Class 12 Physical Education

UNIT: 7
Physiology &
Injuries in
Sports
 Sports Physiology
Sports physiology is the study of long and short-term effects
of training and body conditions of athletes. Indeed, It is the
study of how exercise or sports activity alters the function
and structure of our body.
Physiological factors determining the components of physical fitness

There are various physiological factors that determine the

components of physical fitness such as strength, speed,
endurance, flexibility, etc.
 Physiological factors determining strength
1) Size of the Muscle : The strength of the muscle largely depends upon
the size of the muscle. It is a well-known fact that bigger and larger
muscles can produce more force.
2) Body Weight : It is also a well-known fact that the individuals who are
heavier are generally stronger than the individuals who are lighter.
3) Muscle Composition : Each muscle consists of basically two types of
muscle fibres, i.e., fast twitch fibres (white fibres) and slow twitch
fibres (red fibres). The fast twitch fibres are capable to contract faster
and therefore they can produce more force.
4) Intensity of the Nerve Impulse : A muscle is composed of a number of
motor units. The total force of the muscle depends on the number of
contracting motor units.
 Physiological factors determining Speed
1) Mobility of Nervous System : This rapid contraction and relaxation of
muscles is made possible by rapid excitation and inhibition of the concerned
motor centres. This is called the mobility of the nervous system.
2) Muscle Composition : Different muscles of the body have different
percentages of fast twitch fibres. So, different parts of the body have
different speed performances.
3) Explosive Strength : For every quick and explosive movement, explosive
strength is indispensable. For example, a quick punch in boxing cannot be
delivered if the boxer lacks explosive strength.
4) Flexibility : Flexibility also determines the speed to a certain extent. In fact,
good flexibility allows maximum range of movement without much
internal resistance. Flexibility also enables complete utilization of explosive
strength.
 Physiological factors determining Endurance
1) Aerobic Capacity : To perform an activity continuously, energy is required by the muscles which can be
supplied by the presence of oxygen. The aerobic capacity depends on the following factors.
a) Oxygen Intake : It is the amount of oxygen which can be taken by the lungs from atmosphere.
b) Oxygen Transport : The amount of oxygen taken into the blood from lungs has to be transported
to the working muscles.
c) Oxygen Uptake : The amount of oxygen which can be absorbed and consumed by the working
muscles from the blood is called oxygen uptake.
d) Energy Reserves : The aerobic capacity also depends upon the availability of fuel to the muscles
from which energy for the activity is derived.
2) Lactic Acid Tolerance : The ability to tolerate higher concentration of lactic acid is a significant factor
in determining anaerobic capacity. The lactic acid tolerance is important for activities that lasts for
about 40 seconds or more. The lactic acid tolerance capacity can be improved through training. So, it
can help in improving endurance performance.
3) Movement Economy : The economical movements are significant for endurance performance. A runner,
who can run at a given pace with less energy expenditure can continue with the same speed for longer
duration.
4) Muscle Composition : There are two basic types of muscle fibres such as slow twitch fibres and fast
twitch fibres. The slow twitch fibres are best used for aerobic activities or endurance activities. They
produce small levels of force for long periods of time and that is why, they are better suited for
endurance activities.
 Physiological factors determining Flexibility
1) Muscle Strength : The muscles should have a minimum level of strength to make the
movement possible specially against gravity or external force.
2) Joint Structure : There are various types of joints in human body. Some of the joints
intrinsically have a greater range of motion than others. For example, the ball and socket
joint of the shoulder has the greatest range of motion in comparison to the knee joint.
3) Age and Gender : It is a well known fact that flexibility decreases with the advancement
of age. Females tend to be more flexible than males.
4) Stretchability of Muscles : The stretchability of the muscles is also a factor in limiting the
range of movements.
5) Internal Environment : Internal environment of the athlete influences the flexibility. For
example, 10 minutes in a warm bath increases body temperature and flexibility whereas,
10 minutes staying outside in 10°C reduces body temperature and flexibility.
6) Previous Injury : Injuries to connective tissues and muscles can lead to thickening or
fibrosing on the affected area. Fibrous tissues are less elastic and can lead to limb
shortening and ultimately lead to reduced flexibility
 Effects of Exercises on Cardio-Respiratory System
Increase in the Size When we perform regular exercise, the muscles of the heart
of Heart increase in size and strength

