Sociology For Caribbean Students by Nasser Mustapha PDF

Sociology
for
Caribbean Students
Sociology
for
Caribbean Students
Second Edition
NASSER MUSTAPHA
First edition published 2009
Second edition published 2013 in Jamaica by
Ian Randle Publishers
11 Cunningham Avenue
Box 686
Kingston 6
www.ianrandlepublishers.com
© 2013 Nasser Mustapha
ISBN 978-976-637-627-7
Epub Edition @ August 2013 ISBN: 978-976-637-801-1
Mustapha, Nasser
Sociology for Caribbean Students / Nasser Mustapha. – 2nd ed.
p. : ill. ; cm.
Bibliography : p. – Includes index

ISBN 978-976-637-627-7 (pbk)
1. Sociology – Textbooks 2. Social sciences – Textbooks

I. Title
301 dc 22
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of Jamaica.
Sociology for Caribbean Students. Copyright © 2013 by Nasser Mustapha . All rights
reserved under International and Pan-American Conventions. By payment of the required
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Cover and Book Design by Ian Randle Publishers

Printed and Bound in the United States of America
To my wife Nazisha and my children Nasha and Adiy,
for the innumerable sacrifices they have made for me
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures | ix
List of Tables | x
Acknowledgements | xiii
UNIT 1: THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Module 1: Sociological Concepts, Perspectives and Methods
Chapter 1: Sociology as a Discipline | 5
Chapter 2: Sociological Research | 40
Chapter 3: Culture and Identity | 86
Chapter 4: Culture in the Caribbean | 106
Module 2: Social Institutions: Family, Religion and Education
Chapter 5: The Family | 127
Chapter 6: Religion | 159
Chapter 7: Education | 180
Module 3: Social Stratification and Social Mobility
Chapter 8: Social Stratification: Concepts and Theories | 213
Chapter 9: Stratification in the Caribbean | 237

UNIT 2: DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL CHANGE
Module 1: Population and Development
Chapter 10: Introduction to Population Studies | 257
Chapter 11: Population Theories | 283
Chapter 12: Population Growth Rates and Trends | 307
Chapter 13: Population and Development in the Caribbean | 337
Chapter 14: Social Development: Concepts and Theories | 346
Chapter 15: Issues in Caribbean Development | 369
Module 2: Crime and Deviance
Chapter 16: Introduction to Crime and Deviance: Concepts and Theories | 385
Chapter 17: Institutions of Social Control | 416
Chapter 18: Crime and Society | 431
Module 3: Caribbean Social Issues: Poverty, Health

and the Environment
Chapter 19: Poverty | 445
Chapter 20: Caribbean Social Issues: Health and the Environment | 460
Bibliography | 489
Multiple Choice Answers | 503
Index | 509
List of Figures
1.1 The Main Sociological Perspectives | 25

2.1 Role of the Observer | 60
2.2 Portrayal of the Role of Observer to Others | 60
5.1 Households by Type in the US, 1970–2000 | 136
8.1 The Indian Caste System | 224
9.1 Stratification in Plantation Society | 245
9.2 The Stratification System of Trinidad and Tobago in the Period following
Emancipation (post-1845) | 246
9.3 The Social Stratification of Trinidad and Tobago in the Period
Post-Independence 1962 | 247
10.1 Population Pyramid for the Caribbean 1980 | 278
11.1 The Stages of the Demographic Transition Theory | 295
11.2 The Demographic Transition Model | 297
11.3 The Demographic Transition Model Showing Stage 5 | 297
12.1 Population Pyramids for India, Japan and Kenya, 2000 | 309
12.2 Migration from Jamaica 1970–89 | 331
14.l Gunder Frank’s Dependency Model | 353
15.1 Estimates of Visitor Expenditure | 375
16.1 Robert K. Merton’s Deviance Typology | 395
List of Tables
5.1 Marital Status of Women 15–49 years in Haiti (1994–95; 2000)

and Jamaica (1993; 1997) | 140
5.2 Marital Status of Women 15–49 years in the Dominican Republic (1991; 1996)
and Mexico (1986) | 141
7.1 GDP Per Capita and Gross Enrolment in Tertiary Education | 202
8.1 The Functionalist and Conflict Views of Social Stratification: A Comparison | 232
10.1 Ten Most Populous Countries in the World | 276
10.2 Total Population for CARICOM States, 1990 and 2000 | 280
11.1 Population Growth, Rates of Growth and Components of Growth 1960–85
in Trinidad and Tobago | 300
11.2 The Trade in Enslaved Africans in the Eighteenth Century | 301
11.3 Comparison Stages of the DTT and Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth | 304
12.1 Population under Age 15 and Aged 65 and Above at the Year 2000
and the Projected Population to 2015 as Percentage of the Total Population
for Selected Caribbean Countries | 310
12.2 Age and Sex Distribution | 311
12.3 Large Ethnic Groups in the United States, 1990 | 313
12.4 Religious Affiliation in Various Territories | 314
12.5 Patterns of Religious Affiliation in Selected Islands | 315
12.6 Employment by Economic Activity | 322
12.7 Population of the Earth up to 1970 (millions) | 324
12.8 World Population Growth | 325
12.9 Projected Population Growth for Selected Countries
between 1995 and 2025 | 326
12.10 Annual Population Growth Rate for Some Caribbean Countries | 328
12.11 Percentage of Caribbean Population for Selected Caribbean Territories | 329
12.12 Migration Trends to the Bahamas from Other Caribbean Territories | 331
12.13 Some Differences between Rural and Urban Centres | 332
13.1 Social and Economic Resources in the Caribbean | 341
13.2 Consumption Patterns for Selected Goods and Services | 342
14.1 Overview of Development Theories | 348
14.2 Comparison of Traditional and Modern Societies (Parson’s Model) | 350
14.3 Amin’s Classification of Economies | 354
14.4 Development Indicators | 358
15.1 Natural Population Increase as a Source of Urban Growth, 1970–75 | 371
15.2 Visitor Expenditure as a Percentage of GDP | 376
15.3 Cruise Passenger Arrivals – 2012 and 2011 | 377
19.1 Challenges facing the Poor in Rural and Urban Regions | 456
20.1 The Incidence of Under-Nourishment and Disease in
Selected Caribbean Countries | 472
20.2 Sources and Effects of Air Pollutants | 479
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Presenting sociology to the introductory student in the Caribbean is the main goal of this text.
Many of the introductory texts in the discipline, though comprehensive in scope, give inadequate
attention to the needs and concerns of the Caribbean specifically and developing societies,
generally. Also, many of the writings on developing societies, including the Caribbean, are not
presented in a comprehensible and student-friendly format.
This text overcomes these challenges by presenting introductory sociology material in a user-
friendly format, while addressing Caribbean social reality and critically discussing the main
concerns of Caribbean peoples. Seemingly complex and intricate concepts and theories are clarified
and explained in a manner the beginner in sociology will be able to appreciate.
Compared to the earlier edition, this text has been substantially revised with new data, activities
and exercises. The revisions were done in accordance with the new revised CAPE® syllabus (2014).
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr Randy Seepersad for his assistance in revising the
chapters on crime and Dr Denise Gaspard Richards for reviewing the population chapters.
I am also indebted to Mr Anand Rampersad, Ms Karima Pragg, Ms Fareena Alladin, Ms Leistra

Grant and Dr Bennie Berkeley for for their assistance. I am also grateful to Ms Kareemah Ali-
Khan and Ms Shamina Ali for proofreading the manuscript. Finally, I wish to thank Ms Christine
Randle and the staff at Ian Randle Publishers for their support and understanding.
Nasser Mustapha
March 2013
Unit 1
The Sociological
Perspective
UNIT 1 - MODULE 1
SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS,
PERSPECTIVES AND METHODS
CHAPTER I
SOCIOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE
OBJECTIVES
On completion of this chapter, students should:
1. understand the development of sociology as a discipline from the classical period to the
contemporary period;
2. understand the fundamental concepts in sociology;
3. evaluate the different theoretical perspectives in sociology; and
4. apply the different sociological perspectives to the Caribbean.
CONTENT
1. Sociology as a Discipline
a. Development of Sociology as a discipline
b. The development of Sociology in the Caribbean
2. Fundamental Concepts
Social order (structure, function, power); social change; status and roles; values, norms
and sanctions; social group (primary and secondary, in-group and out-group); socialisation
(types and agents – school, family, peer group, mass media, religion); culture (elements and
characteristics).
3. Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

a. Consensus/Functionalist
b. Conflict/Marxist
c. Interactionist
d. Feminist
6 | Sociology for Caribbean Students
WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?
Although sociology is primarily an academic discipline, it deals with issues that are of practical
importance in the real world. It helps us to see everyday life through the eyes of a scientist. Even
though people believe that they are independent and unique, they have much in common
with others. Humans are social beings who are influenced by the groups to which they belong.
Thus, human behaviour, thought and ideas are influenced unconsciously by close and continuous
contact with the social environment.
The subject matter of sociology should not be strange to any of us. Since the discipline
deals with human social life, we are exposed to sociological experiences on a daily basis. For
example, we experience issues of classism and sexism in the family, school and church. In
grocery stores these are quite evident. Classism (differences in social class) may be noticed at
schools in which pupils are allowed to pursue specific subjects because of their high- or low-class
position. Schools that enroll middle-class pupils in mainly academic subjects and working-
class pupils in technical subjects are appropriate examples of classism or class bias. Sociology,
however, provides unique insights into social life that might often be overlooked or taken for
granted by non-sociologists. Giddens’s theory of structuration exemplifies this because he looks
at the interrelationship between structure and agency.
Sociology: Some Definitions

