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IN THIS ISSUE JANUARY 2022
VOL. 61, NO. 1

CORROSION PREVENTION AND CONTROL WORLDWIDE MATERIALS PERFORMANCE

26
SPECIAL FEATURE

26 Never Again: The Case of Cracking Paint on a Steel Cargo

Container About the Cover
Umair Niaz Bukhari After extensive resurfacing of this Delcora
sludge tank, 80 mils of Sauereisen’s No. 210XHB
COATINGS & LININGS was spray applied and spark tested to protect
from future microbiologically influenced
30 The Durability of Modified Silane Coupling Mortar
Feng Bowen, Liu Jiesheng, Chen Yongfei, Tan Xiaoming, and
corrosion. Photo courtesy of Sauereisen.
Sun Zhengguang

36 Coating Removal by Heat Induction

Gisle Solhaug

40 Coatings & Linings Essentials

40 Achieving Circulating Fluidized Bed Boiler Maintenance Goals

CHEMICAL TREATMENT

44 Biofilms of Metallic Alloys in a Nanometer Scale

Khaled Habib and Khalid Al-Muhanna

MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN

48 Solvent-Free Graphene Epoxy Resin Composite Coating

Jin Han, Yiping Feng, Fangjie Ceng, Shu Jiang, Taolei Qiu,
Mingqiang Zhong, Guirong Guo, and Lingyun Zhang

52 Quantitative Coating Quality Assessment on an Offshore

Platform
Bojan Hudec, Karla Ribičić, Sanja Martinez, and Ivana Šoić

57 Materials Selection & Design Essentials

57 U.S. Navy Explores Using Drones, Sensors to Track Corrosion

2 JANUARY 2022 A L LV E N T ® V E
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM
 LORESCO
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IN THIS ISSUE JANUARY 2022
VOL. 61, NO. 1

CORROSION PREVENTION AND CONTROL WORLDWIDE MATERIALS PERFORMANCE

10 19 22
DEPARTMENTS

6 What’s Online @ www.materialsperformance.com

8 From the Editor’s Desk

www.ampp.org 10 Up Front

12 Company News

16 Material Matters
16 A Comparison of the Two Leading International Standards Related to Offshore
Atmospheric Coatings
19 Corrosion Mitigation Priorities in Electric Transmission, Distribution
MP (Materials Performance) is published monthly by AMPP (ISSN 0094-
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4 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

Trenton offers three Wax-Tape brand ®

anticorrosion wrap systems.

High-quality, easy-to-apply wraps that protect irregularly
shaped fittings and require minimal surface preparation.

Wax-Tape® #1
Anticorrosion Wrap:
A very durable wrap that uses a thick, non-stitch bonded synthetic
fabric and has no clay fillers, so it stays conformed to irregular
profiles. The wrap requires no abrasion blasting, can be backfilled
immediately and is compatible with cathodic protection.

Belowground applications

Wax-Tape® #2
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systems, with primers, fillers,
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WHAT’S ONLINE @ www.materialsperformance.com
Get the Latest See What’s Online
Corrosion News... this Month
Following are just a few of the
articles featured this month on

Online and
www.materialsperformance.com.

Features

On-the-Go! Corrosion Industry Implications

from the U.S. Infrastructure Bill
Congresswoman Lizzie Fletcher, who
represents the 7th District of Texas, explains
what the corrosion industry can expect from
the newly signed U.S. infrastructure package.

Findings Released from 2021

IMPACT Canada Study
The study’s key purpose was to foster
coordination between government and
industry to change the mindset about
corrosion mitigation being the sole concern
of materials and corrosion engineers, and
those that maintain corrodible assets.

Editor’s Choice
Three AMPP Standards
Committees Launch New Projects
As the calendar turns to 2022, here’s a look at
new guidelines, standards, and practices
that are currently being developed by
AMPP’s SC 04, SC 11, and SC 20 committees.

CO2 Corrosion of Pipe Fittings in

Shale Production
This article presents two case studies of
failed pipe fittings. A perforated tee and a
pipe nipple retrieved from onshore shale
production systems were analyzed to
determine the mechanism(s) contributing to
their corrosion and subsequent failure.

For even more corrosion news, visit

www.materialsperformance.com to
read MP articles that are exclusively
on the web.

6 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

 MARCH 6, 2022 | THE QUARRY GOLF COURSE | SAN ANTONIO, TX

JOIN US FOR THE 2022

DARREL D. BYERLEY MEMORIAL
GOLF TOURNAMENT
Don’t miss this chance to network with colleagues and
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premier golf courses, and helping to further the initiatives of
the AMPP EMERG Student Outreach Program.

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MARCH 6–10, 2022 | SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS

FROM THEEDITOR’S
FROMTHE EDITOR’SDESK
DESK

Using Protective www.materialsperformance.com

Coatings EDITORIAL
MANAGING EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Gretchen A. Jacobson

to Prevent
EDITOR Rebecca A. Bickham
TECHNICAL EDITOR Jack Tinnea
STAFF WRITER Ben DuBose

Corrosion
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Anthony Punt
PRODUCT MANAGER, Husna Miskinyar

H
ELECTRONIC MEDIA

GRAPHICS

H
ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING Teri J. Gilley
COORDINATOR
ello and happy new year! Hopefully this new year finds you
rejuvenated and motivated to work together to protect materials
ADMINISTRATION
through the advancement of corrosion control and protective coat- CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER Robert (Bob) H. Chalker
ings—ensuring the maximum performance, integrity, and durabil- DIRECTOR, MEDIA AND Eliina Lizarraga
PUBLICATIONS
ity of the assets our society depends on every day.
We here at MP have a great deal of exciting editorial themes and meaningful content
planned for the upcoming year and can’t wait to share it all with you. This month’s issue ADVERTISING
SALES MANAGER Diane Gross
focuses on corrosion prevention through the use of protective coatings. Coatings are diane.gross@ampp.org,
applied on substrates both externally and internally and form a barrier in order to pro- +1 281-228-6446
tect an asset against corrosion. Technology is in this area is ever-evolving and this issue EXHIBIT AND SPONSORSHIP Tiffany Krevics
SALES REPRESENTATIVE tiffany.krevics@ampp.org,
of MP is chock full of information pertaining to coatings. +1 281-228-6411
Having a thorough understanding of why a coating failed is a prerequisite to prevent- MEDIA SALES REPRESENTATIVE Janis Mason
ing similar failures from reoccurring. Our feature article on page 26 uncovers the reasons janis.mason@ampp.org,
for several coating failures on the external surfaces of a carbon steel cargo container +1 847-234-6402
MEDIA SALES REPRESENTATIVE Leslie Whiteman
through coating failure analysis.
leslie.whiteman@ampp.org,
In one of the technical articles written by Bojan Hudec, Karla Ribi čić, Sanja Martinez, +1 281-228-6248
and Ivana Šoić, early signs of coating degradation were investigated on a docked, jack- ADVERTISING AND Brenda Nitz
eted offshore platform 1.5 and 2 years after full coating renewal. Through their research, MANUSCRIPT COORDINATOR brenda.nitz@ampp.org,
+1 281-228-6219
the experts were able to quantitatively assess coating degradation in situ and identify a
platform site with limited coating durability. More can be found in the article on page 52. AMPP Contact Information
The technical article by Gisle Solhaug on page 36 contains information about the use Tel: +1 281-228-6200 Fax: +1 281-228-6300
Email: customersupport@ampp.org Web site: www.ampp.org
of heat induction as a method of removing various coatings on steel substrates. Advan-
tages and disadvantages over traditional methods, along with various areas of applica-
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
tions, are also discussed.
Zahid Amjad, FNACE Walsh University
The Material Matters article on page 16 compares the two leading international stan-
Wayne Frenier Frenier Chemical Consultants
dards related to offshore atmospheric coatings. They have some significant differences in Fred Goodwin Consultant
their testing protocols. Read the article to discover how these two standards stack up and Jerry Holton Unconventional Solutions, Inc.
which, if either, the experts recommend. W. Brian Holtsbaum Corsult Associates (1980), Ltd.
Let’s continue to help prevent and control corrosion together in 2022! Russ Kane iCorrosion, LLC
Ernest Klechka CITGO Petroleum Corp.
Guo Liu Beijing Cathtop Technology Co., Ltd.
Lee Machemer Jonas, Inc.
Calvin R. Pynn Prydwen International, Inc.
Vilupanur A. Ravi California State Polytechnic
Rebecca Bickham, University, Pomona
Editor, rebecca.bickham@ampp.org John S. Smart III John Smart Consulting Engineer
Laura Machuca Suarez Curtin Corrosion Centre

8 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

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UP FRONT

Moorhead Water Tank Named

2021 Tank of the Year PPG Earns U.S. EPA
Registration for First
Protective coatings manufacturer Tnemec announced the winner of its
Virus-Killing Paint
2021 Tank of the Year competition: an energetic, colorful, wrap-around
Coatings manufacturer PPG (Pittsburgh,
mural covering a 750,000-gal (2.8 million-L) composite elevated water Pennsylvania, USA) received U.S. Environ-
tank in Moorhead, Minnesota, USA. This mural was completed using mental Protection Agency (EPA) registra-
Series 700 HydroFlon, which is Tnemec’s UV-resistant fluoropolymer tion for its Copper Armor antimicrobial
finish. paint containing Corning Guardiant tech-
The Moorhead nology. According to PPG, this technology
water tank was can kill 99.9% of bacteria and viruses on
painted surfaces, including SARS-CoV-2,
honored after
in 2 h.
months of com-
The product’s efficacy was measured
petition, during using tests that simulate real-world con-
which nearly 300 tamination that are mandated by the EPA
water tanks of all for products making claims against harmful
U.S. and Cana- pathogens. Following this registration, PPG
dian varieties began selling the product in late 2021
were considered. through U.S. PPG PAINTS stores, indepen-
dent retailers, and select home improve-
Since the contest
ment stores.
began in 2006,
Available in eggshell, satin, and semi-
Tnemec has gloss, PPG Copper Armor can be tinted to
looked for entries more than 600 colors from the PPG paint
that best exem- palette, and the zero volatile organic com-
plify innovative An award-winning elevated water tank in Moorhead, Minnesota, pound paint provides the same hide, dura-
USA. Photo courtesy of Tnemec. bility, and premium application properties
and creative uses
of its coatings. as standard PPG paints. The product also
The winning tank project was completed in July 2021 by engineering provides a mold- and mildew-resistant
coating on the dry paint film.
firm Apex Engineering Group (Fargo, North Dakota, USA) for asset owner
“Now more than ever, our customers are
Moorhead Public Service, a local water and electric utility. As Tnemec seeking multiple layers of protection from
notes in its announcement, “the project team has now added another viruses and bacteria on the many surfaces
stunning water tank to their skyline that will retain its vibrant color and they’re touching while navigating the
gloss for a long time, and serve as a community billboard for visitors near ongoing pandemic,” says Tim Knavish, exec-
and far.” It was selected by Tnemec’s panel of water tank enthusiasts utive vice president. “PPG Copper Armor
based on criteria such as artistic value, community significance, and chal- with Corning Guardiant technology is the
lenges encountered during the project. first virus-killing paint in the United States,
and will provide an extra layer of protection
A water tank in Rochester, Minnesota, was voted by the general public
on the walls that surround us where we live,
as the People’s Choice award winner, with more than 5,000 votes. In total,
work, and learn.”
more than 17,000 votes were cast. For more information, visit www.
“This is the 16th anniversary of the competition, and Tnemec’s 100th ppgpaints.com/copper-armor.
year in business,” says Scott Keilbey, director of water tank market sales.
“This year’s finalists represent several different types of water tanks in Chemours Unveils Coatings
various shapes and sizes and are a nod to the history of excellence sur- Sustainability Poll Results
rounding Tnemec water tank coatings.” Global chemistry company Chemours
For information on all 12 finalists, visit tnemec.com/tankoftheyear. The (Wilmington, Delaware, USA) released its
Tank of the Year is featured as January in Tnemec’s 2022 water tank coatings sustainability poll results, showing
calendar, while other finalists and nominees are included in the following that 63% of coatings professionals identify
months. balancing sustainability and cost as their
greatest challenge to advancing sustainabil-
ity in coatings design. More than 220

10 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

professionals completed the poll during the
2021 European Coatings Show (ECS) Con-
ference and European Coatings Journal
(ECJ) webinar.
Other professionals cited coatings qual-
ity or performance tradeoffs, regulatory
requirements and uncertainty, common
goals from supply chain producers, and
requirements for data and analytics—in
descending order of popularity—as their
greatest challenge.
“Too often, our conversations around
sustainability focus solely on what’s inside
the can. While that’s critically important,
we know environmental impact expands
beyond the can,” says Angela Sauvage,
global product development manager. “We
believe a holistic view to product sustain-
ability is the key to unlocking value—and
potential cost savings—for our customers
and end consumers.”
Chemours’ Ti-Pure brand team at
Chemours shared this perspective during its
recent ECJ webinar and ECS technical pre-
sentation, which focused on the role of tita-
nium dioxide (TiO2) in the evolution of
sustainable coatings design to a holistic
systems approach.
For more information, visit www.
chemours.com.

MP welcomes submissions of “Up Front” articles.

Please send photos and information to Ben DuBose,
AMPP; tel: +1 281-228-6414; email: ben.dubose@ampp.org.

MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 11

COMPANY NEWS

AkzoNobel Earns Royal Seal

Diamond Vogel Breaks Ground in Sustainability Leadership
on New Innovation Hub
Coating technologies company Diamond Vogel (Orange City, Iowa, USA)
celebrated the groundbreaking on a new, $15 million innovation center with a
ceremony on October 13, 2021.
The Orange City facility will add 36,000 ft2 (3,344.5 m2) of state-of-the-art lab-
oratory and office space, allowing up to 60 research and development scientists
to collaborate on
improvements and
advancements to
Diamond Vogel’s
extensive line of
paints and coatings. Thierry Vanlancker, CEO. Photo courtesy of
AkzoNobel.
Diamond Vogel
partnered with the
Paints and coatings manufacturer
architectural firm
AkzoNobel (Amsterdam, The Netherlands)
CMBA Architects
has received the Terra Carta Seal, which
(Sioux City, Iowa,
was recently launched by the Prince of
USA) to design the
Wales. The Terra Carta Seal is a major new
project and selected Image courtesy of Diamond Vogel.
award, which recognizes global companies
Hoogendoorn Con-
that are driving innovation and demon-
struction (Canton, South Dakota, USA) to manage the project’s construction.
strating a commitment to the creation of
Construction is now underway, with project completion anticipated by the end of
genuinely sustainable markets.
2022.
Thierry Vanlancker, CEO of AkzoNobel,
“The innovation center fulfills the need for additional effective and efficient
accepted the honor on the company’s
space to continue to explore cutting-edge advancements in paint and coating
behalf. “It’s a clear endorsement of all the
technology for our customers,” says Jeff Powell, president and CEO. “In addi-
work we’re doing across AkzoNobel and
tion, the innovation center will provide the capacity to meet our current and
everything we’ve achieved so far,”
future strategic objectives.”
Vanlancker says. “It also confirms the vital
role that paints and coatings can play
when you combine the precious and irre-
Hempel Returns a trusted partner for owners and applica-
placeable power of nature with the trans-
Jones-Blair Coatings tors. “We’ve been listening to our custom-
formative power of paint—which lies at
Brand to North America ers, heard they wanted the Jones-Blair
the heart of what we do for people and the
brand to return, and today, Jones-Blair is
environment.”
back,” says Todd Cottrell, Hempel’s vice
As the only paints and coatings manu-
president for the Americas region.
facturer to receive the prestigious honor,
National Coatings & Supplies (Raleigh,
AkzoNobel says it is among an elite group
Image courtesy of Hempel. North Carolina, USA) will be the exclusive
of companies who have been acknowl-
national distributor of the Jones-Blair
Coating solutions company Hempel edged for holding a leadership position.
product range.
(Lyngby, Denmark) announced the return On top of a goal of reducing carbon emis-
Hempel acquired U.S. firm Jones-Blair
of its iconic Jones-Blair brand with a sions by 50% by 2030, the company is also
in 2015 and integrated it into Hempel’s
refreshed brand identity, logo, and web site. targeting 100% renewable electricity and
more extensive brand portfolio in 2017.
According to the company, Jones-Blair is zero non-reusable waste, also by 2030.
Hempel also acquired Jones-Blair’s
broadly specified across oil and gas and In addition, AkzoNobel recently
Neogard brand, a U.S. manufacturer of
industrial markets and is recognized for became the first paints and coatings com-
high-performance coatings to protect the
high-performance, high-gloss, anticorro- pany to have science-based sustainability
building envelope through vehicular and
sion coatings. targets officially validated by the Science
pedestrian traffic coatings, protective roof
With more than 90 years of proven per- Based Targets initiative.
coatings, seamless flooring,
Image andofelasto-
courtesy Hempel.
formance in the field, Jones-Blair has been meric wall coatings.

12 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

Covestro, University of
Pittsburgh Launch Circular
Economy Program
The rise of circular economy principles,
where materials are kept in continuous
tools to aid circular design. The program
will enable graduate students at Pitt to
become experts in circular economy prin-
ciples, informed by Covestro’s advances in
this area, and ultimately create circular,
sustainable products and service solu-
tions. The first cohort of graduate students
will be recruited for fall 2022.
Continued on page 14

use by design across industries, has led to

a new collaboration between Covestro,
LLC (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA) and
the University of Pittsburgh (Pitt). Pitt’s
Mascaro Center for Sustainable Innova-
tion and Swanson School of Engineering
will house the new Covestro Circular
Economy Program.
The Covestro Circular Economy Pro-
gram represents the first graduate-level
circular design academic program in the
United States to specifically address the
challenge of global waste and material use.
The program aims to create opportunities
for the research, education, and innovative
advancement of circular economy princi-
ples that begin with academia and fuel
real-world solutions designed to save the
planet. For more information, visit engi-
neering.pitt.edu/circulareconomy.
The initial funding will help to estab-
lish a transdisciplinary academic,
research, innovation, and cooperative
employment initiative to prepare students
with circular economy training and exper-
tise to carry into academia, industry, gov-
ernment, and non-governmental organiza-
tions. Pitt and Covestro are also seeking to
collaborate with corporations, founda-
tions, and governments to expand the pro-
gram’s reach and potential.
According to program officials, profes-
sional training in the relevant sciences has
not included holistic training in circular • Direct to metal application
approaches. While the private sector
embeds circular design principles into its • Reduce downtime
innovation approach, academia has yet to
integrate design principles in advanced
• Quick return to service
degree programs. By establishing the pro- • Lower maintenance costs
gram, Covestro and the University of Pitts-
burgh are providing a dedicated academic • Increase pipeline durability and lifespan
• AWWA C222-08 certified
setting for passionate students and profes-
sionals to innovate new approaches to
materials, design, and planning.
Through the program, Covestro and
Pitt plan to create new fundamental sci-
ence that supports the assembly of new LEARN MORE AT ULTIMATELININGS.COM

MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 13

COMPANY NEWS
Continued from page 13
ASCO Relaunches Energy
Industry Recruitment Arm
Bob Watt, Shannon Stewart, Anneka Scales,
Cara Hughes, Shona Allan, Craig Revie. Photo
courtesy of ASCO.
Global integrated logistics and materials
management company ASCO (Aberdeen,
United Kingdom) has relaunched its
energy industry recruitment arm, OBM,
with the announcement of a relocation
and several new appointments.
With a track record reaching back over
40 years, OBM’s headquarters have relo-
cated from its original Inverness base to
ASCO’s Aberdeen headquarters. The move
comes as Craig Revie, general manager of
ASCO’s lifting specialist and training divi-
sion, NSL, takes over leadership of OBM
with a strategic vision to service the evolv-
ing offshore energy industry.
“As the energy transition gathers pace,
it becomes logical to relocate OBM to the
heart of ASCO operations in Aberdeen,”
Revie says. “With 40 years of supply chain
experience behind us, OBM’s robust client
and candidate connections make us the
obvious choice to drive the transfer of
skills to a renewable energy sector. We aim
to leverage our expert training capabilities
to build a skilled and compliant
workforce.”
Recent appointments to OBM include
Bob Watt, recruitment manager; Cara
Hughes, recruitment consultant; Shannon
Stewart, recruitment consultant; and
Anneka Scales, recruitment administrator.
“As renewable energy projects grow
both in number and in size, and our clients
in the energy industry place increasing
importance upon carbon neutral opera-
tions, the potential for compliant skills
shortages becomes ever more apparent,”
says Peter France, ASCO Group CEO. “The
time, therefore, is right to develop OBM—
building its capabilities in tandem with
14 JANUARY 2022
NSL, in order to create a transferable and
sustainable workforce both in the U.K. and
overseas.”
Eni, Oceanit Present HeatX
Nanocomposite for
Decarbonization
Image courtesy of Oceanit.
Italian energy firm Eni S.p.A. (Rome, Italy)
and Oceanit (Honululu, Hawaii) presented
the results of a collaborative pilot program
at last November’s Abu Dhabi Interna-
tional Petroleum Exhibition and Confer-
ence, which demonstrated the potential to
reduce carbon emissions from a single
power plant by 17,000 tons annually. The
12-month pilot was conducted at Eni’s
Nikaitchuq upstream facility in Alaska,
USA, where Oceanit applied its novel
nanocomposite treatment HeatX to com-
bat fouling and corrosion issues in heat
exchanger (HX) systems.
The negative impacts of fouling and
corrosion on HX systems is well docu-
mented in the energy industry, inflicting
losses in HX efficiency and productivity.
According to the companies, HX surfaces
treated with HeatX showed a 97%
improvement compared with untreated
control surfaces, preserving heat transfer
performance, preventing fouling, and
reducing the need for supplemental heat-
ing in the treated system.
These efficiency benefits affected a
direct reduction in fuel burned and emis-
sions released. Eni data shows that HeatX
nanocomposite, when fully deployed at
their Alaska facility across all HX systems,
could reduce annual facility emissions by
over 17,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2).
HeatX is an ultrathin surface treatment
that creates an extremely low surface
energy, making it difficult for any deposit
or fouling to adhere to treated surfaces.
HeatX had previously proven its capacity
to mitigate fouling in seawater-fed HX sys-
tems at a powerplant in Hawaii, but the
collaboration in Alaska was the first time
HeatX was tested in a refinery setting.
During the one-year pilot, a produced-
water exchanger (PWX) was treated with
HeatX, and a nearby sales-oil production
exchanger (SOPX) in the same process
train was left as an untreated control.
Despite the fact that the PWX handled
unprocessed crude oil, while the SOPX
handled the same product after process-
ing, the HeatX-treated PWX experienced
no surface buildup or deposits during the
deployment, while the control SOPX expe-
rienced significant buildup and exchanger
tube obstruction.
In a technical presentation and accom-
panying paper, Eni showed how the pilot
results represent significant potential for
carbon emissions reductions for global
refineries. At the Eni test facility, preserv-
ing heat transfer efficiency averted emis-
sions would equal the annual carbon
sequestration capacity of 19,500 acres
(7,891.65 ha) of forest.
Now that the HeatX technology has
been proven and the economic benefits
have been qualified on a pilot unit in the
field trial, Eni will deploy the HeatX nano-
composite on its production exchangers in
a nearby North Slope facility.
MP welcomes...
news submissions and
leads for the “Company
News” department.
Contact Ben DuBose at
ben.dubose@ampp.org.
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM
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MATERIAL MATTERS

