Appendix C
Writing a Memorandum or Report
As a professional in your field, you will be expected to
communicate effectively with your colleagues, supervi-
sors, and the public. E-mail is a standard method for
communicating ideas, information, and results. However,
written memorandums and reports are still quite
commonly used in natural resource organizations. This
Appendix focuses on two types of written communication
(memorandums and reports), although we would hope
that you will apply some of the same concepts described
here to e-mail communications as well. This Appendix is
designed to illustrate standard memorandum and report
formats as well as the numerous pitfalls students may
encounter when developing them. Upon reading this
Appendix, you should be able to:
1. Understand the elements and characteristics of a well-
written memorandum.
2. Understand the elements and characteristics of a well-
written report.
3. Understand the difference between the two reporting
options.
C.I. MEMORANDUMS
A memorandum is a relatively brief form of written
communication typically used within office settings for
communicating specific information. A basic memoran-
dum contains five distinct structural elements:
G
The date that the memorandum was created
G
The name of the person who created the memorandum
G
The name of the person to whom the memorandum is
addressed
G
The subject of the memorandum
G
The content of the memorandum
It is not imperative, but at the top of the memo, the
word Memorandum might also be placed. The most com-
mon errors related to the date of the memorandum include
using the incorrect year, and using a date that is prior to
the date that the memorandum actually was written. The
name of the person writing the memorandum should be
obvious (you). The name of the person to whom the mem-
orandum is being addressed ideally should be represented
by the name of an actual person or group of persons, as
opposed to “Instructor,” “Lab TA,” or some other set of
words. If you find an entry for “cc:” (“courtesy copy”, or
the older term “carbon copy”) in a memorandum tem-
plate, then you would place here the name of a person to
whom the memorandum was copied.
The subject line of a memorandum should adequately
describe the content, and use descriptive terms such as
“Sampling results from stand 35,” rather than more vague
terms such as “Lab 5.” Some memorandum templates use
“Re:” to represent the subject line (“Re” is an abbrevia-
tion for “Regarding”). A memorandum typically refers
only to one subject, so that the results or discussion that it
contains can be filed in the most appropriate place.
The content of a memorandum needs to present infor-
mation in a logical manner, and in a manner that conveys
results clearly, correctly, and concisely. Some important
considerations for the content of a memorandum include
the following:
G The objective of the work
G The approach that was used to collect and process
information
G A summary
A number of items are probably not appropriate for a
memorandum, such as a description of the standard equip-
ment that might have been used (diameter tape, etc.), and
other basic information that natural resource management
professionals should take for granted, such as how many
paces were needed to locate sample plots. However, other
appropriate topics for memoranda may include changes in
organizational procedures, changes in strategy with a sup-
porting justification, or recommendations for new capital
purchases like buying a truck. If figures or tables are
referenced within a memorandum, then they must be
attached to the memorandum. The converse holds as well:
if figures or tables are attached to a memorandum, then
they must have been referenced within the memorandum.
339
340 Appendix C: Writing a Memorandum or Report
To ensure that your memorandum has a professional
appearance, try to answer the following questions:
1. Is the font size consistent throughout the
memorandum?
2. Is the font type (Times New Roman, Arial, etc.) con-
sistent throughout the memorandum?
3. Has the memorandum been checked for typographical
and grammatical errors?
4. Are units such as ft3 appropriately superscripted?
5. Have the main results been provided in the text of the
memorandum?
6. Have the main results been interpreted?
To ensure that tables are high quality, consider
answers to the following questions:
1. Are descriptive column headers placed over the top of
the data that they were meant to represent?
2. Is consistent precision used within each column of
data (i.e., are the decimal places consistent within a
column)?
3. Is the precision used within each column of data (i.e.,
the decimal places) appropriate for the data being
described?
4. Does the table have a title?
5. Has the table been spell-checked?
6. Is the data right-justified within in a column? Center-
or left-justification of data is less intuitive to many
people.
7. Can the table stand alone so that anyone could under-
stand it should it become separated from the memo?
