1) What are the advantages of a Good Research design?

1 :- Clear Direction: It helps researchers know exactly what they need to study and how to go
about it. It provides a roadmap for the entire research process.
2:-Accuracy and Reliability: A well-designed study is more likely to produce accurate and
reliable results. This means the findings can be trusted to reflect the real-world situation.
3:-Efficient Use of Resources: Good research design ensures that resources like time, money,
and manpower are used efficiently. It helps researchers focus on what is essential for
answering their research questions.
4:-Minimizes Bias: It helps in minimizing bias and errors, making the study more objective.
This is important for drawing valid conclusions.
5:-Generalizability: A good design allows researchers to generalize their findings to a larger
population. This means the results can be applied to a broader context or group.
6:-Reproducibility: Other researchers should be able to replicate the study and get similar
results. A good design contributes to the reproducibility of research.
7:-Validity: It ensures that the study measures what it intends to measure. This is crucial for
the results to be meaningful and applicable.
8:-Adaptability: A well-designed study is flexible enough to adapt to unexpected challenges
or changes in the research environment without compromising the integrity of the study.

2 ) What are the steps in the process of Sample design?

1:- Define Your Population: Know who you want to study. This is your entire group of
interest, like all high school students, all smartphone users, or all employees in a company.
2:-Determine Sample Size: Decide how many individuals or data points you need from your
population. It's like choosing how many pieces of a big pie you want to study.
3:-Select Sampling Technique:Choose how you're going to pick your participants. There are
different methods like random sampling (like drawing names from a hat) or stratified
sampling (dividing the population into groups and then randomly selecting from each
group).
4:-Create Sampling Frame:-Make a list or some kind of "map" of all the individuals or
elements in your population. This is your reference list for selecting your sample.
5:-Randomly Select Participants: -If you're using random sampling, actually pick your sample
members by chance. This helps make sure your sample represents your population fairly.
6:-Implement the Sample Design: Carry out your plan. Contact the chosen individuals or
collect the necessary data. This is when you start putting your sampling design into action.
7:-Check Representativeness: Ensure that your sample is a good reflection of the larger
group. If you were studying all high school students, for example, make sure your sample
includes a mix of ages, grades, and backgrounds.
8) Adjust if Necessary: If your sample isn't turning out quite right, make adjustments. This
might involve adding more participants, changing your sampling method, or refining your
criteria.
9:-Document Your Process: Keep a record of how you selected your sample. This is
important for transparency and for others who might want to replicate your study.
10:-Draw Conclusions: Analyze your data and draw conclusions based on your sample.
Remember, the findings are applicable to your sample, and you can make generalizations to
your larger population if your sample was well-designed and representative.

3) What is secondary data? What can be the different sources of secondary data?

Secondary data refers to information that has already been collected and published by
someone else for a purpose other than the current research. It's like using existing data
rather than collecting new data. Sources of secondary data include:
1. Books and Journals: Information published in books, academic journals, and
magazines.
2. Government Reports: Data released by government agencies.
3. Websites: Online sources, reports, and databases.
4. Previous Research Studies: Data from studies conducted by other researchers.
5. Company Reports: Information published by businesses or organizations.

4) What is sampling? What are the essentials of a good sample?

Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of elements from a larger population to

represent and make inferences about that population. Essentials of a good sample include:

Randomness: Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being

selected.
Representativeness: The sample should accurately reflect the characteristics of the
population.
Adequate Size: The sample should be large enough to provide meaningful results.
Unbiased Selection: Avoiding any systematic bias in the selection process.
5) Explain the advantages of Qualitative research. When is this preferred over quantitative
research?

• Advantages of Qualitative Research: In-Depth Understanding: It provides detailed

insights into complex phenomena.Contextual Understanding: Helps in understanding
the context and social factors.
• Flexibility: It allows researchers to adapt their approach as the study progresses.
• Rich Data: Generates rich and nuanced data that can be valuable for exploratory
research.

When to Prefer Qualitative Research:

• Exploration: When exploring new or poorly understood topics.

• Contextual Understanding: When understanding the context and social dynamics is
crucial.
• Complex Phenomena: For studying complex and multifaceted phenomena.