A Comparison of the Two Leading

International Standards Related to
Offshore Atmospheric Coatings

T
he offshore environment is TABLE 1. Difference Between ISO 12944-9 and NACE TM0404/
highly corrosive, and due to TM0304
this, the service life of offshore ISO 12944-9 NACE TM0404/TM0304
platform coatings can be Test Time 25 weeks 12 weeks
extremely short, sometimes less than Rust Creep Test 72 h constant salt fog (5% NaCl) One-week QUV chamber,
eight years. When comparing the cost of 72 h QUV chamber, 4 h/60 °C, 4 h/60 °C, UV+ 4 h/50 °C
new construction vs. the cost of mainte- UV+ 4 h/50 °C condensation condensation
24 h/–20 °C freezer One week cyclic salt fog,
nance, the maintenance cost is much 1 week/cycle 1 h/25 °C salt fog + 1 h/35 °C
pricier—coming in at an order of magni- dry air
Two week/cycle
tude higher than new construction. It is,
Pull-off Adhesion Before and after the rust creep No requirement
therefore, imperative that facility owners test
make a coating selection that will yield Edge Coverage No requirement Peak DFT/flat DFT on aluminum
the longest service life possible. angle bar
Three major causes contribute to Thermal Cycling No requirement 60 °C/–30 °C cycling, 252 cycles
coating failures in offshore platforms: or three weeks

rust creepage at the scribes/scratches Coating Flexibility No requirement >1%

damaged by tools, early coating break-

down at sharp edges and corners, and TABLE 2. Candidate Coating Systems
thermal cycle cracking at corners. Coat No. Type of Coating and No. of Coats DFT (mil/μm)
Rust creepage, or underfilm corro- 1 Epoxy primer based (3) 20.6/523
sion, is a widespread problem on offshore 2 Epoxy primer based (3) 16.7/424
platforms. A great deal of activity and 3 Epoxy primer based (3) 29.4/747
operations take place on a regular basis, 4 Zinc epoxy primer (3) 27.3/693
which can lead to mechanical damages. 5 Epoxy primer based (2) 19.1/485
These dents, scratches, and scribes dam- 10 Zinc epoxy primer (3) 13.2/335
age coating and expose the metal under- 11 Zinc epoxy primer (3) 13.8/351
neath. Blisters normally form around 12 Zinc epoxy primer (3) 13.7/348
damaged areas because the steel begins 14 Zinc epoxy primer (3) 12.9/328
rusting and rust creepage occurs. 15 Zinc epoxy primer (3) 12.4/315
Early coating breakdown and holidays
are common on edges, a primary local- TABLE 3. Rust Creepage Test Results, Ranking in Performance
ized area. Coating is typically thin along Coating System NACE SP0108—Rust Creepage ISO 12944—Rust Creepage
sharp edges and corners, meaning it does (mm) (mm)
not provide adequate corrosion protec- 15 (OZ) 2.0 4.0
tion to the steel beneath it. In an attempt 4 (OZ) 2.2 3.0
to prevent this from occurring, workers 12 (OZ) 2.6 4.4
will round the edges and apply a stripe 14 (OZ) 2.7 5.1
coat. Coatings with improved edge reten- 10 (OZ) 3.1 7.1
tion can aid in protecting the edges from 1 (Epoxy) 3.2 7.1
corrosion. 11 (OZ) 4.9 4.9
Thermal cycle cracking occurs at the 3 (Epoxy) 7.9 11.4
inner corners where coating is thicker. 5 (Epoxy) 8.1 15.5
This is known to occur on structural 2 (Epoxy) 8.2 11.4

16 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

 Information on corrosion
control and prevention

I-beams and angle bars. Thicker coating

causes higher residual stresses that lead
to cracking due to changes in tempera-
ture between day and night. This can also
happen to equipment and piping that
experience temperature fluctuations due
to internal fluid or the environment,
causing the coating to expand and
contract.
To assess offshore atmospheric coat-
ings, two reputable international stan-
dards are used—ISO and NACE. The ISO
document used is ISO-12944-9; and the
NACE document used is either NACE
TM0404 (for new construction) or NACE
TM0304 (for maintenance).
The significant differences between
the standards include the cyclic test
method, for which ISO requires a 25-week
test and NACE requires only a 12-week
test; the duration for the rust creepage
test; and the NACE standard requires
other coating properties. These differ-
ences are listed in Table 1.
Because these two standards differ,
experts Sai P. Venkateswaran, Andy Bod-
ington, and Tim Bieri with BP America,
along with Benjamin T.A. Chang with
PolyLab, endeavored to discern whether
they lead to the selection of the same or a
different coating. They conducted rust
creepage tests according to the two stan-
dards and compared the differences on a
group of maintenance coatings, then
evaluated the outcomes.
For the experiment, the scientists
used three epoxy and seven zinc-rich
epoxy coatings systems (Table 2). They
tested all coating systems using the ISO
12944-9 rust creepage test, along with the
NACE TM0404 test standard, thermal
cycling test, and edge coverage test.
The rust creepage results show that
both the NACE and ISO test can deter-
mine good and bad performers from a
pool of candidates. It should be noted that
results for the ISO test are always higher
than the NACE test due to the longer
length of time the ISO test requires. Addi-
tionally, the two standards have different
pass/fail criterion regarding rust creep-
FIGURE 1 Rust creepage of the top three and bottom three performers.
age. Zinc-rich coatings will always have
Continued on page 18

MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 17

MATERIAL MATTERS
Continued from page 17

lower rust creepage than non-zinc coat- the test. That coating showed minor The researchers conclude that both
ings. Table 3 ranks the test results in cracks in the inner corners, which was the NACE and ISO standards are accept-
accordance with their performance. observed through the use of a red dye able at evaluating the rust creepage of
Figure 1 shows the results of the NACE penetrant. The NACE edge retention test potential coatings for the offshore envi-
test (left) and ISO test (right) of the top concluded that not all coatings displayed ronment. Both can successfully ascertain
and bottom coating performers. good edge retention. Acceptance criterion the effectiveness of a coating’s ability to
The NACE thermal cycling test is >50% and four coating systems fell resist rust creepage. In comparing and
revealed only one coating cracked during below that threshold. testing the two standards, both identified
the same good and bad performers.
Although the NACE standard requires
only a 12-week test (as opposed to the
three-month test ISO requires), it is
proven to be effective at identifying how
well a coating will perform.
Best Available Design Technology: A Focus Zinc-rich coatings display lower rust
on Pipeline Isolation creepage than non-zinc coatings; how-
ever, zinc-rich coatings face thermal
Sponsored By GPT cycling cracking and low edge retention.
To select a suitable coating, physical and
A deep dive into materials, design, and practices will provide the mechanical property evaluation should
audience with a much clearer view on what will optimize the isolation in
be considered along with rust creepage
pipelines not only for today, but in the future.
resistance or underfilm corrosion. The
additional tests included in the NACE
standard are helpful to rank the effective-
ness of the coating systems being
How the Absence of Corrosion Inspection evaluated.
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Corrosion Mitigation Priorities in
Electric Transmission, Distribution
P ublic Utilities Maintenance, Inc.
(PUM) (Queens Village, New York,
USA) is a global corrosion control con-
tractor specializing in the electric trans-
mission and distribution (T&D) industry.
They are part of the Painting Contractor
Certification Program (PCCP)/Quality
Procedures (QP) contractor group
through SSPC: The Society for Protective
Coatings, certified in QP1: Field Applica-
tion to Complex Industrial and Marine
Structures; QP2: Field Removal of Haz-
ardous Coatings; and QS1: Standard Pro-
cedure for Evaluating a Contractor’s
Advanced Quality Management System.
Employees of the company have also
taken courses in Lead Paint Removal (C3)
and the annual Lead Paint Removal
Refresher (C5).
Curt Hickcox, vice president of busi-
ness development, has worked at PUM for
more than 14 years. He’s been in the
industry since 1982 and has been active in
SSPC since before 1990. In addition to the
PCCP and courses, he has taken quality
control supervisor training and holds a
NACE Coating Inspector Program (CIP)
Level 1 certification.
Curt Hickcox. Photo courtesy of PUM.
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
Information on corrosion control and prevention
Previously, Hickcox was formally the
chairman of the TEG 368X, which was
T&D Standards Committee, and the chair
of two different task groups that wrote
new standards for the T&D industry relat-
ing to corrosion control issues. He’s cur-
rently involved as a document program
manager on the revision updating of
those standards.
In this recent podcast interview with
CoatingsPro Magazine, Hickcox shared
some of his insight on changes to the
industry, experiences with working on
standards, and hopes for the future. Read
on for a partial Q&A transcript.
Q: Tell our listeners a little bit about your
company and the types of projects that
you typically go out and complete.
A : We’ve been in business since 1992, and
our specific focus is the electric utility
industry. Even within that industry, we
really specifically focus on the transmis-
sion and distribution area, high voltage,
transmission start towers and poles, and
substation structures and equipment. It’s
a very niche, specialized field.
But there are a lot of aspects to the
corrosion issues in that particular mar-
ket, and there are a lot of very specific
requirements and working on those kinds
of structures and in that industry. So
that’s where our focus is, and 99% of the
business that we do is in that focus. We
work all over the United States, in Can-
ada, and abroad, but we work for your
power companies, coast to coast.
Q: So when we talk about that type of util-
ity infrastructure, what are the unique
needs from those types of clients? Why
are their needs such that a specialist,
such as PUM, is so useful?
A : Knowing the challenges of corrosion
control on these types of structures is
really key. It’s obviously very important to
keep the transmission towers and poles
and substation equipment in operation. If
the power pole falls down because of cor-
rosion and takes the high-voltage wires
with it, large blackouts, customer inter-
ruptions, and so forth would be the result.
So the reliability of the electric grid is
of utmost importance in the United
States. For many areas—economically,
security issues—all those are critical to
the United States. So it’s definitely in the
utility’s interest to keep their transmis-
sion and distribution assets in working
order.
The real challenge, though, is how to
take care of the corrosion—how to miti-
gate and eliminate the corrosion. When
talking about the structures, I’m talking
about a range: typically, from 69,000 V all
the way up to 765,000 V structures with
circuits. In the United States, there are a
few structures that go up to 1,000 kilo
volt, but most of the structures in the
United States range from 69 to 765 kV.
When we’re working on these struc-
tures, 95% of the time, they do not turn
the electricity off; we work on them while
the lines are energized. It’s very, very dif-
ficult for utilities to be able to get an out-
age to be able to turn the power off on
these lines, especially in the summertime
or in the painting season because the
demand for electricity is the highest at
that point due to air conditioning and
such, so they can’t get out. We have to do
them energized, so there’s significant
safety issues regarding that. There’s
Occupational Safety and Health Adminis-
tration regulations that are very specific
to working on structures that are ener-
gized, so it’s a whole different environ-
ment than painting a bridge or painting a
water tank. That’s one standpoint.
The other standpoint is we are work-
ing at height. Typically, these structures
are anywhere from 75 to 150 ft (22.9 to
45.7 m) high. We’re also out in the woods
in the hills and valleys; we’re not working
on a fixed jobsite. So it’s very difficult to
get access to these kinds of structures.
You can’t bring all kinds of heavy
equipment, or you’re very limited to the
kind of equipment that you can bring
onto a jobsite. We’re not blasting things—
JANUARY 2022 19
MATERIAL MATTERS
Photo courtesy of PUM.
we’re not doing all kinds of fancy service
preparation—just from a logistical stand-
point. We’re using coatings that are
designed for that kind of application.
We’re typically coating steel that is rusty,
has old existing coatings on there most of
the time, and those existing coatings have
lead on them, they’re typically applied 30,
40, 50 years ago or more. So we have to
deal with lead safety for our workers, lead
safety for the environment.
There are many, many considerations
that we have taken account for on these
projects, and our workers have to be spe-
cifically trained with those conditions in
mind. Again, the safety issues—the elec-
trical safety, the climbing safety—those
are the most important things that we
deal with, but the lead, and just in gen-
eral, all of these are the normal industrial
jobsite conditions that we encounter, and
they all come into play.
There are significant challenges. And
that’s, again, why we focus on this spe-
cific area of work. We do not paint
bridges, we don’t paint water tanks. Our
people are all focused on what we do
because of the significant safety, training,
and experience issues that they need to be
able to do this kind of work.
Q: What are some of the new technolo-
gies, materials, or processes? Or what’s
something new that you’re doing in 2021
to solve some of these corrosion issues for
utilities, relative to earlier in your career?
A : Probably the biggest technological
change is the introduction of rust-pene-
trating, high-solids sealers. Back earlier
20 JANUARY 2022
Photo courtesy of PUM.
in my career, when we had to prime, the
typical tower paint that we used was
designed for minimally prepared steel.
That’s always been the case. For so long
it’s been oil, zinc dust-type coatings
designed for high build application over
corroded or previously painted steel. But
there’s a point where sometimes they
need to be primed. And we used to use
just alkyd primer. That was the state-of-
the-art, and that was the typical applica-
tion when a primer was involved.
But the problem with those was the
amount of solids. They were typically 50,
55% solids by volume, and the problem
when you were applying them over old
coatings was that the solvent would work
its way into the edges, no matter how well
you prepared them, and cause the old
coatings to delaminate. And there were
potential failure points.
When the penetrating sealers were
introduced, that really was a huge step
forward in the fact that now we prepare
these services and everything. As I men-
tioned, we’re not blasting anything, we’re
not even doing power tool cleaning. When
you’re working on energized equipment,
you can’t have hoses and cables and all
kinds of stuff. So we’re using hand tools,
scrapers, wire brushes. That’s the typical
extent of the surface preparation that
we’re able to do (SSPC-SP 2, Hand Tool
Cleaning). So the advent of the sealers has
really been a step forward in the long-term
performance of these coating systems.
Because we still do the same surface
preparation, but now especially when
we’re using 100% solids type penetrating
sealers, you don’t have that solvent issue.
You don’t have anything working under
the edges of the old coatings to cause any
kind of potential delamination of the
primer and/or the finish coat. So it’s
really been a big step forward in the lon-
gevity and the performance of the coating
system.
Q: Are there any changes that you all are
anticipating coming up?
A : I think the biggest challenge in this
industry is the way utilities fund this type
of work. Based on federal regulations,
painting, which is what we typically are
doing, is technically considered a mainte-
nance operation. And since the electric
utility industry was deregulated several
years ago, maintenance budgets went
away at most utilities.
Back in the day, most utilities used to
have a set maintenance budget, and they
spent it on maintaining their infrastruc-
ture, whether it was a transmission, gen-
eration, etc. But when deregulation hap-
pened, maintenance went away, utilities
became more profit-oriented, and main-
tenance—which was a cost off the bottom
line—basically just came off. So utilities
became much more focused on capital
expenditures: construction, replacement,
that sort of thing.
That’s been the biggest impact to the
industry. And so there are many, many
more utilities in the United States that do
not do anything from a corrosion stand-
point on their transmission structures.
They’ll replace them all the time, but they
don’t maintain them because of the eco-
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

nomics and the accounting part of it. I
think going forward, the biggest change
that will be required in this country to
maintain the grid is to figure out a way of
allowing a utility to change their
accounting so they can use the capital
money they have, to use the budgets, to do
more corrosion control/mitigation on
their transmission system.
In the United States and Canada,
there are ~1 million steel high-voltage
transmission structures (that’s a good
estimate). In a normal painting year, a few
thousand, 5/6,000 of them maybe, are get-
ting painted. Well, do the math: five or
6,000 out of a million is not really getting
the job done. And there’ve been multiple
studies showing that most of the con-
struction of the electric grid in North
America was done back in the 60s, 70s,
80s. And, obviously, there were towers
that go all the way back to the turn of the
1900s. But the bulk of the structures were
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
Information on corrosion control and prevention
galvanized steel, and they’re all 50, 60, 70
years old now, and a huge percentage
need attention from a corrosion
standpoint.
Again, when you’re only looking at a
few thousand, 5 or 6,000 out of a million a
year, you’re just not going to get there. So
there needs to be a way that utilities can
fund these projects better. And I think
that that’s the biggest challenge from a
utility standpoint—and that will cer-
tainly be the biggest effect on us or this
business—is to get more work done.
By the same token, the biggest chal-
lenge that we have is our qualified work-
ers that do this work. It’s a very, very
challenging job to do painting on a high-
voltage transmission structure. I
explained about the electrical safety,
about the working at height issues for
protection. It’s a very difficult job. You’re
away, you’re on the road for months and
months at a time doing this work. So it’s
not a job for everybody and, unfortu-
nately, there’s not a large pool of qualified
people out there to do this work, and that
pool seems to be shrinking every year. So
that’s a big obstacle, especially if more
utilities do start figuring out how to fund
this and use capital money.
And if the government decides to
rewrite the regulations, allowing capital
money to be used to do corrosion mitiga-
tion, that’s going to be a big stumbling
block—finding the right kind of qualified
people to do this work.
CoatingsPro welcomed Curt Hickcox to
its podcast series in September. Listen to
that complete interview at coatingspromag.
com/podcasts. You can also read a case
study featuring PUM’s work to remove lead
paint and recoat 300 to 345 kV electric
transmission towers in CoatingsPro’s
November print issue.
—Ben DuBose
JANUARY 2022 21
PRODUCT SHOWCASE
Data Logger Series Receives EU Compliance
MOBILTEX (Calgary, Alberta, Canada), an XPV Water Partners company,
announced that it has achieved compliance with European Union (EU)
Conformité Européenne directives for its award-winning CorTalk uDL
series of dataloggers. An accredited independent lab has validated the
products against the EU’s Low Voltage Directive and Electromagnetic
Compatibility Directive, while a certified environmental auditor certified
alignment with the EU Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive.
With its GPS-based accurate timestamping, the CorTalk uDL1 Data
Logger is one of the industry’s smallest and toughest devices for collect-
ing alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) measurements from
cathodic protection (CP) systems. Designed to fit under standard CP test
caps, this rechargeable device automatically begins operation when
connected to a measurement cable and stores up to 2,000,000 readings.
The CorTalk uDL2 Data Logger is a tiny, yet highly capable, device that
provides comprehensive data measurement and logging of coupon
status in CP systems. This device offers reliable, accurate measurement
of AC density, coupon DC, a range of potential measurements, and
more. Data that is transmitted by MOBILTEX remote monitoring devices
is received and stored by CorView, an advanced cloud-based field man-
agement data platform. Using any web-enabled device, CorView can be
accessed from any location to access measurement data, create trending
graphs, and generate reports beyond just compliance. Tel: 1 844-689-
3282, web site: www.mobiltex.com.
22 JANUARY 2022
New Flex Grinding/Welding
PAPR System
Allegro Industries (Piedmont, South Caro-
lina, USA) has unveiled its new Allegro EZ
AIR Flex Grinding/Welding Powered Air
Purifying Respirator (PAPR), a complete
particulate system intended for industrial
applications where combined respiratory,
eye, and face protection are required. This
lightweight welding helmet features a
durable flip-up visor to expose a grind
shield below that maintains respiratory
protection so workers can continue grind-
ing or inspecting welds. It complies with
ANSI Z87+ and CAN/CSA z94.3 for face
shield and eye protection, is CE certified,
and National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health approved. Weighing
under 3 lb (1.4 kg) total, this complete sys-
tem features a motorized, lithium-ion
battery operating system that supplies a
constant supply of fresh, filtered air over
the user’s face. At an assigned protection
factor level of 25, it creates optimal pro-
tective pressure inside the respirator head
top, keeping away particulates such as
dust, steel, and manganese. The Allegro
EZ AIR Flex Grinding/Welding PAPR sys-
tem includes a welding shield made of
Dupont super-touch, flame-retardant
nylon that withstands extreme cold and
heat. It is large enough to accommodate
safety glasses, and also features an adjust-
able and durable Per-Lok ratcheting head
gear with a replaceable, ultra-soft sweat
band. Tel: 1 800-622-3530, web site: www.
allegrosafety.com.
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