‘Sociology is the study of human behaviour in society.’ This definition though broad in scope
demonstrates that sociology is one of the social sciences (M.L. Anderson and H. Taylor 2004).
‘Sociology is the study of human behaviour as shaped by collective life.’ Collective life refers
to groups or institutionalized practices such as family and school relationships and experiences
(B.B. Hess, E. Markson, W. Stein 1993).
‘Sociology: the study of human social life, groups and societies. It is a dazzling and
compelling enterprise having as its subject matter our own behaviour as social beings….’
Giddens claims that sociology is fascinating and interesting because it helps us to understand
our own behaviour. In a similar vein, Comte suggests that sociology is the queen of the social
sciences (A. Giddens 1986).
‘The scientific study of human society and interactions.’ This definition of sociology
emphasizes the use of systematic procedures in the study of human behaviour. In this way,
sociological knowledge is separated from common-sense knowledge (A. Thio 1994).
Sociology as a Discipline | 7
Based on these definitions, we can conclude that sociology is the scientific study of society. It
therefore uses a systematic approach to studying society, based on solid evidence, rather than
intuition or speculation. As sociologists observe social phenomena and see recurrent patterns of
behaviour, they are able to foresee or predict behaviour based on past evidence. Sociologists also
look at the way a society evolves and changes with time, how it creates and maintains its culture
and how groups and institutions influence human social behaviour. In sum, Sociology can be
defined as the scientific analysis of the origin and development of human societies. It also refers
to the systematic study of the roles of institutions within society, and individual behaviour and
group interaction.
The Sociological Imagination

One of the most important concepts for understanding the nature of sociology is the sociological
imagination. This term was coined in 1959 by the American sociologist C. Wright Mills. The
concept describes a person’s ability to see the impact of historical and social forces on his/her
life, thereby illustrating the relationship between an individual and the wider society. It places
great import on the ability to link past events to contemporary occurrences.
This awareness enables a person to see beyond what is apparent (everyday occurrences), and to
identify the links between one’s immediate circumstances, and the external forces (such as
the state, school or church) that help to shape what takes place in that micro-environment.
In this way, connections between individuals and their social environments can be established,
thereby illustrating that individual experiences are shaped and affected by society’s institutions.
It allows sociologists to see beyond their own personal troubles and to consider wider social issues.
The sociologist will view his/her own society as an objective and dispassionate outsider, free
from biases, prejudices, cultural values and attitudes. In this way, sociological knowledge
will become relevant to the understanding of the society as a whole.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

Origins of Sociology
Auguste Comte (1798–1857), regarded as the founding father of the discipline, developed the term
‘social physics’. He then coined the term ‘Sociology’ which is said to have its roots in the Greek
words socio meaning ‘society’ and logos meaning ‘knowledge’. According to Giddens (1986),
sociology developed in response to the changes occurring in Europe in the nineteenth century.
These societies were experiencing drastic changes such as urbanization and democratization as a
result of the French and Industrial Revolutions. Furthermore, around this time, the influence
of the church was declining (secularization) and scholars were turning to science to provide
answers to their concerns. For instance, the Enlightenment period in France – often termed the
Age of Reason – was influenced by the political, social and economic changes brought forward by
the Scientific Revolution, shifting focus upon facts and an understanding of the world through
rationalization and reasoning. Traditional structures, norms, values and institutions were
being broken down and replaced by new ones. Europe was in a state of flux and uncertainty.
It was thus the task of the sociologist to provide plausible explanations for these occurrences.
The change from ‘traditional’ to ‘modern’ became a central theme in the work of many nineteenth-
century thinkers and scholars, due to the social instability and turmoil believed to result
from such change. Early sociologists (Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer [1820–1903]) were
the pioneers in applying the principles of the natural sciences to the study of society. Spencer
believed that society was an organism, that is, it contained parts (institutions) that performed
specific functions for its well-being. For instance, the family helps to maintain society by
carrying out the roles of primary socialization and the stabilization of adult personalities. The
more substantial contributors, however, were from the three major founding fathers of the
discipline: Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber.
The Three Major Founding Fathers of Sociology
Emile Durkheim (1858–1917)

Emile Durkheim was concerned about the changes that occurred in Europe and the resulting
instability they created. Like other functionalists, he viewed society as a balanced system made
up of interrelated and interdependent parts (organic analogy).
According to Durkheim, social order was created by an underlying set of moral rules, norms,
beliefs and values, which gives members of society the shared feeling of belonging, thereby keeping
society in harmony and equilibrium. This collective conscience (shared norms, values and beliefs)
produces and maintains social solidarity (integration among members of society) in society and
therefore contributes to the survival of the social system. He argued that, social facts, (unwritten
rules created by society) influence people’s thoughts and actions, thereby controlling them.
Durkheim developed and advocated the idea and use of positivism (the use of natural science
methods and procedures in the study of humans) to the study of social facts (norms, values and
structures that are external to the individual). He was the first sociologist to develop, apply and
carry out a detailed scientific study on suicide. In The Rules of Sociological Method (1895),
Durkheim outlined the methods that should be used in studying the social sciences and applied
these rules to the study of suicide in his work ‘Le Suicide’ (1897).
In his later work, he was able to suggest reasons for suicide, as well as apply scientific methods
to analyse the individual phenomenon, suicide, and the social phenomenon, the suicide rate.
He also founded the first school of sociology in France in 1887.
Karl Marx (1818–1883)

In many instances, Karl Marx is referred to as a philosopher, political scientist and economist.
Though Marx did not call himself a sociologist, there is much sociology in his writings. Marx
looked at human social life from a completely different perspective than the functionalists. Instead
of viewing society as a harmonious and well-integrated system, he saw it as an arena of struggle,
conflict and competing interests.
According to Marx, capitalism results in differences in wealth and power in society. As such,
some groups become more privileged and powerful than others. These competing interests produce
tension in society between the two classes – the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie
(capitalists). The worker becomes alienated (unhappy) because the bourgeoisie appropriates
the products of his labour. He also suggested that the dominant groups control the resources of
society. In addition, because of their greater power and influence, they are able to maintain the
status quo through the control of institutions, such as the school and the church.
False consciousness (the inability of the proletariat to realize the true nature of their oppression)
will exist for some time, as the status quo remains in existence. However, with the passage
of time, the working class will develop a class-consciousness that will enable it to function as
one unified group. This class-consciousness (the awareness that develops when the proletariat
move from a class in itself to a class for itself ) will lead to the downfall of capitalism through
a violent upheaval. Conflict will lead to tensions and hostility in society over goals and values,
and in consequence will eventually be a change in the social order.
For Marx, societies evolved in a linear trend, since they have progressed from ancient slavery to
feudalism and then to capitalism. Conflict theory indicated that the capitalist society is not the
ideal. With the development of class-consciousness, the status quo will be overthrown, thereby
leading to communism, which would be a classless society. For his scholarly writings, Marx
is often regarded as the founding father of the conflict perspective in sociology.
Max Weber (1864–1920)

Max Weber was a German scholar whose writings were of relevance to economists, sociologists
and historians. Unlike the other two founding fathers who viewed society from a
macro-perspective, Weber introduced a completely different approach to the study of society.
He felt that social behaviour could not be adequately understood by looking at the large
structures studied by the functionalist theorists. He believed that the smaller groups should
be studied in more depth and detail in order to uncover the meanings underlying human
social action. Weber describes a social action as any action that has meaning, takes account of
the presence of others and, as such, is oriented in its course. Among Weber’s major works is
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904). In this seminal work Weber disputes
Marx’s theory of the revolutionary transformation of society from ancient slavery to capitalism.
Instead he posits that capitalism developed as a result of the spread of ascetic Protestantism in
Europe. For example, Calvinism, which became popular during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, was thought to promote the conditions of frugality and thrift that set the stage
for the onset of capitalism.
Weber’s social action theory provided the foundation for the interactionist perspective later
developed by George Herbert Mead and others such as Erving Goffman, Blumer and Cooley.
The Development of Sociology as a Discipline
Auguste Comte (1798–1857)

Auguste Comte was a French mathematician and philosopher who advocated the application
of positivism to the study of the social sciences. Positivism is a system of philosophy based on
experience and empirical knowledge of natural phenomena. It therefore involves applying the
principles and methods of the natural sciences to the study of society. Comte was of the opinion
that such an approach would produce a ‘positive science of society’. He advocated that since
certain laws governed human behaviour, it could therefore be measured objectively.
Comte was of the opinion that human behaviour is controlled by the social environment in
much the same way that the behaviour of organisms is controlled in the natural environment.
As such, human behaviour can be predicted and measured in much the same way as organisms
behave in the natural world.
Comte’s work, though limited, provided the foundation for the development of sociology as it
is known today. Many of Comte’s doctrines were later adapted and developed by other social
thinkers such as Durkheim.
Talcott Parsons (1902–1979)

Talcott Parsons played an important role in elaborating upon Durkheim’s theory. In some ways,
he was also influenced by Max Weber’s social action theory. Weber’s influence on Parsons
is evident when he talks about the role of religion in society. Parsons argues that religion helps
to provide meaning to human life especially in times of disaster such as drought or famine.
It was Weber who first theorized that social action conveys specific meanings that determine
other social actions. He became one of the world’s most influential sociologists.
Like Durkheim, he viewed society as a system made up of interrelated parts. He also noted
that a society has four functional prerequisites (preconditions that must exist to ensure the
survival of society) or needs: adaptation, goal attainment, integration and pattern maintenance
(latency). These prerequisites must be fulfilled for any society to survive. This is facilitated
by the society’s institutions such as economy, government, schools and families respectively.
Parsons also felt that social change is gradual and evolutionary, and may result in the transition
of simple traditional societies into complex modern ones. Societies change in order to adapt to
their changing needs. Parsons uses five pairs of pattern variables to describe the changes in
values as a society is transformed from traditional to modern.
Parsons’ Pattern Variables
Pattern Variables A Pattern Variables B

• Ascription • Achievement
• Diffuseness • Specificity
• Particularism • Universalism
• Affectivity • Affective-neutrality
• Collective-orientation • Self-orientation
Pattern Variables A and B are the main values of traditional (pre-industrial) and modern
societies respectively.
You will explore this topic later in this text.

