brain and geologists to measure variations in gravitational fields, which cause fluctuations in
time, that would aid in the discovery of oil or minerals.
Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom gave an exact explanation for its observed emission
spectrum. The following are his key contributions to our understanding of atomic structure:
 Electrons can occupy only certain regions of space, called orbits.

 Orbits closer to the nucleus are lower in energy.
 Electrons can move from one orbit to another by absorbing or emitting energy, giving
rise to characteristic spectra.
Unfortunately, Bohr could not explain why the electron should be restricted to particular
orbits. Also, despite a great deal of tinkering, such as assuming that orbits could be ellipses
rather than circles, his model could not
quantitatively explain the emission spectra of any
element other than hydrogen (Figure "The
Emission Spectra of Elements Compared with
Hydrogen"). In fact, Bohr’s model worked only for
species that contained just one electron: H, He+,
Li2+, and so forth. Scientists needed a fundamental
change in their way of thinking about the electronic
structure of atoms to advance beyond the Bohr
model.
Thus far we have explicitly

considered only the emission of light by
atoms in excited states, which produces an
emission spectrum. The converse,
absorption of light by ground-state atoms to
produce an excited state, can also occur,
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producing an absorption spectrum. Because each element has characteristic emission and
absorption spectra, scientists can use such spectra to analyze the composition of matter.
Applications of Emission and Absorption Spectra
If white light is passed through a sample of hydrogen, hydrogen atoms absorb energy as
an electron is excited to higher energy levels (orbits with n ≥ 2). If the light that emerges is
passed through a prism, it forms a continuous spectrum with black lines (corresponding to no
light passing through the sample) at 656, 468, 434, and 410 nm. These wavelengths correspond
to the n = 2 to n = 3, n = 2 to n = 4, n = 2 to n = 5, and n = 2 to n = 6 transitions. Any given
element therefore has both a characteristic emission spectrum and a characteristic absorption
spectrum, which are essentially complementary images.
Emission and absorption spectra form the basis of spectroscopy, which uses spectra to provide
information about the structure and the composition of a substance or an object. In particular,
astronomers use emission and absorption
spectra to determine the composition of

stars and interstellar matter. Because the
sun is very hot, the light it emits is in the
form of a continuous emission spectrum. Superimposed on it, however, is a series of dark lines
due primarily to the absorption of specific frequencies of light by cooler atoms in the outer
atmosphere of the sun. By comparing these lines with the spectra of elements measured on Earth,
we now know that the sun contains large amounts of hydrogen, iron, and carbon, along with
smaller amounts of other elements. During the solar eclipse of 1868, the French astronomer
Pierre Janssen (1824–1907) observed a set of lines that did not match those of any known
element. He suggested that they were due to the presence of a new element, which he named
helium, from the Greek Helios, meaning “sun.” Helium was finally discovered in uranium ores
on Earth in 1895.

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The familiar red color of “neon” signs used in advertising is due to the emission spectrum
of neon. Similarly, the blue and yellow colors of certain streetlights are caused, respectively, by
mercury and sodium discharges. In all these cases, an electrical discharge excites neutral atoms
to a higher energy state, and light is emitted when the atoms decay to the ground state. In the
case of mercury, most of the emission lines are below 450 nm, which produces a blue light. In
the case of sodium, the most intense emission lines are at 589 nm, which produces an intense
yellow light.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUANTUM THEORY AND CLASSICAL PHYSICS

Our intuitions are tuned to classical physics---the collection of physical laws and equations that
govern the behavior of ordinary objects. For example, your car keys typically stay right where
you put them an hour ago and don’t reappear in the refrigerator. It’s possible to plan an outfit the
night before because your clothes don’t change color in the closet. And, notwithstanding the
batter, a well-pitched baseball
usually arrives at the catcher’s
mitt and not in another
stadium.
The world of classical
physics is predictable to an
incredible degree: If you know
the initial location and speed of
an object, as well as the forces
that act on it, you can predict
its future motion with near-
perfect certainty. That’s how
NASA can place a spacecraft
at a precise location a billion
kilometers away.
But in the quantum

world---the world that emerges
down near the scale of
atoms---things are different.
Not spooky or incomprehensible. Just way different.
In the quantum world, our intuitions about nature become less reliable. For one, quantum
objects don’t have perfectly predictable motions---not even in principle. A quantum spacecraft
wouldn’t follow a single path. Instead, it would act like it was following many different paths. So
while NASA can keep track of the precise path taken by an ordinary spacecraft on its journey,
they would have no such luck with a quantum one. The best they could do is launch it and then
use quantum physics to calculate the probability that the spacecraft reaches a given point at a
given time.
Quantum physics is slippery like this. A quantum object's position or speed can exist as a
combination of possibilities until you measure it---that is, until you observe its location or how
fast it's going. Once that happens, the combination vanishes, and position or speed can assume
definite values. But as time goes on, those values tend to become uncertain again.