Quick-Setting Repair Mortar
for Concrete Surfaces
Carboline (St. Louis, Missouri, USA), a
global manufacturer of high-performance
industrial coatings, has introduced Car-
bocrete 4010, a new fiber-reinforced repair
mortar with outstanding properties for
vertical and overhead concrete sub-
stances. This product can build up to 4 in
(10.16 cm) thick on vertical surfaces to
repair and resurface the most deterio-
rated concrete surfaces. It also offers a
quick setting ability that allows it to be
topcoated with various Carboline high-
performance linings in as a little as 6 h,
making it ideal for job site production. In
addition to its outstanding application
properties, Carbocrete 4010 exhibits low
shrinkage, high bond strength, and low
permeability, which are all critical fea-
tures in high moisture and underground
environments. It is also NSF/ANSI 61
approved for applications involving pota-
ble water. The applications for Carbocrete
4010 are extensive but are specifically
effective for water and wastewater struc-
tures such as manholes, wet wells, pipe-
lines, and others. “Carbocrete 4010 is an
excellent addition to the already estab-
lished Carboline family of concrete resur-
facers, which help repair, rebuild, and
restore concrete substrates before apply-
ing our lining systems,” says Brian
Cheshire, Carboline market manager—
water wastewater. Tel: +1 314-644-1000,
web site: www.carboline.com.
New Epoxy Structural
Adhesive Added to
Polymeric Portfolio
Protective coatings and repair composites
manufacturer Belzona (Harrogate, United
Kingdom) has expanded its product offer-
ing with Belzona 7311, a new high-perfor-
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
mance epoxy structural adhesive. This
cold-bonding adhesive is specially opti-
mized for structural bonding applications
subject to cyclic and repeated load where
high mechanical strength, cleavage, shear,
and fatigue resistance are required.
Thanks to its combination of high-perfor-
mance properties and ease of use, Belzona
7311 is a valuable asset for any engineer
looking for bonding solutions. Belzona
cold bonding technology has already been
used in numerous application areas for
decades. Although these systems provide
effective bonding solutions, they are
designed to be used across a wide range of
applications and, therefore, are not exclu-
sively optimized for use as structural
adhesives. Given the clear demand for
cold-bonding solutions, a polymeric solu-
tion was designed exclusively for struc-
tural bonding applications. Other key
benefits of this product include the follow-
ing: excellent adhesion to metallic sub-
strates; suitable for dry or wet service
between –22 °F (–30 °C) and 140 °F (60 °C);
cold-curing, solvent-free material that
keeps the application environment safe;
and easy to mix and apply without spe-
cialist tools. Tel: +44 1423 567641, web site:
www.belzona.com.
Reactive Waterborne
Emulsifier for
Solid Epoxy Resins
Solvay (Brussels, Belgium) has developed
Reactsurf 0092, an alkylphenol ethoxyl-
ates-free and non-ionic reactive water-
based emulsifier for solid epoxy resins
mainly for use in industrial coatings and
paints or binders. This unique and versa-
tile technology allows for the formulation
The Latest Tools for
Fighting Corrosion
of high-performance waterborne epoxy-
based coatings that can match or exceed
that of solvent-based coatings, but with an
appreciably lower level of volatile organic
compounds. This new, cost-effective, and
environmentally and processing-friendly
emulsifier phases with no additional
chemical modification required. “Solvay’s
Reactsurf 0092 emulsifier incorporates a
highly reactive functional cross-linking
group, a perfect balance and synergy
between emulsification and epoxidation
to achieve a highly reactive emulsifier,”
says Rong Er Lin, research and innovation
manager—Solvay Novecare Coatings
Asia-Pacific. “This offers good particle
size control for optimum emulsion coales-
cence and consistency without reduction
in strength and provides excellent appli-
cation performance and emulsion stabil-
ity of paints and coatings.” Waterborne
epoxy emulsions that incorporate
Reactsurf 0092 exhibit excellent freeze-
thaw (F/T) resistance that are still flow-
able under 14 °F (–10 °C) at up to five F/T
cycles. Results of salt-spray tests (ASTM
B117) on cold-steel rolled plates coated
with epoxy emulsion paint with both
high- and low-pigment volume concentra-
tions display a combination of high corro-
sion resistance, superior wet adhesion,
and no peel off, contrary to test bench-
marks. Tel: +32 2 2642111, web site: www.
solvay.com.
Continued on page 24
MP welcomes new product
information
for Product Showcase.
Send press releases
and photos to
Anthony Punt at
anthony.punt@ampp.org.
JANUARY 2022 23
PRODUCT SHOWCASE
Continued from page 23
Artificial Intelligence Tool
for Computer-Aided
Engineering
Hexagon Manufacturing Intelligence
(North Kingston, Rhode Island, USA) has
released ODYSSEE A-Eye, a new artificial
intelligence tool that enhances computer-
aided engineering (CAE) for a multitude of
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industry solutions without the need for
complex CAE preparation and simulation
expertise. ODYSSEE A-Eye applies
advanced pattern recognition to images,
pictures, video, and simple datasets so
that they can be analyzed for machine
learning (ML) applications in engineering
simulations. The tool’s unique ability to
match existing CAE simulation data and
provide like-for-like predictions based on
a posed problem makes it an invaluable
tool for use in any engineering-related
problem. Applying ML processes to
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training data to produce valid and reliable
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FEATURE ARTICLE
Never Again: The Case of
Cracking Paint on a Steel
Cargo Container
By Umair Niaz Bukhari
G
Good coating performance, in
which desired service life is achieved,
involves a vital convergence of
parameters, and all of those factors
demand equal consideration. When
we say a coating system has failed, it
means it can unpleasantly disturb
the performance of the substrate it
was envisioned to protect, thereby
resulting in corrosion-based damage,
blistering, and probably the origina-
tion of fatigue cracking. Such failures
can damage the reputation of the
manufacturer, and they can also lead
to legal actions, recalls, and delays in
delivery due to quality concerns.
Having a thorough understanding of
why a coating failed is a prerequisite
to preventing similar failures from
reoccurring. Selection of the right
product for the environment, applied
over the proper surface prep under
the right environmental conditions,
is critical to gaining that result.
The selection of a coating is a multipart
process that requires the designer to deter-
mine not only the purpose of the coating
when it is put into service, but also how the
item being coated is expected to be erected
and positioned in service. The following
steps should be considered when conduct-
ing any coating failure analysis:
26 JANUARY 2022
•
•
Determine the type of failure;
Examine the complete coating applica-
tion proceedings;
• Review the specification for the applied
coating;
• Visit the site and collect photo
evidence;
• Perform laboratory examinations of
tests and samples, if possible;
• Report the failure mechanism.
Coating failures cannot be appropri-
ately identified if any of these six steps is
avoided because of a misleading supposi-
tion or assumption.
This article focuses on several coating
failures on the external surfaces of a carbon
steel cargo container. Because this con-
tainer was newly constructed, a fresh paint-
ing system was applied and touched up or
spot repaired in some locations. The period
between painting and delivery of the con-
tainer was eight months, and the paint fail-
ure showed up at various locations
throughout the exterior surface of this
container.
Proposal and Execution
The cargo site’s management personnel
looked for an approach that, according to
them, would stop further damage. The solu-
tion proposed and agreed upon was to
repair the damaged coating.
The coating repair was completed and,
to the disappointment of everyone
involved, the surfaces near the damaged
coatings were not overlapped. This was the
second time the exterior sides had been
coated. After several meetings, it was
agreed that the site’s property manager
would have the work inspected by an inde-
pendent coatings inspector. This is where I
came in.
Both the supplier and paint applicators
stated that there was sufficient dry film
thickness (DFT) and that the wall coating
system had been applied properly. Contrary
to what the supplier and paint applicators
stated, I found that the coating failure was
a direct result of an improperly applied
coating system.
Case Study
The 100 percent visual inspection
showed the presence of multiple coating
defects, including paint checking and
cracking. The visual assessment revealed
excessive cracks having reddish-brown rust
stains bleeding out of those cracks. Blisters
were clearly visible near the ground sup-
port as well.
The assessment indicated that most of
the failure was from where the coating met
the substrate, as the majority of the primer
could also be seen. The surface underneath
the coating system revealed rust deposits,
which means that the coating lacked adhe-
sion. It looked as though many large areas
had been applied with excessive coating
layers. Meanwhile, the coating was so thin
(two-layered) in other areas that you could
see through it. Rust stains/runs were
evident in certain locations.
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 27
FEATURE ARTICLE
Topcoat cracking is evident along with rust stains. Photo courtesy of
the author.
In some areas, the damaged coating was
easily removed with fingernails. There were
numerous points where the coating had
totally delaminated. Some of the delamina-
tions were 1 ft (0.3 m) long.
A coating thickness measurement was
carried out at various locations of the con-
tainer. An ultrasonic thickness gage was
used to measure the DFTs of the final coat-
ing. The readings near the damaged coating
locations were 6 to 8 mils (152.4 to 203.2
µm). This was well below the minimum
required DFT of the project specs and the
manufacturer’s product data sheet, which
called for ~11 mils (279.4 µm). The readings
near the edges and welding joints were 15 to
17 mils (381.0 to 431.8 µm).
Adhesion tests were conducted in five
locations on the container. Since the intent
was to cause minimum damage to the coat-
ing that was still intact, three dolly pull tests
were used (at least three are required by
ASTM D4541) in regions near the existing
surface coating defects. Two out of three
dollies showed poor adhesion via the pull-
off test.
Salt contamination swabs were col-
lected from the site and tested by argent-
ometry to check the levels of salt content
below the damaged coating.
A section of coating removed from the
cracked coating location was randomly
taken and analyzed using scanning electron
microscopy/energy dispersive x-ray spec-
troscopy (SEM/EDS) to understand the dif-
ferent layers of the coating and to check the
constituents at the base of the coating.
I came up with the following points as a
result of my detailed investigation:
• A documentation review of the inspec-
28 JANUARY 2022
Results of poor application and poor surface preparation. Photo
courtesy of the author.
tion reports as submitted by the con-
tainer’s vendor did not indicate
evidence of any sort of inspections of
salt contamination during the surface
preparation before proceeding with the
coating application.
• Close visual examination showed evi-
dence of multiple coating surface
cracks, checking, paint runs/sags, and
crazing imperfections.
• Adhesion testing revealed two out of
three readings that did not meet the
specification for adhesion compliance.
• Coating thickness measurements
showed several locations that were
either undercoated or excessively over-
coated.
• The coating was found to be very rigid
and showed evidence of almost no flexi-
bility, which went against compliance
with the technical data sheet (TDS) of
the paint supplier/manufacturer. Evi-
dence of failure during a coating flexi-
bility test, even with minor bending,
supported this conclusion.
• A random check on one section of the
coating by SEM analysis showed evi-
dence of gaps between different layers
of the system. In addition, the coating
did not comply with the project specifi-
cation because there were not three
layers of coatings.
• Tests conducted underneath the coating
at three locations showed evidence of
high levels of salt contamination. This
implies that care was not taken prior to
the coating application. Salt contamina-
tion on the surface of base metal can
lead to a coating having poor adhesion.
• Rust stains were noted below the coat-
ing at a few locations, which implies
that the surface preparation require-
ments for the coating were not fully fol-
lowed during the coating application.
Recommendations
All of the previous points indicated that
the cause of failure of the coating was pri-
marily due to improper surface preparation
and coating application, which resulted in
poor adhesion and inhomogeneous coating
with gaps between the layers. The use of an
improper mixing ratio of the resin and hard-
ener also cannot be ruled out. Rusted sur-
faces and rust stains indicate that either the
surface was not prepared properly or the
prepared surface was left open to salts,
grease, and other contaminants.
Unfortunately, we don’t know the atmo-
spheric conditions in which the coatings
were applied. However, we do know that the
curing agent was forced to the top of the
first coating layer and affected the adhesion
with the second topcoat. We also suspect
that it was possibly exposed to ultraviolet
light due to the substantial rusting found.
Adhesion failure takes place because of
surface contamination or condensation,
incompatibility between coating systems,
and exceeding the recoating window. It can
be prevented by ensuring that the surface is
clean, dry, and free from any contamina-
tion, and by ensuring that the surface has
been suitably prepared. The correct coating
specification needs to be used and the rec-
ommended recoating times should be
followed.
Cracking of a coating system is generally
a stress-related failure and can be attrib-
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM
 Never Again: The Case of Cracking Paint on a Steel Cargo Container
Heavy rust stains coming out from paint cracks near welded support
connection. Photo courtesy of the author.
uted to surface movement, aging, absorp-
tion and desorption of moisture, and lack of
flexibility of the coating. The thicker the
film, the greater the possibility that it may
crack. This can be prevented by using the
correct coating system, application tech-
niques, and DFT. Alternatively, cracking can applied within the manufacturer’s recom-
be prevented by using a more flexible coat-
ing system.
Based on all of the modes of failure seen
in this coating failure, I first recommended
removal and reapplication of the coating
system. Abrasive blast cleaning (using a
nonmetallic abrasive, such as garnet or grit
manufactured from chilled iron) in accor-
dance with NACE No. 2/Society for Protec-
tive Coatings (SSPC) Surface Preparation
(SP) 10, “Near-White Metal Blast Cleaning,”
would be the preferred method of surface
preparation in this situation. Any oil or
grease present on the surface has to be
removed by wiping it with a solvent.
Second, I recommended that the paint
materials be stored in a well-ventilated
location, free from excessive heat or direct
sunlight, and maintained at a temperature
as recommended by the manufacturer. Stor- checkpoints while executing this job:
ing, thinning, mixing, and handling of paint
materials should be done in accordance
with the TDS. All bottles should remain
closed in workshop-sealed containers until
needed for use. Each container must have
full identification information, including
the manufacturer’s name, product identifi-
cation, batch number, date of manufacture,
and shelf life.
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
Third, paint should be coating to discuss the end user’s/owner’s
applied to dry, clean, pre- concerns and objectives and any issues the
pared surfaces under contractor may have.
favorable conditions and The coating manufacturer should be
in accordance with the present to clarify surface preparation–
application data. All coat- related concerns and application proce-
ings should be homoge- dures. A post-job meeting should also take
neously applied without place with all parties to ensure that the
runs, sags, solvent blis- work was completed per the project specifi-
ters, dry spray, or other cations. A third-party inspection would be
blemishes. All blemishes even better to have on all projects, but it is
and other irregularities not always practical or cost-effective for
ought to be repaired most small projects.
immediately. Special con- To avoid a premature coating failure, it
sideration should be would be sensible not only to choose the
given to cracks, corners, right system but also to apply it in a profes-
boundaries, weld lines, sional way according to the specifications.
bolt heads, nuts, and Correct application methods should be
small brackets to apply communicated and used. Even when apply-
the stated minimum DFT ing a supplementary coating to a system
by brush application if a already in place, it is critical to prepare the
spray application will not entirely shield all surface to guarantee proper adhesion.
surfaces. The proper coating system selection,
Application personnel ought to have development of specifications, and coating
sufficient experience in coatings work. Each system application, along with a good sur-
coat should have dried sufficiently before face profile, are essential in achieving the
recoating. Succeeding coats need to be expected system performance with a
desired coating service life.
mended time and
temperature limits.
Before application of
the finish coat, the
applicator should
sand and smooth the
prime coat or under-
coat on all surfaces,
which is required to
attain a smooth coat
of paint. Paint should
not be applied to the
objects to be coated
when the weather Poor application of paint at bottom supports sharp edges of the container.
Photo courtesy of the author.
conditions on the
manufacturer’s
instructions or this procedure do not UMAIR NIAZ BUKHARI is a senior corro-
permit. sion and integrity engineer for Bureau
I further recommended four inspection Veritas in Dubai, UAE. He is certified by
NACE International, American Petro-
1. After the surface preparation; leum Institute (API), American Society
2. After the primer application; for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT), and
3. After the first coat application; The Welding Institute (TWI). For more
4. After applying the second/final coat. information, contact: Umair Niaz
Bukhari, um_niaz@yahoo.com.
Key Takeaways
To help avoid these types of problems, a This article was originally published in
pre-job meeting should always take place the July 2021 issue of CoatingsPro Magazine.
with all parties involved in executing the Reprinted with permission.
JANUARY 2022 29
COATINGS & LININGS
The Durability of Modified
Silane Coupling Mortar
Feng Bowen, Liu Jiesheng,
Chen YongFei, and Tan Xiaoming, School
of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan,
Hubei Province, China
sun Zhengguang, Ministry of Education
Key Laboratory for Green Preparation
and Application of Functional Materials,
Hubei University, Wuhan, Hubei
Province, China
C
30 JANUARY 2022
Silane coupling agent had been used
in varying proportions and the effect
of different contents of coupling
agent on the mortar durability prop-
erties was studied. Due to the hydro-
phobicity and bridge action of the
silane coupling agent, mortar speci-
mens exhibited better performance
when subjected to a freezing-thawing
cycle experiment, anti-permeability,
crack resistance, and carbonation cor-
rosion. The scanning electron micros-
copy images showed that siloxane
polymer networks were obtained,
resulting in the durability improve-
ment. The results showed that when
the contents of the silane coupling
agent attained 5%, durability of mod-
ified cement mortar performed best.
Concrete is often exposed to aggressive
impact of the environment and due to the
chloride and sulfate ions have caused its
deterioration, resulting in the decrease of
its service-life. 1 A variety of methods are
applied to upgrade the durability of con-
crete structures by reducing the permeabil-
ity of concrete. This is usually done by the
application of polymer coatings, which
reduces the access of moisture and ions.2
One of the methods used to protect the
concrete surface from corrosion caused by
moisture is hydrophobization, and silane is
one of the common surface hydrophobiza-
tion treatment agents for concrete struc-
tures. 3 Silane coupling agent is a kind of
surface treatment agent. Because its mole-
cules contain both organic and inorganic
groups, the interface between inorganic
and organic materials can realize chemical
bonding, which significantly improves the
strength and aging resistance of the inter-
face of composite materials, thus signifi-
cantly improving their physical mechanical
properties and durability. Although the
silane surface treatment research has
shown that silane and siloxane polymers
seem to be promising for natural aggregate
concrete, few studies have been conducted
on the investigation of polymer concrete
using silane as an integral additive for the
improvement of the durability of concrete.4
Therefore, this article aimed to verify the
validity of the addition method of the silane
coupling agent by monitoring the corrosion
behavior of mortar. Silane coupling agent
had been used in varying proportions and
the effect of the different contents of cou-
pling agent on the mortar durability prop-
erties was studied.
Experimental Procedure
Materials and Preparation
The cement used 42.5R5 ordinary port-
land cement, which was from Huaxin, Co.,
China. (γ-glycidoxypropyl) methyldime-
thoxysilane (KH560†) was used as the inte-
gral additive. River sand with a fineness
modulus of 2.43 was used as fine aggregate.
A water to cement ratio of 0.4 was used for
preparing mixtures incorporating 0, 1, 3,
and 5% silane by weight of cement as a
mortar additive. Distilled water was used
to prepare specimens.
†
Trade name.
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM
 Characterization
Permeability
The permeability test was conducted
according to the Chinese Standard JGJ/T
70-2009.6 All measurements were taken at a
temperature of 20 ± 2 °C with relative
humidity varying from 90 to 95% and the
results presented were the average value of
three measurements.

Crack Resistance
Crack resistance of modified and non-
modified mortar was determined in accor-
dance with the Standard ACI Committee
544.7

Carbonate Resistance
Carbonation depth was measured in an
accelerated carbonation experiment. The
two ends of each specimen were sealed
with epoxy resin and stored in a carbon-
ation chamber with 4% carbon dioxide
(CO2) by volume.
Freezing-Thawing Resistance
Samples were evaluated in a freeze-
thaw testing machine for 50, 100, 150, and
200 times at the temperature range of –25
to 20 °C. After the freeze-thaw test, the
weight loss rate and compressive strength
loss rate of the samples were determined as
shown in Equation (1).
f m1 –f m2
Df m = ×100%
f m1 (1)
where ∆fm is the compressive strength loss
rate after the freezing-thawing test (%), fm1
is the compressive strength of the samples
before the freezing-thawing test (MPa), and
fm2 is the compressive strength of the sam-
ples after the freezing-thawing test (MPa).
Scanning Electron Microscopy
The morphologies of mortar speci-
mens were investigated by using scanning
electron microscopy (SEM). The samples
were investigated via SEM conducted on a
FEI Sirion 200 † field-emission scanning
microscope at an acceleration voltage of
25 kV.
FIGURE 1 Results of anti-permeability test.
TABLE 1. RESULTS OF CRACK RESISTANCE
Samples Max Crack Width (mm)
Reference 4.55
1% silane 2.13
3% silane 1.64
5% silane 1.13
Results and Discussion
Anti-Permeability
The permeability test results are shown
in Figure 1. Note that the permeability pres-
sure is 2.0 MPa for the control sample. The
pressure of the mortar mixture prepared
with 1% silane was 2.2 MPa, which was 10%
more than the corresponding control mor-
tar samples. The pressure of mortar mix-
ture prepared with 3% silane was 2.45 MPa,
which is 22.5% more than the correspond-
ing control mortar sample. Furthermore,
the pressure values of mortar samples with
5% silane are 2.8 MPa, which is 40% more
than the corresponding control mortar
sample. It can be concluded that the silane
additives are effective in improving the
mortar’s penetration resistance. Silane
Crack Dimension Per Crack (mm2/Crack)
139
27
22
18
coupling agent is a kind of surface treat-
ment agent. Its molecules contain both
organic and inorganic groups. The inter-
face between inorganic and organic materi-
als can realize chemical bonding, which
significantly improves the strength and
aging resistance of the interface of compos-
ite materials, and thus significantly
improves the mechanical properties and
durability of the cement materials. Finally,
the hydrophobic nature of silane and cover-
age of micro pores present in the mortar
are principally responsible for the sharply
enhanced penetration resistance.8
Crack Resistance
The results of crack resistance testing
of mortar with different dosages of silane
are shown in Table 1. For the reference

MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 31

COATINGS & LININGS
FIGURE 2 Visual observation of crack resistance.
TABLE 2. RESULTS OF CARBONATION DEPTH
Carbonation Depth (mm)
Samples 3s 7d
Reference 0.5 1.0
1% silane 0 0.15
3% silane 0 0.1
5% silane 0 0.1
FIGURE 3 Results of freezing-thawing test.
sample, the maximum crack width, crack
dimension per crack, and dimension per
unit area were 4.55 mm and 139 mm 2,
respectively. The addition of silane reduced
the maximum crack width and crack
dimension per crack. Compared with the
control, the maximum crack width and
crack dimension of the sample with 1%
silane reduced to 2.13 mm and 27 mm2. The
maximum crack width and crack dimen-
sion of the sample with 3% silane are 1.64
mm and 22 mm2, which are 64 and 84% less
32 JANUARY 2022
14 d 28 d
2.0 2.9
0.2 0.4
0.2 0.35
0.15 0.3
than the reference, respectively. The maxi-
mum crack width and crack dimension of
the sample with 5% silane are 1.13 mm and
18 mm2, which is 75 and 87% lower, respec-
tively, compared with the control. So,
increases in the silane dosage decreased
the maximum crack width and crack
dimension/crack. It can be concluded that
the silane significantly improved the crack
resistance of mortar samples. This can be
explained by the fact that when silane
hydrolyzes, the Si-OH group can be
obtained.9 Silane coupling agent has many
unique properties; there are two functional
groups in the molecules, which are hydro-
phobic and hydrophilic, thus building a
bridge between inorganic materials and
organic materials, which can connect two
materials with different chemical structure
types and different affinities at the inter-
face. The reactive silanol groups could
anchor to the cementitious materials or to
the aggregate, reinforcing the interface
between the silane and mortar. Because of
the bridging action of the silane, the crack
resistance of mortar was improved.
The results presented in Figure 2 com-
pare the waterproofing properties of usual
(left) mortar and mortar with 5% silane
(right) when the cracks appear. It is obvi-
ous that the mortar samples with silane
showed an excellent waterproofing prop-
erty even after the cracks occur.
Carbonation Resistance
Table 2 shows the relationship between
silane dosage and carbonation depth at 3,
7, 14, and 28 days of carbonation. It can be
concluded that for mortar samples with
silane, the carbonation depths were lower
when compared to the reference sample.
Furthermore, with an increase in silane
dosage, the carbonate depth constantly
decreased. The reason can be ascribed to
the Si-OH group, which is produced by the
hydroxylation of silane. 10 Because of the
self-polycondensation of Si-OH groups, the
siloxane polymer network can be obtained.
Thus, the carbonation resistance of mortar
was improved, due to the inherent advan-
tages of siloxane, including excellent ther-
mal stability, good water repellency, and
carbonation and chemical resistance.
Freezing-Thawing Cycle
Figure 3 shows the compressive
strength loss of samples at 50, 100, 150, and
200 freeze-thaw cycles for control and mor-
tar samples with different silane additives.
It can be observed that the mortar contain-
ing silane additives exhibited lower loss of
compressive strength compared to that of
the control mortar, and with the increase of
the content of the silane coupling agent,
the compressive strength loss rate of the
cement mortar also decreases, indicating
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

that the mortar samples show better
freeze-thaw resistance after the silane
addition. Addition of the silane coupling
agent can modify ordinary cement mortar.
Adding the silane coupling agent to cement
mortar can form an interconnected net-
work structure, so that the mortar is more
firmly combined. The bridging and chemi-
cal bond between the silane coupling agent
and cement mortar can effectively prevent
the generation and development of micro-
cracks, which improves cement mortar
durability. As a result, the cement mortar
still has higher compressive strength after
freeze-thaw cycles than the control mortar,
and its compressive strength loss rate is
lower than that of mortar without the
silane coupling agent. In addition, the
hydrophobic nature of silane and coverage
of micro voids helps reduce moisture per-
meability of the mortar and enhanced the
freezing-thawing resistance.
Figure 4 shows the microstructures of
the referenced mortar and mortar with
silane. It can be seen from the SEM image of
reference mortar that an abundance of
hydrated phases (calcium hydroxide
[Ca(OH) 2] and calcium silicate hydrate
[CaH 2O 4Si]) exist in the sample. For the
mortars with 1% silanes, the silanes encase
the mortar particles firmly. Further
increase in the silanes dosage results in a
denser network of silane polymers, as seen
in Figure 4. These findings are helpful to
explain the improvement of the mortar
durability after the silane was added. The
silane coupling agent uniformly distributed
in cement mortar plays a network role and
forms a penetrating network structure with
the cement mortar to bond mortar parti-
cles together, which also improved the
freeze-thaw and carbonation corrosion
resistance, as well as the permeability and
cracking resistance.
Conclusion
The objective of the present study was
to evaluate the effects of silane on durabil-
ity of a mortar sample. Thus, some labora-
tory tests were conducted to evaluate the
durability of mortar containing different
silane dosages. The results showed that the
silane additives were highly effective in
improving the mortar’s permeability and
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
The Durability of Modified Silane Coupling Mortar
FIGURE 4 SEM images.
freeze-thaw resistance due to the hydro-
phobic nature of silane. Because of the
bridging action of the silane, the crack
resistance of mortar was improved. The
carbonation resistance of mortar was
improved, due to the inherent advantages
of siloxane. The SEM image analysis of
silane modified mortar revealed that it is
the siloxane polymer network that
improved the durability of mortar.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Hubei
Provincial Education Commission Scien-
tific Research Fund (B2020064), Science
and Technology Project of Hubei Provincial
Department of Transportation in 2019,
Fund of Yangtze Academy of Sciences
(CKWV2019754/KY) and Ministry of Edu-
cation Key Laboratory for Green Prepara-
tion and Application and Application of
Functional Materials (Hubei University,
Wuhan, China).
References
1 H. Shan, et al., “A Novel Electrochemical
Technique for Enhancing Silane Penetration
Depth Into Mortar,” Constr. Build. Material
144 (2017): pp. 645-649.
2 Z. Liu, W. Hansen, “Effect of Hydrophobic
Surface Treatment on Freeze-Thaw Durabil-
ity of Concrete,” Cement Concrete Comp. 69
(2016): pp. 49-60.
3 D. Barnat-Hunek, P. Smarzewski, “Influence
of Hydrophobisation on Surface Free Energy
of Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Ultra-High Per-
formance Concrete,” Constr. Build. Material
102 (2016): pp. 367-377.
4 L. Jiesheng, et al., “Properties of Polymer-
Modified Mortar Using Silane as an Integral
Additive,” J. Test. Eval. 1 (2016): pp. 175-182.
5 China National Standards GB 175-2007,
“Common Portland Cement” (Beijing, CN:
Standards Press of China, 2007).
6 Chinese Standard JGJ/T 70-2009, “Standard
Test Method of Basic Properties of Construc-
tion Mortar” (Beijing, CN: Standards Press of
China, 2009).
7 Standard ACI Committee 544, “Fiber Rein-
forced Concrete” (Farmington Hills, MI:
American Concrete Institute).
8 Z. Liu, W. Hansen, “Effect of Hydrophobic
Surface Treatment on Freeze-Thaw Durabil-
ity of Concrete,” Cement Concrete Comp. 69
(2016): pp. 49-60.
9 C. Zhou, et al., “Corrosion Resistance of
Novel Silane-Functional Polybenzoxazine
Coating on Steel,” Corros. Sci. 70 (2013): pp.
145-151.
Continued on page 34
JANUARY 2022 33
COATINGS & LININGS
Continued from page 33

10 L. Jiesheng, W. Shaopeng, D. E, “Effect of Cou- TAN XIAOMING is a professor at Wuhan

pling Agent as Integral Blend Additive on
Silicone Rubber Sealant,” J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 4
(2013): pp. 2,337-2,343.
FENG BOWEN is a masters degree student
at Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan,
Hubei Province, China, email:
vin312zzz@163.com. His focus is on engi-
neering practice and experimental
research.
LIU JIESHENG is a professor at Wuhan
Polytechnic University, email: ljs628@
whpu.edu.cn. He currently is the associate
dean of the School of Civil Engineering
and Architecture at the university. He has a
doctorate degree, has conducted more
than 20 scientific research projects, and
published more than 150 papers including
more than 60 SCI/EI indexed papers. He is
a member of NACE International (now
AMPP).
P o l y t e c h n i c U n i v e r s i t y, e m a i l : Next Month in MP
1324628279@qq.com. He is secretary of
the Party Committee at the university. He Special Issue:
has a doctorate degree and chaired the
National Natural Science Foundation of Impact of Corrosion
China, China Postdoctoral Fund. He has on the Environment
published more than 60 academic papers
in important academic journals and is a
member of AMPP. Cathodic Protection of an Iconic
Modern Movement Building
SUN ZHENGGUANG is a professor at
Hubei University, Wuhan, Hubei Province,
China, email: 150866430@qq.com. He is Decarbonization of CP
engaged in teaching polymeric materials. for Reinforced Concrete and
He has a doctorate degree, has published
more than 80 academic papers in domestic Masonry Structures
and international academic journals, and
edited one textbook. He is a member of Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior
AMPP.
of Zinc and Zinc Alloys
Optimizing Corrosion Mitigation
Costs Using Failure Analysis

CHEN YONGFEI is a masters degree stu-

dent at Wuhan Polytechnic University, Fatigue and Corrosion of Joined
email: 1540544087@qq.com. He has par- Materials: Automotive Applications
ticipated in engineering internships during
post-graduate research.