After regular exercise, the heart finally becomes more efficient. It

Decrease in Resting
has been noted that highly conditioned athletes can have their
Heart Rate
resting heart rates in the 30s.

Stroke Volume The stroke volume at rest remains up to 50-70 ml/beat in

Increases at Rest untrained individuals, 70-90 ml/beat in trained individuals and
90-110 ml/beat in the best endurance athletes.

Decrease in Blood Regular exercise decreases the blood pressure (systolic and
Pressure diastolic blood pressure) by up to 10 mm Hg at rest.

Increased Blood In response to supply the muscles with more oxygen during
Flow exercise, the body increases its number of capillaries.
 Effects of Exercises in Muscular System
During exercise, in order to match demand of fuel to muscle, the supply or
Increased Blood
concentration of blood increases in the whole body or, in the particular muscle
Supply
group where activity is largely impacted.

During exercises muscles demand energy, which comes from contracting muscles.
Increased Muscle
During the process, a lot of heat energy is generated which increases the
Temperature
temperature of muscles, and/ or the body.

Due to increase in blood flow and rise in temperature, elasticity of muscles

Increased Muscle
increases. Stretching and mobility exercises also play a dominant role in
Flexibility
increasing muscular flexibility.

Muscles requires oxygen. If blood supply does not provide appropriate volume of
Accumulation of
oxygen to muscles, it leads to accumulation of lactate acid in muscles which
Lactate result in pain, and soreness in muscles.

During exercises muscle tissue is placed under stress which results in micro-tears
Micro-tears in
in muscle fibres. The body responds by repairing the muscle fibres and making
Muscle Fibres
them larger. When a muscle gets bigger, this process is called hypertrophy.
Hypertrophy of Muscle Scientific and systematic exercise leads to increase in thickness of muscle fibres
that results in increase in muscle size also known as muscle hypertrophy.

Increase in Strength of Regular exercise helps to strengthen bones, ligaments, and tendons. This helps
Ligaments and Tendons prevent injury and promotes performance.

Increase in Size and

Number of Aerobic exercises leads to increase in size and numbers of mitochondria, and
Mitochondria which take in more oxygen and produce more ATP and energy.

Long term effect of aerobic exercise is to increase the storage of myoglobin which
Increase in Myoglobin
transports oxygen to mitochondria. Large amount of myoglobin means large
Storage
amount of oxygen and large amount of energy.

Glycogen is generally stored in muscles and liver. Regular exercise helps the body
Increase in Glycogen
Storage to increase the storage of glycogen which may give continuous energy for 90 to
120 minutes.

Endurance exercise training increases the capacity of skeletal muscle fat

Increase in Oxidation/ oxidation by increasing mitochondrial density. Long term exercises demand a lot
Metabolism of energy, and to meet this demand, metabolism increases due to oxidation of
fat. This leads to increase in provision of energy.
 Physiological Changes Due to Ageing
Ageing is an inevitable and extremely complex, multi-factorial process. It is characterized by
the progressive degeneration of organ systems and tissues. It is largely determined by genetics
and influenced by a wide range of environmental factors such as diet, exercise, exposure to
microorganism, pollutants, radiation, etc.

Physical Neural Muscular

Function Strength
changes due to
ageing :
Cardio- Physiological Body
vascular Changes Due Composition
Function to Ageing

Pulmonary
Bone Mass
Endocrine Function
Changes
1) Muscular Strength : It is defined as the maximal force that a muscle or muscle group can generate. Men
and women usually attain their highest strength levels between ages 20 and 40, the time when muscle
cross-sectional area is largest. Concentric strength of most muscle groups declines, slowly at first and then
more rapidly after middle age. Decline in eccentric strength begins at a later age and progresses more
slowly than those in concentric strength.