Robert Merton (1910–2003)

Robert Merton refined Parsons’ work. He questioned the previously held assumption by
functionalists that as long as a phenomenon persists, it must be functional for society. Merton
believed that some institutions can at times be functional, non-functional or dysfunctional.
He further claimed that a function, or dysfunction, may be obvious or intended (manifest) or
hidden and unintended (latent). Latent functions themselves can be negative or positive. Schools
can bring people together (manifest function) but some can develop life-long friendships such
as marriage (latent function).
Another key aspect of Merton’s contribution is his work on Strain theory which emphasizes the
incongruence between what the culture calls for and what the structure allows. Merton posited
that strong societal emphasis on achievement is not equally met by the institutionalized means
of achieving success therefore individuals are strained to achieve and seek alternate channels of
attainment.
Activity 1.1
1. Fill in the blank spaces with the following statements: collective conscience,
prerequisite, positivism, social facts, function.
a) Laws, beliefs and practices that constrain human behaviour. __________________
b) The view that human behaviour can be subjected to the methods and principles of
natural science. _________________
c) The part an institution plays in the maintenance of society. _________________
d) A state of common thinking attained by consensus of members of society.

___________________
e) A need of society for it to remain in existence.
2. Circle T for True or F for False after each statement.
a) Manifest functions are those intended outcomes of human conduct. T/F

b) Latent functions are the unintended outcomes of human conduct. T/F

c) Dysfunctionality expresses the idea that some aspect or part of a
social system is detrimental to society’s well-being. T/F
d) Emile Durkheim identified the functional prerequisites of society. T/F
e) Institutions are always functional for society. T/F
3. Use the terms about the functional prerequisites to complete the sentences below:
GOAL ATTAINMENT LATENCY INTEGRATION ADAPTATION
a. The patterns of behaviour learnt that are not always easily discernible
__________________.
b. The processes through which man satisfies his basic needs of food, clothing and shelter
_______________________.
c. A state of equilibrium attained by bringing together people from different families
__________________.
d. The role played by government in ensuring that common desirable social ends are
realized ___________________.
The Conflict Theory

Like functionalism, conflict theory is a structural or macro-sociological perspective. Unlike the
functionalists, conflict theorists depict society as being in a state of conflict between opposing
groups. According to Karl Marx, the founder of this perspective, historically, societies have been
characterized by clashes of competing interests between economic groups/social classes. Such
clashes usually result from injustice, inequality, and the exploitation and subjugation of the
less powerful groups. Conflict theorists believe that conflict is desirable because it could lead to
positive social change such as the introduction of a classless society. In this type of society people
will be happy because they would no longer be exploited and oppressed. Marx posited that at
some point in time, the proletariat will revolt and overthrow the bourgeoisie and a classless or
communist society will result. This will mark the end of oppression and exploitation since the
means of production will now be communally owned.
Marx, like Auguste Comte, was a well-known thinker of his time. However, Marx was not only
an intellectual, he was also a revolutionary with a deep social concern for the poor and oppressed.
This social conscience was reflected in his work. His many writings include The Communist
Manifesto (1848), The German Ideology (published posthumously), and Capital (1867). Marx
analysed the capitalist mode of production and examined production in a society comprising
two classes, which he identified as the proletariat (working class) and the bourgeoisie (capitalists).
Other theorists have continued to be influenced by Marx’s model of society. Neo-Marxists revised
and reformulated several aspects of Marx’s theory of society, thereby extending its relevance to the
social and technological changes taking place. Ralf Dahrendorf is one theorist who, though very
critical of the shortcomings of classical Marxism, adopts a conflict model of society. Dahrendorf
opposed Marx’s view that conflict exists between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Instead, he
contends that in the twentieth century there is conflict between the managers and workers as
managers exercise authority over them.
The Interactionist Perspective

This perspective focuses on the individual and interaction processes occurring in small groups.
It was largely inspired by the social action theory of Max Weber.
Weber was critical of Marx’s thinking which was too economically deterministic. This means
that Marx associated all human behaviour with economic factors, (that is, society’s institutions
are controlled by the economic base of society). As such, Weber tried to incorporate social,
political and cultural elements into his theories. For instance, he believed that members of
the upper class could be distinguished by their values, status and prestige. Someone born into
a wealthy family and socialized into the upper-class culture would be easily distinguished from
a newly rich individual whose taste may be perceived as vulgar.
Interpretive Sociology is very wide and can be subdivided into many other perspectives. These
approaches focus on the individual and are classified as micro-sociology.
Interpretive theorists view people as living in a world of meaningful objects. They try to find
the meaning of social action at the individual level, unlike functionalism and Marxism, which
conduct their analyses at the macro level, or at the level of society. The branches of interpretivism
include symbolic interactionism (George Herbert Mead), dramaturgy (Erving Goffman),
ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel) and phenomenology (Alfred Schutz).
Symbolic interaction argues that life is made up of symbols that convey specific meanings.
For example, the symbol ‘chair’ means something to sit on. However, meanings can change
according to the context. The chair can be used as a shield (in a fight) or a ladder (to put
up Christmas decorations) in other contexts.
Dramaturgy compares ordinary life to the theatre. Goffman describes individuals as actors who
fulfill different roles through the use of Impression Management (controlling behaviour to elicit
favourable responses from others). People carefully manage their behaviour to give others a
particular perception. The waiter at a restaurant is ever smiling and polite with customers
because he wants them to feel comfortable.
Ethnomethodology suggests that people build up a stock of knowledge that they use
to make sense of their everyday experiences. In fact, they give order to events around them.
Sometimes, order is imposed on situations that may have no order to others at all. As such,
Ethnomethodology is the study of the ways in which people make sense of and assign order to
their daily lives.
Phenomenology purports that people make sense of the world by categorizing or classifying
objects, events and other people. A young child for instance will use his experience of animal
sounds to categorize barking animals as dogs.
Functionalism, Marxism and Interpretive Sociology have laid the groundwork for subsequent
theorizing in the discipline of sociology. Today, much of the study of sociology is informed
by these theories, even though the work being produced may be of a more specialized nature.
THE BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY

Though sociology began as the study of modern industrial society, today sociologists study
all human societies. In addition, the discipline has become very specialized and sophisticated
in response to the growing complexity of human society, resulting in the development of a
number of sub-disciplines.
These include the following:
1. Gerontology – the study of ageing in society.

2. Rural Sociology/Urban Sociology – the study of rural and urban social systems.
3. Criminology – the application of sociological theories and concepts to the understanding
of crime and deviance.
4. Demography – the study of populations: theories and population issues.
5. The Sociology of Development – the attempt to explain why some societies are more
advanced than others.
6. The Sociology of Education – studies which include the study of teaching, schools,
equality, achievement, stratification.
7. Environmental Sociology – focuses on social factors influencing behaviour towards the

environment.
8. Industrial Sociology/ Sociology of Work and Occupations.
9. Sociology of the Family – Studies types of family and relationships within the family.
10. Sociology of the Media – focuses on issues such as media ownership and influences on
audience.
11. Mathematical Sociology.
12. Medical Sociology.
13. Military Sociology.
14. Sociology of Race Relations – is concerned with racial and ethnic inequalities, and ways
of reducing them.
15. Sociology of Inequality/Stratification and Mobility – studies different forms of social
inequality.
16. Political Sociology – studies a wide range of topics such as voting behaviour and
characteristics of leaders.
17. Sociology of Religion – focuses on issues like secularization and syncretism.
18. Gender Studies – examines themes such as patriarchy and women’s equality.
19. Social Psychology.
20. Sociology of Language – tries to understand differences in language between people
based on social factors such as ethnicity and class.
21. Sociology of Sport.
Activity 1.2
1. List chronologically the more prominent sociologists in each of the three main theoretical
perspectives (functionalist, conflict and interactionist). For each sociologist, state his/her
main contribution in no more than two sentences.
2. Identify the differences between Durkheim and Marx in relation to the following:
a. the structure of society;

b. the maintenance of social order; and
c. the nature of social change.
3. Briefly explain the following terms: Verstehen, class consciousness, micro-sociology,

dramaturgy, and latent function.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY AND THE

OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
Though sociology is an independent discipline, there is much overlap with other social sciences
such as anthropology, history, psychology, political science, and economics.
A brief description of these other disciplines is provided:
Cultural anthropology – the study of human cultures, their origin and transformation over
time. Usually, qualitative or descriptive methods of analysis are used. Some sociologists are
interested in the study of culture and culture change. Many also use qualitative methods of
research. There is considerable overlap between the concerns of sociology and cultural
anthropology.
History – a record and analysis of the personalities and events of the past in a society. This
obviously has an overlap with sociology and anthropology. A good example of this is the study
of changes brought about by industrialization such as the decline or expansion of the family.
Psychology – the study of the human mind, personality and individual behaviour. There are
certain things important and common to both sociologists and psychologists. One similarity
is the concern about the impact of parenting on academic performance.
Political Science – concerned with the administration of society, the distribution of power,
international relations, and the control of power and authority in society. These issues overlap
with the concerns of sociologists. Marx’s work on class inequality is common to political scientists
and sociologists.
Economics – concerned with the production and distribution of goods and services, demand
and supply, pricing, money and trade. Issues such as poverty, work and industry, development
and population studies are of interest to both disciplines. Both are concerned with the impact
of unemployment on the poor, for instance.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE CARIBBEAN