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COATINGS & LININGS
Coating Removal
by Heat Induction
gisLe soLhaug, RPR Technologies AS, Businesses are looking for environ-
Skien, Norway mentally friendly methods of surface
preparation. This article discusses the
use of heat induction as a method of
removing various coatings on steel
substrates. It also discusses its advan-
tages and disadvantages over tradi-
tional methods such as grit blasting
and hydro-jetting. Various areas of
applications are discussed, and
T
examples are provided.
The technology of removing coatings by
heat induction was developed by Tom Arne
Baann and Bjorn Erik Alveberg of Norway
in 1996.1 A ship owner had challenged them
to remove bacteria from the steel surfaces
of a ballast tank. The bacteria were causing
serious corrosion problems on the ship.
Their idea was to kill the bacteria by heat.
The intention was to kill the bacteria using
heat induction without affecting the coat-
ing. The heat killed the bacteria, but the
coating disbonded and came off in sheets.
And so, coating removal by heat induction
was born. This is the story of RPR Technol-
ogies AS of Norway that now holds several
patents in the field. From that moment, the
two inventors started the journey of devel-
oping, testing, and battling the obstacles up
to where the company finds itself today.
This novel technology is gaining its place
and acceptance in the surface treatment
industry as a valid and safe technique and
an exciting complement to conventional
abrasive and hydro-jetting methods.
Facility owners and coating contractors
are looking for options where the old coat-
36 JANUARY 2022
ing can be removed and disposed of with-
out disturbing ongoing processes and
work. As regulations are getting stricter
and disposal costs are going up, it is critical
to reduce the disposal volume. As there is
no grit or water involved in coating removal
by heat induction, only the hazardous
material itself needs to be disposed of. Heat
induction is sometimes chosen as a method
because it is silent. Noise level is often a key
factor when working near living quarters
on ships and offshore installations.
How Heat Induction Works
An electromagnetic field is created by
sending an alternating current through a
hand-held induction coil. This electromag-
netic field sets up eddy currents in the steel
surface, which creates heat. As the steel
surface underneath the coating is rapidly
heated, the chemical bond between the
coating and steel is broken.
Heat induction is a clean, fast, safe,
cost-effective, silent, and environmentally
friendly way to remove coatings from fer-
rous substrates. Heat induction can easily
remove coatings up to a thickness of 25 mm
(1 in). This makes heat induction highly
competitive for removing thick coatings
and coatings that are hard to remove by
other methods. It is common to see pro-
duction rates three times higher than tradi-
tional methods. It is also advantageous in
environments sensitive to water and dust.
Heat induction is environmentally friendly
as the coating comes off in easy-to-dispose-
of sheets, and no contaminants are being
spread. Other work can be conducted as
usual while coatings are removed by heat
induction. Heat induction does not wear,
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

FIGURE 1 Workers removing the coating with
heat induction. All figures courtesy of RPR
Technologies AS, Norway.
reduce the thickness of, or otherwise
weaken the treated material. Contami-
nants, such as chlorides, are removed
together with the coating.
Coating removal by heat induction is
beneficial for projects such as pipeline
refurbishment, removal of pipeline coating
before pipes are scrapped, storage tank
refurbishment, refurbishment of steel
bridges, and elevated storage tanks. The
method is approved for asbestos removal.
Heat induction provides a convenient way
of removing rubber linings, fire protective
coatings, insulation, as well as thick coat-
ings from a steel surface.
A technology institute conducted a
study on the induction disbonder and con-
cluded that the technique saves 75% on the
electricity/fuel bill compared to conven-
tional methods.2 When adding the savings
in grit and water and the time spent in
cleaning up, one is starting to envisage that
coating removal through heat induction is
very cost-effective. The thicker and harder
to remove the coating, the greater the
advantage over abrasive blasting and
hydro-jetting.
Although the surface profile from the
previous paint application is generally pre-
served, sometimes the surface needs further
preparation to achieve the surface profile
and cleanliness required by the paint manu-
facturer. A quick grit sweep typically accom-
plishes this. Even when such additional
tasks are necessary, the heat induction pro-
cess saves the project time and money.
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
Hazardous Coating
Abatement
Heat induction is useful in removing
hazardous materials such as lead paint,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and
asbestos from steel surfaces. The danger-
ous material is not mixed with grit or water,
keeping the volume of hazardous waste
down. This makes for significant savings in
the cost of collection, transportation, and
disposal.
Pipeline Work
Pipelines are an area of application
suitable for heat induction for several rea-
sons. The coating is typically very thick and
hard to remove by traditional methods
such as grit blasting. Pipelines are often
located in areas where pollution from the
blasting media and the coating being
removed is unacceptable. Transportation
of blasting media to and from remote work
sites is troublesome. Collection, transport,
and disposal cost of the grit and coating
debris are difficult and expensive.
Conversely, heat induction work is per-
formed from a self-contained truck towing
a diesel-powered generator. As the coating
comes off in sheets, it is easy to collect and
dispose of. The volume of the material for
disposal is only a tiny fraction of what is
experienced with grit blasting.
Working on a Live Pipeline
in Thailand
A buried live gas pipeline of 116 km
length in Thailand belonging to the Petro-
leum Authority of Thailand was refurbished
by heat induction (Figure 1). The pipe
diameter varied between 610 mm (24 in)
and 711 mm (28 in). Trenches of 28- to 30-m
(90- to 100-ft) lengths were dug out. In all,
~4,000 trenches were made.
The pipeline had 8- to 12-mm (315- to
470-mils) thick coal tar enamel with asbes-
tos mesh. The coating was removed using
ten RPR 1650 † heat induction machines.
The machines were operated in auto mode,
meaning that the power is automatically
controlled to avoid overheating the live
t
Trade name.
FIGURE 2 Heat induction machine disbonds
the coating as the pipe is rotated.
pipeline. Coating removal by heat induc-
tion also ensured that workers and the
environment were not exposed to asbestos.
Workers were wearing masks to further
protect them from asbestos.
The pipeline job started in June 2015,
and it took three years to complete. Work
was performed 10 months a year, 10 hours
per day, six days a week.
That is a total of 864 days, 134 m per
day. That’s pretty impressive when consid-
ering challenges such as reduced excava-
tion pace in areas with dense population,
road crossings, and wetlands. Work was
also slowed by torrential rain in the mon-
soon season and sliding trench walls in
wetlands.
After removing the coating by heat
induction, the pipe was sweep blasted to
SSPC-SP 10 3 and coated with a 2K liquid
epoxy.
Project Achievements
• The average coating removal rate was
five to six m an hour on the 711-mm
pipeline throughout the project.
• No accidents or incidents were
reported for the entire project.
• Under normal conditions, it took four
days from the start of excavating a
trench until it was filled back in.
• The heat induction equipment had
minimum wear and tear and required
no major repairs during the project.
• The project carried a low cost for
disposal, as the material was easily
collected, transported, and disposed
of.
JANUARY 2022 37
COATINGS & LININGS
FIGURE 3 Heat induction with motorized
crawler used in a storage tank bottom.
FIGURE 4 Coating being removed from a
bridge walkway.
FIGURE 5 Worker removing coating with heat
induction on the Kanmon bridge.
FIGURE 6 Coating in way of rivets comes off in
one piece.
38 JANUARY 2022
Disposal of Pipelines
Before one can melt and recycle old
pipelines, the protective coating needs to
be removed. The coating is easy to remove
after the pipeline has been dismantled into
easy-to-handle lengths. Pipes can be placed
on a roller bed. The coating can then be
removed by rotating the pipe while moving
the heat induction head along the pipe
(Figure 2).
Storage Tanks
Heat induction is most competitive for
removing the coating from the bottom of
storage tanks (Figure 3). These coatings are
usually fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP),
which are very tough to remove using con-
ventional methods. As with most thick
coatings, these coatings disbond easily
from the steel substrate using heat induc-
tion. The method is useful when the entire
floor of the tank is being refurbished or
when smaller FRP patches need to be
removed in the way of steelwork or inspec-
tions. The normally handheld transformer/
induction head assembly can be fitted to a
pushcart for easy operation. Motorized
crawlers are also available.
Steel Structures
Steel structures such as bridges and
towers in environmentally sensitive spaces
are areas where heat induction is a superior
method of removing old coatings (Figure
4). Heat induction is useful for structures
such as wind turbine towers, both on and
offshore.
Heat induction goes well with rope
access operations as no forces are pushing
the climber away from the work area.
The Kanmon Bridge, Japan
The Kanmon bridge, which connects
with Honshu-island and Kyushu-island in
Japan, was refurbished using heat induc-
tion (Figure 5). The use of grit or water was
not allowed due to the risk of contaminat-
ing air and water. Heat induction was pre-
ferred as the existing coating contained
PCBs and lead.
A total area of 20,000 m 2 was refur-
bished. During the entire project, which
took less than four months, there was no
interruption to the traffic on the bridge.
Before recoating, the surface was
b l a st e d w i t h s o d i u m b i c a rb o n a t e
(NaHCO 3) to obtain the required cleanli-
ness standard. This is an example of how
heat induction works well in combination
with other environmentally friendly
options such as wet blasting, waterjetting,
dry-ice blasting, laser, and NaHCO3 blast-
ing. These methods are inefficient in
removing thick and hard-to-remove coat-
ings by themselves. The bulk of the coating
can easily be removed by heat induction
while preserving the previous application’s
surface profile. The other methods men-
tioned can be useful in obtaining the sur-
face cleanliness required.
The Eiffel Tower
A demonstration was conducted on the
Eiffel Tower in Paris. As can be seen in Fig-
ure 6, the coating comes off in large pieces,
even in the way of rivets. As heat induction
is silent and does not make a mess of any
kind, work was performed without affect-
ing visitors to the Eiffel Tower.
Wind Turbine Towers
Wind turbine towers are another exam-
ple of structures situated in environmen-
tally sensitive areas and lend themselves to
heat induction for paint refurbishment.
Access to the tall columns, both internally
and externally, can be achieved by tradi-
tional scaffolding or rope access. Several
companies in the wind turbine industry are
now utilizing this technology.
Marine
Dry Dockings
During a dry-docking, when hundreds
of people are doing several tasks simultane-
ously, it is essential to use a surface prepa-
ration method that does not stop all other
work in the area. The grit and dust from grit
blasting get into bolts, nuts, ventilation sys-
tems, and engines, causing damage to
machinery and workers’ health. Some ship-
yards are in populated areas. The dust from
grit blasting can travel a long distance and
affect the environment and health of the
population. Heat induction solves these
problems.
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM
 Coating Removal by Heat Induction

Voyage Repair
Coating refurbishment can also be per-
formed during a voyage with heat induc-
tion, either by the ship’s crew or a riding
squad. Note that coating removal by heat
induction will, in most cases, be considered
hot-work, and the safety of the crew and
ship must be considered accordingly.
GISLE SOLHAUG is a naval architect and
ocean engineer from the University of
Glasgow, Scotland, email: gs@rprtech.
com. More recently, he received an MBA in
international business at the Keizer Uni-
versity, Florida. He has 20 years of experi-
ence in ship operation, ship repair, and
conversion. He worked as superintendent,
construction manager, and project man-
ager for marine and offshore projects,
including construction manager for the
world’s largest floating production storage
and offloading (FPSO) conversion and the
world’s largest FPSO new building. He also
briefly operated a painting contracting
firm doing work for Keppel Shipyards in
Singapore. Solhaug is currently the busi-
ness manager for North America for RPR
Technologies AS, Norway.

Offshore
Typical areas of applications on off-

De

Ngn and
shore oil rigs include the following:

si

EWFea
• Accommodation areas where noise is
not permitted
• Anti-skid surfaces on helicopter deck

tu
r
and escape routes

• Fire protective coatings
• Tank linings
The cost of disposal is high as the debris
is transported by supply ships. It is there-
fore essential to minimize the volume of
disposal.
Conclusion
Coating removal by heat induction is
superior to traditional methods when
removing thick or tough coatings. It is
exceptional when removing coatings in
areas where dust and water are not
accepted, in environmentally sensitive
areas, and when noise is a concern. Heat
induction is also a preferred method of
removing hazardous materials such as
paints containing PCBs, asbestos, and lead
from steel surfaces.
Heat induction is faster, safer, and more
energy-efficient than traditional methods.
In some cases, final surface preparation is
required before applying the new coating.
es
Measures and records
environmental conditions
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References
1 T.A. Baann, B.E. Alverberg, private communi-
cation, verbal, G. Solhaug (1996).
2 I. Lien, M. Berntsen, “Disbond,” Task 4.2,
National Institute of Technology Depart-
ment Environment and Safety, C3ST-
CT-2001-50159, March 2004.
3 SSPC-SP 10, “Near White Metal Blast Clean- Backwards Compatibility! The redesigned PosiTector gage body accepts ALL
ing” (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC). coating thickness, surface profile, environmental, soluble salt, hardness, and
ultrasonic wall thickness probes manufactured since 2012.

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Tel: +1-315-393-4450 l Email: techsale@defelsko.com

MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 39

COATINGS & LININGS ESSENTIALS

Achieving Circulating Fluidized Bed Boiler Maintenance Goals

Protecting a Boiler at a Pulp Mill

A pulp mill in Southeastern United States operates a circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler unit built in 1989. The boiler was recently
upgraded from the viewpoint of operating at a mass flow rate of 450,000 lb/h.

The fuel type for this particular unit is a

combination of biomass sludge, some tire
derivatives, as well as some plastics. This
type of fuel has led to the issues at hand—
erosion causing tube leaks and numerous
forced outages.
As a result, the mill had a number of
goals to achieve:
• Goal #1: Increase Reliability of the
CFB Boiler
The first goal was to increase the
reliability of the CFB boiler by reduc-
ing the number of tube leaks to
better facilitate meeting the require-
ments of a 20-year PPE agreement.
• Goal #2: Increase Outage Cycles
The second goal was to increase the
outage cycles from a current
12-month to an 18-month
turnaround.
• Goal #3: Reduce Mechanical
Repairs
And the third goal was to reduce the
number of mechanical repairs that
used to be needed every outage.

Path to Reliability
Paul Strauss, Integrated Global Services
(IGS) boiler maintenance expert, says, “Back
in 2017, I had the opportunity to meet with
the pulp mill’s engineering manager, opera-

40 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

 (a)
their bed ash to compare the IGS 5xxx series
material and the previously applied material
against uncoated carbon steel. The results
(b)
(c)
Previous vendor’s coating: (a) wear,
(b) spalling, and (c) pitting.
tions manager, and maintenance manager.
And I found out that they had some issues
on the roof of their CFB boiler. They had an
emergency outage and called a thermal
spray vendor to apply a product with a low-
velocity arc spray. I was somewhat surprised
by the choice of product specified by the
thermal spray vendor, because the roof area
in a CFB boiler usually receives high erosion.
The specified product, a high nickel chrome
material, is usually applied in the waterwalls
of a PC-fired boiler for corrosion protection.”
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
Testing and Analysis showed the IGS 5xxx material to be five
IGS offered to do an erosion test using times more erosion resistant than the prod-
uct that the previous thermal spray vendor
chose to apply on the roof.
Continued on page 42
AT
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wood, concrete, and other rigid substrates
AT-A Automatic Model
n Electronically controlled hydraulic pump automatically applies
smooth and continuous pull-off pressure
n Impact and scratch resistant color Touch Screen display with keypad
n Wirelessly connect the PosiTest AT-A to your
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n Record the results as pass/fail and the nature of
fracture—cohesive, adhesive, and glue failures
AT-M Manual Model New Features
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n Field replaceable AAA alkaline
batteries provide up to 16 hours
of testing
+1-315-393-4450 n 1-800-448-3835
techsale@defelsko.com n www.defelsko.com
JANUARY 2022 41
COATINGS & LININGS ESSENTIALS
Continued from page 41

We mobilized to site in
May of 2018.”
IGS completed the
high-velocity thermal
spray (HVTS) application
on the roof, upper
cyclone area, and the
sidewalls, covering the
total area of ~425 ft2 (39.5
m2). The scope of work
was completed on time
and the mill’s in-house
quality control coordina-
tor was very satisfied
with the quality.

Inspection in 2018
Thinning evident on the previous vendor’s coating. Strauss says, “The Blasting of the previous vendor’s coating
2018 application looked practically removed it due to how thin it
was.
excellent upon inspection. Subsequently, in
Strauss says, “I think they saw that an 2019, IGS completed an additional scope of
improved process and improved material 450 ft2 (41.8 m2) on the other three walls at
could help the mill meet its goals and IGS the refractory line. An additional 75 ft2 (6.97
was subsequently awarded the 2018 project. m2) of repairs to the previous vendor’s

Some areas required pad welding.

coating on the roof tubes were also com-

pleted. Again, the entire scope of work was
delivered on time with good quality.”

Change of Strategy in 2021

Due to the changes in the maintenance
team and the involvement of the procure-
ment department, the mill appointed a new
vendor for their thermal spray needs in
2021. Unfortunately, they actually ran over
the allocated critical path well in excess of
30 h.

Failure Prompts Action

Kevin Phillips, IGS pulp and paper main-
tenance solutions expert, says, “A very
lengthy subsequent conversation ensued
revolving around IGS advantages over the
‘lower velocity thermal spray’ suppliers.
Upon conclusion of the meeting, the current

42 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

 LOOKING TO PUBLISH YOUR WORK?
Choose MP, the World’s
Leading Corrosion Periodical

Materials Performance (MP) publishes articles on practical,

IGS HVTS cladding applied with a topcoat
as a wear indicator.
maintenance team and its leadership were
very much in favor of establishing a long-
term service agreement between IGS and
the pulp mill’s facility with a view of expand-
ing this agreement to their other sites.”
field-oriented applications of corrosion technology that
support coatings and linings, cathodic protection, chemical
treatment, materials selection and design, and corrosion
management. We are currently accepting manuscripts for
technical articles. Let us share your corrosion story.
More information, including author’s guidelines, can be found at
www.materialsperformance.com/submit-manuscript.

Long-Term Service Agreements

Ensure Lasting Reliability
The pulp and paper company’s corpo-
rate inspector visited the IGS laboratory in
Richmond, Virginia, USA in July 2021. He
was impressed with the facilities and the
engineers that work in the lab. Long-term
service agreements will ensure that not only
this mill, but all company sites will be able
to achieve their key three maintenance
goals:
• Increase reliability of their CFB
Boiler
• Increase outage cycles
• Reduce mechanical repairs
Article provided by Paul Strauss, paul.
strauss@integratedglobal.com; Kevin
Phillips, paul.strauss@integratedglobal.com,
and Marina Silva, marina.silva@
integratedglobal.com.

CORROSION ENGINEERING
DIRECTORY
Located in the back of
Materials Performance, this section
promotes business/professional services.
Browse the section for products or
services that fit your needs.
For information on
advertising in this section,
contact Brenda Nitz,
brenda.nitz@ampp.org or
+1 281-228-6219.

MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 43

CHEMICAL TREATMENT

Biofilms of Metallic Alloys

in a Nanometer Scale
KhaLed haBiB and KhaLid aL-muhanna,
Materials Science and Photo-Electronic
Lab., RE Program, EBR Center KISR,
Safat, Kuwait
A biofilm formation was predicted by
mathematically correlating data of
double layer capacitance (Cdl) of the
biofilm to the thickness of the biofilm
formation of two metallic alloys, 1020
carbon steel (UNS G10200) and UNS
Type 304 stainless steel (UNS S30400),
in seawater. The correlation was
derived from the dielectric constant
of the formed biofilm, the dielectric
constant of the seawater at two tem-
peratures, 18 and 33 °C, the volume
fraction of the seawater in the biofilm,
the dielectric constant of corrosion
products in the biofilm, and the vol-
ume fraction of those corrosion prod-
ucts in the biofilm. The biofilms were
the following constrained assumptions of
continuum mechanics: the biofilm should
be homogeneously continuous; the physi-
cal chemistry parameters of the biofilm
should maintain steady-state values with
respect to time (aging); and the mass and
energy of the biofilm should be in compli-
ance with the mass and energy constitu-
tional (conservation) laws. However,
throughout the past three decades, indirect
electrochemical methods such as direct
current (DC) techniques, like the Tafel plot,
cyclic polarization, linear polarization,
and electrochemical noise, and alternating
current (AC) techniques like electrochemi-
cal impedance spectroscopy (EIS), have
been used not only to characterize inter-
faces, 1-5 but also to measure the corre-

I
found to be nanometer scale.
In general, a phenomenon that is relat-
ing to physical science (i.e., physical chem-
istry), and life science (i.e., biology), can
only be manifested at interface regions
between such sciences. For instance, the
phenomenon of the growth of a marine bio-
film on a metallic alloy from an aqueous
solution can only be investigated at the
interface region between the biofilm and
the aqueous solution (Figure 1) for the
growth of biofilm on a submerged
material.
It is well known that interfaces are dif-
ficult regions to directly characterize. The
difficulty stems from the fact that inter-
faces in such situations, by default, are dis-
continuous zones between the biofilm, the
metallic alloy, and the aqueous solution. In
other words, direct measurements of the
electrochemical parameters of the inter-
facial regions are not possible because of
sponding DC and AC electrochemical
parameters in solutions.
In this study, modeling of the growth of
the marine biofouling film at metal-solu-
tion interfaces was conducted on 1020 car-
bon steel (CS) (UNS G10200) and Type 304
stainless steel (SS) (UNS S30400) samples.
The growth of the marine biofouling film of
both alloys will be predicted by obtained
experimental data of EIS measurements for
a period of six months under a continuous
flowing seawater condition. The prediction
of the growth of the biofilm will take into
account for the first time parameters such
as the dielectric constant of the formed bio-
film; the dielectric constant of the seawater
at two temperatures, 18 and 33 °C; the vol-
ume fraction of the seawater in the biofilm;
the dielectric constant of corrosion prod-
ucts (FeO, Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeOOH, ferroman-
ganese—a mixture of MnO 2 and Fe 2O 3 ,
Fe2SO4, and ferrochromium—FeCr) in the
biofilm; and the volume fraction of those
corrosion products in the biofilm.

