Analyse and interpretation

1. Define analyse and interpretation

- Describe the process and their goals
- What are the differences
2. Define narratives, plots and stories, talk about various forms.
3. Define narration, point of view and focalisation, talk about various forms.
4. Define characters and settings as literary terms, talk about various forms.
5. Choose one specific story (anything you want) and talk about how these concepts
could be applied to it.

1.
ANALYSIS
- Analysis is splitting up a work and closely studying the elements
- Goal: to gain insight, identify patterns, relationships between elements, and
meaning within a work
- Internal (politics) vs External (historical/cultural) factors
- What`s up with the title?
- What happens in the story?
o Can we summarise the plot?
- Is it a recognizable genre?
- How is the story narrated?
o Can we identify the narrator?
o What tense is the story narrated in?
o What person is it narrated in?
o Do we know what all characters are thinking or just some/one?
- What are the major conflicts?
- Who are the characters?
o Who is the protagonist/antagonist?
o What is the role of other characters?
o Do the characters change from beginning to end? How so?
- What is the setting of the story?
- What is the style of the prose? What about the vocabulary?
- What is the tone or mood?
- Are there any images, figures of speech, or symbols?
- What does the story mean? Can we summarise the theme?
- Can an exploration of the historical/cultural background add to our understanding
of the story?
INTERPRETATION
- Concerned with how textual meaning is communicated
- Goal: to assign meaning/significance to the elements patterns, and relationships
identified during the analysis

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 o To contextualise the findings
o To uncover deeper implications/messages within the literary work
- Involves subjectivity = each reader is different
o However, aesthetic distance is important
- Analysis and interpretation are tightly intertwined.
o First reading:
 Guess at the meaning
o Second reading:
 Analysis of its parts in relation to the whole
 Return to a modified understanding of the whole
- To understand the whole, one must understand its parts -> to understand the parts,
one must have a workable comprehension of the whole.

2.
NARRATIVES
- It serves as a means of conveying events or a sequence of events that form a
coherent story.
- The division of narrative into plot (in the order of events) and style (the manner of
telling) aids in the analysis of the structure and presentation of narrative. Although
these divisions exist, they often overlap and influence each other.
- The complexity of narratives allows for a broad approach with different
interpretations of what constitutes a narrative.
- Narratives are composed of events and the subjects that participate in those events.
These components shape the structure of the narrative and contribute to the overall
meaning and impact of the story.
- The flexibility of narrative discourse allows stories to be conveyed through a
variety of media forms, each with its own unique means and techniques. The
presence of a narrator is not a necessary condition for a narrative to be effectively
mediated.
- Narrative is concerned with the storytelling aspect of storytelling, focusing on how
stories are performed and received by the audience (focusing mainly on people as
they perceive it, what they feel). It explores the engagement and emotional impact
of storytelling on audiences.
- Narratives can be expressed through a variety of literary forms such as fictional
prose, film, painting and other artistic media. Each form offers a different way of
presenting stories and demonstrates the versatility and adaptability of storytelling
on different platforms. We can shape, adapt and change the story.
- One of the key points of storytelling in text is the emphasis on the relationship
between the storyteller and the listener or reader, so it's about their dynamics. This
highlights the importance of understanding narrative in terms of someone telling
someone that something has happened, shifting the focus from the events to the
relationship between the narrator and the audience.
- The endings of narratives are an important aspect as they serve as moments of
revelation, understanding and resolution. How endings can challenge conventional

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 narratives by concealing answers or providing an ironic denouement. This
emphasis on narrative endings adds depth to the discussion of storytelling and the
impact of endings on the audience's interpretation of the narrative.
PLOT

- Plot refers to the order in which the events in a story take place, and determines the
narrative structure and progression. The development of plot in a narrative
involves the ordering and sequencing of events to create a coherent and
compelling story. The progression of events contributes to the coherence of the
narrative and its impact on the audience.
- Plot is defined as the way an author progresses and arranges events in a fictional
work to shape the reader's response and interpretation. It differs from plot, which
refers to the events narrated in a story, in that it focuses on the organization and
presentation of these events to create meaning and emotional impact.
- The notion of plot can be further divided into constitutive events (necessary to
move the narrative forward, having energy, moral significance, and power in the
story) and supplementary events (not necessary to the progression of the story).
- Plot development in narrative involves the ordering and sequencing of events to
create a coherent and engaging story.
- Understanding the plot in a narrative helps in analysing the coherence of the
narrative, its flow and its impact on the audience. It serves as a key element of
storytelling that shapes the overall narrative experience for both the creators and
consumers of narratives.