2) Neural Function : A nearly 40% decline in the number of spinal cord axons and a 10%
decline in nerve conduction velocity reflects the cumulative effects of ageing on central
nervous system functioning. These changes are likely to contribute to the age-related
reduction in neuromuscular performance assessed by simple and complex reaction and
movement times. Ageing most adversely affects the time required to detect a stimulus and
process the information to produce the response.

3) Endocrine Changes with Ageing : The endocrine system consists of a host organ (gland),
minute quantities of chemical messengers (hormones), and a target or receptor organ.
Approximately 40% of individuals aged between 65 and 75 years and 50% of those older
than age 80 have impaired glucose tolerance leading to Type 2 diabetes. Thyroid
dysfunction, primarily from lowered pituitary gland release of the thyroid-stimulating
hormone thyrotropin (and reduced output of thyroxine), is common among the elderly.
4) Pulmonary Function : Mechanical constraints on the pulmonary system progress with age
to cause deterioration in static and dynamic lung function measures. Also, pulmonary
ventilation and gas exchange kinetics during the transition from rest to submaximal
exercise slow substantially.
5) Cardiovascular Function : Cardiovascular function and aerobic capacity do not escape
age-related effects. Because of a lower maximum heart rate, maximum cardiac output
typically decreases with age in trained and untrained men and women. Reduced
peripheral blood flow capacity accompanies age-related decreases in muscle mass.
Sedentary living produces losses in functional capacity at least as great as the effects of
ageing.
6) Body Composition : In physical fitness, body composition is used to describe the
percentages of fat, bone, water, and muscle in human bodies. After age 60, total body
mass decreases despite increasing body fat.
7) Bone Mass : Bone Mass is a measure of the amount of minerals (mostly calcium and
phosphorous) contained in a certain volume of bone. Osteoporosis poses a major problem
with ageing, particularly among postmenopausal women. In this condition it produces loss
of bone mass as the ageing skeleton demineralizes and becomes porous. Bone mass can
decrease by 30% to 50% in persons older than age 60.
 A. Sports Injuries : Classification, Causes & Prevention
The injury in sports and exercise refers to the physical damage caused to
tissue, bone, or any other organ of the body while in action and further
leading to withdrawal from participation or experience pain while
performing movement actions.
Classification of Sports Injuries :
1) Soft Tissue Injuries
There are following types of soft tissue injuries :
Internal Injuries:
 Strain
 Sprain
External Injuries:
 Abrasion
 Contusion
 Laceration
 Abrasion is a major injury. Abrasion usually occurs due to friction

Abrasion with certain equipment or a fall over the area where the bone is
very close to the skin. It may be caused by falling on a hard
surface.

Prevention :
1. Players should undergo proper warm-up before training and
competition.
2. Players should perform proper conditioning during their
preparatory phase.
3. Sports equipment should be of good quality.
4. Good officiating quality of official is essential during practice and
competition.
5. Players should be careful and alert during practice and
competition.
6. Players should follow the rules and regulations of the game/sport.
7. Wear protective gears/equipment while playing any game.
8. One should try to cover the exposed skin with a layer of clothing.
  Contusion is a muscle injury. A direct hit with or without any
sports equipment can be the main cause of contusion.
Contusion  Contusion can also be due to minor accidents to the skin, such as
falling, bumping into something or being hit or kicked.
 Contusion is common in boxing, wrestling and kabaddi.