44 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

 Theoretical Analysis
In the literature, the relationship
between the AC impedance (Z) and the
double layer capacitance (Cdl) of a devel-
oped film on a metal sample to the thick-
ness of the formed film is given in Equation
(1).6-7
|Z | = 1/ Cdl = L/(e e° A) (1)
where Z is the AC impedance of the formed
film, Ω·cm2; Cdl is the double layer capaci-
tance of the formed biofilm, µF; e° is the
permittivity of the free space, 8.85 × 10–14
F/cm; A is the area of the sample that was
exposed to the seawater, 1 cm 2; L is the
thickness of the formed biofilm, nm, which
can be obtained here by EIS via Equation
(1); and e is the static dielectric constant of
the material under the investigation of the
biofilm.
In a recent investigation by the author,8
the dielectric constant of the biofilm has
been extended to account for the volume
fraction of the seawater in the film, as part
of the biological membrane.9-10 So:
e = (ebf + vsw esw) (2)
where e bf is the dielectric constant of the
formed biofilm, ebf equals 5, when the pore
fraction is equal to 0, an adhered thin
layer9-10; esw is the dielectric constant of the
seawater, e sw equals 70.2 at 18 °C and e sw
equals 67.4 at 33 °C11; and vsw is the volume
fraction of the seawater in the film.
The value of vsw equals 50 and 75% will
be considered in the film as the film grows
outward of the surface of the alloys. The
value of e sw equals 70.2 at 18 °C11 will be
considered at an exposure time of 0, 1, 5, 10,
20, 30, 60, and 90 days, from the November
to February season. Furthermore, the value
of esw equals 67.4 at 33 °C11 will be consid-
ered at an exposure time of 130, 150, and
180 days, from the March to May season.
In the present work, the dielectric con-
stant (e) of the biofilm [see Equation (2)]
has been further extended to account for
not only the volume fraction of the sea-
water in the film, the dielectric constant of
the seawater at two temperatures 18 and
33 °C , and the volume fraction of the sea-
water in the biofilm, but also to take into
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
FIGURE 1 The growth of biofilm on a submerged material. (Figure courtesy of NACE International.
Reprinted with permission.)
consideration the dielectric constant of
corrosion products (ecp) in the biofilm (i.e.,
FeO, Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeOOH, ferromanganese,
Fe2SO4, and FeCr) and the volume fraction
(vcp) of those corrosion products in the bio-
film. So, Equation (3) becomes:
e = (ebf + vsw esw+ Σ vcp ecp)
where Σ v cp e cp is the summation of the
number of the dielectric constant of the
corrosion products (ecp) times the volume
fraction of the corrosion products (vcp).
By substituting for the value of e in
Equation (3) into Equation (1), and solving
for the thickness of the biofilm (L), the
value of L becomes:
L= {(ebf + vsw esw + Σ vcp ecp)(e° A)}/Cdl
Therefore, it is expected that the corro-
sion products in the formed biofilm of the
1020 CS samples5,12 will be FeO, Fe2O3, Fe3O4,
FeOOH, ferromanganese, and Fe2SO4 based
on the composition of the steel samples;
0.18 to 0.23% C, 0.3 to 0.6% Mn, and balance
Fe. Likewise, it is expected that the corro-
sion products in the formed biofilm of the
Type 304 SS samples will be ferromanga-
nese and FeCr based on the composition of
the SS samples; 18 to 20% Cr, 8 to 12% Ni,
2% Mn, 1% Si, 0.08% C, and balance Fe. The
values of e cp of the corrosion products at
room temperature can be obtained from
the literature13: ecp of FeO equals 14.2; ecp of
Fe2O3 equals 14.2; ecp of Fe3O4 equals 14.2; ecp
of FeOOH equals 14.2; ecp of Fe2SO4 equals
14.2; an average value of ecp of a mixture of
ferromanganese equals 5.1; and an average
value of ecp of FeCr equals 1.65.
In addition, the value of the volume
fraction of corrosion products (vcp) in the
biofilm of 1020 CS samples is assumed to be
~3 and 5% for an accumulation of FeO,
Fe 2 O 3 , Fe 3 O 4 , FeOOH, and Fe 2 SO 4 with
respect to the volume fraction of seawater
(v sw) of 50 and 75%, respectively. In addi-
(3) tion, the value of the volume fraction of
corrosion products in the biofilm at Type
304 SS samples i s assum ed to be
1 and 3% for each of ferromanganese, and
FeCr with respect to the volume fraction of
seawater (vsw) of 50 and 75%, respectively.
Mathematical Modeling
EIS data8 of metallic samples of 1020 CS
(0.18 to 0.23% C, 0.3 to 0.6% Mn, and bal-
(4) ance Fe), and Type 304 SS (18 to 20% Cr, 8 to
12% Ni, 2% Mn, 1% Si, 0.08% C, and balance
of Fe) were used. Those two alloys have
been selected in this study because of their
common applications in seawater. 14 The
output data of EIS were the Nyquist and
Bode plots. 15 From these plots, values of
double layer capacitance Cdl were obtained.
Details on the experimental procedures
can be obtained elsewhere.8 The obtained
data of the Cdl and the calculated L of the
biofilm from Equation (4) for the 1020 CS
and Type 304 SS are given in Tables 1 and 2.
The value of L was calculated as a function
of the vsw equals 0, 50, 75%, esw equals 70.2 at
18 °C (November to February) and e sw
equals 67.4 at 33 °C (March to May). Tables
1 and 2 contain the calculated L of the bio-
film of both alloys in seawater, when v sw
equals 0%, vsw equals 50%, and vsw equals
75%, respectively. Tables 1 and 2 contain
the data of Cdl and L of the biofilm with no
JANUARY 2022 45
CHEMICAL TREATMENT

TABLE 1. THE EIS DATA OF Cdl AND CALCULATED L OF THE BIOFILM (ebf = 5) OF BOTH ALLOYS IN SEAWATER,
vsw = 50% AND esw = 70.2 AT 18 °C (0, 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 60, 90 DAYS) AND esw = 67.4 AT 33 °C (120, 150, 180 DAYS)
Biofilm at SS with
an Accumulation
Biofilm at Type 304 Biofilm at CS with an of 1% of a Mixture
Biofilm at CS with No SS with No Corrosion Accumulation of 3% of MnO2 and Fe2O
Materials Corrosion Products Products Corrosion Products and 1% of FeCr
Exposure Time
(Days) Cdl (µF) L (nm) Cdl (µF) L (nm) Cdl (µF) L (nm) Cdl (µF) L (nm)
0 0.25 142 1.78 19.9 0.25 143.5 1.78 20
1 4.4 8 1.23 28.9 4.4 8.15 1.23 29
5 8.5 4.1 1.26 28.2 8.5 4.22 1.26 28.2
10 0.158 224.7 — — 0.158 227 — —
20 0.214 165.9 1.38 25.7 0.214 167.6 1.38 25.8
30 0.195 182 1.33 26.7 0.195 184 1.33 26.73
60 0.216 164.3 3.97 8.9 0.216 166 3.97 8.95
90 0.25 142 0.62 57.3 0.25 143.5 0.62 57.3
120 — — 1.3 25.7 — — 1.3 26.4
150 — — 0.89 37.5 — — 0.89 38.6
180 — — 1.55 21.5 — — 1.55 22.4

TABLE 2. THE EIS DATA OF Cdl AND CALCULATED L OF THE BIOFILM OF BOTH ALLOYS IN SEAWATER,
vsw = 75% AND esw = 70.2 AT 18 °C (0, 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 60, 90 DAYS) AND esw = 67.4 AT 33 °C (120, 150, 180 DAYS)
Biofilm at SS with
an Accumulation
Biofilm at Type 304 Biofilm at CS with an of 3% of a Mixture
Biofilm at CS with No SS with No Corrosion Accumulation of 5% of MnO2 and Fe2O
Materials Corrosion Products Products Corrosion Products and 3% of FeCr
Exposure Time
(Days) Cdl (µF) L (nm) Cdl (µF) L (nm) Cdl (µF) L (nm) Cdl (µF) L (nm)
0 0.25 204.1 1.78 28.7 0.25 207 1.78 28.8
1 4.4 11.6 1.23 41.5 4.4 11.74 1.23 40.62
5 8.5 6 1.26 40.5 8.5 6.1 1.26 40.63
10 0.158 323 — — 0.158 327 — —
20 0.214 238.4 1.38 37 0.214 241.3 1.38 37.1
30 0.195 261.6 1.33 38.4 0.195 264.9 1.33 38.5
60 0.216 236.3 3.97 12.8 .216 239.1 3.97 12.9
90 0.25 204.1 0.62 82.3 0.25 207 0.62 82.6
120 — — 1.3 37.8 — — 1.3 37.95
150 — — 0.89 43.7 — — 0.89 55.44
180 — — 1.55 31.7 — — 1.55 31.83

corrosion products and corrosion products
for both alloys.
Results and Discussion
Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the growth of
the biofilm (L) as a function of exposure
time for the 1020 CS and Type 304 SS with
no corrosion products and with corrosion
products in the biofilm, respectively. The
lines in Figure 2 represent v sw equals 0%
(blue) with no corrosion products, v sw
equals 50% (orange) with 3% of an accumu-
lation of corrosion products, and vsw equals
75% (gray) with an accumulation of 5% of
corrosion products in the biofilm on the CS
sample. In a similar fashion, the lines in
Figure 3 represent vsw equals 0% (blue) with
no corrosion products, v sw equals 50%
(orange) with 1% corrosion products, and
vsw equals 75% (gray) with 3% of corrosion
products in the biofilm on the SS sample.
Furthermore, it is obvious from the Figures
2 and 3 that as the volume fraction of the
seawater (v sw) and the volume fraction of

46 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM


FIGURE 2 The growth of the biofilm as a function of exposure time of
the CS sample in seawater. The lines represent vsw = 0% (blue) with no
corrosion products, vsw = 50% (orange) with 3% of an accumulation of
corrosion products, and vsw = 75% (gray) with an accumulation of 5% of
corrosion products in the biofilm.
the corrosion product (v cp) were observed
to increase in the biofilm, the L value of the
biofilm increased, in the outward direction
from the surface of alloys, as a biological
membrane with corrosion products.
In addition, it obvious from Figures 2
and 3 that the adhered biofilms (blue lines)
had maintained a steady-state thickness
during the exposure of the alloys to sea-
water. There was no particulate relation-
ship between the effect of the seasonal tem-
perature on the growth of the adhered
biofilm. In contrast, Figures 2 and 3 had
different features of the growth of the loose
layer of the biofilms, orange (v sw equals
50%) and gray (v sw equals 75%). For
instance, in the case of the CS sample, Fig-
ure 2, the layer (orange line, vsw equals 50%,
vcp equals 3%) had initially increased from
227 to 327 nm (gray line, vsw equals 75%, vcp
equals 5%) in the first 10 days of exposure,
with an accumulation of corrosion prod-
ucts. Then, the layer attained a steady
thickness range between 150 to 250 nm in
the rest of the 90-day exposure time of the
sample to seawater. The test of the CS sam-
ples was terminated after 90 days of expo-
sure to the seawater due to the susceptibil-
ity of the samples to microbiological
induced corrosion.10
In the case of the Type 304 SS sample,
Figure 3, the layer (orange line, vsw equals
50%, vcp equals 1%) had initially increased
from 57.3 to 83.6 nm (gray line, vsw equals
75%, vcp equals 3%) in the first 90 days of
exposure, with corrosion products. Then,
the layer attained a steady thickness range
between 22.4 to 55.4 nm in the rest of the
90-day exposure time of the sample to sea-
water. Contrary to the model prediction of
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
Biofilms of Metallic Alloys in a Nanometer Scale
FIGURE 3 The growth of the biofilm as a function of exposure time of
the SS sample in seawater. The lines represent vsw = 0% (blue) with no
corrosion products, vsw = 50% (orange) with 1% corrosion products, and
vsw = 75% (gray) with 3% of corrosion products in the biofilm.
the growth of the biofilm at the Type 304 SS
samples, there was no corrosion found on
the samples during the 180 days of expo-
sure to the seawater.
In general, the L value of the biofilm
was observed to increase in the outward
direction from the surface of alloys, from
Figures 2 and 3, as the volume fraction of
the seawater (vsw) increased in the biofilm.
This means that the closer the biofilm layer
to the surface of the alloys, the more
adhered the biofilm (Figure 1). On the con-
trary, the farther the biofilm layer from the
surface of the alloys, the more loose the
biofilm (see Figure 1). As a result, the
obtained C dl values correspond to the
adhered biofilm layer, the blue line in Fig-
ures 2 and 3 rather than the loose biofilm
layers, the orange and gray lines.
References
1 L. Heshan, et al., “Fouling Community Charac-
teristics in Subtropical Coastal Waters of the
Southwestern East China Sea,” Acta Oceanol.
Sin. 36, 10 (2017): pp. 70-78.
2 A. Mercer, “Corrosion in Seawater Systems,” in
Corrosion and its Prevention (New York, NY:
Ellis Horwood, Ltd., 1990).
3 T. Bott, Fouling Notebook: A Practical Guide to
Minimizing Fouling in Heat Exchangers (Lon-
don, U.K.: I Chem E, 1990).
4 R. Javaherdashti, “Microbiologically Influ-
enced Corrosion: An Engineering Insight,” in
Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion, Engi-
neering Materials and Processes (Switzerland:
Springer, 2017).
5 T. Liengen, et al., Understanding Biocorrosion:
Fundamentals and Applications (Cambridge,
U.K.: Woodhead Publishing, Ltd., 2014).
6 K. Habib, et al., “Measurement of Oxide
Barrier-Film Thickness of Al-Alloy by Electro-
chemical Impedance Spectroscopy at the
Nanometre-Scale,” Defect and Diffusion Forum
268 (2007), pp. 1-13.
7 K. Habib, et al., “Measurement of Aluminium
Oxide-Film Thickness: Barrier Oxide Film and
Oxide Porous Layer,” Defect and Diffusion
Forum 273-276 (2008), pp. 283-293.
8 K. Al-Muhanna, K. Habib, “Nanometer
Growth of Marine Bio-Films of Different Me-
tallic Alloys in Seawater by Electrochemical
Impedance Spectroscopy,” AIP Advances 9,
045026 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1063/
1.5026305.
9 J. Weaver, H. Schoenbach, “Biodilectrics,” IEEE
Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insu-
lation 10, 5 (2003): pp. 715-716.
10 R. Ronald Pethig’r, D. Kell, “The Passive Elec-
trical Properties of Biological Systems: Their
Significance in Physiology, Biophysics and
Biotechnology,” Phys. Med. Biol. 32, 8 (1987):
pp. 933-970.
11 W. Ellison, et al., “New Permittivity Measure-
ments of Seawater,” Radio Science 33, 3 (1998):
pp. 639-648.
12 E. Hamzah, et al., “Corrosion Behaviour of
Carbon Steel in Sea Water Medium in Pres-
ence of P.aeruginosa Bacteria,” Arab J Sci Eng
39 (2014): p. 6,863, https://doi.org/10.1007/
s13369-014-1264-7.
13 http://www.clippercontrols.com/pages/
Dielectric-Constant-Values.html#H.
14 B. Little, P. Wagner, F. Mansfield, “Microbio-
logically Influenced Corrosion of Metals and
Alloys,” International Materials Reviews 39
(1991): pp. 253-272.
15 R. Baboian, Electrochemical Technique for
Corrosion Engineering (Houston, TX: NACE
International, 1986).
KHALED HABIB is a senior research scien-
tist/full research professor at KISR, Safat,
Kuwait, email: khaledhabib@usa.net. He
specializes in laser optical interferometry
as nondestructive testing methods for
materials evaluation in corrosive environ-
ments. He is a fellow of SPIE.
KHALID AL-MUHANNA is a senior research
associate at KISR, email: vivakhalid@msn.
com, kemuhanna@kockw.com. He special-
izes in corrosion evaluation of materials in
diverse corrosive media. He has an M.S.
degree in chemical engineering.
JANUARY 2022 47
MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN
Solvent-Free Graphene Epoxy
Resin Composite Coating
Jin han, Yiping Feng, FangJie Ceng,
shu Jiang, TaoLei Qiu, and
mingQiang Zhong, College of Materials
Science and Engineering, Zhejiang
University of Technology, Hangzhou,
People’s Republic of China
guirong guo and LingYun Zhang,
Zhejiang Jinfulong Chemical Equipment
Co., Ltd., Zhejiang, People’s Republic of
China
W
48 JANUARY 2022
A series of graphene/epoxycyclopen-
tane (ECP)/epoxy resin composites
was prepared. The dispersion of gra-
phene and the morphology of epoxy
resin composites was characterized
by microscopy. Thermal conductivity
of the composites was analyzed. The
results demonstrate that by increas-
ing the graphene content from 0.2 to
5%, the thermal conductivity of the
composites increases from 0.095 to
2.378 W·m–1·K–1. The results of polar-
ization curves show that the resistivity
of the composite is 0.0032 μA/cm2
after adding 2% graphene and ECP,
which indicated that the composite
exhibits effective corrosion resis-
tance.
With the rapid advance of science and
technology, there are an increasing number
of high-power electronic devices. In the
field of modern electronic devices, people
urgently need efficient heat dissipation
materials.1-2 Polymer materials are widely
used in the field of electronic packaging
due to their ease of processing and excel-
lent chemical resistance. Epoxy resin is the
most used packaging material because of
its outstanding adhesion and high heat
resistance. However, the thermal conduc-
tivity of pure epoxy resin is low, only 0.1
W·m –1·K–1, which is insufficient to satisfy
the requirements of electronic components
for high performance and high thermal
conductivity.3-4 Numerous researchers have
attempted to add nano materials such as
nano silica, nano boron nitride, and gra-
phene nano sheets to an epoxy resin matrix
to improve its thermal conductivity.5-6
Many studies have shown that adding
fillers to epoxy resin is a better way to
improve its thermal conductivity.7-8 How-
ever, if the filler content is low, it is difficult
to form an effective heat conduction net-
work. If the content is too excessive, the
nano materials become extremely small
and the micro layer will form agglomera-
tion, resulting in an irregular dispersion of
fillers in the epoxy resin, impairing its effi-
ciency.9-10 Graphene was made into a net-
work by chemical vapor deposition, and
then it was completely infiltrated and
solidified with epoxy resin. Then, the high-
performance composite was prepared. The
axial thermal conductivity and longitudinal
th ermal c onductiv ity were greatly
improved. However, the study on the dis-
persion and curing of graphene with sol-
vent is less, as is the thermal conductivity.
Since no or a small amount of organic
solvent was used in the preparation and
application of high-solid coatings, the solid
content of the coating is extremely high,
which not only prevents the shrinkage phe-
nomenon induced by organic solvent vola-
tilization and decreases the solvent's toxic-
ity, but also improves the coating's
impermeability. High solid content
increases the thickness of a single coating,
which is suitable for thick coating, thus
reducing the cost and time of coating.
High-solids epoxy coating combines the
advantages of high solid and epoxy resin.
High solids epoxy coating is the most sim-
ple and effective method to achieve the
requirements of thick film. 11 The new
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM
graphene/epoxy resin high-solids coating
has high research and application value in
the field of corrosion protection, especially
in marine corrosion protection. A series of
graphene/1,2-epoxypropentane/epoxy
resin composites was prepared. The disper-
sion of graphene was characterized by
transmission electron microscopy (TEM).
The morphology of the composite was eval-
uated by scanning electron microscopy
(SEM). The thermal conductivity of com-
posite was measured with a thermal con-
ductivity meter. The electrochemical prop-
erties of the composite were defined using
an electrochemical workstation.
Experimental Procedure
Materials
The following materials were employed:
• Graphene nanosheets (GNS): Hang-
zhou Hualu Carbonene New Material
Co., Ltd.
• E-51† epoxy resin: Chongqing Yong-
hua Chemical Group
• 1,2-epoxycyclopentane (ECP): Shang-
hai Jinjinle Industrial Co., Ltd.
• 650 Polyamide † curing agent: Wuxi
Yuanweiming Chemical Trade Co.,
Ltd.
• BYK333† leveling agent: Guangzhou
Changxin Chemical Co., Ltd.
• Defoamer : Hangzhou Jingnuo Co.,
Ltd.
Preparation
An electronic balance was used to accu-
rately measure weights. Graphene (0.5 g)
was placed in a test tube followed by an
addition of graphene/ECP (1.0 g) and then
dispersed in the test tube using an ultra-
sonic mixer under the conditions of 40 °C
and 90 W power for 2 h. Then the epoxy
resin (8.94 g) was stirred in and mixed
under the conditions of 50 °C and 90 W
power for 1 h. After cooling to room tem-
perature, a low molecular weight polyam-
ide curing agent (8.94 g), leveling agent
BYK333 (0.01 g), and defoamer (0.1 g) were
added. A mechanical agitator (600 rpm for
†
Trade name.
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
1 h) was then used to mix the products
evenly. The blend was evenly coated on
Type 316 stainless steel (SS) (UNS S31600)
sheets, cured for 5 h at room temperature,
then cured for 2 h at 50 °C, and a final cure
for 3 h at 90 °C.
Result and Discussion
Characterization of Graphene
Dispersion in
1,2-epoxycyclopentane
The dispersion of graphene in ECP was
characterized by TEM. From Figure 1, we
find that the graphene layer is smooth, flat,
and complete, and the dispersion is very FIGURE 1 TEM images of the dispersion of
graphene in ECP solvent.
uniform. It was also observed that gra-
phene can be distributed well in 1,2-epoxy-
cyclohexane (ECH) solvent, laying a stable appearance of graphene nanosheets in a
foundation for future research. matrix may be a result of their flexibility
and toughness.
Morphological Characteristics The fracture surface morphology of the
SEM allowed characterizing the cross- control sample cured with pure epoxy resin
section morphology of the GNS-ECP-epoxy and the GNS-ECP-epoxy resin composite is
resin composites. As is well known, gra- shown in Figure 2. On the fracture surface
phene nanosheets form agglomerates due of the control sample, there are several
to their Van der Waals interaction. How- dendritic stripes, and most of the areas are
ever, graphene diluted with ECP can be well flat and smooth, indicating that the cured
dispersed in the epoxy matrix. This may be pure epoxy resin has a higher rigidity and a
because of ECP's hydrophobic relationship lower flexibility, which is characteristic of
with graphene and its compatibility with brittle fractures as seen in Figure 2(a). The
the epoxy resin/curing agent matrix due to distinction is that the cross section of the
the chemical reaction between the epoxy composite exhibits a high density of
group and the amino group of the curing microscale lines [see Figure (2b)]. As the
agent. In conclusion, ECP significantly epoxy resin is doped with graphene, the
improves graphene dispersion in epoxy well-dispersed flake graphene can serve as
matrixes. The crimped and wrinkled a medium for energy absorption. As the
FIGURE 2 SEM images of (a) pure epoxy and (b) GNS-ECP-epoxy resin composites.
JANUARY 2022 49
MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN

composite material is impacted, the flake

graphene absorbs energy while the resin
remains tightly bonded to the cross sec-
tion, resulting in the flake pattern.

Thermal Conductivity
In graphene, carbon atoms keep shak-
ing, and its lattice vibration gives it excel-
lent thermal conductivity. A thermal con-
ductivity analyzer was used to determine
the thermal conductivity of the composites.
It can be seen from Figure 3 that with the
increase of graphene content from 0.2 to
5%, the thermal conductivity of the coating
increases from 0.095 to 2.378 W·m–1·K –1.
There are two plausible explanations for
this occurrence: 1) ECP significantly
improves graphene dispersion and pro-
motes its transformation from agglomera-
FIGURE 3 Thermal conductivity of GNS-ECP-epoxy resin composites. tion to dispersion, which promotes the for-
mation of a more efficient heat conduction
network in the epoxy resin matrix; or 2) the
graphene sheet is uniformly dispersed in
the epoxy resin, which increases the con-
tact area between graphene and epoxy
resin and further promotes heat transfer. In
addition, the experimental data (2.378
W·m–1·K–1) is high, which may be due to the
limited molecular volume of ECP and its
strong promotion on the dispersion of
graphene.