Figures are graphs, maps, and other items that are not
considered tables of data. To ensure that figures are high
quality, consider answers to the following questions:
1. Are the axes of graphs labeled?
2. Does the figure have a title?
3. Is a consistent font used throughout each figure?
4. Has the figure been spell-checked?
5. Can your figure stand alone so that anyone could
understand it should it become separated from the
memo?
An example of a brief memorandum is presented in
Fig. C.1. Of course, Fig. C.1 represents only the text of a
memorandum, and its associated table (Fig. C.2) and
figure (Fig. C.3) should be attached (preferably stapled to
the memo).
C.II. REPORTS
In general, a report is a written document that is meant to
inform other people of an idea or situation that you have
studied. The content of a report is much different than
that of a memorandum. In a report the content is designed
to be much more informative of the background, purpose,
importance, and influence of a topic or issue. In contrast,
the content of a memorandum is brief and generally to the
point. Reports generally contain the six basic structural
elements:
G A summary or abstract
G An introduction to the report
G A description of the methods employed
G A summary of the results that were found
G A discussion of the importance of the results
G The important conclusions
These sections represent the summary, introduction,
methods, results, discussion, and conclusions sections that
commonly are used in reports. The summary or abstract
can also be called the executive summary, depending on
the situation. The summary presents the main findings or
arguments that are presented within the report. The sum-
mary also helps readers quickly determine what may be
found within the report. The summary may be one of the
most difficult parts of a report to write, since you must
describe the content of the report in a condensed form,
and since it may be the only part of the report that is read
thoroughly by busy managers. The summary, in effect, is
used to convince people to read further. The introduction,
by comparison, is a section of the report that presents the
purpose, scope, and objectives of the written document.
The introduction can include hypotheses as well as a brief
guide to the material that will follow. The introduction to
a report can also often include a summary of prior studies
or reports on the same (or similar) subject. This section of
a report prepares readers for what follows.
The methods section of a report provides readers with an
understanding of the types of materials and data that were
used to develop results from which conclusions or decisions
are drawn. In addition to a description of the equipment and
analytical techniques used to arrive at results, the methods
section may also include a critique of other previously used
methods, and may also include the hypotheses. If the report
concerned an experiment, then the methods section would
describe how the experiment was designed. If the report
described a survey, then the methods section would describe
the sequence of events that were followed to effectively
design and deliver a survey. The methods should be
thoroughly described so that the reader can understand how
the results were generated and whether the analysis
performed on the data collected is valid. Ultimately, the
methods section would contain enough information so that
someone else could repeat the study or analysis.
The results section of a report provides the outcomes
of the inquiry, either quantitatively or qualitatively.
Comparisons of outcomes are also provided here,
although interpretation of the reasons for different
(or similar) outcomes is usually left for the discussion
 Appendix C: Writing a Memorandum or Report 341

FIGURE C.1 An example of a brief memorandum.

FIGURE C.2 An example table from a memorandum. FIGURE C.3 An example figure from a memorandum.
342 Appendix C: Writing a Memorandum or Report
section of a report. It is in the results section that we
find the highest quantity of tables and figures. As a result,
the suggestions we provided earlier regarding tables and
figures for memorandums also should be followed. The
results should be presented in a relatively straightforward
manner, and their presentation should be organized in a
logical manner as well. The discussion section of a report
represents an interpretation of the results provided. As
with the presentation of results, the discussion should
flow in a logical manner: if a reader needs to understand
one specific set of information prior to considering a
broader set of information, then the discussion should be
organized accordingly. The discussion section is where
you would compare the outcomes of the current study
with those from previous studies or reports. In addition, it
is here where the hypotheses that may have been pro-
posed earlier are addressed (e.g., did you reject or fail to
reject the hypothesis you proposed?).
As with the summary section, the conclusions section
needs to be brief and concise, and it needs to present the
main thoughts of the report clearly. This section reiterates
the important concepts presented in the report, and it may
also present areas for future work, make recommendations
for decisions, or raise questions that continue to linger.
The conclusions section is your last chance to convince
the reader of the value of your work.