6) What is a Hypothesis? Give an example of a Hypothesis.

A hypothesis is a clear, specific, and testable statement or prediction about the relationship
between variables. It serves as the basis for empirical testing. Example: "If students sleep
more hours the night before an exam, then their test scores will be higher."

7) What is the difference between diagram and graph as used in data presentation?

• Diagram: A visual representation that illustrates the components of a system or

process. It often involves shapes, lines, and labels to convey information.
• Graph: A visual representation of data, often using lines, bars, or points to show the
relationship or distribution of variables. In summary, a diagram typically explains a
system or process, while a graph is used to represent numerical data.

8) What are the special features of a scientific method of research?

• Empirical: Based on observation and evidence.

• Systematic: Follows a structured and organized process.
• Replicable: Should be possible for other researchers to repeat the study.
• Falsifiable: Allows for the possibility of being proven wrong.
• Hypothesis-Driven: Involves forming and testing hypotheses.
9) What can be the different sources of error in measurement?

• Instrumentation Error: Errors in the tools or instruments used for measurement.

• Sampling Error: Errors due to the characteristics of the selected sample.
• Observer Bias: Errors introduced by the personal judgments of the observer.
• Response Bias: Errors caused by respondents providing inaccurate information.
• Random Error: Unpredictable variations in measurement.

10) Explain briefly any 2 of the following:

a) Likert Scale: A Likert scale is a psychometric scale used in survey research to measure
attitudes or opinions. Respondents are asked to express their level of agreement or
disagreement with a statement, typically on a scale ranging from "strongly agree" to
"strongly disagree."
b) Cumulative Scales or Guttman: Cumulative scales, also known as Guttman scales, are used
to measure a respondent's level of agreement with a series of statements. The statements
are arranged in a hierarchical order, with each statement representing a more extreme
position. A respondent who agrees with a particular statement is assumed to agree with all
preceding statements.
c) Line Chart: A line chart is a type of graph that displays information using a series of data
points called 'markers' connected by straight line segments. It is commonly used to show
trends over a continuous interval or time span. Line charts are particularly useful for
illustrating the rise or fall of values over different periods.

11) Explain the terms ‘Qualitative Research’ and ‘Quantitative Research’. Give examples of
each.

• Qualitative Research:
Qualitative research is an exploratory method that seeks to understand and interpret
complex phenomena. It involves in-depth exploration through methods such as interviews,
focus groups, observations, and content analysis. Example: Conducting interviews to
understand the experiences of cancer patients.

• Quantitative Research:
Quantitative research involves the systematic collection and analysis of numerical data. It
aims to quantify relationships and patterns and uses statistical methods for analysis.
Examples include surveys with closed-ended questions, experiments, and numerical data
analysis like measuring the impact of a drug on blood pressure.
12) Which are the most commonly used measurement scales? Explain Nominal scale in
detail.
1. Common Measurement Scales:
• Nominal Scale: Categories without any inherent order.
• Ordinal Scale: Categories with a meaningful order.
• Interval Scale: Equal intervals between categories with a defined zero point.
• Ratio Scale: Equal intervals with a meaningful zero point.

2. Nominal Scale:
• Nominal scales categorize data into distinct groups with no inherent order or ranking.
Examples: Gender (male, female), colors (red, blue, green), or types of fruit (apple,
orange, banana).
• Nominal data is qualitative and doesn't imply any quantitative relationship between
categories.

13. Explain all of the following: a) Test of Validity b) Test of Reliability & c) Test of Practicality

a) Test of Validity:
A test of validity assesses whether a measurement instrument accurately measures what it
intends to measure. It determines the extent to which a test or scale is valid for a particular
purpose.
b) Test of Reliability:
A test of reliability evaluates the consistency and stability of a measurement instrument. It
assesses whether the same results are obtained under consistent conditions. Reliability is
crucial for ensuring that a measurement is dependable and can be trusted.
c) Test of Practicality:
A test of practicality assesses the ease and efficiency of using a measurement instrument. It
considers factors such as the time required for administration, simplicity of scoring, and the
convenience of the instrument in a practical setting.