Electrochemical Properties
The corrosion resistance of SS plates
coated with composite materials and pure
epoxy th ermosetting products was
assessed in 3.5% sodium chloride (NaCl)
solution using an electrochemical work-
station. The polarization curve is shown in
Figure 4, and the corresponding parame-
FIGURE 4 Polarization curves of pure epoxy, 2% GNS-ECP-epoxy, and 2% GNS-ECH-epoxy, ters Ecorr and Icorr are shown in Table 1. Note
respectively.
all coatings inhibit the anodic and cathodic
processes in the potential window. Com-
pared with the pure epoxy resin-coated SS
plate (–730.2 mV), the polarization curve of
composite-coated plate showed a positive
shift of corrosion potential (–538.3 and
TABLE 1. ELECTROCHEMICAL PARAMETERS FOR THE COMPOSITE- –536.3 mV). In addition, the Icorr value of the
COATED STAINLESS STEEL SAMPLES plate coated with ECP composite is 0.0032
µA/cm2, which is much lower than that of
Sample OCP (mV) Ecorr (mV) Icorr (μA/cm2)
the sample coated with ECH (0.0783 µA/
Pure Epoxy –720.5 –730.2 2.335 cm2) and pure epoxy resin (2.335 µA/cm2).
2% GNS-ECP-epoxy –535.6 –538.4 0.0032 These results demonstrate that the addi-
2% GNS-ECH-epoxy –532.7 –536.3 0.0783 tion of ECP improves not only the disper-

50 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

 Solvent-Free Graphene Epoxy Resin Composite Coating

sion of graphene in epoxy resin, but also its
corrosion resistance. The well-dispersed
graphene sheet acts as a barrier, forming an
extraordinarily strong passivation layer
that prevents ions and corrosion factors
from diffusing to the substrate surface.
Conclusions
The aim of this article is to describe the
preparation of a series of graphene/epoxy
resin composites using graphene as a filler
and 1,2-epoxycyclopentane as an additive.
The results of thermal conductivity indi-
cate that the thermal conductivity of the
composites improves with the addition of
graphene. As graphene content is increased
from 0.2 to 5%, the thermal conductivity of
the composites increases from 0.095 to
2.378 W·m–1·K–1. In addition, the polariza-
tion curves of the composites demonstrate
that the resistivity of the composites with
2% graphene and ECP is 0.0032 µA/cm2,
which is far less than that of the epoxy resin
itself (2.335 µA/cm2). Not only can the com-
posites have a good thermal conductivity,
but they often have a high impedance and a
high level of corrosion resistance.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the
financial support of the National Nature
Science Foundation (51303192); the Ningbo
Major Special Project (2013B6012); the
three company projects (KYY-HX-20200193,
KYY-HX-20180569, and KYY-HX-20180117);
and the scholarship of CSC (201808330007).
5 J.W. Gu, et al., “Highly Thermally Conductive
Flame-Retardant Epoxy Nanocomposites
with Reduced Ignitability and Excellent Elec-
trical Conductivities,” Compos. Sci. Technol.
139 (2017): pp. 83-89.
6 Y.Q. Guo, et al., “Significantly Enhanced and
Precisely Modeled Thermal Conductivity in
Polyimide Nanocomposites with Chemically
Modified Graphene Via In Situ Polymeriza-
tion and Electrospinning-Hot Press Technol-
ogy,” J. Mater. Chem. C 6 (2018): pp. 3,004-
3,015.
7 P. Min, et al., “Thermally Conductive Phase
Change Composites Featuring Anisotropic
Graphene Aerogels for Real-Time and Fast-
Charging Solar-Thermal Energy Conversion,”
Adv. Funct. Mater. 28 (2018): p. 185,365.
8 F. An, et al., “Vertically Aligned High-Quality
Graphene Foams for Anisotropically Con-
ductive Polymer Composites with Ultrahigh
Through-Plane Thermal Conductivities,”
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 (2018): pp.
17,383-17,392.
9 A.P. Yu, et al., “Graphite Nanoplatelet-Epoxy
Composite Thermal Interface Materials,”
J. Phys. Chem. C 111 (2007): pp. 7,565-7,569.
10 Y.S. Song, et al., “Influence of Dispersion
States of Carbon Nanotubes on Physical
Properties of Epoxy Nanocomposites,”
Carbon 43 (2005): pp. 1,378-1,385.
11 J.J. Fang, et al., “Formulation of Dimer Acid
Modified Epoxy High Solid Coating and Its
Properties,” Paint & Coatings Industry 43
(2013): pp. 81-87.
JIN HAN is a professor at the College of
Materials Science and Engineering, Zheji-
ang University of Technology, Hangzhou,
People’s Republic of China, email:
hanau@163.com. He has a Ph.D. in mate-
rial from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. His
research interest is functional coatings.
YIPING FENG is a student at the College
of Materials Science and Engineering,
Zhejiang University of Technology, email:
fengyiping1128@163.com. Feng’s research
interest is functional coatings.
FANGJIE CENG is a student at the College
of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhe-
jiang University of Technology, email:
2925853170@qq.com. Ceng’s research
interest is functional coatings.
SHU JIANG is a student at the College of
Materials Science and Engineering, Zheji-
ang University of Technology, email:
770647044@qq.com. Jiang’s research
interest is functional coatings.
TAOLEI QIU is a student at the College of
Materials Science and Engineering, Zheji-
ang University of Technology, email:
1729435410@qq.com. Qiu’s research
interest is functional coatings.
MINGQIANG ZHONG is a professor at the
College of Materials Science and Engineer-
ing, Zhejiang University of Technology,
email: zhongmq@zjut.edu.cn. Zhong’s
research interest is functional nanocom-
posite coatings.

References
1 Q. Li, et al., “Flexible High-Temperature
Dielectric Materials from Polymer Nano- Access the MP Article
composites,” Nature 523 (2015): pp. 576-580.
Index Back to 1962
2 Y.M. Yao, et al., “Construction of 3D Skeleton
for Polymer Composites Achieving a High A searchable index for titles and
Thermal Conductivity,” Nano Micro Small 14
authors of MP articles is available
(2018): p. 1,704,044.
3 G.R. Pan, et al., “Learning from Natural online in PDF format.
Nacre: Constructing Layered Polymer Com- Go to the MP web site,
posites with High Thermal Conductivity,”
www.materialsperformance.com,
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (2017): pp.
33,001-33,010. scroll down to “Links,” then
4 J. Chen, et al., “Cellulose Nanofiber Sup- click on “MP Index.”
ported 3D Interconnected BN Nanosheets
for Epoxy Nanocomposites with Ultrahigh
Thermal Management Capability,” Adv.
Funct. Mater. 27 (2017): p. 1,604,754.

MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 51

MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN
Quantitative Coating
Quality Assessment on
an Offshore Platform
BoJan hudeC, KarLa riBiČiĆ,
sanJa marTineZ, and ivana ŠoiĆ,
Department of Electrochemistry,
Faculty of Chemical Engineering and
Technology, University of Zagreb,
Zagreb, Croatia
52 JANUARY 2022
Early signs of coating degradation
were investigated by impedance
measurements at 40 locations on a
docked, jacketed offshore platform
1.5 and 2 years after full coating
renewal. The platform coatings were
evaluated in comparison to 38 refer-
ence samples with partial and com-
plete coating systems that were aged
at the shoreline for 1.5 years and sub-
sequently tested in the laboratory in
dry and wet states. The quantitative
coating quality approach based on
log Z measurements at 0.1 Hz and
subsequent statistical analysis has
provided means to quantitatively
assess coating degradation in situ
and identify a platform site with lim-
R
ited coating durability.
Recent advances in the field application
of electrochemical impedance spectros-
copy (EIS) demonstrate its usefulness for
quantitative assessment of coating condi-
tion prior to the occurrence of visible dam-
age and establish EIS as a tool for predic-
tive coating maintenance. 1 Here, we
present a quantitative coating quality
(QCQ) assessment approach that addresses
the following challenges of field application
of EIS to coatings:
• Simplicity of application
• Speed of application
• Applicability to surfaces of any orien-
tation and curved surfaces
• Alternating current (AC) interfer-
ences, relative humidity (RH), and
temperature impact
• Assuring quality of results
• Coating assessment criteria
QCQ can include measurements of cor-
rosion potential, impedance spectrum, and
impedance at a single frequency of 0.1 Hz,
as well as Bode and tan δ graphical analy-
sis. 2 In the present study, the QCQ in its
simplest form, by log Z at 0.1 Hz measure-
ments and an evaluation criterion, 3 was
used to evaluate the protective effect of
coatings in offshore applications.
Equipment
Impedance measurements were per-
formed using a device2,4-5 developed at the
Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Tech-
nology at the University of Zagreb. It con-
sists of an impedance instrument, flexible
conductive polymer electrodes, and a con-
ductive paste electrolyte (see Figure 1). The
measurement procedure is compliant with
EN ISO 16773-2 6 but uses the alternative
measurement cell. In the two-electrode
measurement setup (used on the platform),
a pair of electrodes connected to the instru-
ment is placed on the coating surface so
that no contact with the substrate is
required. In the single electrode measure-
ment setup (used in the laboratory), one
electrode connected to the instrument is
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placed on the coating surface and the other
instrument lead is connected to an exposed
portion of the substrate. The electrodes
with dimensions of 4 by 6 cm easily adhere
to the flat coating surfaces of any orienta-
tion or slightly curved surfaces with the
help of a thin layer of adhesive electrolyte
paste (Rel < 250 Ω). The alternative cell pro-
vides a coating impedance unaffected by
liquid electrolyte reflecting the current
coating state in a given environment. To
increase the sensitivity of the method to
coating degradation, a wetting solution can
be used to rapidly hydrate the coating prior
to measurement.
The measurement results for the
impedance in ohms were multiplied by the
electrode area equal to 24 cm 2 and for the
two-electrode arrangement, and addition-
ally by one half to account for the fact that
the current f lows twice through the
coating.
The frequency of 0.1 Hz was chosen as a
compromise between the speed of the mea-
surement and the ability to detect the onset
of resistive behavior of the coating due to
coating degradation as opposed to the
ideal capacitive behavior of the intact coat-
ings. The measurements, performed in
quintuplicate, take ~2.5 min per set. In the
remainder of the text, log Z refers to the
average of five measurements of log Z at 0.1
Hz, expressed in Ω·cm2. The simple and fast
measurement procedure allows testing at
multiple points and/or repeated or repli-
cated tests to ensure the quality of the
results.
To determine accuracy and precision,
calibration foils 7-8 (100- to 250-µm thick
commercial polyester films) and a high-
impedance dummy cell constructed
according to EN ISO 16773-3 were
employed to mimic intact coatings or coat-
ings in the early stages of degradation. Sta-
tistical analysis and coating assessment are
done after logarithmic transformation of
the impedance modulus. The logarithmic
scale is more suitable for comparing large
numbers and is justified in the present
case, since the coating performance is con-
sidered to change when the impedance
changes by an order of magnitude.7 The AC
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
FIGURE 1 Schematic diagram of the single-electrode and two-electrode setups.
interferences start to influence the mea-
surements by more than 1% for coatings
with log Z >10.4. AC influence can be miti-
gated by increasing the signal amplitude9
up to its maximum value of 250 mV. The
ReCorrQCQ † software outputs both the
sinusoidal interference signal and the
intensity spectrum that enabled AC inter-
ference management by selecting the mea-
surement location and/or optimizing the
signal-to-noise ratio. For coatings with log
Z=11, an interference amplitude of up to
250 mV and a positive signal-to-noise ratio,
the relative root mean square (RMS) of log
Z can be kept below 1% and the maximum
relative error in log Z can be kept below 5%.
In the Faraday cage, the relative RMS of log
Z is less than 0.1% and the maximum rela-
tive error is equal to 0.64%.
Reference Samples
and Test Locations
The coating systems used on the plat-
form and the reference samples had self–
priming epoxy, zinc-rich, or zinc-phos-
phate epoxy primers as base coats; epoxy or
epoxy mastic intermediate coats; and
epoxy, epoxy mastic, or polyurethane top-
coats. Total dry film thicknesses (DFTs) of
225 to 430 µm were specified, achieved in
two to four layers. All measurements were
performed without knowledge of the coat-
ing system details.
†
Trade name.
The 31 platform locations tested were
at the following sites: decks, helideck, jack-
ing house exterior, bracing, stairs, decanter
space, cellar deck, handrails, anchor winch,
piping, and at one of the preload tanks.
During paint system renewal, 38 refer-
ence samples were prepared with partial
and complete coating systems and aged at
the shoreline, a few meters from the sea, for
1.5 years. After transfer from the exposure
site, the reference samples were stored for
at least three months under laboratory
conditions (23±2 °C and ≥50% RH) to allow
them to dry. Impedance was measured on
the aged dry samples and on the aged sam-
ples after one and two weeks of exposure to
100% RH. It was found that further expo-
sure to 100% RH caused no change in
impedance.
Measurements on
Reference Samples
The typical appearance of the reference
samples with partial and complete coating
systems after 1.5 years of exposure at the
shoreline is shown in Figure 2. All primers
with thicknesses close to 100 µm show pro-
nounced corrosion damage. Two-layer sam-
ples of thicknesses close to 250 µm showed
several corrosion spots on the coating sur-
face, while the three- and four-layer coat-
ings with a thickness of ~350 and 450 µm
showed no visible corrosion damage. All the
samples show discoloration near edges that
were not stripe coated.
JANUARY 2022 53
MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN
FIGURE 2 Typical appearance of the samples with different DFTs during 1.5 years of exposure at
the shoreline.
Figure 3(a) shows all the measured
data. Log Z of the coating systems thicker
than 300 µm does not fall below 8, while
almost all thinner coatings show values
below 8, some even below 5. In general,
defects become apparent in coatings with
log Z <6. Further analysis showed that
regardless of the system type or the number
of layers, coatings with similar thickness
had similar impedance values. Therefore,
the log Z values were averaged over 100 µm
thickness ranges and the results are shown
(a)
FIGURE 3 (a) log Z measured in the laboratory, on the shoreline aged samples, in the dry state and after 1 and 2 weeks of exposure to 100% RH, and
(b) averaged log Z for different ranges of DFTs, regardless of the coating type and the number of layers. The error bars denote the RMS due to the
different coating thicknesses within the averaging intervals.
54 JANUARY 2022
in Figure 3(b). The impedances of single
layer coatings (primers) with an average
thickness of 103±16 µm were averaged sep-
arately and shown in Figure 3.
Table 3 of EN ISO 12944-9 10 requires
minimum DFT values of 280 µm in an
atmospheric CX offshore zone and 450 µm
in CX tidal and splash zones for Sa 2½11
blasted carbon steel with zinc-rich primer.
Considering the impedances of the refer-
ence samples in Figure 3(b), it was con-
cluded that the complete coating systems
(b)
with log Z ≥8.5 in the atmospheric CX zone
and with log Z ≥9.5 in the tidal and splash
zone can be considered as well performing.
Samples with log Z <8.5 can be classified as
underperforming. Underperforming sys-
tems with log Z <7 may be classified as
doubtful and warrant an increase in the
number of test points and measurements of
the full impedance spectrum. These crite-
ria apply to offshore-grade coating systems
under marine atmospheric exposure.
Measurements on
the Platform
Figure 4 shows the log Z measured at dif-
ferent locations on the platform 1.5 and 2
years after renewal. The average relative log-
arithmic RMS was 0.72 and 1.78% for the first
and second measurement runs, respectively,
indicating high measurement precision.
The differences in the two measure-
ment runs were: 1) the weather conditions
before and during the measurements, and
2) that the measurements in the first and
second sets were made at identical sites
but not the same locations.
During the first and second measure-
ment run, the respective average air tem-
peratures were 15.1±3.1 °C and 8.7±1.9 °C.
The respective air RHs were 42.1±12.5% and
42.4±14.4%. Log Z values ranging from 6 to
12 were measured under the above RH con-
ditions. The temperature difference did not
seem to play a decisive role, so the two
independent field experiments yielded sim-
ilar conclusions.
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 Quantitative Coating Quality Assessment on an Offshore Platform

Of the 31 measurement locations (no. 1

to 31) tested in the first run, 21 were found
to be well performing. Nine underperform-
ing locations had log Z >7 and only one
underperforming location (no. 31), found
in a preload tank, had a log Z ≈6 and was
classified as doubtful. After a further six
measurements were taken in the same tank
(no. 32-37), one location was classified as
well performing (no. 35), one as underper-
forming (no. 37), and four as doubtful (no.
32, 33, 34, and 36).
The conclusions after the second run
may be summarized as follows. Of 31 mea-
surement locations from the first run, 15
locations were found well performing in
both runs. Four locations were found
underperforming in both runs. Five loca- FIGURE 4 Log Z measured at different locations on the platform 1.5 and 2 years after renewal.
tions shifted between well performing and Error bars denote the RMS of five consecutive measurements.
underperforming in each direction. Tank
location no. 31 remained doubtful in the
second run. Another doubtful location was
found on the deck of the jacking system
(no. 13), but the site was not investigated
further. At an additional six tank locations
the three previously doubtful locations
were found to be underperforming. One
additional location measured inside the
tank in the second run was found under-
performing (no. 38) and the two additional
locations measured at sites other than the
tank have shown to be well performing (no.
FIGURE 5 Appearance of the log Z >7 coatings (left) and of the doubtful coating within the tank
39 and 40). (right), after two years of exposure.
Figure 5 shows the typical appearance
of the log Z ≥7 coatings (left) and the doubt-
ful coating within the tank (right) after two ferences were successfully managed by the Papavinasam, R. Rebak, L. Yang, N. Berke,
years of atmospheric exposure. It has been EIS signal amplitude optimization. Similar eds. (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM Inter-
discussed previously that low impedance conclusions from the two independent national, 2019): pp. 137-159.
coatings are more likely to exhibit visible runs unequivocally indicated the preload 2 S. Martinez, I. Šoić, V. Špada, “Unified Equiv-
early degradation at edges and welds.2 Sub- tank as a location of limited coating dura- alent Circuit of Dielectric Permittivity and
sequent analysis of the coating specifica- bility. The rationale for this observation Porous Coating Formalisms for EIS Probing
tions revealed that the tanks were the only was later found in the specification of the of Thick Industrial Grade Coatings,” Prog.
site where a two-layer self-priming epoxy tank coating system. Laboratory and field Org. Coat. 153 (2021): p. 106,155.
coating system of 2 by 150 µm, without a QCQ testing based on EIS and subsequent 3 L.G.S. Gray, “EIS: Electrochemical Imped-
need for stripe coating, had been specified statistical analysis have shown the poten- ance Spectroscopy a Tool to Predict Remain-
and applied. tial to serve as a valuable tool for predictive ing Coating Life,” JPCL 2 (2003).
coating maintenance. 4 I. Šoić, S. Martinez, M. Dubravić, “Gel-
Conclusions Electrolyte EIS Setup Used for Probing of IR
The investigated QCQ approach proved References Dried/Cured Industrial Coatings,” Prog. Org.
to be applicable to offshore-grade coatings 1 B.J. Merten, M.T. Walsh, J.D. Torrey, “Valida- Coat. 137 (2019): p. 105,331.
in early stages of coating degradation. tion of Coated Infrastructure Examination 5 M. Mrda Lalic, S. Martinez, “A Novel Applica-
Rapid measurements can be repeated and by Electrochemical Impedance Spectros- tion of EIS for Quantitative Coating Quality
performed in multiple locations to ensure copy,” in Advances in Electrochemical Assessment During Neutral Salt Spray Test-
quality of results. The high field measure- Techniques for Corrosion Monitoring and ing of High-Durability Coatings,” Acta Chim.
ment precision indicates that the AC inter- Laboratory Corrosion Measurements, S. Slov. 66 (2019): pp. 513-522.
Continued on page 56

MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 55

MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN
Continued from page 55

6 EN ISO 16773-2, “Electrochemical imped-
ance spectroscopy (EIS) on coated and un-
coated metallic specimens—Part 2: Collec-
tion of data” (Geneva, Switzerland: ISO).
7 V.S. Bonitz, B.R. Hinderliter, G.P. Bierwagen,
“Commercial Polymer Films as Calibration
Standards for EIS Measurements,” Electro-
chim. Acta 51 (2006): pp. 3,558-3,565.
8 V.S. Bonitz, B.R. Hinderliter, G.P. Bierwagen,
“Random and Systematic Error as a Function
of Sample Area in Electrochemical Imped-
ance Spectroscopy Data,” Prog. Org. Coat. 77
(2014): pp. 2,100-2,106.
9 E. Akbarinezhad, F. Rezaei, J. Neshati, “Evalu-
ation of a High Resistance Paint Coating with
EIS Measurements: Effect of High AC Pertur-
bations,” Prog. Org. Coat. 61 (2008): pp. 45-52.
10 EN ISO 12944-9, “Paints and varnishes—
Corrosion protection of steel structures by
protective paint systems—Part 9: Protective
paint systems and laboratory performance
test methods for offshore and related struc-
tures” (Geneva, Switzerland: ISO).
11 Swedish Standard Sa 2½, “Near White Blast
Cleaning” (Stockholm, Sweden: SIS).
BOJAN HUDEC is a Ph.D. student at the
University of Zagreb, Helsinki, Finland,
email: bojan.hudec@fennovoima.fi. He is
involved in corrosion and quality manage-
ment and is an assurance and control engi-
neer with over nine years of experience in
the nuclear and oil and gas upstream and
downstream industry.
KARLA RIBIČIĆ recently graduated as a
tone-mapping engineer from the Univer-
sity of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia, email:
karla@miltonia.hr. For her masters thesis
she studied the properties of coated steel
plates with EIS. Now she works as a chem-
ical engineer in tone mapping production.
She received a Rector’s Award and Dean’s
Award.
SANJA MARTINEZ is a professor at the
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Chemical
Engineering and Technology, email: sanja.
martinex@fkit.hr. Martinez has over 20
years of experience in organizing corro-
sion courses and working with industry on
various corrosion problems.
IVANA ŠOIĆ is a Ph.D. student at the Uni-
versity of Zagreb, Faculty of Chemical
Engineering and Technology, email: ivana.
soic@fkit.hr. She has four years of experi-
ence in corrosion-related problems and
corrosion management.

DID YOU KNOW….

The New AMPP YouTube channel brings you the latest news and
information about corrosion, coatings, asset protection, AMPP
education, certification, conferences, events and much more!

Don’t miss out on any

valuable content!
Subscribe to our channel to
stay informed, connected
and to become part of the
AMPP community today!

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56 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

 MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN ESSENTIALS

U.S. Navy Explores Using Drones, Sensors to Track Corrosion

Scientists with the Naval Surface Warfare
Center, Port Hueneme Division (NSWC
PHD) (Port Hueneme, California, USA) are
working with a local company to use
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and sen-
sors to track corrosion or degradation on
combat systems aboard U.S. Navy ships.
NSWC PHD and remote-sensing tech-
nology company Aerial Alchemy (Thousand
Oaks, California, USA) are partnering under
a cooperative research and development
agreement1 to examine how corrosion
affects the performance of Navy ships’ com-
bat systems. Going forward, they want to
find a way to detect corrosion, remotely.
Aerial Alchemy develops medium and
heavy-lift UAVs that use sensors equipped
with lidar scanning and other imaging tech-
nology to accurately capture data used to The U.S. Naval Surface Warfare Center, Port Hueneme Division is working with a local
generate a three-dimensional (3D) digital technology company, Aerial Alchemy, on using unmanned aerial vehicle technology to
representation of a physical asset, also track corrosion in combat systems aboard Navy ships. Photo courtesy of Chuck
Spaulding, Aerial Alchemy.
known as a digital twin.

