L2 Research Problem
afford?
Difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either theoretical or practical situation and
wants to obtain a solution for the same. (C.R Kothari)
A statement about an area of concern, a condition to
be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a
troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in
theory, or in practice that points to the need for
meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation.
How can you say that a RESEARCH PROBLEM
exist?
COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH
PROBLEM
o Individual or a group which has some
difficulty or problem
o Objectives to be attained
o Alternative means for obtaining the objective
one wishes to attain
o Some doubt in the mind of a researcher with
regard to the selection alternatives
o Some environment to which the difficulty
pertains
o India”?
SELECTING THE PROBLEM
o Select new subject instead of one which is
overdone
o Controversial Subject (should not be the
choice of average researcher)
o Too narrow or too vague problems should be
avoided
o Subject selected should be familiar and
feasible
o Consideration of time and budget constraints
o Availability of support from all concerned
o Am I well- equipped in terms of my
background to carry out research?
o Will the study fall within the budget I can
o Can I acquire necessary cooperation from
those who must participate in research as
subjects?
Necessity of Defining the Problem
“A PROBLEM CLEARLY STATED IS A
PROBLEM HALF SOLVED”
o A proper definition of research problem will
enable the researcher to be on the track
whereas an ill-defined problem may create
hurdles
o Defining a research problem is a pre-requisite
for any study
and is a step of the highest importance.
o Formulation of the problem is often more
essential
than its solution.
A well- defined research problem will let you
easily answer the
ff.:
What data are to be collected?
What characteristics of data are relevant and need to
be studied?
What relations are to be explored?
What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
Techniques Involved in Defining the Problem
TECHNIQUE IN DEFINING THE PROBLEM
Statement of the problem in a general way
- Researcher must thoroughly immerse in the subject
matter
Social Research:
-Field observation
-Pilot survey
-Guidance of the subject expert
Example:
“Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in
Arising questions:
What sort of productivity is being referred to?
With what industries the same is related?
With what period of time the productivity is being
talked about?
“What factors were responsible for the higher labour
productivity of Japan’s manufacturing
industries during the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to
India’s manufacturing industries?”
Better version:
“To what extent did labour productivity in 1971 to
1980 in Japan exceed that of India in respect of 15
selected manufacturing industries? What factors
were responsible for the productivity differentials
between the two countries by industries?”
Understanding the nature of the problem
- Origin and nature
- Discuss with those who first raised the problem
Surveying the available literature
- Devote sufficient time in reviewing research already
undertaken on related problems
- Let the researcher know if there are certain gaps in
the
theories
“Knowing what data are available often serves to
narrow the problem
itself as well as the technique that might be used.”
Developing the ideas through discussion
- Experience survey
- Discussion with others who are working on similar
problem
Rephrasing the research problem
- rephrase into a working proposition
- rephrase into analytical or operational term
- rephrase the problem in a specific term
POINTS IN DEFINING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
Technical terms and words or phrases with
special meanings used in the
statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
o Basic assumptions should be clearly stated.
o Consider the suitability of the time period and
the sources of data
o Straight forward statement of the value of the
investigation should be provided
o The scope of the investigation must be
mentioned explicitly in defining a research
problem
Illustration
“What effect does social media have on people’s
mind?”
Questions:
What type of social media?
Which people?
What kind of effects?
Better version:
“What effect does daily use of Twitter have on the
attention span of under 16
years old Senior High students?
Defining a research problem is the fuel that drives
the scientific process, and is the foundation of any
research method and experimental design, from true
experiment to case study.
L4 Ethics in Psychological Research
DEVELOPING OF APA CODE OF ETHICS
▪Psychologists in the United States published their
first code of ethics in 1953 (APA, 1953).
▪This 171-page document was the outcome of about
15 years of discussion within the APA, which had
created a temporary committee on Scientific and
Professional Ethics in the late 1930s.
▪In 1948, this group recommended the creation of a
formal code of ethics.
▪ Under the leadership of Nicholas Hobbs, a new
committee on Ethical Standards for Psychology was
formed and began what became a 5-year project
(Hobbs, 1948).
General Principles of the APA Code of Ethics
1. Beneficence and Non-Malfeasance
2. Fidelity and Responsibility
3. Integrity
4. Justice
5. Respect for Peoples’ Rights and Dignity
Principle A: Beneficence and Non-Maleficence
Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they
work and take care to do no harm. In their
professional actions, psychologists seek to
safeguard the welfare and rights of those with whom
they interact professionally and other affected
persons, and the welfare of animal subjects of
research. . . . Because psychologists’ scientific and
professional judgments and actions may affect the
lives of others, they are alert to and guard against ...
factors that might lead to misuse of their influence...
Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility
Psychologists establish relationships of trust with
those with whom they work. They are aware of their
professional and scientific
responsibilities…Psychologists uphold professional
standards of conduct, clarify their professional roles
and obligations, accept appropriate responsibility for
their behavior, and seek to manage conflicts of
interest that could lead to exploitation or harm. . . .
Principle C: Integrity
Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty,
and truthfulness in the science, teaching, and
practice of psychology. . . . In situations in which
deception may be ethically justifiable to maximize
benefits and minimize harm, psychologists have a
serious obligation to consider ... their responsibility to
correct any resulting mistrust or other harmful effects
that arise from the use of such techniques.
Principle D: Justice
Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice
entitle all persons access to and benefit from the
contributions of psychology. . . . Psychologists
exercise reasonable judgment and take precautions
to insure that their potential biases, the boundaries of
their competence, and the limitations of their
expertise do not lead to or condone unjust practices.
Principle E. Respect for Peoples’ Rights and Dignity
Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all
people, and the rights of individuals to privacy,
confidentiality, and self- determination. Psychologists
are aware that special safeguards may
be necessary to protect the rights and welfare of
persons or communities whose vulnerabilities impair
autonomous decision- making. Psychologists are
aware of and respect cultural, individual, and role
differences. . . . Psychologists try to eliminate the
effect on their work of biases... , and they do not
knowingly participate in or condone activities of
others based upon such prejudices.
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans
▪In the 1960s, a portion of the original ethics code
was elaborated into a separate code of ethics for
research with human participants.
▪The standards for research with human participants
include making a judgment that the benefits of the
research outweigh the costs, gaining the informed
consent of those participating in the study, and
treating the research volunteers well during the
course of the study and after it has been completed.
All research on human behavior imposes some
burden on those participating in the study.
The basic dilemma faced by Milgram and every other
researcher is to weigh the scientific value
of the study being planned (a benefit) against the
degree of intrusion on those contributing data
to the study (a cost).
On one hand, experimental psychologists believe
strongly in the need to conduct psychological
research on a wide range of topics.
Indeed, they believe that failing to investigate some
topic abdicates one’s responsibility as a
scientist.
The experimenter always faces the conflicting
requirements of
(a) producing meaningful research results that could
ultimately increase our knowledge of behavior and
add to the general good, and
(b) respecting the rights and welfare of the study’s
participants and causing them no harm.
The Institutional Review Board
Institutional Review Board or IRB
This group consists of at least five people, usually
faculty members from several departments and
including at least one member of the outside
community and a minimum of one nonscientist
(Department of Health and Human Services, 1983).
The Institutional Review Board
▪Researchers seeking IRB approval typically submit
to the board a rationale for the study and a
description of research procedures, a statement
about potential risks to participants, how these risks
will be alleviated and why they can be justified, a
copy of the study’s ‘‘informed consent’’ form, and any
copies of materials to be used in the experiment.
▪An important component of the IRB decision about a
proposal involves determining the degree of risk to
be encountered by participants.
Informed Consent and Deception in Research
▪A central feature of the APA code is the concept of
informed consent (Standard 8.02), the notion that
in deciding whether to participate in
psychological research, human participants
should be given enough information about the
study’s purpose and procedures to decide if they
wish to volunteer.
▪For example, the use of painful procedures in a
study (e.g., electric shock, regardless of how mild it
is) must be disclosed.
▪On the other hand, Standard 8.07 indicates that
subjects might experience deception in a study if it
is determined by the researcher, and agreed to
by the IRB, that the study could not be done in any
other fashion.
▪That is, participants might not be told the complete
details of a study at its outset or they might be misled
about some of the procedures or about the study’s
purpose.
▪Researchers argue that in the absence of deception
in certain studies, participants would not act
naturally.
▪Alternatives to deception have been suggested,
including naturalistic observation and qualitative
interview procedures.
▪Subjects might not be told everything about the
study during the consent procedure, it needs to be
made clear to them that they can discontinue their
participation at any time during the study.
▪They should be aware that they can leave the
experiment at any time without penalty and with no
pressure to continue.
Consent procedures evolved from the aftermath of
historical abuses, most notably the medical
research that occurred in Germany during World
War II, using concentration camp inmates as
human guinea pigs.
In the name of medical science, Nazi doctors and
scientists such as Josef Mengele completed horrific
studies. To measure human endurance and
capacity for survival, for instance, inmates were
immersed in ice water, injected with gasoline, or
deliberately exposed to infectious and deadly
diseases, among other things.