Prevention :
1) Proper warm-up is essential before practice, training and competition.
All the parts of a body should be exercised properly. Stretching exercises
should be performed during warm-up.
2) Conditioning should be emphasized during the preparatory period.
3) Protective equipment should be used according to the requirement of
the game or sports.
4) Sports equipment of good quality should be used in games and sports.
5) Playfields/courts should be smooth and clean.
6) For preventing sports injuries, the complete scientific knowledge about
the game is a must.
7) Players should be careful and alert during practice and competition.
8) Good officiating quality of official is must for preventing sports injuries.
 The irregular tear-like wounds
Laceration
caused by some blunt trauma.
 Cause : Mostly, laceration is the result of the
skin hitting an adjacent object, or an object
hitting the skin with force.
 Prevention : Proper personal equipment,
including eye protection can be helpful in
preventing the same.
 Treatment : Clean the surface of the
effected part. Stop bleeding at the earliest
by compression bandages.
 An incision is a cut made into the tissues
Incision of the body to expose the underlying
tissue, bone or organ.
 Cause : Can be caused by a clean, sharp-
edged object – such as a knife, razor or
glass splinter.
 Prevention : The area should be free from
the sharp edges.
 Treatment : Gently wash the affected area
with soap and water to remove the dirt.
Dry the incision with a clean, fresh towel
before applying the dressing.
  It is a ligament injury. It may occur due to overstretching or tearing of ligament.
 Many things can cause sprain.

Sprain 

Falling, twisting or getting hit can force a point out of its normal position.
This can cause ligaments around the joint to tear. Generally, sprain occurs at
wrist joint and ankle joint.
 Sometimes, fracture is also possible along with the sprain.

Prevention :
1) A thorough warm-up is necessary for preventing sprain,
especially all the joints should be exercised well during warm-
up.
2) Proper conditioning should be done during the preparatory
phase.
3) All the sports equipment must be of good quality.
4) Playfields/courts should be smooth and clean.
5) Good officiating quality of official is essential for preventing
such injury.
6) Rules of the game/sport must be followed.
  Strain is also a muscle injury. Strain can be mild as well as severe.
Sometimes, the complete muscle can be ruptured.
Strain  In case of complete rupture, it is not possible to move that part or limb.
 There may be severe pain around the rupture. Strain may occur at any
time during the practice or competitions.

Prevention :
1) From the prevention point of view, every sportsperson should
undergo a complete warm-up before participating in any sports
activity. He/she should do stretching exercises of all parts of the
body.
2) Conditioning should be done during the preparatory period.
3) Sports equipment must be of good quality.
4) Playfields/courts should be smooth and clean.
5) The scientific knowledge of the game is must for preventing
strain.
6) Players should be careful and alert during the training and
competition.
 Hard Tissue Injuries
An injury to the skeletal system of the body is termed as the hard tissue injury. They
are the injuries where the bone fractures, i.e.., the bone either cracks or breaks.

Stress Fractures

Greenstick
Types of Dislocation
Commutated
Hard Tissue
Injuries Fractures Transverse

Oblique

Impacted
 Dislocation
Dislocations are joint injuries that force the ends of bones out of position. The cause
is often a fall or a blow, sometimes from playing a contact sport. A joint dislocation,
also called luxation, occurs when there is an abnormal separation in the joint,
where two or more bones meet. A partial dislocation is referred to as a subluxation.
Dislocation can be caused by a trauma (accident or fall) or the weakening of
muscles and tendons. A dislocated joint can be treated through medication,
manipulation, rest or surgery.