14. ‘Schedules sent through Enumerators in Data - a method for collecting primary data’.
What are the merits & demerits of this form of data collection?
Merits:

• In-Depth Information: Enumerators can clarify questions and ensure a detailed

understanding of responses.
 • High Response Rates: Enumerators can encourage participation and reduce non-
response rates.
• Adaptability: Enumerators can adapt to respondents' characteristics, making the
process more flexible.
Demerits:

• Costly and Time-Consuming: Sending enumerators can be expensive and time-

consuming, especially for large-scale studies.
• Interviewer Bias: Enumerators' presence may introduce bias in responses due to
social desirability or interviewer effects.
• Limited Geographical Coverage: Enumerators may have limitations in reaching
remote areas, affecting the representativeness of the sample.

15. What are the Different types of Graphs of Frequency distribution?

Common types of graphs for frequency distribution include:
Histogram: Displays data in bars, with the length of each bar representing the
frequency of a range of values.
Frequency Polygon: A line graph that displays the distribution of frequencies.
Pie Chart: Represents proportions of a whole by dividing a circle into
segments.
Bar Chart: Similar to a histogram but with gaps between bars, often used for
categorical data.

16) Explain the characteristics of a good research design.

Clarity: Clearly defines the research problem, objectives, and methods.
Feasibility: Considers the practical aspects of the study, including resources and time.
Flexibility: Can adapt to changes or unexpected developments during the research
process.
Validity: Ensures that the design accurately measures what it intends to measure.
Reliability: Produces consistent results upon replication.
Relevance: Addresses the research questions and contributes to existing knowledge.

17) What could be the Origin or sources of hypothesis?

Previous Research: Existing studies and literature can suggest hypotheses for further
investigation.
Observation: Patterns or trends observed in real-world situations may lead to
hypothesis formulation.
 Theory: A well-established theory may generate hypotheses that researchers aim to
test.
Experience: Personal or professional experiences can inspire hypotheses.

18) What is the difference between primary & Secondary data? Give examples.

• Primary Data: Original data collected firsthand for a specific research purpose.
Examples include surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations conducted by the
researcher.
• Secondary Data: Existing data that was collected for a different purpose but is used
by the researcher for their current study. Examples include data from government
reports, books, articles, or previous research studies.

19. How is Likert Scale different from Guttman Scale?

❖ Likert Scale: Measures the degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement,
typically using a range (e.g., strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly
disagree).
❖ Guttman Scale: Involves a series of statements arranged in a hierarchical order,
assuming that if a person agrees with a statement, they would agree with all
preceding statements. It assesses a cumulative level of agreement.

20. Explain Attitudinal scaling techniques?

Attitudinal scaling techniques measure individuals' attitudes or opinions on a particular
subject. Examples include Likert scales, semantic differential scales, and Thurstone scales.
These scales quantify subjective responses, providing a way to analyze and compare
attitudes.

21. Write short notes on any 2 of the following:

Null Hypothesis: The null hypothesis suggests no significant difference or effect.
Researchers aim to reject the null hypothesis to support their research hypothesis.
Test of Reliability in Measurement: This assesses the consistency and stability of a
measurement instrument. Methods include test-retest reliability, inter-rater
reliability, and internal consistency.
Role of a Questionnaire in Primary Research: A questionnaire is a tool for collecting
data through structured questions. It helps gather information on attitudes, opinions,
behaviors, and demographics from respondents.
 22)

Mean (Average):
To find the mean, multiply the midpoint of each salary range by the corresponding
frequency, sum these products, and then divide by the total number of employees.
Mean = [(35 * 20) + (45 * 30) + (55 * 60) + (65 * 75) + (75 * 115) + (85 * 100) + (95 * 60)] /
(20 + 30 + 60 + 75 + 115 + 100 + 60)
= (700 + 1350 + 3300 + 4875 + 8625 + 8500 + 5700) / 440
= 36,550 / 440
≈ 83.07
Mode:
The mode is the salary range with the highest frequency.

In this case, the salary range with the highest frequency is 70-80 (with 115
employees). Therefore, the mode is 70-80.