The recorded history of the region extends only from the period of 1492 to the present. Very
little is known about the period prior to the arrival of the Spaniards in 1492. The Caribbean
is made up of several, fairly small and very heterogeneous nations. These are either island or
mainland territories.
The indigenous populations, which consisted of Amerindian tribes, were decimated through
European conquest and colonization. Subsequently, African slaves and East Indian indentured
workers were brought in large numbers to work on the plantations. Attempts were also made to
introduce other groups, such as the Chinese, to provide labour on the plantations. Over time,
several other groups came to the Caribbean, in most cases in search of better opportunities than
those existing in their respective countries. A major part of the population, therefore, consists
of people who were brought from their respective ancestral homelands and remained in the
region to live side by side with others, often total strangers. Subsequently, these diverse groups
interacted and negotiated their respective cultural traits leading to the emergence of a new and
unique Caribbean culture as we know it.
Early sociological thought in the Caribbean came mainly in the form of literary, political, and
economic writings with historical underpinnings. The literature focused on the period from
slavery to independence in the 1960s. The issues discussed ranged from the legacy of slavery
and colonialism to development issues (which characterized the 1960s) as well as migration,
and the ‘brain drain’ (which plagued many of the islands). There is a wealth of literature in
these areas, which emanated from historians, economists, social workers, demographers and
geographers, but there was a dearth of contributions from full-fledged sociologists. Among the
pioneers in Caribbean sociology were Lloyd Braithwaite and M.G. Smith.
Today, in the Caribbean, these writings largely forms the basis for sociological theorizing. The
work of renowned sociologists such as Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Talcott Parsons and
Emile Durkheim served to inform early Caribbean sociological theorizing. Hence, Caribbean
sociology, like sociology in other parts of the world, was influenced by mainstream theories
such as functionalism and conflict theory.
More specific work, which could be applied distinctively to the Caribbean region, was usually
informed by work done in other parts of the world. For example, M.G. Smith (1965) described
the Caribbean as having a plural society. Smith was initially inspired by J.S. Furnivall’s work
on plural societies of the Dutch East Indies and applied the concept to the Caribbean. R.T.
Smith (1956), in writing on the family, used, as the basic starting point for his analysis,
the traditional family form in European societies (the nuclear family). For many mainstream
sociologists, these traditional family forms are viewed as the norm, and any other family
structures are seen as adaptations or deviations from the norm.
The early works sought to explain the trends, as well as the reasons, underlying the cohesiveness
in Caribbean societies. Some of these works also sought to categorize Caribbean societies or
identify characteristics by which Caribbean societies can be differentiated.
Among other issues that have engaged the attention of sociologists in the Caribbean, is the
manner in which the migrant populations sought to find solutions to the living conditions that
faced them. Other works covered areas such as migration and the ‘brain drain’ that many
Caribbean sociologists view as a response to unemployment and harsh living conditions. In My
Mother Who Fathered Me, Edith Clarke (1957) looks at migration from a rural Caribbean
community. Clarke examines the implications of migration on the community, and the impact
on the livelihood of family members left behind.
Family Land, by Hymie Rubenstein (1987), is an example of what many writers see as a response
to living conditions. Many sociologists claim that Family Land was the ex-slaves’ answer to the
scarcity of land. Through this system, a person provided for those who came after, by
allowing his/her land to belong to none in particular, but allowing all, even future generations,
the use of the land. Rubenstein sought to explain the existence of several families occupying
the same plot of land. This was a practice that was not observed in European and Western
societies. Other areas, which have been covered by Caribbean sociologists, include the topic of
race, ethnicity and culture. Sociologists and others have been debating whether there has been
retention of the culture of the major races, or whether there has been any acculturation (forced
acceptance) and diffusion (spread).
Some sociologists have also addressed women’s issues. Patricia Mohammed has done extensive
work on women of East Indian descent in the Caribbean, whilst Rhoda Reddock has looked at
Caribbean women and their role in history. Reddock documented important facts about the life
and times of Elma Francois. Such information would have been otherwise lost to society with
the death of the informants concerned. Through this method of research, Reddock was able to
document the part played by women in the events that led up to the Butler Riots in Trinidad
in the 1930s. Reddock described the part played by Elma Francois, a migrant to Trinidad.
Through her work she showed that Caribbean women had been left out of history just as
had been done in historical writings in Europe and elsewhere. The Caribbean has produced
many sociologists who are making contributions in several spheres, both as academics and
practitioners.
The following are work by some of the people who have made invaluable contributions
to Caribbean sociology:
a. Susan Craig, Sociological Theorizing in the English Speaking Caribbean: A Review

(1982).
b. R.T. Smith, The Negro Family in British Guiana: Family Structure and Social Status
in the Villages (1956).
c. M.G. Smith The Plural Society in the British West lndies (1965).
d . Bill Riviere, Contemporary Class Struggles and the Revolutionary Potential of Social
Classes in Dominica (1982).
e. Angel Quintero Rivera, The Socio-Political Background to the Emergence of ‘The
Puerto Rican Model’ as a Strategy for Development (1982).
f. Paget Henry, De-colonization, Tourism and Class/Race Structure in Antigua (1981).
g. Elsa Goveia, Slave Society in the British Leeward Islands at the End of the Eighteenth
Century (1965).
h. Derek Gordon, Class, Status and Social Mobility in Jamaica (1987).
i. George Beckford, Persistent Poverty (1972).
j. Rex Nettleford, Emancipation: The Lessons and the Legacy (1994).
k. Lloyd Braithwaite, Social Stratification and Cultural Pluralism (1960).
Activity 1.3
1. Which of the following is not related to the development of Caribbean sociology?
a. Lloyd Braithwaite
b. M.G. Smith
c. Lloyd Best
d. R.T. Raymond
2. Which theorist is associated with the study of family life in Jamaica?

a. Edith Clarke
b. G.P. Murdock
c. Bill Riviere
d. Rhoda Reddock
3. Which statements apply to Caribbean sociology?

i. it was influenced by European sociological theories.
ii. it seeks to understand the nature of social issues in the region.
iii. it examines social issues in developed societies in great detail.
iv. it enables us to make sense of the historical forces that impact upon the region’s
social and political development.
a. i, ii and iii b. i, ii, and iv c. i, iii and iv d. ii, iii and iv
4. Which theorist and social issue are incorrectly matched?

a. R.T. Smith – family
b. M.G. Smith – culture
c. Paget Henry – education
d. Elsa Goveia – slavery
5. Which Caribbean theorist was influenced directly by J.S. Furnivall?

a. Angel Quintero Rivera
b. Rex Nettleford
c. M.G. Smith
d. Susan Craig
SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
What is a Science?
Science has been defined as ‘a body of systematically arranged knowledge that shows the operation
of general laws’ (Tischler 2002). According to Comte, human behaviour is governed by
the same laws of cause and effect as those that pertained to the study of the natural sciences.
Further, he believed that this behaviour was measurable. In particular, behaviour such as crime,
marriage, divorce and church attendance are easily measurable via rates.
According to Giddens (1986), science is the use of systematic methods of research and
investigation and the logical analysis of arguments in order to develop an understanding of a
particular subject matter. Many sociologists believe that sociology resembles a science in its
approaches and procedures. The key concept ‘systematic’ refers to a step-by-step procedure
that is easily replicated.
Sociology possesses characteristics that allow us to identify it as a science:
(1) It is Empirical
Sociological knowledge is based on solid evidence that has been acquired by objective (bias
free) procedures. Sociological research follows the steps of the scientific method. In order for
information to be empirical, it has to be based on facts obtained through various methods of
investigation. These methods are inclusive of questionnaires, surveys, interviews and observations.
(2) It is Theoretical
The data obtained by research are used to formulate theories, which are models that attempt to
explain various social phenomena such as issues of family life and educational attainment.
According to Schaefer and Lamm (1998), ‘a theory is a set of statements that seeks to explain
problems, actions or behaviour. An effective theory may have both explanatory and predictive
power.’ In sociology we have different theoretical perspectives (that is, different approaches
to the study of the same phenomena).
(3) It is Cumulative
The sociologist builds upon the efforts of his/her predecessors. Most new theories develop,
modify, expand and refine the older ones. Its cumulative nature implies that new knowledge
continuously builds upon what is already known. Durkheim built on ideas of society as an
organism, first developed by Herbert Spencer. He showed how the different institutions are
interconnected in greater detail than did Spencer.
(4) It is Objective
The sociologist tries to be dispassionate and unbiased at all times and his/her values, and personal
preferences should not be allowed to influence the research. However, in contemporary
times, most sociologists recognize that this is almost impossible to attain. Some go so far as to
say that subjectivity makes the quality of data richer.
(5) It is ‘Value-Free’
Scientific research should simply discover and report the truth rather than offer moral judgements
or commentary on social life. Research that is non-ethical must be objective. The sociologist
must therefore prevent personal values and beliefs from influencing his/her work. In studying
society, the facts obtained by research must be accurately reported and not distorted to agree
with the researcher’s feelings, preferences and emotions.
Sociology studies human social behaviour, which is sometimes abstract, changing, and not always
easy to measure. Sociology has developed approaches to overcome this problem. The term
‘empirical’ indicates that sociology is based on facts and not on value judgements, emotions
or even opinions. Empiricism restricts knowledge to the domain of experience and establishes
that knowledge should be based on experience. The theory underlying sociology is based
on observation, and even inquiry. Comte, Locke and Bacon advocated empiricism. Opposing
empiricism is another philosophy known as rationalism, which advocates that the mind recognizes
reality by means of reason. Advocates of this school of thought were philosophers such as René
Descartes. Immanuel Kant, another philosopher, believed that there should be a compromise
between empiricism and rationalism, which would limit knowledge to the domain of the
experience and, at the same time, integrate sensations into that experience.
Based on the foregoing discussion, one may conclude that if sociology is empirical, theoretical,
cumulative, objective and non-ethical, then it possesses the major characteristics of a science.
However, there are those who are of the opinion that the study of sociology should be conducted
in a much different manner to the natural sciences. This school of thought is of the view that since
the subject matter of sociology is the study of communities and societies, sociology cannot be
studied in the same manner as the study of matter, and therefore the laws of the natural sciences
cannot be applied to the study of people. Phenomenologists and ethnomethodologists adopt
this view and call for the use of humanistic methods (qualitative methods, such as participant
observation and unstructured interviews).
Some theorists call for a middle ground with a combination of both approaches. Ralf Dahrendorf,
writing about Max Weber in his essay ‘Max Weber and Modern Social Science’, has been quoted
as saying that Weber was of the opinion that ‘statements of fact are one thing, statements of value
another, and any confusing of the two is impermissible.’ It is not known where Max Weber stood
on objectivity, but it is widely believed by many that Weber was advocating a two-tiered approach.
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS
SOCIETY
Defining Society
A society is any set of people living together in a group comprising a single community
and whose members are interdependent. The word ‘society’ is commonly used to refer to
national communities, for example, the British society or the Jamaican society or subsections
of society such as rural society. The term is also used to indicate groups of people who share
a common interest, such as the Horticultural Society of Trinidad and Tobago, and may even
transcend local and regional political boundaries, for example, the National Geographic Society,
whose members extend across the face of the earth.
How Does Society Work?