The climax or turning point in a plot is the

The rising action in a plot is the phase where moment of greatest emotional intensity where
the initial situation is destabilized by an inciting the outcome of the plot and the fate of the
incident or event that incites conflict. It is characters are decided. It is a pivotal incident
characterized by complications that intensify that "turns things around" or involves a change
existing conflicts or introduce new ones, from one state of things to its opposite. The
driving the story forward towards the climax. climax often involves a discovery, new insight,
The rising action builds tension and sets the or epiphany that leads to a significant shift in
stage for the resolution of conflicts in the the story, impacting the characters and their
narrative. actions.
The falling action in a plot
brings a release of
emotional tension and
moves the story towards
the resolution of conflicts.
It occurs after the climax
and typically shows the
aftermath of the pivotal
events. The falling action
provides closure by tying
up loose ends and
showing the consequences
of the climax, leading
towards the conclusion of
the narrative.

Exposition in a plot introduces characters, their
situations, time, and place, providing essential
information for understanding the story. It sets
the stage by revealing potential conflicts and
seeds of tension that the characters may be
unaware of. Exposition can be brief or
The conclusion in a plot presents a new and somewhat
3 stable situation that gives a sense of closure because
conflicts have been resolved, even if temporarily and not
necessarily as expected. It marks the end of the narrative
and often reflects on the changes that have occurred in
the characters and their circumstances. The conclusion
 - Dénouement refers to the final part of a narrative where the strands of the plot are
drawn together and resolved. It is often considered as the unravelling or untying of
the story's complexities, leading to the resolution of conflicts and the conclusion of
the narrative. The dénouement provides closure and clarity by addressing any
remaining questions or loose ends in the story.
- Common plot types:
o Quest: Involves a character or characters embarking on a journey to find
something or someone, driving the narrative forward.
o Tragic: Focuses on a character's downfall from fortune into misfortune and
isolation, often ending unhappily, frequently with death.
o Comic: Tends to end happily, often with marriage or some form of social
integration and celebration.
o Rebirth: Involves a character's transformation or redemption, often
through overcoming challenges or personal growth.
o Rags to Riches: Depicts a character's rise from poverty or obscurity to
wealth or success.
o Overcoming the Monster: Features a protagonist facing and defeating a
powerful adversary or obstacle.
o Voyage and Return: Involves a journey to a strange land or world,
followed by a return to the familiar with newfound knowledge or
experience.

STORIES

- Stories consist of events or sequences of events that form the core content of a
narrative. They provide the substance and meaning to the narrative, engaging the
audience.
- Every story comprises events and the entities involved in those events. Entities,
such as characters or elements, play a crucial role in shaping the narrative and
driving the story's development.
- Stories can be conveyed through various media forms, allowing for adaptation and
reinterpretation across different platforms. The essence of a story remains intact
even as it transitions between different literary incarnations.
- Stories are always mediated by narrative discourse, which includes elements like
voice, writing style, camera angles, and actors' interpretations. The mediation
influences how the story is perceived and understood by the audience.
- Elements of a story persist across different adaptations and changes, maintaining
their core essence while evolving in different forms. The narrative's adaptability
and recurrence highlight the enduring nature of storytelling.
- Characters and setting are common ingredients in stories, contributing to the
narrative's development and context. While characters bring life to the story, the
setting provides a backdrop for the events to unfold.

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 - The essence of a story lies in the events, situations, and behaviours signified by
words, images, and gestures. Stories transcend mere words or images, embodying
a deeper meaning and emotional resonance for the audience.