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This innate uncertainty---and the accompanying probabilities---are core features of
quantum physics. But there are other things that set the quantum world apart from the classical
world.
One is illustrated by the difference
between a ramp and a staircase. On a ramp,
every spot along the way is fair game for
taking a breather. But in the quantum world
some properties can only have particular
values, as though they were restricted to the
steps of a staircase. You can stand on step 2,
3 or 4---and even with your feet on two
different steps---but you can’t stand on step
2.67 or 4.29. Scientists call each of these
discrete steps a “quantum,” from the Latin
word for “how much,” and they say that
quantum properties with this staircase
structure are “quantized.”
In the quantum world, energy becomes one of these quantized properties. For something
large and classical, like a cat, there’s a ramp-like continuum of possible energies. But for tiny,
quantum things, like the atoms making up the cat, there is a staircase of allowed valuesThis
staircase is what gives each element in the periodic table its own distinct structure, with a unique
set of heights between each energy step---the distance between steps in a sodium atom is
different than in a neon atom or an oxygen atom or any other element. Quantum physics predicts
these patterns, which account for the different chemical and physical properties of all the
elements.
In fact, when an atom gains exactly the right amount of energy---no more, no less---one
of its electrons can climb the staircase to a higher energy. Eventually that electron will fall back
down, shedding the energy as a bundle of light---also known as a photon. The color of the
photon depends on how far the electron falls, which means different elements will glow with
different colors. Scientists can use these distinct colors like luminous fingerprints to identify
elements from afar, allowing them to determine the composition of distant stars or galaxies.
Quantization is just
one of the features of the
quantum world that clashes
with our intuition. There are
many others, including wave-
particle duality, entanglement,
the uncertainty principle and
spin---all of which have their
own counterintuitive aspects.
But although these features
can be difficult to grasp, their
predictive power is hard to

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deny: Together they form what is arguably the most well-tested description of nature that science
has ever produced.
CHAPTER SUMMARY

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CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
Directions: Carefully read the following questions below and choose the letter of your answer.
Write your answer on the space provided before the number.
_________1. It essentially deals with the question of whether rest and motion are relative or
absolute.
A. General Theory of Relativity C. Relativity
B. Newtonian Physics D. Special theory of Relativity.
_________2. It primarily applies to particles as they accelerate, particularly due to gravitation.
a. General Theory of Relativity c. Relativity

b. Newtonian Physics d. Special theory of Relativity.
_________3. Which of the following is NOT a main idea behind the special theory of relativity?
a. That there is no absolute frame of reference.

b. That the Earth is the only absolute frame of reference.
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c. That the laws of physics hold in every frame of reference.
d. That the speed of light is a universal constant that is always the same.
_________4. He demonstrated in 1928 that the Universe is expanding, showing beyond

reasonable doubt that the Universe sprang into being a finite time ago.
a. Albert Einstein
b. Isaac Newton
c. Edwin Hubble
d. Galileo Galilei
_________5. It is established when a body, not subjected to net external forces, is observed to
move in rectilinear motion at constant velocity.
a. Absolute Frame
b. Inertial Frame
c. Newtonian Frame
d. Starting Frame
_________6. It postulates that the laws governing all fundamental motions are the same in all
inertial frames.
a. Galilean Invariance
b. Newtonian Invariance
c. Einstein’s Invariance
d. Maxwell’s Invariance
_________7. This experiment was performed to detect the Earth’s motion through the ether
a. The Lorentz-FitzGerald Contraction

b. Michelson-Morley experiment
c. Hubble’s Experiment
d. Minkowski Experiment
___________8. Known as the slowing of time as perceived by one observer compared with
another, depending on their relative motion or positions in a gravitational field.
a. Time Dilation
b. Twin Paradox
c. Time Contraction
d. Clock Dilation
__________9. An observer at rest (relative to the moving object) would observe the moving
object to be shorter in length. This phenomenon is called _______________________.
a. Length contraction
b. Twin paradox
c. Time dilation
d. Spacetime
_________10. Applies to the no change of form of physical laws under a transformation, and is
closer in scope to the mathematical definition.
a. Constant
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b. Dilation
c. Invariance
d. Variance

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SCI 214: MODERN PHYSICS CHAPTER 4 QUANTUM THEORY OF

2nd SEMESTER S.Y. 2022-2023

Optics, science concerned with the

To the ancients, the processes of image formation were full

Light rays, waves, and wavelets

In 1690 Christiaan Huygens, a

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QUANTUM PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

One behavior of waves is Diffraction.

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Particle-Like Behavior of Light

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energy of a single photon is:

THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

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The photoelectric effect can be seen qualitatively on a gold leaf electroscope.

incident light and the threshold frequency.

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THE WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRONS (De Broglie Waves)

according to the equation:

where n = integer denoting the energy level.

Experimental Evidence for Matter Wave Duality

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Capiz State University – Burias Campus

Double-slit Experiment Using

Gold Foil Experiment Using Electrons

The traditional introduction to quantum mechanics involves discussing the breakdown of

2. Wien’s Displacement Law: As the temperature of a blackbody varies, so does

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Second Evidence of Classical Breakdown: The Photoelectric Effect

Ramifications of Einstein's Photon Theory of the Photoelectron effect

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Einstein's simple explanation completely accounted for the observed phenomenon in

Third Evidence of Classical Breakdown: Atomic Spectra

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characteristic of the atomic composition of the gas.

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B. Sublevels and Orbitals

To distinguish which s, p, d, or f sublevel we are talking about, we precede the letter by

Orbital shapes and sizes

Each orbital has a unique shape and size. The

The shapes of d orbitals are

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The energy of an electron versus its orbital

There is also an interweaving of energy

THE BOHR MODEL

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where ℛ is the Rydberg constant, h is Planck’s

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Canceling hc on both sides gives

 Electrons can occupy only certain regions of space, called orbits.

Thus far we have explicitly

spectra to determine the composition of

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THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUANTUM THEORY AND CLASSICAL PHYSICS

But in the quantum

Capiz State University – Burias Campus

Capiz State University – Burias Campus

Capiz State University – Burias Campus

Capiz State University – Burias Campus

_________2. It primarily applies to particles as they accelerate, particularly due to gravitation.

a. General Theory of Relativity c. Relativity