In attempting to study society, sociologists have made different assumptions, used different
approaches and methods, and have arrived at different explanatory models of human social
reality. These different approaches are termed ‘sociological perspectives’. In sociology, there
are three major perspectives: structural theories, interpretivist theories and postmodernism.
The figure below illustrates this:
Figure 1.1: The Main Sociological Perspectives
Structural Interpretivist Postmodernism

Theories
Phenomenology
FUNCTIONALISM
Ethnomethodology
MARXISM
Symbolic
Interationism
In all societies, a common understanding develops over time among individual members,
accompanied by a unique relationship among their institutions. In such a setting, the individuals
in that society interact and live together and usually understand one another. In Western societies,
some of these institutions may include education, religion and the family. Individuals may
belong to a family and to a particular school, a church, a Boy Scouts group or the Red Cross
Society.
In sociology, the social structure is the distinctive arrangement of these institutions whereby
individuals in the society interact and are able to live together. Societies may be stratified (divided)
by race, gender or by economic factors like wealth and income. Social class is largely an economic
category that consists of a group of people who are employed in similar occupations, are of the
same socio-economic status, and share similar living conditions. In most societies the upper,
middle and lower classes are most commonly used to separate the population.
What is Socialization?
Socialization is the process whereby individuals learn about the culture of their society.
They learn about behaviours that are acceptable and those that are not. The agents or
institutions that are responsible for the socialization process include:
• The family
• Peers
• School
• The mass media
• Church
Implicit in the socialization process is the learning of values. Children are likely to learn and
develop the social values of their parents by observing them. The socialization process occurs
from the moment they are born, and continues throughout adult life.
There are two main types of socialization: primary socialization and seconday socialization.
Primary socialization
This begins during childhood. Children look at the way adults in their environment behave
and learn which actions constitute acceptable behaviour. The family is the key institution
involved in the primary socialization process and is responsible for training the child in basic
social skills like sharing and respect for others. Primary socialization teaches the child correct
behaviour and other skills, such as the use of language to communicate, and how to take a
bath. The American sociologist Talcott Parsons says that one of the family’s basic functions is
the primary socialization of young children.
Secondary socialization
The school (educational system) is largely responsible for the secondary socialization process
whereby more specific training and skills are learnt. This institution prepares the individual for
work and public life. Interaction with teachers and peers in the education system prepares the
individual for the world of work. It socializes the individual into working according to rules and
regulations, getting to work on time, as well as knowing how to interact with peers and those
in authority. Feminists also view the school as serving to reinforce many of the masculinity and
femininity issues just learnt in the family. They suggest that because girls learn domestic
chores (e.g., cooking, cleaning ) at home, they were more likely to be assigned subjects such as
home economics at school.
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Sociological perspectives are general outlines as to how theorists view social patterns and the
assumptions they make about society and individuals. Each perspective provides sociologists
with a different view of social life and a starting point for viewing the world.
In seeking to explain society, sociologists may take one of two approaches: (Refer to Figure 1.1)
• the macro approach, by looking at the social structure and its impact on individuals.
This approach studies the large-scale structures, such as entire societies, to conduct its analysis.
Examples of macro-sociological theories in sociology include: the Structural–Functional
Perspective, and the Social–Conflict Perspective.
OR
• the micro perspective, that is, by approaching the study of society using the
individual as the focus. Micro perspectives take the individual and the actions of the
individual as the point of departure for the study and analysis of society.
Functionalism
The structural–functional perspective depicts society as a complex system with many institutions
or parts that work together to promote solidarity and stability. This perspective focuses on
social order, functions and systems and investigates how the relationship among institutions
contribute to this order and the survival of society as a whole. As stated earlier, functionalism
developed from the ideas of theorists such as Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim, but has had
its roots traced as far back as the original founding father of sociology, Auguste Comte. The
more contemporary functionalism developed from the contributions of several theorists such
as American sociologists Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton, Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore.
The functionalist approach places emphasis on the following key concepts:
• Functions
• Interdependence
• Equilibrium, and
• Consensus
Functions
According to the functionalist perspective, society is a system that consists of a number of
components or institutions, such as the state, the family, religion, the economy and education.
Functionalists envisage each of the parts or components as contributing to society, just as each
organ in the body contributes to its efficient running. For the functionalists, each part of
society is therefore performing a function or functions necessary for the maintenance of order
in the society (i.e., organic analogy). It adopts an organic analogy of society as it compares the
social system to that of a living organism whose functioning depends upon the collaboration of
the different parts to maintain the whole. Functionalism perceives the different parts of society
to be contributing positively to the operation or functioning of the system as a whole.
The functionalist perspective sees each system as having certain needs which must be fulfilled
in order for social life to develop. The family performs tasks such as reproduction: procreation
takes place, and the population is maintained. In general, the family performs functions such
as nurturing the young and socializing them so that later on they will be able to take their place
in society. In similar fashion, the institution of religion contributes to the continuation of society
since it strengthens adherence to the norms and values of the society.
Interdependence
Functionalism sees each part as being interrelated and interdependent, and therefore contributing
to the maintenance of the whole. Change in any part will affect the other parts and will require
each part to adapt as necessary. For functionalists, each individual in society has a part to play
which leads to the interdependence of individuals. This influences the smooth running of
society. Each individual has a status in society, and with this status comes a role that he/
she has to perform. A role is the behaviour which is expected of the individual who occupies a
given social position or status in a society. Each individual in society has a role or one of many
roles that he/she has to play. An individual may be a doctor, which represents his/her position or
social status. Accompanying this status, he/she has a role to play, which may be that of a medical
practitioner attending to patients in a hospital. In addition to that role, the individual may also
have to fulfil the role of parent to his/her children, child to his/her parents, and may also be a
sibling, cousin, nephew/niece and aunt/uncle, among other roles.
Equilibrium
Functionalism sees each part of the system as being interrelated and interdependent. It maintains
that each part must be functioning properly, fulfilling its functions, and must therefore be in
equilibrium (a state of order and balance within society that is derived from shared norms and
values i.e., the collective conscience) if it is to contribute to the maintenance of the equilibrium
of the whole. Change in these systems must be orderly, and any change in one institution will
result in an orderly movement of the forces within that institution toward equilibrium. This
results in the movement of the whole to a new equilibrium, which maintains the social order.
For example, if there is a shortage in the economy of a certain product, the price for that
commodity will increase drastically, and it may even be sold in a ‘black market’. This would
then motivate manufacturers to produce more, in search of increased profits. Eventually the
shortage in the country will be ironed out. A major critique of this perspective is its tendency
to ignore the inequalities in society while overemphasizing the occurrence of social cohesion.
Activity 1.4
1. Match the statements on the left with the concepts on the right:
A state in which order is maintained in society. Consensus

The part played by an institution in maintaining social order. Interdependence
Social structures such as schools, families, churches and Function
community groups are often referred to as ----------
The principle based on agreement to shared values Equilibrium
The principle of reciprocity and mutuality of individuals and Institutions
organizations is referred to as
2. The functionalist perspective of stratification is of relevance to the Caribbean because

a. there is some amount of value consensus.
b. groups are always in conflict with one another.
c. governments act on behalf of the ruling class.
d. schools act independently of the state.
3. Put True or False after each statement

a. Durkheim advanced functionalism in the late nineteenth century.
b. Parsons is a renowned American functionalist.
c. Functionalism is concerned with values and norms as key agents of social
solidarity.
d. During the 1960s functionalism enjoyed great popularity in the US.
e. In sociology functionalists use organic analogy to compare society to an organized
system.
Conflict Theory
The social–conflict perspective suggests that society is characterized by inequality that perpetuates
conflict and social change. This perspective focuses on conflict, change and the evolution
of society. Karl Marx (1818–83) has been credited with many of the ideas associated with this
theory.
Central to this perspective is the tension that is present in society. In Marx’s analysis of the
capitalist mode of production, he identified two classes, the proletariat and the bourgeoisie,
based on the part played in production and the relationship to the means of production. The
division in society is highlighted by these distinctly different social groups who simultaneously
pursue their own conflicting interests. Tension and conflict will be ever present since their separate
interests produce an unequal relationship where one group (bourgeoisie) benefits at the expense of
the other (proletariat). Marx claimed that the capitalist mode of production promotes differences
in wealth and power in society. Due to the distribution of wealth in this mode of production,
some groups are more privileged than others and are able to exercise control over those who do
not own capital. According to Marx, the dominant groups control not only the resources but
also the status quo (established order). They do this through the institutions that are present
in society, such as the education system, and the church. He explained this by arguing that
religion acts to keep the poor in poverty. It encourages subservience and an acceptance of
exploitation. One way it does this is by the promise of happiness in the afterlife for those
who suffer in the present.
Marxist theory claims that the status quo will be maintained up to a certain point in time,
and the proletariat will continue to serve the bourgeoisie, and aspire to their goals and ideals.
However, with time, the underprivileged group will develop a class-consciousness that will enable
it to move cohesively. This class-consciousness will lead to the downfall of capitalism through a
violent upheaval. Conflict will lead to tensions and hostility over goals and values, and these
will, according to Marx, result in violence.
For Marx, society evolved in a linear trend where societies progressed from ancient slavery to
feudalism and then to capitalism. Marx assumed that inequality and tension would lead to
revolution. In general, one expects the exploited and alienated to arm themselves and violently
overthrow their oppressors. He believed that the more alienated (unhappy) the man, the greater
the possibility that he will rise up against those who dominate him. Conflict theory indicates
that the capitalist society is not the ideal, and with the development of class-consciousness, the
status quo will be overthrown, the result being communism. Marx saw communism as the
ultimate society, with all societies tending towards this ideal. In the communist system, Marx
indicated that there would be an even distribution of resources in what he termed a ‘classless’
society. It is important to note, however, that the expansion of capitalism and the collapse of the
communist Soviet Union nullifies the Marxist claim that a communist system is the ideal system
to which all societies strive.
Activity 1.5
1. Explain why Marxism is a structural perspective. (Answer in four lines)
2. State and explain two differences between the Marxist and functionalist perspectives.
The Interactionist Perspectives