Goals of the Partnership

The partnership’s goal is to explore using
the company’s drones and its processing
system and visual data to detect areas that
may have corrosion. As a drone flies over a
specified area of a ship, such as a hull or the
rear, it transmits video to create a digital
model of a ship. This contributes to a ship’s
detailed analysis, including areas of concern
for corrosion or rust.
Should the UAV and sensors detect cor-
rosion, it will help give scientists early notice
of the issue, according to Alan Jaeger, man-
ager of the office of research and technology
applications at NSWC PHD.
“The idea is whether we can use various
sensors to identify that information without
Aerial Alchemy uses the drone pictured above for industrial inspections. Photo courtesy
having to put human eyeballs on it,” Jaeger
of Chuck Spaulding, Aerial Alchemy.
says. “If we can, then the next step is putting
that on drones or unmanned aircraft, so we
don’t have to send a sailor on a ship; we can reliability, and accuracy of the company’s 2016 when everyone was trying to figure out
send a drone, and it can scan equipment UAVs in a maritime environment to success- what civil UAVs were, and what they meant
and identify corrosion or undersurface dam- fully create an “as-built” digital model of USS to them,” Spaulding explains. “The Navy was
age, for example. If we can get that data, Independence (LCS 2), which is used as a interested in exploring the usefulness of
then we can start pre-planning for mainte- baseline digital twin. A digital twin is an drones for remote sensing and remote
nance, preventative maintenance, and intelligent digital representation of an ana- inspections of combat systems on surface
repair operations.” log asset or a 3D model, according to Chuck ships, which led to the first [agreement] in
This is Aerial Alchemy’s second partner- Spaulding, founder and CEO of Aerial 2018, and through that collaboration, we
ship agreement with NSWC PHD. The first Alchemy. were able to create an exterior 3D as-built
initiative focused on proving the stability, “We began working with the Navy in model of a ship at sea.”
Continued on page 58

MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 57

MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN ESSENTIALS
Continued from page 57
A sensor examines a metal plate for rust. The red machine acts as a vacuum pump and
tunes the sensor to a specific wavelength as part of the corrosion detection process.
Photo courtesy of Chuck Spaulding, Aerial Alchemy.
Interpreting Sensor Data
With the second partnership, the team
hopes to build on the successful results of
the first and continue to improve precision
navigation techniques. Their focus will be
combining data from a thermal red, blue,
and green sensor that a visible camera uses,
as well as multispectral, hyperspectral, and
tuning sensor wavelengths so they can be
used to remotely detect and identify chemi-
cals generated during the corrosion process.
“By themselves, the data from each of
these sensors do not provide sufficient
information for the specific identification
and automatic evaluation of the corrosion
state of an asset,” Spaulding says. “However,
when combined with a stable platform with
precision navigation such as lidar and syn-
thetic vision to align the ‘blended’ sensor
data and advanced computational
approaches involving machine learning and
artificial intelligence algorithms in a digital
twin, this solution should provide a more
objective rating of surface deterioration
much more efficiently, cost-effectively, and
safer than a human inspector could.”
The teams anticipate that the drone-
sensor technology brings many benefits to
the Navy and the warfighter, including
reducing the labor costs of inspections and
the ability to inspect difficult and high-risk
areas. That advanced and early detection, in
particular, would give the Navy a leg-up in
treating corrosion, says Zachary Stephens, a
materials engineer with NSWC PHD.
“Because a lot of corrosion happens
under the painted surface, you see it when it
breaks through the painted surface, or you
58 JANUARY 2022
start to see physical flaws; and at that point,
it’s almost too late to do touch-up work,”
Stephens says. “So the early detection will
be very valuable for planning maintenance
actions, and for knowing which system
needs the maintenance and which ones
don’t, as well as moving onto our condition-
based maintenance model rather than our
preventative-based maintenance model.”
Armen Kvryan, lead materials engineer
at NSWC PHD, has a doctorate in materials
science and an extensive background on
corrosion issues affecting combat systems
from working in industry and academia.
Kvryan, Jaeger, and Stephens, along with
advanced imaging technology company
SAAZ Micro, Inc. (Simi Valley, California,
USA), are currently conducting tests of the
sensors in a laboratory to explore the differ-
ent types of corrosion and degradation that
the sensors can identify on different kinds of
metals, such as aluminum and steel.
“Our initial research will be on what sen-
sors to use to detect corrosion and then fig-
ure out what sensors we can use and what
materials we can detect corrosion or degra-
dation on, because composites are not
metal, so they don’t corrode,” Stephens says.
“Although it would be ideal to have a [single]
sensor that can detect all kinds of corrosion
and degradation on the ship when you have
composite versus aluminum or steel, they all
have different signs and methods. One
method may work on one type system but
won’t work on another. The success of this
test will determine where to focus our
efforts.”
Next Steps in the Collaboration
Spaulding agrees that if the technology
successfully identifies corrosion on combat
systems, the system can assess issues on
other parts of the ship and be used by other
industries.
“To make a commercially viable product
outside the Navy, we must also investigate the
material properties of the hull superstructure
and pretty much all exterior surfaces of the
ship above the waterline that are subjected to
a corrosive environment,” Spaulding says.
“Navy warships are some of the most sophisti-
cated machines globally, and the nature of
combat systems with compound curvature
and multiple angles, combined with compos-
ite materials, antennas, and sensors, create
complex geometries. If our technology can be
demonstrated on combat systems, then it will
have applicability on other parts of the ship
that are less complex.”
Spaulding credits NSWC PHD for helping
him navigate working with the Navy. “The
people we’re working with at NSWC PHD
have been awesome and helped us through
the process, and that’s significant if you’re a
small company like we are,” he concludes.
“They have removed many of the roadblocks
that get in the way of good collaboration,
making this a really enjoyable project.”
Kvryan says the agreement with Aerial
Alchemy is another way to obtain information
and experience from industry to pass onto the
sailors and ultimately support the warfighter.
“What I want is to not only solve a Navy prob-
lem, but to gain expertise and knowledge that
I can bring back to the fleet,” Kvryan says.
Aerial Alchemy and NSWC PHD are seek-
ing additional partners or collaborators on
the project. For more information, contact
Jaeger at alan.w.jaeger@navy.mil or Spauld-
ing at chuck@aerialalchemy.com.
Source: U.S. Defense Visual Information
Distribution Service, www.dvidshub.net.
Reference
1 “Naval Surface Warfare Center, Port Hueneme
Division Partners with Industry on Exploring
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Sensors to De-
tect Corrosion on Navy Combat Systems,” De-
fense Visual Information Distribution Service
News, July 14, 2021, https://www.dvidshub.
net/news/400916/naval- surface-warfare-
center-port-hueneme-division-partners-with-
i n d u st r y - e x p l o r i n g - u n m a n n e d - a e r i a l -
vehicles-and-sensors-detect-corrosion (Aug.
18, 2021).
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM
 UPDATE.
CREATE.
VIEW.
NEW
LISTINGS
TODAY!
GET IT ONLINE,
GET IT IN PRINT.
DON’T MISS IT!

coatingspromag.com
 AMPP NEWS AMPP NEWS
AMPP Recently
Publishes New and
Revised Standards
T
he Association for Materials
Protection and Performance
(AMPP) recently published
the following new standards:
8 AMPP SP21443-2021, “Coating Systems
(External) for Pipeline Trenchless
Crossings”
8 AMPP SP21513-2021, “Procedure for
Determining Conformance to Concrete
Surface Profile Requirements”
8 AMPP SP21487-2021, “Inspecting and
Reporting Biofouling and Antifouling
Systems’ Condition during Underwater
Inspection on Ships”
8 AMPP TR21448-2021, “Corrosion
Prevention and Control for Marine
Scrubbers”
60 JANUARY 2022
8 AMPP TM21449-2021, “Continuous
Measurements for Determination of
Aerospace Coating Protective
Properties
The following standards have been
revised:
8 NACE TR5A192-2021, “Guidelines for
Maintaining Integrity of Equipment in
Anhydrous Ammonia Storage and
Handling”
8 NACE SP0285-2021, “External
Corrosion Control of Underground
Storage Tank Systems by Cathodic
Protection”
For more information about the AMPP
standards program and how you can join
committees, visit ampp.org/standards.
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM
 Your Association in Action

AMPP Board of Directors

OFFICERS Bob Chalker Amir Eliezer Russell Norris

Secretary—Ex Officio 2021 2021-2022
Tim Bieri AMPP: Association for Materials CTO-TRYMER, Ltd. Sherwin-Williams Co.
Chair Protection and Performance Beer-Seva, Israel Houston, Texas, USA
2021
BP Americas, Inc. Kris Ernst Michelle Lau Skip Vernon
Houston, Texas, USA Treasurer—Ex Officio 2021 2021-2022
AMPP: Association for Materials Mach 3 Engineering Sdn. Bhd. CLT, Inc.
Sam Scaturro Protection and Performance Malaysia Tijeras, New Mexico, USA
Vice Chair
2021 Helena Seelinger Bob Kogler Abdullah Al-dossary
Alpine Painting & Sandblasting Executive Director 2021 2021-2023
Contractors AMPP: Association for Materials Rampart, LLC Saudi Aramco
Patterson, New Jersey, USA Protection and Performance Falls Church, Virginia, USA Al Khubar, Saudi Arabia

Joe Walker George Galis Ross Boyd

DIRECTORS 2021 2021-2023
Past Chair
2021 Paul Vince Finishing Trades Institute (FTI) TruQC, LLC
Elcometer, Inc. 2021 Hanover, Maryland, USA Kirkwood, Missouri, USA
Warren, Michigan, USA WSP Kevin Garrity Doni Riddle
Australia 2021-2022 2021-2023
Cris Conner
AMPP Global Center Vice Chair— Garry Manous Mears Groups The Sherwin-Williams Co.
Ex Officio 2021 Plain City, Ohio, USA Cleveland, Ohio, USA
Jan. 2021-June 2022 Atsalis Bros. Painting
Utility Service & Maintenance Warren, Michigan, USA
St. Louis, Missouri, USA

AMPP Global Center Board of Directors

OFFICERS DIRECTORS Brian Saldanha Alison Kaelin

Joyce Wright
Chair
Jan. 2021–June 2022
Huntington Ingalls Industries—
Newport News Shipbuilding
Newport News, Virginia, USA
Cris Conner
Vice Chair
Jan. 2021–June 2022
Utility Service & Maintenance
St. Louis, Missouri, USA
Terry Greenfield
Past Chair
Jan. 2021–June 2022
CONSULEX
Cocoa, Florida, USA
Sam Scaturro
AMPP Vice Chair—Ex Officio
2021
Alpine Painting & Sandblasting
Contractors
Patterson, New Jersey, USA
Bob Chalker
Secretary—Ex Officio
AMPP: Association for Materials
Protection and Performance
Kris Ernst
Treasurer—Ex Officio
AMPP: Association for Materials
Protection and Performance
Cynthia O’Malley
Executive Director
AMPP: Association for Materials
Protection and Performance
Greg Redick
July 2021–June 2024
Potomac Redan Associates, LLC
Williamsburg, Virginia, USA
Steve Cogswell
July 2021–June 2024
FINCANTIERI Marine Systems N.A.
Jacksonville, Florida, USA
Michael O’Brien
July 2021–June 2024
MARK 10 Resource Group, Inc.
Richmond, Virginia, USA
Arcino Quiero
July 2021–June 2024
Newport News Shipbuilding
Virginia Beach, Virginia, USA
Paul Vinik
July 2021–June 2024
GPI
Daytona Beach, Florida, USA
Kristin Leonard
Jan. 2021–June 2024
ExxonMobil Research &
Engineering Materials Engineering
Section
Spring, Texas, USA
Brooke Divan
Jan. 2021–June 2022
US Army Corps of Engineers, Paint
Technology Center
Champaign, Illinois, USA
Jan. 2021–June 2022
Chemours Co.
Wilmington, Delaware, USA
Emer Flounders
Jan. 2021–June 2022
Pond & Co.
Dresher, Pennsylvania, USA
Leonardo Uller
Jan. 2021–June 2022
SURPLUS
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Doug Kellow
Jan. 2021–June 2022
Brenntag Canada, Inc.
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Michael McLampy
Jan. 2021–June 2022
PPG Industries
Carlisle, Massachusetts, USA
Mana Al-Mansour
Jan. 2021–June 2022
Saudi Aramco
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Francisco Gudiel
Jan. 2021–June 2023
Geotechnical and Physical
Evaluations Engineer
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
Juan Caballero
Jan. 2021–June 2023
Naval & Industrial Solutions S.A.
Panama
Jan. 2021–June 2023
ABKaelin, LLC
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
Ahren Olson
Jan. 2021–June 2023
Covestro, LLC
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
Roy Fultineer
Jan. 2021–June 2023
Roberts Corrosion Services, LLC
South Charleston, West Virginia,
USA
Rolf Gubner
Jan. 2021–June 2023
Consultant
Girrawheen, Australia
Kimberly-Joy Harris
Jan. 2021–June 2023
Enbridge
Houston, Texas, USA
Cal Chapman
Jan. 2021–June 2023
Chapman Engineering
Boerne, Texas, USA

MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 61

 AMPP NEWS

Register Now for the A New

AMPP Annual Conference Year, a New
+ Expo 2022 Membership
Model and
With it, New
Possibilities
I
n-person conferences are back and it’s time to secure your spot for the inaugural
AMPP Annual Conference + Expo, the largest global conference for corrosion and

L
protective coatings professionals. Meet with industry experts and be part of the most egacy NACE and SSPC members are
current technical symposia, industry forums, workshops, and standards meetings. now officially AMPP members with
Network with colleagues from around the world. Participate in shaping the future of the recent launch of the new mem-
the industry. Limited exhibitor space, sponsorships, and advertising opportunities are bership model. Corporate members were
still available. See you on March 6-10, 2022 in San Antonio, Texas, USA! For complete placed in one of three new corporate mem-
information and to register, go to ace.ampp.org/home. ber levels equivalent to their legacy mem-
bership (see p. 63). Individuals were
enrolled automatically at the benefit-rich
“Premium” level. We encourage you to visit
the Membership section of the AMPP web
site (ampp.org) and familiarize yourself
with the new model, which builds in the
most valued benefits of each program and
provides the best of both NACE and SSPC.
Check your member history, which carried
over with this change, and review your
profile, updating any contact or demo-
graphic information.

NACE/AMPP Dubai Training Facility

Now Having In-Class Courses
I
n November, students from UAE, Oman, Pakistan, and Malaysia were welcomed to attend Dubai’s first in-class Cathodic Protection
(CP2) course after almost two years. The course was taught by Calvin Pynn and Abi Gunasekaran.

62 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

 Your Association in Action

Welcome Affiliate Corporate Members

of AMPP
AB Sandvik Materials Technology, Sweden
Accurate Corrosion Control, USA
AkzoNobel, United Kingdom Benjamin
Moore & Co., USA
BP Exploration & Production Operating Co.,
Ltd., USA
BSS Technologies, United Arab Emirates
CAL, Inc., USA
Carboline Co., USA
Colonial Pipeline Co., USA
Corrpro, USA
Denso North America, USA
Dunn-Edwards Corp., USA
E2G The Equity Engineering Group, Inc.,
USA
Elcometer, USA
Element Material Technology, USA
Enable Midstream Partners, USA
Enbridge GTM, USA
Enbridge Pipelines, Inc., Canada
Faragauss Marketing, S.A. de C.V., Mexico
Finishing Trades Institute (FTI), USA
Greenman-Pedersen, Inc., USA
Henkels & McCoy, Inc., USA
HMI Technical Solutions, LLC, USA
International Union of Painters and Allied
Trades, USA
JT Thorpe & Son, Inc., USA
KTA-Tator, Inc., USA
Kuwait Oil Co., Kuwait
Lake Superior Consulting, USA
Marathon Pipeline, LLC, USA
MATCOR, Inc., USA
MESA, USA
National Grid, USA
Oneok Partners, USA
Polyguard Products, Inc., USA
PPG Coatings (Kunshan) Co., Ltd., China
PPG Industries, Inc., USA
Rabigh Refining and Petrochemical Co.,
Saudi Arabia
Shanghai PT Painting Technology Co., Ltd.,
China
Sherwin-Williams Co., USA
Shinko Co., Ltd., Japan
Southern California Gas Co., USA
Turner Industries Group, LLC, USA

e BOOK Select titles

now available!

We’re busy updating our extensive library of NACE

Press books so you can benefit from the convenience
of an electronic version! Look for this symbol on your
favorite title and take advantage of pure portability!

www.nace.org/store
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 63
 AMPP NEWS
Meet Your AMPP Colleague: This Month, Krista Heidersbach
W
elcome back to this ongoing
department in MP’s monthly
AMPP News. Now that NACE Interna-
tional and SSPC—The Society for Protec-
tive Coatings have merged into the
Association for Materials Protection and
Performance, the editors of MP and
CoatingsPro are each publishing their
respective profiles of members of AMPP
involved in all areas of protective coat-
ings and corrosion control. This month’s
MP interview is with Krista L. Heiders-
bach, a senior engineer, corrosion, asset
integrity at Phillips 66, in Houston, Texas,
USA. Since completing her Ph.D. at The
Pennsylvania State University, she has
worked in the chemical, refinery, and
upstream sectors before moving to
pipelines. Her technical interests have
been geared toward upstream multi-
phase flow lines where she developed
knowledge of “top of the line corrosion”
in gas pipelines and preventing corrosion
during hydrotesting and/or long-term
wet storage. The former has given her
significant knowledge of corrosion
modeling for CO2/H2S (carbon dioxide/
hydrogen sulfide) systems and chemical
treatment/corrosion inhibition. The latter
has given her significant experience with
microbiologically influenced corrosion,
diagnosing, monitoring, and treating.
64 JANUARY 2022
Heidersbach is a Professional Metallurgi-
cal Engineer in the State of Texas. She
has been a member of NACE Interna-
tional (now AMPP) for over 25 years.
Q: Please tell us how your career in
the oil and gas industry has developed
over the years.
While working on my Ph.D., I met a class-
mate of my father’s at a conference. We
kept in touch while I was in school and
eventually, I was hired on to the same
chemical company, Union Carbide. I was
interested in that position because it was
applied engineering. I was tired of theo-
retical work and wanted to be able to
touch things and see the impact of deci-
sions. After a few years, Union Carbide
was bought out by Dow. During the
merger process, I met a retired Chevron
employee at a NACE class. He went back
and told his old boss that they should
interview me. The move to refining from
chemicals seemed an easy transition.
After a few years doing U.S. refinery sup-
port, I opted to take a position in Hous-
ton, working on upstream projects. Even-
tually, I did a trifecta of things: existing
facility support, and projects and man-
agement of an applied R&D portfolio. I
felt that the projects and existing facilities
work gave me the ideas of where we
needed to do R&D. It also allowed me to
practice my strategic thought process.
Working in upstream, I was able to visit/
work in a dozen or so countries, which
was the highlight of my career. Eventually,
I got burnt out. During the 2015 down-
turn, I took a package and a few months
off of work. I went on a couple of interna-
tional trips and I slept a lot. When I went
back to work, it was at Stress Engineering
Services, as a consultant. Consulting
shows you where your strengths and
weaknesses lie. At the time, a lot of the
work that was coming in was from pipe-
lines, which was an area where I did not
have a lot of experience. So, when the
commute became unbearable, I started
looking for a position at a pipeline opera-
tor, eventually landing at Phillips 66, with
a 12-mile (19.31 km) commute.
Q: What projects and developments
are you most proud of throughout your
career?
I am most proud of the people that I
have worked with over the years. I was
lucky enough to establish a great rela-
tionship with a business unit that had a
lot of young engineers. They were gen-
erous enough to fund my mentoring of
those engineers remotely. We would
have weekly calls where we talked about
what they were working on and how they
should approach a problem. I would visit
a few times a year. One recently told me
that she works in corrosion because of
me. That made me cry a little. She also
met her husband while traveling to a
corrosion conference, so that was a big
impact.
Q: What value have you found from
education and training and certifications
in your industry?
As a younger engineer, certification was
not a big requirement. I was expected to
learn on the job, via mentoring and
reading standards. However, as the
workforce aged and the average age of
engineers went down, there was a
greater focus on external training. Certifi-
cations became more common. Person-
ally, as soon as I started as a consultant,
the first question I had was whether or
not I was a Profession Engineer (PE). I
ended up taking the PE exam in 2016,
almost 20 years after I left school. At the
time, I also seriously considered sitting
for the NACE Corrosion Specialist exam,
as a way of distinguishing myself from
others.
Q: In general, how have your activities
with associations you belong to affect
your work?
I’ve been involved in NACE/AMPP since
I left school and I would say that my
activities have contributed to each job I
have had. In my current role, I was a
blind interview, I didn’t know anyone on
my panel. They told me at the end that
they had been looking at a paper on
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM
 Your Association in Action

AMPP Events Calendar

hydrotesting I had co-authored in 2010. I
feel like that publication gave me techni-
cal credibility with a new group.
JANUARY 2022 KANSAS SECTION OF
Q: What are you focusing on in your
current organization? 51ST OMAHA SHORT COURSE
AMPP 34TH ANNUAL
CORROSION CONTROL SEMINAR
2022 March 29-31, 2022
I am an internal corrosion specialist for a
midstream organization. I spend a lot of January 18-19, 2022 Great Bend, Kansas, USA
Embassy Suites Convention Center More info: Krystall Barnes,
time looking at corrosion coupons and
La Vista, Nebraska, USA tel: +1 620-792-9332,
corrosion monitoring results. While it’s email: barnesk@bartonccc.edu
More info: John Gormley,
not my role, this also allows me to learn
tel: +1 402-398-7494,
more about various ILI technologies and email: john.gormley@nngco.com
cathodic protection. I also serve as a APRIL 2022
general consultant, which is interesting AMPP ROCKY MOUNTAIN NORTHERN AREA WESTERN
as the industry is focusing more on new CHAPTER ANNUAL SHORT CONFERENCE 2022
technologies. COURSE
April 11-14, 2022
January 19-22, 2022
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Doubletree
More info: naceedmonton.com
Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA
More info: Candy Balerio,
tel: +1 303-859-1253, JULY 2022
email: candy.balerio@mesaproducts.com
20TH INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE ON
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opportunities February 8-9, 2022
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Snowmass Village, Colorado, USA
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Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
More info: envdeg.ampp.org
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com/10klakes/811834
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Convention Center August 8-11, 2022
Blue Bell, Pennsylvania, USA Tucson, Arizona, USA

and connect
More info: Dave Krause, More info: www.dodcorrcon.org
tel: +1 610-868-9352,

through an online
email: dave.krause@isfieldservices.com
MARCH 2023

community. MARCH 2022 AMPP ANNUAL CONFERENCE +

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AMPP ANNUAL CONFERENCE +
EXPO 2022 March 19-23, 2023

Visit volunteer. March 6-10, 2022

Denver, Colorado, USA
More info: Lesley Martinez, AMPP,
San Antonio, Texas, USA
ampp.org
tel: +1 281-228-6413,
More info: Lesley Martinez, AMPP, email: lesley.martinez@ampp.org
tel: +1 281-228-6413,
email: lesley.martinez@ampp.org

MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 65

 AMPP NEWS

AMPP Course Schedule

AUSTRALIA EGYPT
Coating Inspector Program (CIP) Level 1 Basic Corrosion
Adelaide, SA ................................................ Mar 14-18, 2022 Cairo ............................................................. Mar 20-23, 2022
Perth, WA ..................................................... Feb 21-26, 2022 CIP Level 1
Perth, WA ..................................................... May 2-6, 2022 Cairo ............................................................. Mar 6-11, 2022
Perth, WA ..................................................... Jun 13-17, 2022
Preston, VIC.................................................. May 16-20, 2022 CIP Level 2
Cairo ............................................................. Mar 13-17, 2022
CIP Level 2
Adelaide, SA ................................................ May 2-6, 2022 Corrosion Control in the Refining Industry
Brisbane, QLD .............................................. Feb 7-11, 2022 Cairo ............................................................. May 15-19, 2022
Perth, WA ..................................................... Feb 28–Mar 4, 2022 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
Perth, WA ..................................................... Jun 20-24, 2022 Cairo ............................................................. Feb 13-16, 2022
Preston, VIC.................................................. May 23-27, 2022 CP3—Cathodic Protection Technologist
Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI) Cairo ............................................................. Jun 5-9, 2022
Perth, WA ..................................................... Apr 26-29, 2022 CP4—Cathodic Protection Specialist
Cairo ............................................................. Jun 12-17, 2022
BRAZIL
CIP Level 1 Designing for Corrosion Control
Rio de Janeiro .............................................. Mar 28–Apr 1, 2022 Cairo ............................................................. Feb 20-23, 2022
CIP Level 2 In Line Inspection
Rio de Janeiro .............................................. Apr 4-8, 2022 Cairo ............................................................. Feb 6-9, 2022
Internal Corrosion for Pipelines—Advanced
BRUNEI DARUSSALAM Cairo ............................................................. Mar 27-30, 2022
CIP Level 1 Blended—Practical
Brunei Darussalam ....................................... Feb 14-17, 2022 INDIA
Brunei Darussalam ....................................... Feb 17-19, 2022 CIP Level 1
CIP Level 1 Blended—Virtual Chennai ........................................................ Feb 15-20, 2022
Virtual—Brunei Time Zone ........................... Feb 7-9, 2022 CIP Level 2
Virtual—Brunei Time Zone ........................... Feb 9-11, 2022 Chennai ........................................................ Feb 21-25, 2022