Various forms:
- Narrative Discourse:
o Narrative discourse involves how events are represented in a narrative,
utilizing storytelling techniques and structures to convey the story to the
audience.
o It can be expressed through various mediums like prose fiction, film, and
art, each offering unique ways to present and engage with the narrative.
o Narrative discourse interacts with plot, characters, and setting to create a
cohesive narrative experience, influencing audience perception and
understanding.
o It mediates the story, shaping audience interpretation through narration
style, visual cues, and performance techniques.
o Narrative discourse uses language, imagery, and narrative structure to
represent events, conveying the story's meaning and impact.
o Audience interpretation of narrative discourse is subjective, influenced by
individual perspectives and cultural backgrounds, leading to diverse
responses and meanings.
o Narrative discourse evolves over time, adapting to changing storytelling
trends and cultural influences, reflecting the dynamic nature of storytelling
practices.
- Fabula and Sjuzet
o Fabula refers to the underlying story or sequence of events in a narrative,
encompassing the chronological order of events as they occur in the story
world.
o Sjuzet, on the other hand, refers to the arrangement or presentation of
events in the narrative discourse, which may not follow the chronological
order of the fabula.
o Fabula focuses on the actual events that occur in the story, while sjuzet
deals with how these events are structured and presented to the audience.
o Fabula represents the logical sequence of events in the story, while sjuzet
involves the manipulation of time, perspective, and narrative techniques to
create a compelling storytelling experience.
o Understanding the relationship between fabula and sjuzet helps in
analysing how narratives are constructed, how events are ordered, and how
storytelling techniques influence audience engagement.
o The interplay between fabula and sjuzet adds depth and complexity to
narratives, allowing for non-linear storytelling, flashbacks, and other
narrative devices to enhance the storytelling experience.
- Narrativity

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 o Narrativity refers to the quality or degree of storytelling present in a
narrative, indicating the extent to which a story engages the audience as a
coherent and meaningful narrative experience.
o Narrativity is not solely determined by the number of events, devices, or
words used in a narrative but rather by the effectiveness of storytelling
techniques in creating a compelling narrative.
o Elements like character depth, setting, narrative voice, and storytelling
style can enhance narrativity by immersing the audience in the story and
creating a sense of engagement.
o Narrativity influences the audience's perception of a narrative, shaping
their emotional connection, understanding of the story, and overall
enjoyment of the storytelling experience.
o Narrativity is subjective and can vary based on individual interpretations,
cultural contexts, and storytelling preferences, highlighting the diverse
responses that narratives can evoke.
o Narrativity evolves with changing storytelling trends and audience
expectations, reflecting the dynamic nature of narrative discourse and the
ongoing exploration of storytelling techniques.
- Different literary forms
o Narrative can take various literary forms, including novels, poems, plays,
and experimental works, each offering unique ways to convey stories and
engage the audience.
o Novels are extended works of fiction that explore complex narratives,
characters, and themes, allowing for in-depth storytelling and character
development.
o Poems use poetic language, structure, and imagery to convey narratives in
a condensed and expressive form, often focusing on emotions, experiences,
and symbolic meanings.
o Plays involve dramatic performances and dialogues to present narratives on
stage, utilizing actors, settings, and theatrical elements to bring stories to
life.
o Experimental works push the boundaries of traditional storytelling,
exploring innovative narrative techniques, non-linear structures, and
unconventional forms to challenge audience expectations and perceptions.
o Each literary form offers a distinct approach to storytelling, catering to
different audience preferences, narrative styles, and thematic explorations,
showcasing the versatility and richness of narrative expression across
various genres and mediums.

3.
NARRATION
- Narration in fiction refers to the way a story is told, including the perspective,
voice, and style used by the narrator.

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 - It encompasses the grammatical person (first = I, second = You, or third = he,
she or they) employed, the tense (past, present, or future) of the storytelling, and
the narrator's role in the narrative.
- Narration influences how characters, events, and themes are presented to the
reader, shaping the reader's understanding and emotional engagement with the
story.
- Different narrative techniques, such as first-person, second-person, or third-person
narration, offer unique viewpoints and affect the reader's perception of the plot and
characters.
- The narrator's voice, tone, and level of participation in the story also contribute to
the overall storytelling experience.
- Understanding the nuances of narration is essential for comprehending the story's
message, themes, and impact on the reader.

POINT OF VIEW
- Point of view in fiction refers to the perspective from which the story is narrated
and how characters, events, and themes are portrayed.
- It encompasses the narrator's position in the story and the angle from which the
reader views the narrative. Point of view can vary, influencing the reader's
understanding and emotional connection to the characters.
- Different types of narrators, such as external, internal, limited, or objective, offer
distinct viewpoints and insights into the story.
- First-person narration provides a personal and subjective view, while third-
person narration offers a more objective perspective.
- Second-person narration: you
o Usually transforms the reader into a character in the story.
o Sometimes, the narratee is undefined/shifting -> more experimental.
o Uniqueness -> can create more immersive storytelling.
o Draws attention to itself -> might alienate some readers
- Third-person narration:
o Involves various levels of knowledge and intimacy.
o Multiple perspectives -> enrich the narrative -> seems more objective
o Might result in more emotional distance between the reader and the
characters. ▫ Facilitates extensive world-building and exposition.
- Point of view also includes the narrator's reliability, as unreliable narrators can
introduce irony and challenge the reader's interpretation of the events.
- Understanding the nuances of point of view is crucial for analyzing the story's
themes, character development, and overall impact on the reader.
FOCALIZATION
- Focalization refers to the lens through which characters and events are seen in a
narrative. It can be the narrator or a character, allowing readers to experience the
story through their perspective.