Micro perspectives use the actions of the individual as the point of departure for the study and
analysis of society. The symbolic–interactionist perspective does not depict the individual
as a passive actor, produced solely by external social forces, but takes into consideration
the actions of the individual in society. Critical to these theories are symbols, interaction
and meanings. Max Weber, George Herbert Mead and Erving Goffman are some of the major
theorists who influenced this perspective.
The interactionist perspective focuses on individuals and their interpretation of the social world.
Unlike the macro perspective, which focuses on the structures of society, the interactionists
focus on the individual. It views individuals as creators of society who actively produce the
structures through their everyday routine actions. Thus, sociology needs to study how people
act and thereby understand the reason and meaning behind their actions.
The interactionist perspective includes the following approaches:
• Symbolic Interactionism
• Ethnomethodology
• Phenomenology
• Dramaturgy
Symbolic Interactionism
This perspective evolved out of the work of George Herbert Mead (1863–1931). Symbolic
interactionism assumes that individuals place meanings on objects in the environment, and
it is these meanings that determine behaviour in the society. There are three core elements of
symbolic interactionism:
1. the symbol
2. the self
3. interaction
The Symbol – Symbolic interactionism assumes that individuals place meanings on objects
in the environment, and it is these meanings that determine their behaviour. Mead claims that
for sense to be made of the real world and the actions of other individuals, there must be shared
symbols. These allow all members of society to sharing a common perception of reality.
The world is, therefore, made up of symbols that are created by humans to give meaning or
order in society. Such symbols include language, which facilitates communication among
individuals and acts as a reference point from which individuals can base their interaction.
The Self – Mead refers to the individuals in society as ‘actors’. He elaborates by asserting that
the mind and the self are socially constructed in a social process through which individuals or
social actors interact, and out of this interaction each person internalizes how he/she is perceived
by others. The individual’s notion of self, Mead refers to as ‘I’; and the notion that we perceive
others have of us, he calls the ‘Me’. This is important because reference groups, or what Mead
terms ‘the generalized other’, influence interaction in society.
Interaction – According to Mead, no interaction is possible unless individuals are aware of the
intention of others. In society, individuals assume that they share common understandings
of the symbols (for example, language) and so place themselves in the place of others, and react
accordingly. Thus, social interaction depends on the meaning that individuals place on things
and on how they are perceived by others.
Symbolic Interactionism emphasizes three principles:
1. Ascribed Meanings: The actions of human beings are based on the meanings that
they ascribe to objects or things.
2. Communication: The meanings which individuals place on things have evolved out of
their interaction and contact with other individuals.
3. Interpretation: The individual undertakes an interpretive process through which he/
she assigns meanings to the things in the environment.
Ethnomethodolgy
The American sociologist Harold Garfinkel founded ethnomethodology in the early 1960s.
This perspective emphasizes the way in which people make sense of their social world. It is
said to be the study of common sense and practical reasoning. Ethnomethodology takes the
view that social life appears to be orderly, when in fact it is very chaotic; social order is constructed
in the minds of the individuals. According to Garfinkel, this order is achieved through a process
called ‘the documentary method’. In this process, individuals, as social actors, make sense of
social life by observing a set of unwritten rules that guide routine situations. He illustrated the
method through an experiment carried out among students at a university. Students were
asked to speak with someone about their problems, to which random responses were given to
the students. The students then tried to make sense of the responses that they obtained,
even if these responses did not make sense. Garfinkel argued that the students were, in many
instances, making sense of a senseless interaction. Students were constructing a social reality
to give order to their senseless reality. Garfinkel suggested that people use this method in their
daily lives to make sense of statements or symbols in the context in which they occur.
Ethnomethodology suggests that all meanings are subjective and as a result, reality is purely
subjective, or socially constructed to create a sense of order.
Phenomenology
This perspective opposes the positivist view of sociology. It does not believe that human beings
can be scientifically studied using the methods and principles of natural sciences. Phenomenology
is a school of philosophy that attempts to explain social action by studying the phenomena or
human experience first-hand. Alfred Schutz (1899–1959) adapted phenomenology from the
work of Edmund Husserl (1859–1938). This theory attempts to discover the essence of
the objects being studied in society.
Phenomenological studies require that the researcher actually experience the phenomena being
investigated, because the only way the true meaning can be discovered is by having lived
experiences.
It argues that people make sense of the world by a process known as ‘typification’. It entails
the use of a stock of ‘common sense knowledge’ and experience to categorize phenomena (objects,
events and situations).
Dramaturgy
Erving Goffman developed this line of analysis, called dramaturgy, by claiming that people
‘stage’ social life. In Goffman’s book, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, he discusses
impression management, and how this explains individual behaviour (Goffman 1959).
According to Goffman, social interaction by individuals is similar to the interaction of actors

in a play. To be accepted by the audience, the actor has to portray his or her role convincingly.
In order to achieve this, impression management is practised. The actor on stage follows a script
to portray his or her character; the audience is only allowed to view the on-stage activities
and not the activities ‘backstage’, if the performance is to be convincing.
Individuals in society adopt similar roles in everyday interaction, that is, a ‘front stage’
and a ‘back stage’ role. The role that the person adopts depends on the audience. According to
Goffman, the ‘front stage’ is what the individual wants the world to see and the ‘back stage’ is
what is kept out of the view of the world, only certain individuals are privy to the ‘back stage’. In
life, individuals are like actors and certain roles entail a certain type of behaviour that is expected
of the individual if he/she is to be accepted.
Thus, individuals portray themselves in different ways because of what they think people
expect from them and what they want people to think of them. The individual puts forward an
impression that he or she wants people to accept and believe. This presentation differs depending
on the audience or group involved in the interaction.
Conclusion
In this section, an outline of the three major sociological perspectives was presented. Sociology
as a scientific discipline is dynamic and constantly evolving. As such, its theories and methods
are constantly being modified and adapted to changing social situations that require explanation.
Activity 1.6
1. Match the sociologists’ names to the statements below:

a. George Herbert Mead
b. C. Wright Mills
c. Emile Durkheim
d. Max Weber
I. Explained how religion could lead to social change; also pioneered the study of
bureaucracy.
II. Introduced the concept of the ‘sociological imagination’.
III. Conducted the first empirical sociological study in which he explained how such
individual acts as suicide could be explained by understanding social integration and
other social forces.
IV. Introduced the symbolic interaction perspective.
2. State which of the following statements are True and which are False.
a. Latent functions reflect the intended consequences of social processes.
b. According to Marxist theory, a class in itself is a class that is fully aware of its true
position in society.
c. Impression Management is a concept put forward by Harold Garfinkel that indicates
that human beings are social actors.
d. Talcott Parsons was influenced by both Durkheim and Weber.
3. Which of the following is NOT a component of the scientific method?

a. Experimentation
b. Personification
c. Observation
d. Generalization
4. Which was the ideology that Max Weber said justified economic success through rational
disciplined hard work?
a. The Iron Laws of Wages
b. Verstehen
c. Communism
d. The Protestant Ethic
5. Empiricism is the feature of science that stresses

a. Observable entities.
b. Abstract concepts.
c. Philosophical doctrines.
d. Objectivity.
6. Gestures, like a nod of the head, are

a. Universal and always have the same meaning.
b. Understood in the same way by all cultures.
c. Defined uniquely by each culture.
d. Instinctively understood by humans.
7. Which of the following is a functional prerequisite as stated by Talcott Parsons?

a. Integration
b. Pattern variables
c. Social equilibrium
d. Social systems
8. Which of the following is a concept associated with the work of Karl Marx?
a. Alienation
b. Social order
c. Microsociology
d. Dysfunctions
Feminism
What is feminism?
Feminism is not a unified movement since there is disagreement among the various perspectives
concerning what causes the subjugation of women and the methods of liberating women from
their oppressed state. Delmar (1986) referred to this division as the ‘fragmentation’ of feminism.
The main idea that unites all branches of feminism, though, is the notion that women in society
are subordinated and it is essential that liberating strategies be developed. Moreover, the feminist
movement firstly concerns itself with the reality that the chief reason for women’s inferior status
is discrimination based on their sex. Thus, feminists agree that the unifying factor among all
women is their shared experiences.
The various branches of feminism call for the social, political and cultural alteration in society
in order for the needs of women to be met.
With specific relevance to the discipline of Sociology, Feminist theorising holds the united front
that the discipline is male-dominated by research done for and by men, and that the perspective
of women is analysed from the male viewpoint and therefore is unrepresentative of the true
women’s perception. For instance, the discipline was initially developed by men – the founding
‘fathers – such as Comte and Durkheim.
The Feminist Perspective in Sociology

Feminists have levelled numerous critiques against the discipline of Sociology. One of the major
concerns of this movement surrounds the research and development of theories. Ann Oakley
(1982) proposed that Sociology is a male profession and has been biased from its inception.
Feminists are of the opinion that research has been conducted by men, utilizes all-male samples
and the findings are generalized to explain entire populations. In this regard, the voices of women
are not heard; therefore, their input is not included. As a result, feminists claim that issues deemed
relevant by women are not documented; they are overlooked and classified as insignificant.
Another feminist critique relates to subject matter of the discipline. Sociology developed as a
response to the political and economic changes of Europe in the nineteenth century. Men were
the ones who were predominantly active in these sectors while women were occupied in the
private domain. Consequently, the focus upon governance and the economic structure dominated
the discipline while the domestic arena – the woman’s area – was left untouched. This division
between men and women was seen as natural and given biological explanations thus, sociologists
saw no need to include sex and gender as variables in their analyses. This according to Abbott
and Wallace (1997) is sexist.
The Branches of Feminism

As previously stated, the feminist movement comprises various arms, each analysing and explaining
women’s disadvantaged position in society from different standpoints. Some of these branches
include, but are not limited to, Liberal Feminism, Radical Feminism and Marxist Feminism.
Liberal Feminism
The main idea of Liberal feminism is that men and women are created equally and should therefore
have the same opportunities and rights. Discrimination against women has roots within the legal
system. Liberal feminists believe women’s entry into the public sphere is limited because of the
misconception that they are the weaker sex. Liberal feminists call for the alteration of society
through policy implementation for equality of rights for all citizens.
Radical Feminism
Radical feminists see the society as male-dominated society. Women’s liberation will result only
from the complete marginalization of men and through the establishment of female-centred
institutions. The Radical view challenges and seeks to overthrow patriarchy by opposing standard
gender roles and what they see as male oppression of women. Subscribers to this philosophy
argue that the oppression of women cuts across racial and cultural boundaries and can only be
demolished through revolutionary social change.
Marxist Feminism
This branch highlights the introduction of private property as the reason for women’s oppression
since this eliminated the previous system of equity. Since men are the owners of the means of
production, they are able to oppress women economically. They also believe that the family
structure is an agent of female suppression since women’s unpaid domestic labour renders them
economically dependent upon men. As a result, they lack independence and reinforces their
passive status in society.
Activity 1.7
1. How would you define Feminism?