CANADA ITALY
CIP Level 1 CIP Level 1
Edmonton, AB .............................................. Feb 28–Mar 5, 2022 Somma Lombardo ....................................... Feb 22-27, 2022
Edmonton, AB .............................................. Mar 7-12, 2022
MALAYSIA
CIP Level 2
Edmonton, AB .............................................. Mar 14-18, 2022 Basic Corrosion—Virtual
Virtual—Malaysia Time Zone ....................... Mar 1-4, 2022
Cathodic Protection (CP) 1—Cathodic Protection Tester
Edmonton, AB .............................................. Feb 14-19, 2022 C7 Dry Abrasive Blast Cleaning—Nozzle
Edmonton, AB .............................................. Mar 28–Apr 1, 2022 Petaling Jaya ................................................ Feb 21-23, 2022
CP2—Cathodic Protection Technician C12 Spray Application
Markham, Ontario ........................................ Mar 21-25, 2022 Petaling Jaya ................................................ Feb 24-26, 2022
Edmonton, AB .............................................. Apr 4-8, 2022 CIP Level 1
Kuala Lumpur ............................................... Mar 7-12, 2022
CHINA
CIP Level 2
CIP Peer Review Kuala Lumpur ............................................... Mar 14-18, 2022
Shanghai....................................................... May 25-28, 2022
CIP Peer Review
COLOMBIA Kuala Lumpur ............................................... Mar 22-25, 2022
CIP Level 1 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)—Virtual
Bogota.......................................................... Mar 28–Apr 1, 2022 Virtual—Malaysia Time Zone ....................... May 26-29, 2022
CIP Level 2 CP1—Cathodic Protection Tester
Bogota.......................................................... Jun 21-25, 2022 Kuala Lumpur ............................................... Mar 21-25, 2022
CP1—Cathodic Protection Tester CP2—Cathodic Protection Technician
Bogota.......................................................... Feb 21-26, 2022 Kuala Lumpur ............................................... Mar 28–Apr 1, 2022
CP2—Cathodic Protection Technician
MEXICO
Bogota.......................................................... Apr 18-22, 2022
CIP Level 1
CP3—Cathodic Protection Technologist Cuernavaca, MOR ........................................ Feb 7-12, 2022
Bogota.......................................................... Jun 6-10, 2022
CIP Level 2
Internal Corrosion for Pipelines—Advanced Cuernavaca, MOR ........................................ Feb 14-18, 2022
Bogota.......................................................... Feb 14-17, 2022
CP1—Cathodic Protection Tester
Marine Coating Technology Cuernavaca, MOR ........................................ May 23-27, 2022
Bogota.......................................................... May 23-26, 2022

66 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM


CP2—Cathodic Protection Technician
Cuernavaca, MOR ........................................ Jun 20-24, 2022
NEW ZEALAND
CIP Level 1
Auckland ...................................................... Feb 28–Mar 5, 2022
CIP Level 2
Auckland ...................................................... Mar 7-11, 2022
PAKISTAN
CP3—Cathodic Protection Technologist—Virtual
Virtual—Pakistan Time Zone ........................ Jun 6-10, 2022
Designing for Corrosion Control—Virtual
Virtual—Pakistan Time Zone ........................ Feb 21-24, 2022
Internal Corrosion for Pipelines—Advanced—Virtual
Virtual—Pakistan Time Zone ........................ Apr 18-21, 2022
PERU
CIP Level 1
Miraflores ..................................................... Apr 25-29, 2022
PHILIPPINES
CIP Level 1
Subic............................................................. Apr 18-22, 2022
CIP Level 2
Subic............................................................. Apr 25-29, 2022
SAUDI ARABIA
Basic Corrosion
Al Khobar ..................................................... Feb 6-9, 2022
Corrosion Control in the Refining Industry
Al Khobar ..................................................... Feb 20-24, 2022
Designing for Corrosion Control
Al Khobar ..................................................... Feb 13-16, 2022
SOUTH AFRICA
CIP Level 1
Cape Town ................................................... Feb 14-19, 2022
Midrand ........................................................ Mar 14-18, 2022
Midrand ........................................................ May 16-20, 2022
CIP Level 2
Midrand ........................................................ Jun 20-24, 2022
CP1—Cathodic Protection Tester
Midrand ........................................................ Feb 28–Mar 5, 2022
CP2—Cathodic Protection Technician
Midrand ........................................................ May 30–Jun 3, 2022
SPAIN
Basic Corrosion
Madrid .......................................................... Mar 21-24, 2022
CIP Level 1 Blended—Practical
Madrid .......................................................... Feb 28–Mar 3, 2022
CIP Level 1 Blended—Virtual
Virtual—Central Europe Time ...................... Feb 21-23, 2022
CIP Level 2 Blended—Practical
Madrid .......................................................... Mar 31–Apr 2, 2022
CIP Level 2 Blended—Virtual
Virtual—Central Europe Time ...................... Feb 23-25, 2022
Virtual—Central Europe Time ...................... Mar 28-29, 2022
Marine Coating Technology—Virtual
Virtual—Central Europe Time ...................... Feb 21-24, 2022
Nuclear Power Plant Training for Coating Inspectors—Virtual
Virtual—Central Europe Time ...................... Mar 14-17, 2022
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
Your Association in Action
TUNISIA
CP1—Cathodic Protection Tester
La Marsa ....................................................... Mar 14-18, 2022
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
Basic Corrosion—Virtual
Virtual—Dubai (UAE) Time Zone.................. May 21-24, 2022
CIP Level 2
Dubai ............................................................ Feb 5-9, 2022
CP1—Cathodic Protection Tester
Dubai ............................................................ Mar 12-16, 2022
CP2—Cathodic Protection Technician
Dubai ............................................................ Mar 19-23, 2022
CP3—Cathodic Protection Technologist—Virtual
Virtual—Dubai (UAE) Time Zone.................. May 7-11, 2022
CP4—Cathodic Protection Specialist—Virtual
Virtual—Dubai (UAE) Time Zone.................. May 14-18, 2022
Internal Corrosion for Pipelines—Basic
Dubai ............................................................ Jun 11-15, 2022
Internal Corrosion for Pipelines—Advanced—Virtual
Dubai ............................................................ Jun 18-21, 2022
UNITED STATES
Basic Corrosion
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 7-10, 2022
Basic Corrosion—Virtual
Virtual—Eastern Time Zone ......................... Feb 8-11, 2022
Bridge Coatings Inspector Program (BCI) Level 1 & 2
Paterson, NJ ................................................. Feb 21-25, 2022
Pittsburgh, PA .............................................. Mar 21-26, 2022
San Antonio, TX ........................................... Feb 28–Mar 5, 2022
C3 Lead/Hazardous Coating Removal
Marlborough, MA......................................... Feb 7-10, 2022
Vallejo, CA.................................................... Mar 21-24, 2022
C5 Lead/Hazardous Coating Removal Refresher
Marlborough, MA......................................... Feb 11-11, 2022
Vallejo, CA.................................................... Mar 25-25, 2022
C5 Lead Paint Removal Refresher
Virtual ........................................................... Mar 10-10, 2022
C7 Dry Abrasive Blast Cleaning—Nozzle
Bangor, ME .................................................. Feb 28–Mar 2, 2022
Chesapeake, VA ........................................... Mar 7-9, 2022
Columbus, OH ............................................. Mar 14-16, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 21-23, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Mar 7-9, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Mar 21-23, 2022
C12 Spray Application
Bangor, ME .................................................. Mar 2-4, 2022
Columbus, OH ............................................. Mar 16-18, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 24-26, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Mar 14-16, 2022
C14 Marine Plural Component Program (MPCAC)
Portsmouth, VA ............................................ Mar 5-6, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Mar 16-17, 2022
CAS Prep-Coating Application Specialist Prep
Jacksonville, FL ............................................ Mar 14-14, 2022
Paterson, NJ ................................................. Mar 7, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Feb 7, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Mar 21-21, 2022
CAS1—Coating Application Specialist
Jacksonville, FL ............................................ Mar 15-15, 2022
Paterson, NJ ................................................. Mar 8, 2022
Continued on page 68
JANUARY 2022 67
 AMPP NEWS
Continued from page 67
San Diego, CA.............................................. Feb 8, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Mar 21, 2022
CAS2—Coating Application Specialist—Full Written Exam
Jacksonville, FL ............................................ Mar 15-15, 2022
Paterson, NJ ................................................. Mar 8, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Feb 8, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Mar 22, 2022
CAS2—Coating Application Specialist—Full Written and
Practical Exams
Jacksonville, FL ............................................ Mar 15-17, 2022
Paterson, NJ ................................................. Mar 8-9, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Feb 8-10, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Mar 22-24, 2022
CIP Level 1
Atlanta, GA................................................... Mar 21-25, 2022
Baton Rouge, LA .......................................... Feb 28–Mar 5, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 7-12, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 7-13, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 14-19, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 21-26, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 28–Mar 5, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 1-6, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 7-12, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 14-18, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 21-25, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 28–Apr 1, 2022
Kansas City, MO ........................................... Feb 7-12, 2022
Newington, NH ............................................ Mar 21-25, 2022
Orlando, FL .................................................. Feb 28–Mar 5, 2022
San Leandro, CA .......................................... Feb 14-19, 2022
St. Louis, MO................................................ Mar 14-18, 2022
Weston, WV ................................................. Mar 7-12, 2022
CIP Level 1 Blended—Virtual
Virtual—Eastern Time Zone ......................... Feb 15-17, 2022
Virtual—Mountain Time Zone ...................... Mar 22-23, 2022
CIP Level 2
Atlanta, GA................................................... Mar 28–Apr 1, 2022
Bakersfield, CA ............................................. Feb 7-11, 2022
Baton Rouge, LA .......................................... Mar 7-11, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 14-18, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 21-25, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 14-18, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 28–Apr 1, 2022
Kansas City, MO ........................................... Feb 14-18, 2022
Newington, NH ............................................ Mar 28–Apr 1, 2022
San Leandro, CA .......................................... Feb 21-25, 2022
St. Louis, MO................................................ Mar 21-25, 2022
Weston, WV ................................................. Mar 14-18, 2022
Wixom, MI .................................................... Feb 7-11, 2022
CIP Level 2 Blended—Virtual
Virtual—Eastern Time Zone ......................... Feb 17-19, 2022
Virtual—Mountain Time Zone ...................... Mar 30-31, 2022
Concrete Coating Inspector (CCI) Level 1 & 2
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 7-11, 2022
San Antonio, TX ........................................... Feb 28–Mar 4, 2022
Corrosion Control in the Refining Industry
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 21-25, 2022
68 JANUARY 2022
Corrosion Technical Series: Corrosion and Inspection of
Concrete Structures
Virtual—Central Standard Time ................... May 10-11, 2022
Corrosion Technical Series Corrosion Impacts in
Biomedical Devices
Virtual—Central Standard Time ................... Apr 5-6, 2022
Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 14-17, 2022
CP1—Cathodic Protection Tester
Downey, CA ................................................. Mar 21-25, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 7-12, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 21-26, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 21-25, 2022
Minneapolis, MN .......................................... Mar 7-12, 2022
CP2—Cathodic Protection Technician
Downey, CA ................................................. Mar 28–Apr 1, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 14-19, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 28–Mar 5, 2022
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 28–Apr 1, 2022
Minneapolis, MN .......................................... Mar 14-18, 2022
CP3—Cathodic Protection Technologist—Virtual
Virtual—Eastern Time Zone ......................... Feb 7-11, 2022
CP3—Refresher—Virtual
Virtual—Central Time Zone.......................... Feb 1, 2022
CP4—Cathodic Protection Specialist—Virtual
Virtual—Central Time Zone.......................... Feb 21-25, 2022
CP4—Refresher—Virtual
Virtual—Central Time Zone.......................... Feb 2, 2022
In Line Inspection
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 21-24, 2022
Internal and External Tank Corrosion & Its Prevention
Virtual—Central Standard Time ................... Feb 15-16, 2022
Internal Corrosion for Pipelines—Basic
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 14-18, 2022
Internal Corrosion for Pipelines—Advanced
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 21-24, 2022
Marine Coating Technology—Virtual
Virtual—Central Time Zone.......................... Feb 14-17, 2022
MIC Management in Aboveground & Buried Pipelines—
Virtual 2022
Virtual—Central Standard Time ................... Mar 1-2, 2022
NBPI-NAVSEA Basic Paint Inspector
Newington, NH ............................................ Mar 14-18, 2022
Newport News, VA....................................... Mar 28–Apr 1, 2022
Norfolk, VA ................................................... Feb 7-11, 2022
Pearl Harbor, HI............................................ Mar 7-11, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Feb 14-18, 2022
San Diego, CA.............................................. Mar 28–Apr 1, 2022
Offshore Corrosion Assessment Training (O-CAT)
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 28–Mar 4, 2022
Pipeline Corrosion Integrity Management
Houston, TX ................................................. Feb 7-10, 2022
Shipboard Corrosion Assessment Training (S-CAT)
Houston, TX ................................................. Mar 7-11, 2022
WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

AMPP HEADQUARTERS DIRECTORY
To reach AMPP staff in the following areas, dial +1 281-228-6200. After the first ring, enter the desired extension number. Enter 0 to
reach the receptionist during business hours (7:00 a.m. to 4:15 p.m. CST). The fax number for staff members is +1 281-228-6300. The
fax number for all general membership inquiries and orders is +1 281-228-6329. To contact the Pittsburgh office, call +1 412-281-2331.
ADVERTISING
All Inquiries ............................................................................6219
ANNUAL CONFERENCE
General Information ...............................................................6223
Exhibits .........................................................................6227, 6242
Registration ............................................................................6223
Technical Papers .....................................................................6287
AREA AND SECTION SUPPORT–OFFICERS
Inquiries and Orders
USA and Canada ....................................................................6240
International ...........................................................................6240
AWARDS ....................................................................................6276
BOARD OF DIRECTORS/BOARD COMMITTEES
Information .............................................................................6233
BOOKS
Editorial ..................................................................................6496
Sales .......................................................................................6223
CERTIFICATION
General Information ...............................................................6223
Professional Recognition/Status
Inquiries ...........................................................................6211
Recertification ..................................................................6211
COATING INSPECTOR PROGRAM
General Information ...............................................................6223
Peer Review Scheduling
Registered Candidate ......................................................6211
Registration......................................................................1802
Update and Renewal .......................................................6211
Verify Certification ...........................................................6211
COURSES AND SEMINARS
Area/Section-Sponsored Courses ..........................................6258
General Information ...............................................................6223
Contract Courses...........................................................6230/6246
Home Study
General Information and Registration .............................1802
In-House Training ..........................................................6230/6246
Instructor Applications ...........................................................6214
Registration—All Course Types ..............................................6223
Schedules ...............................................................................6223
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
General Information ...............................................................6223
Sales .......................................................................................6223
Technical Support...................................................................6255
CORROSION
Advertising .............................................................................6219
Author’s Guide .......................................................................6223
Managing Editor-in-Chief .......................................................6260
Subscriptions/Reprints ...........................................................6223
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1
Your Association in Action
CORROSION TECHNOLOGY WEEK
Information .............................................................................6264
Registration ............................................................................6223
EDUCATION ............................................see Courses and Seminars
EXECUTIVE OFFICE .................................................................6209
FIRSTSERVICE—
Inquiries, Records/Dues .........................................................1803
Membership ...........................................................................6223
LITERATURE SEARCHES .........................................................6223
MARKETING .............................................................................6239
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
Advertising .............................................................................6219
Author’s Guide/Inquiries ........................................................6223
Managing Editor-in-Chief .......................................................6207
Subscriptions/Reprints ...........................................................6223
NACE FOUNDATION ...............................................................6205
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
Government Activities............................................................6223
PUBLICATIONS
Sales .......................................................................................6223
PUBLIC RELATIONS/MEDIA CONTACT ................................6223
RESEARCH
Seed Grants ...........................................................................6221
Student Poster Session, Research in Progress Symposium ....6221
SALES ..................................... 1 800-797-6223 (USA and Canada) or
..................................................................... +1 281-228-6223
STANDARDS INFORMATION .................................................6221
SCHOLARSHIPS/AREAS AND SECTIONS ONLY .................6240
SYMPOSIA/TOPICAL CONFERENCES
Information .............................................................................6223
Registration ............................................................................6223
TECHNICAL ACTIVITIES/COMMITTEES
C2, N1, S, ISO, Symposia.......................................................6287
MR0175 ..................................................................................6221
C1, N2 ....................................................................................6208
Committee Membership/Inquiries, Minutes, Agendas ..........6264
Technical Coordination Committee and Subcommittees ......6221
VIDEO COURSES ......................................................................6223
15835 Park Ten Place ✥ Houston, Texas 77084-5145
www.ampp.org
JANUARY 2022 69
 CORROSION ENGINEERING DIRECTORY

Cherokee Pipeline Services Inc.

Coatings & Corrosion Control for the
Complete Corrosion Control Systems Pipeline Industry Engineering Services
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Manufacturing & Installation Wichita, Kansas
4815 Elenlak Road, Edmonton, Alberta, T6B 2N1
Tel (780) 465-1187 E-mail caproco@caproco.com For inquiries, call 316-303-5500
Fax (780) 466-4632 Web Site www.caproco.com

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Pipeline Integrity Aluminum • Magnesium • Zinc
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Engineering Solar Evaluations 181 Grefer Lane 6712 S. 36th Street
Hydro Vac CIS&DCVG Surveys / ECDA
Services
Harvey, LA 70058
Tel.: (504) 362-7776
ANODES McAllen, TX 78503
Tel.: (956) 630-3500
Anode Ground Beds Fax: (504) 269-1418 Fax: (956) 630-3595
Right of Way Maintenance
anodes@galvotec.com
13764 Airline Hwy • Baton Rouge, LA 70817
225.275.6131 • coastalcorrosion.com www.galvotec.com

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300 Bark Dr., Harvey, LA Cathodic Protection & Corrosion Engineering
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70 JANUARY 2022 WWW.MATERIALSPERFORMANCE.COM

 AD INDEX
LISTING OF ADVERTISER CONTACT INFORMATION

Advertiser ..................................... Page No. Advertiser ......................................Page No.

Anotec Industries, Ltd.........................................................11 Ultimate Linings.................................................................. 13

www.anotec.com, +1 604-514-1544 www.ultimatelinings.com, 1 800-989-9869

DeFelsko Corp. ............................................................. 39, 41

www.defelsko.com, 1 800-448-3835 AMPP International
www.ampp.org, +1 281-228-6223
Denso North America ........................................................... 1
www.densona.com, 1 888-821-2300
AMPP Annual Conference + Expo 2022 Registration .......... 35
D. E. Stearns Co., The ........................................................ 43
www.destearns.com, +1 318-635-5351 AMPP EMERG 2022 Darrel D. Byerley Golf Tournament ...... 7

Electrochemical Devices, Inc. ........................................... 40

AMPP—QP Industrial Painting Accreditation ....................... 15
www.edi-cp.com, +1 617-484-9085

Galvotec Alloys, Inc. .......................................................... 42 AMPP Certification Exam ..................................................... 34

www.galvotec.com, +1 956-630-3500
AMPP Online Courses.......................................................... 24
Loresco® International ......................................................... 3
www.loresco.com, +1 601-544-7490 AMPP Protective Coatings Specialist Certification
MESA™........................................................ 9, Between 24-25 Program .............................................................................. IBC
www.mesaproducts.com, 1 888-800-MESA (6372)
AMPP Store .......................................................................... 25
Mobiltex Technologies, Inc. ..............................................IFC
www.mobiltex.com, 1 844-689-3282 AMPP YouTube Channel ...................................................... 56
MontiPower Americas, Inc. ................................................ 21
CoatingsPro Sourcebook...................................................... 59
www.montipower.com, +1 703-396-8777

Sauereisen ...........................................................................11 eBook ................................................................................... 63

www.sauereisen.com, +1 412-963-0303
Publish Your Work in MP ...................................................... 43
Tinker & Rasor ................................................................... BC
www.tinker-rasor.com, +1 830-253-5621 MP Webcasts ....................................................................... 18
Trenton Corp. ........................................................................ 5
www.trentoncorp.com, +1 734-424-3600 NACE Standards .................................................................. 60

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MATERIALS PERFORMANCE: VOL. 61, NO. 1 JANUARY 2022 71


CORROSION BASICS
Coating Concrete
C
oncrete is one of the most
difficult surfaces to coat,
due mainly to its wide range
of properties. Steel is fairly
uniform in texture, and
workers are familiar with the proper ways
to prepare and coat it. In contrast, concrete
is quite porous and uneven in texture, with
differences in density from one square inch
to the next.
Why Coat Concrete?
Aesthetics
Concrete is one of the most commonly
used structural materials for private and
public buildings. Because its natural
color of dull, light to medium gray is
often considered unattractive or, at best,
uninspiring, more colorful coatings are
often an architectural preference.
Porosity
The porosity of concrete allows
moisture to penetrate it quite readily.
Besides the problem of moisture intru-
sion, chloride penetration can attack the
steel bars and mesh that are typically used
for structural reinforcement. Since the
corrosion products tend to occupy greater
volume than the original steel, expansive
stresses can crack or spall concrete, which
has poor cohesive strength compared
to its compressive strength. In north-
ern climates, this porosity often leads
to destruction of the concrete structure
during freeze-thaw cycles.
Decontamination
The normal porosity of concrete allows
it to absorb almost any contaminant that
comes into contact with it. Within nuclear
facilities, coatings for concrete must be
easily decontaminated in case of radia-
tion spills. Within schools and hospitals,
coatings must render the concrete surface
72 JANUARY 2022
Understanding
Understandingthe
and
andcauses
resistant to bacteria. Within food estab-
lishments, coatings must resist growth
of algae or other slime-type growths
that could contaminate the food being
processed.
Conductivity
Hospital operating rooms, solvent
storage facilities, and microchip manufac-
turing facilities are among the many areas
where conductive fillers have to be used
in conjunction with organic polymers to
dissipate static electricity.
Chemical Resistance
Petrochemical plants contain millions
of square feet of concrete surfaces. In
areas where aggressive acids are being
processed, the alkalinity of the concrete
must be preserved by isolation from these
acids with chemically resistant mortars,
bricks, tiles, or sheet membranes.
Properties of Concrete
and Coatings
Before one can successfully coat a
concrete structure, it is necessary to
understand and overcome the natural
properties of concrete. Concrete can be
a simple mixture of Portland cement,
lime, aggregate, and water, but it can also
contain fillers selected for specific struc-
tural properties and resins selected for
specific chemical-resistant properties,
along with various additives selected to
add specific strengthening properties
to the otherwise simple mixture. Each
variation creates a different surface with
properties that can add or detract from a
coating system’s ability to bond with the
concrete.
Alkalinity
First and foremost, concret e i s
naturally alkaline, both in its curing stages
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and after its final cure. Therefore, any
coating chosen must not only be able to
withstand the environment that comes
into contact with the concrete, but it must
also be able to penetrate and bond with the
alkaline surface of the concrete. Oil-based
or alkyd coatings are unsuitable because
the alkali in the concrete will react with
the natural or synthetic oils in the coating,
causing the creation of a soap-like film
(saponification) that leads to delamination
of the coating from the concrete.
Curing Mechanism
Regardless of the mix involved, or the
additives in the mix, concrete cures by
a process of hydrolyzing water with the
ingredients in the mix. The commonly
used rule of thumb is that concrete needs
28 days to cure at an average temperature
of 20 °C (75 °F). It should be recognized
that this traditional 28-day cure cycle
allows the concrete to achieve the
compressive strength designed into the
mix ratio that was selected for the specific
service conditions. Many coatings can be
applied satisfactorily before the cure cycle
is completed; however, this must be done
in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations. ACI 308, “Guide to
Curing Concrete,” provides recommenda-
tions on temperature, moisture conditions,
and time of cure for various concrete
structures.
This article is adapted from The Protective
Coating User’s Handbook, Second Edition, Louis
D. Vincent (Houston, TX: NACE International,
2010), pp. 163-165.
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