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 - Focalization contributes to how readers think and feel while reading, providing
insight into characters' thoughts and emotions.

4.
CHARACTERS
- A character in literature is any personage, whether human or non-human, who acts,
appears, or is referred to in a story.
- Characters can be heroes, villains, protagonists, antagonists, round, flat, dynamic,
or static, each serving a specific role in the narrative.
- They are defined by their traits, motivations, values, actions, thoughts, and
interactions with other characters, contributing to the development and progression
of the story.
- Characters are essential elements in fiction, representing larger themes, values, or
aspects of human nature beyond their individual roles in the plot.
- Characters in literature are essential elements that drive the plot and engage
readers emotionally.
- They are the individuals who populate stories, novels, and plays, capturing our
curiosity, affection, and sometimes even dislike.
- Characters can become part of how we perceive ourselves through identification
and empathy with their experiences and actions.
- They are often used to explore themes, societal norms, and values, reflecting the
complexities of human nature and relationships.
- The development of characters involves creating multi-dimensional personalities
that feel lifelike and relatable to readers.
- Types of characters:
o Heroes and Heroines: Characters with leading roles, often portrayed as
strong, virtuous, and larger than life.
o Villains: Characters who oppose the heroes, typically portrayed as
antagonists or "bad guys."
o Protagonists: Main characters around whom the story revolves, not
necessarily heroic. The main character around whom the story revolves.
o Antagonists: Characters who oppose the protagonists, creating conflict in
the story. The character or force that opposes the protagonist.
o Round Characters: Characters with varied motives and psychological
complexity, capable of surprising the audience. Characters with complex
personalities, motivations, and development throughout the story.
o Flat Characters: One-dimensional characters who behave predictably and
lack depth. Characters with limited depth and development, often serving a
specific purpose in the plot.
o Dynamic Characters: Characters who undergo significant changes or
development throughout the story. Characters who undergo significant
changes or growth throughout the story.

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 o Static Characters: Characters who remain unchanged and do not
experience significant development. Characters who remain unchanged and
do not experience significant development.
o Stock Characters: Standard or clichéd characters that are easily
recognizable and often fulfill specific roles in the story. Stereotypical
characters representing a specific type or role in a story.
o Archetypal Characters: Characters that represent familiar types or
symbols, such as the trickster figure or the scapegoat.
o Foils: Characters who contrast with the protagonist, highlighting certain
traits or characteristic.
o Symbolic Characters: Characters who represent abstract ideas, themes, or
concepts.
Minor Charaters: Characters with smaller roles in the story, often serving
to support the main characters or plot.
SETTING
- Setting in fiction refers to the time, place, and social environment in which a story
takes place.
- It includes the physical surroundings, historical context, and cultural elements that
influence the narrative.
- Setting plays a crucial role in establishing the mood, character development, and
overall atmosphere of a story.
- It can range from specific and detailed descriptions to more vague or archetypal
representations, all of which contribute to the emotional impact and meaning of the
narrative.
- Authors use setting to create a sense of realism, evoke emotions, and provide
context for the events that unfold in the story.
- Types of setting:
o General Setting: Refers to the overall temporal and geographical context
of a work of fiction. It establishes the time period and location in which the
story unfolds, providing a broad historical and cultural backdrop.
o Specific or Particular Settings: Include detailed descriptions of specific
times and places within the general setting. These settings can range from
individual locales to various time periods, each contributing to the overall
atmosphere and meaning of the story.
o Temporal Setting: Focuses on the time or era in which the story is set. It
can be contemporary, historical, futuristic, or even fantastical, influencing
the events and characters' experiences.
o Physical Setting: Describes the physical environment where the story
takes place, including landscapes, buildings, weather, and other sensory
details that shape the narrative.
o Social Setting: Encompasses the cultural, societal, and interpersonal
dynamics that influence the characters' behaviours and interactions within
the story.

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o Vague and Vivid Settings: Settings can vary in their level of detail, from
vague and archetypal to vivid and sensory-rich descriptions, each serving
different narrative purposes and evoking distinct emotional responses.

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