2. List two criticisms of Sociology by the feminist movement.
3. To what extent do women in Caribbean society today experience domination by their male
counterparts?
Chapter 2
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
On completing this chapter, students should be able to:
1. define and distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research;

2. state the main quantitative methods and compare their advantages and disadvantages;
3. state the main qualitative methods and compare their advantages and disadvantages;
4. state the main middle range methods and compare their advantages and disadvantages;
5. define the term sampling;
a. list and explain four types of probability samples;
b. state and explain three types of non-probability sampling; and
6. identify and describe ethical issues in research.
CONTENT
1. Principles of Scientific Research
a. Sociology as a science
b. Ethical issues in research
2. Research Methods
a. Positivism and interpretivism
b. Quantitative, qualitative and triangulation
c. Surveys and sampling methods
d. Document studies
e. Observation (participant and non-participant)
f. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
Sociological Research | 41
INTRODUCTION
It is imperative that sociologists employ systematic methods of collecting data from samples of
the population. Emile Durkheim sought to develop the science of sociology by applying inductive
logic (specific to general, that is, beginning with observation and then formulating a
theory based upon the initial observation) to the study of human behaviour. The emphasis
today, however, is on the collection of data that are valid, reliable and dependable. The
procedures utilized in one research project must be replicable, repeatable or verifiable, if
sociological knowledge is to stand the test of time.
There are two broad traditions that underpin the study of sociology: positivism and interpretivism.
Positivism suggests that the scientific study of humans is possible using the methods and procedures
of natural science such as observation, multivariate analysis and correlation. This scientific
approach places heavy emphasis upon quantitative research methodologies and assumes that the
only valid knowledge is knowledge that has been derived from scientific testing. Critics claim
that positivism ‘reifies’ society; that is, it oversimplifies social life and treats human behaviour
as a thing (tangible object), since it is perceived to be measurable, observable, and conditioned
by invariable laws. That is to say, positivism treats human behaviour as something tangible and
quantifiable rather than recognizing its abstract existence.
The French sociologist Auguste Comte is largely regarded as the founding father of positivism.
He believed that human beings were controlled in much the same way that matter was constrained
by the laws of nature. To advance the cause of positivism, Comte theorized that the study
of society could be pursued under two broad topics: social statics and social dynamics.
The German sociologist Max Weber regarded as the founder of interpretivism, was opposed
to the idea that human behaviour is exactly quantifiable. He proposed instead that there were
aspects of human behaviour that could not be measured because they were concerned with
emotions and feelings. On this basis he suggested that sociologists focus their study on the way
people interpret the behaviour of others with whom they are interacting. In this regard,in
order to truly capture the nature of human behaviour, the focus of the sociologist should be upon
culture and lived experiences of individuals. This belief has led to the development of qualitative
methodology such as unstructured interviews, participant observation and case studies.
Between the 1930s and 1960s a number of American sociologists (G.H. Mead, E. Goffman and
H. Garfinkel) took Weber’s theory of interpretive understanding a step further. Both Goffman
and Garfinkel employed subjective approaches in their research. Goffman made extensive use of
participant observation, while Garfinkel used unstructured interviews.
Government censuses and opinion polls frequently adopt the positivist approach while feminist
researchers such as Peggy Antrobus and Patricia Mohammed have drawn conclusions based on
interpretivist methodologies as well.
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

In this section both types of research will be examined. It should be clear to us at this point that
quantitative research is generally associated with positivism and qualitative research with
interpretivism.
In modern times many researchers are more concerned with acquiring relevant, reliable,
dependable or trustworthy data, than with the type of data collected. In any event, some researchers
collect both quantitative and qualitative data, because it will lead to a more comprehensive
understanding of the phenomenon being studied. An example of this is E. Barker’s investigation
of the Unification Church, or Moonies, (Barker 1984). Barker was able to understand the group
because of the use of statistical (quantitative) data and in-depth explanation (qualitative).
Quantitative Data
Quantitative data usually takes the form of statistical or numerical information. For example,
if a researcher wishes to express the number of crimes committed by working-class males in a
given year, sometimes this information may be expressed in the form of a rate. Often reference
is made to the crime or marriage rate in any given year.
Durkheim believes that the analysis of statistical data can indicate both cause and correlation.
He argues that through complex statistical approaches, such as multivariate analysis (statistical
test used to measure multiple variables), the researcher can know the main causes of a particular
social phenomenon. For example, the main reasons for the increase in crime, or the decrease
in the rate of marriage, could be identified. Additionally, multivariate analysis can help the
scientist discover the complexity of social life. An example of this is that rising crime rates
may be associated (correlated) with other factors, like unemployment, poverty, gender, social
class, ethnicity or religion.
Today, the analysis of social phenomena using multivariate analysis, correlation and causation,
and the accompanying methods of computation are much easier than before. Several statistical
packages have been developed to compute statistical correlation and causation. Two popular
programs are Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and MINITAB. Details about
these programs are available online. If ever you are interested in conducting a quantitative study
involving correlation, you are advised to become familiar with the basic features of one of these
programs or consult a good statistician who will assist you with the process.
For your School-based Assessment (SBA) less sophisticated statistical methods such as mean,
median, mode and standard deviation are used. These should pose few problems because you
would have calculated such values in your mathematics or statistics courses.
For the most part, students resort to percentages and raw scores to analyse data. Do not
become too concerned if you feel inadequate in mathematics or statistics; you can always seek
the assistance of your teacher.
Measures of Central Tendency

1. The mean or arithmetic average is obtained by adding individual scores and then
dividing the total by the number of cases.
In this example, the individual scores are added and then divided by the number of
cases. If we wish to find the mean of the following seven scores, we firstly find the sum
of the scores.
34, 27, 46, 55, 22, 34, 20
Sum of scores = 238
Number of cases = 7
Mean = 238/7 = 34
2 . The median – the value or score that falls in the centre of a distribution or data set.
e.g. for the data set 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, the median is 6.
3 . The mode – the most frequently occurring statistic in a set of data, e.g., for the data
set 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 5, 8, the mode is 1.
4. Standard Deviation (SD) – indicates the amount of dispersion from the population
mean. It is usually indicated graphically by a bell-shaped curve.
2
∑(x ‒ x)
SD =
N
where x = statistic number

x = sample mean
Σ = sum of
N = number of cases (sample size, number of responses)
Activity 2.1
Distinguish between ‘positivism’ and ‘interpretivism’, giving an example of each.
a. Explain Comte’s role in developing positivism.

b. Describe Weber’s contribution to interpretivism.
Those of you who have carried out questionnaire research involving close-ended (for example,
multiple choice) questions would have engaged in less sophisticated descriptive statistics, such
as frequencies and measures of central tendency, like mean, median and mode. Sociologists
hardly ever draw conclusions from data in these forms, because they cannot tell how statistically
significant the data are. An illustration is provided below.
Crime Survey
1. Sample size: 1,000

2. Sample Question: Have you been a victim of crime in the last year?
1. Yes 2. No
3. Hypothetical Response:
40 per cent Yes 60 per cent No
A sociologist will not assume that because 60 per cent of the sample is not directly affected by
crime, that crime is not a serious problem. One can only know this by finding out the extent to
which these percentages are truly significant. In your later studies, you will encounter more
accurate statistical techniques such as correlation, chi-square and multiple regressions.
Activity 2.2
Define each of the following terms in no more than three lines:
a. Correlation
b. Measures of Central Tendency
c. Multivariate Analysis
d. Causation
e. Standard Deviation
We are now in a position to address the following issues:
a. Planning Quantitative Research

b. The Advantages of Quantitative Research
c. The Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
PLANNING FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The researcher must first consider issues such as sample size and cost, once the purpose of the
research is known. The data collection instrument will also have to be developed. In cases where
the sample is large, researchers prefer to use questionnaires involving fixed-choice questions.
Once the researcher is sure about the objectives (desired outcomes) of the research, the
questionnaire will be formulated. This is a systematic process. Most importantly, the researcher
ensures that the questions are valid. Today, many people opt for what are called Standardized
Instruments. These are questionnaires that have been widely used by popular researchers who
have found the questions to be both valid and reliable measures of a particular phenomenon. For
instance, there are many standardized IQ (intelligence quotient) tests.
If the researcher chooses to formulate his/her own questionnaire, a systematic approach should
be followed. However, caution must also be exercised in using standardized tests. Firstly, the
researcher needs to ensure that the circumstances are similar to those where the instruments
were developed. Also, permission must be sought to use copyrighted material, and appropriate
acknowledgements should be provided. Another important planning consideration is the budget.
The scale of research is important. A large-scale research study (i.e., one with a large sample) will
require more funds than a small-scale one. Sometimes funds for research can be obtained from
sources such as government departments, universities or non-governmental agencies (NGOs).
Researchers also need to decide whether paid assistance from trained interviewers is required.
University students or graduates often make excellent co-researchers, because of the training
acquired during their course of study. Of course, other arrangements such as transport, housing
and meal allowances may have to be worked out if the research is being conducted in another
country or in another (distant) town.
Some Terms for Assessing Data Gathering Tools