Reason: At their Nuremberg trials in the late 1940s,
the doctors defended their actions by arguing that
voluntary consent didn’t really exist in any
medical research of the time and that the long-
term importance of their research outweighed
any adverse consequences to a few participants.
Their argument failed, they were convicted, and the
presiding tribunal wrote what was called the
Nuremberg Code.
It became the basis for all subsequent codes of
medical research ethics as well as the consent
portion of the APA ethics code, establishing the
principle that consent must be informed,
competent, and voluntary, and that the person
giving it must be able to comprehend the situation
involved (Faden & Beauchamp, 1986)
Not all research subjects are capable of giving
consent, due to such factors as age or disability, and
some persons might experience undue coercion to
volunteer for research (e.g., prisoners.
Assent
Researchers give the child as much information as
possible to gauge whether the child is willing to
participate. According to the SRCD code,
assent occurs when ‘‘the child shows some form of
agreement to participate without necessarily
comprehending the full significance of the
research necessary to give informed consent’’
(Society for Research in Child Development, 1996,
p. 337)
Treating Participants Well
Debriefing
the experimenter answers questions the
participants might have and fills them in about
the purpose(s) of the study. It is not absolutely
essential that participants be informed about all
aspects of the study immediately after their
participation. It is not absolutely essential that
participants be informed about all aspects of the
study immediately after their participation
Leakage can ruin a study
There is evidence that leakage occurs, especially in
situations where participants can easily interact with
each other (e.g., college students). One common
solution is to provide information about the general
nature of the research during debriefing, and then to
provide full information of results to participants after
the experiment has been completed
Dehoaxing
revealing the purpose of the experiment to
participants, and the hypotheses being tested.
Desensitizing
refers to the process of reducing any stress or other
negative feelings that might have been experienced
in the session. Subjects are also informed that, if
they wish, they may have their data removed from
the data set
In summary, in research using human participants,
our ethical obligations include:
• Developing a study in which the overall benefits
outweigh the overall costs
• Not doing anything that would cause harm to
participants
• Gaining the informed consent of participants (under
most circumstances)
• Assuring volunteers that they can quit the study at
any time, without penalty
• Providing some form of debriefing
• Assuring participant confidentiality and that they will
remain anonymous
Research Ethics and the Internet
▪Some websites are designed to collect data from
those signing into the sites.
This happens most frequently in the form of online
surveys and questionnaires, but can involve other
forms of data collection as well.
▪In other cases, subjects sign in to sites controlled by
researchers on their own campus, and complete a
study electronically (e.g., filling out a survey created
on software such as Survey Monkey).
▪For e-research in which computer users contribute
data, problems relating to informed consent and
debriefing exist.
▪During a normal informed consent procedure, the
experimenter can quickly clear up any confusion
or misunderstanding on the part of participants,
and can be reasonably sure that participants have
read the consent form before signing.
▪No opportunity for researchers to answer questions
and no way to know if the consent form has been
read.
▪Another consent problem concerns age researchers
can post warnings that participants need parental
consent if they are under age 18, but it is
impossible to monitor compliance.
A good debriefing session is interactive, with
questions asked and answered, but with e-research,
there is no guarantee that participants will even
be there to read the debriefing information.
One click, and the participant is gone without being
debriefed.
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Animals
▪Although some people have the impression that
psychologists seem to study rats more than people,
the truth is that animal research involves a
relatively small proportion of the total research
done in psychology—about 7–9% and the vast
majority of studies use rats, mice, and birds as
subjects.
▪Many of psychology’s important contributions to
human welfare are based on a foundation of
research with animals (Domjan & Purdy, 1995)
The Issue of Animal Rights
Animal rights activists have denounced the use of
animals in studies ranging from medical research to
cosmetics testing.
What is the case against the use of animals as
research subjects?
Some argue that humans have no right to consider
themselves superior to any other sentient species,
that is, any species capable of experiencing pain
(Singer, 1975)
Caring for the Animals
1. A veterinarian must check the facilities twice
annually and should be on call as a general
consultant.
2. If wild animals are being studied, they must be
trapped humanely
3. euthanasia is sometimes necessary (“most
humane form of disposition of an animal at the
conclusion of the research’’)
Scientific Fraud Plagiarism
Presenting the ideas of another as one’s own, and
data falsification, the manufacturing or altering of
data, are the most serious forms of scientific
fraud.
Although data falsification is often discovered
because of repeated failures to replicate unreliable
findings, it may remain undetected because
(a) the fraudulent findings are consistent with
legitimate outcomes or
(b) the sheer mass of published work precludes
much replication. The academic reward system
sometimes creates pressures that lead to scientific
fraud