 Causes : Trauma that forces a joint out of place causes

a dislocation. Accidents, falls, and contact sports such as
football are common causes of this injury. Dislocations also
occur during regular activities when the muscles and tendons
surrounding the joint are weak. These injuries happen more
often in older people who have weaker muscles and balance
issues.
Symptoms :
Symptoms of a dislocation vary depending on the severity and location of the
injury. The symptoms of a dislocated joint include :
a) Pain
b) Swelling
c) Bruising
d) Instability of the joint
e) Loss of ability to move the joint
f) Visibly deformed joint (bone looks out of place)
Treatment : Treatment can vary based on the severity of the injury, and the joint
that is dislocated. Applying ice and keeping the joint elevated can help reduce
pain while you wait to see a doctor. Treatment includes :
a) Medication: Your doctor may recommend medication to reduce pain from a
dislocation.
b) Manipulation: A doctor returns the bones to their proper places.
 Rest : Once the joint is back in place, you may need to protect it
and keep it immobile. Using a sling or splint can help the area
heal fully.
 Rehabilitation : Physical therapy exercises strengthen the muscles
and ligaments around the joint to help support it.
 Surgery : Your doctor may recommend surgery if :
a) Manipulation does not work to
put the bones back in place, the
dislocation damaged blood vessels
or nerves. the dislocation damaged
bones, tore muscles or ligaments
that need repair.
 Fractures
A fracture is a break in a bone. Fractures are caused by a direct impact, such as a fall or
a severe tackle. Stress fractures develop over time and are caused by overuse.

Stress fractures may occur because of overuse injuries and the

Stress Fracture failure to have adequate equipment to protect the body.
 Causes : Stress fractures often result from increasing the
amount or intensity of an activity too quickly.
 Prevention : Low impact activities added to exercise
regimen to avoid repetitively stressing a particular part of
the body.
 Treatment : Rest, cold therapy ice packs, cold compresses,
apply ice to the injured area, anti- inflammatory
medications such as Ibuprofen, aspirin etc. and a recovery
time of 6 to 8 weeks is required for healing.
 A fracture in a young, soft bone,
Greenstick
in which the bone bends.
 Causes : These fractures most commonly occur
with a fall.
 Prevention : Promotion of regular exercise,
ensuring the child’s safety by providing proper
safety equipment and adequate calcium in the
child’s diet can also help to prevent this kind of
fracture.
 Treatment : Removable splints result in better
outcomes than casting in children with – Torus
fractures of the distal radius.
 A fracture in which a bone is broken,
Comminuted
splinted, or crushed into number of pieces.
 Causes : Direct and indirect trauma or violence
can be causes for comminuted fracture.
 Prevention : Maintaining strong bones by eating
food that is rich in calcium and regular exercise
can help in the prevention of this type of
fracture.
 Treatment : An X-ray is important for
diagnosing of the condition. An open reduction
when the bone fragments are jammed-together
using surgical nails, wire plates etc. is required
for comminuted fracture.
 Transverse fracture is when there is a
Transverse
straight break right across a bone.
 Causes : When a large amount of force is
transmitted directly i.e., perpendicularly to the
bone.
 Prevention : Physical activity and weight bearing
exercises will make the bones stronger and denser.
Bones can also be strengthened by eating foods rich
in calcium and taking regular exercise.
 Treatment : Can be treated at home along with
rest and medicine. A back brace (called TSL) or
abdominal binder may be prescribed to reduce the
pain by limiting motion at the fracture site.
 Oblique fracture is one in which
Oblique
the bone breaks diagonally.
 Causes : This fracture is usually caused by an
injury to the bone as the result of a fall,
accident, or other trauma.
 Prevention : Bones can be strengthened by
eating food rich in calcium and exercising
regularly to help prevent this type of fracture.
 Treatment : It depends upon the severity of the
crack or break. Anti- inflammatory medication,
reduction (Resetting the bone) can also help to
some extent.
 This type of fracture occurs when the broken ends of
Impacted the bones are jammed together by the force of the
injury.
 Causes : It is caused mainly when someone falls from
height with a great impact.
 Prevention : Increased physical activity, weight
bearing exercises and maintaining good intake of
calcium in food can help in preventing this type of
fracture.
 Treatment : In an impacted fracture the bones get
broken into fragments. Therefore, a sling or a splint
may be required to keep the broken bones in place, so
that movement of the sharp ends of the broken bone
is prevented. This is essential to prevent further
damage to the bone.