You should learn the meanings of the following terms, because they are useful for commenting
on the merits and demerits or the various quantitative and qualitative research methods.
1. Practicality – the extent to which a particular method saves the researcher time
(time-effective) and money (cost-effective).
2. Validity – the extent to which the results of research are a truthful reflection of social
reality.
It is enhanced by the use of the most appropriate technique, e.g., if the researcher wants
to understand a rape victim’s point of view, an unstructured interview will yield more valid
results than, say, a social survey. In this regard, a qualitative methodology proves to be
more appropriate than a quantitative one depending upon the nature of the subject under
investigation.
3. Objectivity – the extent to which a researcher’s values, attitudes, beliefs, opinions and
emotions are omitted from the research findings. Durkheim advocated that the key to
objective research is for complete detachment of the researcher from his/her subjects. In
other words, it eliminates the ‘observer effect’ which refers to any differences in the subjects’
behaviour as a reaction to the presence of the observer or researcher.
4. Reliability – this is concerned with internal consistency, that is, the extent to
which successive repetitions of the same research yield similar or the same findings.
The reliability of data is affected by the following:

a. time – the shorter the time lapse between repetitions, the more likely it is that
results will be similar.
b. sample representativeness – a more representative sample increases the tendency to
achieve similar results.
c. type of question – closed-ended questions are more likely to produce similar

results than open-ended questions, which allow respondents more flexibility.
Reading
M. Haralambos, and M. Holborn, Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, 7th edition (London:
Collins, 2008). See chapter 14. This reading provides very useful information on conducting
sociological research.
The Advantages of Quantitative Research

The main quantitative research methods are:
i) Social Surveys
• Questionnaires (primary)
• Structured interviews (primary)
ii) Official statistics (secondary)
Some general advantages of quantitative research:
a. The study is easily replicable (reliability).

b. This method saves the researcher time and money, since it is cost-effective and
practical.
c. It collects standard data.
d. The data are easy to quantify.
e. Validity is enhanced by the use of large samples (or a cross section of the population).
f. It provides more objective data, since the researcher may not have to interact with
the respondents (that is, they may not be influenced by the researcher’s race, age or
political affiliation).
g. It facilitates theory formulation – as a large amount of data is collected, the researcher
is able to formulate theories. As a result, quantitative data lends itself to Inductive
theorizing.
Some disadvantages of quantitative data:
a. There is no indication of the respondents’ personal state, for example, his or

her mood, attitude or feelings when providing the information. This is so since
respondents are not given the opportunity to clarify or explain their responses because
of the structured nature of quantitative measurement instruments.
b. Unrepresentative samples can sometimes be drawn, thus leading to inaccurate and
invalid information.
c. Generalizations of any kind may not apply to all people in all circumstances. For
example, not all crimes have the same cause, and the reason for divorce varies
according to family.
Quantitative research has been widely used in the Caribbean. Many of our researchers have
resorted to the use of statistical analysis in order to measure the extent of poverty, unemployment,
crime, educational success/failure and gender inequality, for example.
Types of Social Surveys

Social surveys are usually large-scale research projects that collect standardized data from a large
cross section of the population. A government census is a good example. Censuses are, however,
based on the entire population, whereas sample surveys are based on a sample.
There are different types of surveys. These include:
Descriptive Surveys – Though based on quantitative data, the analysis is usually general and
exploratory. The questions are usually fixed choice and allow the researcher the opportunity
to make correlations about social phenomena, such as information about people’s age, marital
status, occupation, income and ethnicity. For instance, high status occupations are more closely
associated with high incomes than low status occupations. However, it does not mean that a low
status occupation cannot command a high wage. Such is the case of a skilled craftsman in some
Caribbean territories.
Attitude Surveys – this asks mainly close-ended questions that attempt to find out
people’s feelings or opinions about a party, political figure or brand of a particular food item.
The Jamaica Gleaner has been known to conduct polls concerning the voting intentions of the
Jamaican electorate. The ANSA-McAL Psychological Research Centre and the North American
Caribbean Teachers’ Association (NACTA) also conduct attitudinal surveys about a number
of issues in Trinidad and Tobago. These include the spiralling crime rate, racial equality, equity
in employment and the relative popularity of prominent public figures.
Explanatory Surveys – this type of survey, unlike the first two, seeks answers that require more
than a simple response, such as Yes, No or Don’t Know. Respondents are given the opportunity
to clarify their feelings in greater depth. Some Weberians have made extensive use of explanatory
surveys, because these allow them to understand the world from the respondents’ point of view.
Thus, we may question the actual extent to which some methods occupy an intermediate position
between quantitative and qualitative research techniques.
Advantages of Social Surveys

1. They are valid because the data are collected from a large cross section of the population.
2. The data can be used to make generalizations about the behaviour of society as a whole.
3. Statistical techniques can be used to analyse the data, thus saving the researcher time.
4. The selection of representative (unbiased) samples saves the researcher the time of having
to find all individuals with relevant information.
5. The research is easily replicable (especially by other researchers). The reliability of the
survey is thus easy to verify.
Disadvantages of Social Surveys

1. The data can be invalid if a representative sample was not selected.
2. Once a questionnaire is used, the researcher will suffer the same disadvantages (that is,
problems of validity).
The Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a number of preset questions that can contain open-ended, fixed choice, or a
combination of both types of questions.
Questionnaire Construction
The steps in constructing a questionnaire are summarized below:
1. Operationalize (convert from an abstract to a measurable form) the key terms and concepts.
Robert Blauner (1964) studied worker alienation by operationalizing it into the
following subconcepts: meaninglessness, powerlessness, self-estrangement and isolation.
2. Formulate questions based on each sub-topic.

For instance, Blauner decided to write a number of questions to determine the extent to
which workers felt each of the following:
a. The degree to which the work they did was meaningless (that is, boring, routine).
b. The degree to which they felt that they had no power (control) over the work they
did.
c. The degree to which they felt like strangers to themselves.
d. The degree to which they did not interact with other workers on the job.
By following this simple plan, you can save time. You should include questions in the questionnaire
that have some relevance to the research topic.
Once the questionnaire is constructed, the researchers might decide to test it before conducting
the survey. This is referred to as a pilot study, where a small group of people with similar
characteristics to those of the target sample answer the questions. Based on their responses, the
researcher can determine a number of facts about the questions: for example, the suitability
of the wording, and the amount of non-response.
Advantages of Questionnaires
1. They are usually easy to administer.
2. They can be used to reach a large number of people, even if they are geographically
dispersed (for example, the mailed questionnaire can do this). Additionally, questionnaires
can be distributed via the internet by email or online surveys.
3. They save the researcher time, since a large number can be administered at the same
time.
4. It is not costly to produce a large number of questionnaires.
5. The data can be easily tabulated, measured and analysed especially through the use of
statistical packages and computer programs.
Disadvantages of Questionnaires
1. What is gained in reliability may be lost in terms of validity for the following reasons:
a. The wording may, intentionally or not, mislead the respondent.
b. The researcher’s bias affects what he deems as important in formulating the
questionnaire, for example, this is the case with Blauner’s study of worker alienation.
He determined what four factors affected ‘alienation’.
c. Respondents left on their own may not be concerned about the questions. They
may provide erroneous information, or treat the issues too lightly.
d. The fixed-choice questionnaire may force a respondent to choose an answer that
does not quite capture his feelings about an issue. Responses with choices such as
YES/NO or TRUE/FALSE encourage this tendency.
e. Respondents may lie, forget, or lack information. The latter creates a case known
as ‘missing data’. In this regard, validity and reliability are both affected.
2. Postal questionnaires have a low rate of return (usually less than 50 per cent) and may
be completed by someone other than the intended respondent. This can undermine the
representative aspect of the sample.
Official Statistics
Official statistics are a secondary source of data. Unlike questionnaires and social surveys, the
researcher relies upon other people to collect the data. Statistics are numerical information about
human behaviour. They are called official because they are usually collected by a government
or another agency empowered to do so. For instance, the Central Statistical Office (CSO) of
Trinidad and Tobago collects almost all types of data such as demographic (census) and economic
data. It acts in collaboration with other official agencies such as the Central Bank and the various
ministries of government. Official statistics can also be gathered by international organizations
such as the World Bank and the United Nations. Statistical publications can be accessed from
the organizations’ websites as well as published reports.
Advantages of Official Statistics

1. They save the researcher time, since they provide a readily available source of data.
2. The conclusions drawn are objective (free of researcher bias) because there is no
interaction with the respondents or people from whom the information was collected.
3. The researcher can generalize because such statistics usually cover data for a large number
of people.
4. The researcher can understand the nature of social change by comparing statistics for
different times, for example, comparing the marriage rate in any given past year with the
rate of marriage today.
5. The researcher can use statistics to gain a deeper understanding of human relationships.
For example, results of interviews can be compared with official statistics. If we know that
ten people perceive crime to be a serious problem, then we can examine the crime rate to
see if people’s perceptions are matched by the ‘reality’ of crime.
Disadvantages of Official Statistics

1. Like all other secondary sources, official statistics can produce invalid data because the
data collection procedures used may have been biased.
a. Crime statistics may be biased because police officers may record some crimes and
not others. For example, working-class, male and minority crimes are seen as more
destructive to social life than crimes committed by middle-class females and the elite.
b. by government officials who may wish to give the impression that policies are
working.
2. The validity of some official statistics (especially criminal statistics) may be lowered,
because people may not always report crimes considered too trivial. In addition, some
victims may fear the police or reprisals, or may be too embarrassed to come forward.
There is always a ‘dark figure’.
3. Technological developments (for example, DNA analysis, or camera surveillance) may
make it appear that there are more crimes taking place today. Thus, it may be difficult for
researchers to compare past and present statistics. When statistics are dated, it makes the
effects of social change or human behaviour more difficult to measure.
4. The fact that statistics are secondary data contributes to their low level of reliability. For
example, we cannot go back into the distant past to find out the real crime, marriage or
unemployment rate. The reliability of statistics and the data collection processes cannot
be verified.
Complete the following activity before going on to the next section:
Activity 2.3
1. Sociologists make use of data in numerical, quantitative or statistical form because
it saves time and money. The level of objectivity is increased because there are times
during data collection when the researcher does not have to be present.
i. What is meant by the term quantitative data?
ii. Distinguish between a questionnaire and a social survey.
iii. Identify and describe two important procedures in questionnaire construction.
iv. List three advantages of quantitative data not mentioned in the passage.
2. i. Explain why quantitative data are quite reliable.

ii. Name two types of official statistics.
iii. State three advantages of the use of official statistics over the use of social surveys.
iv. Illustrate how, by being objective, data can be more valid.
v. Distinguish between a ‘primary’ and a ‘secondary’ source of data.
3. A researcher wants to study domestic violence in a community. Which is the most

appropriate set of issues to be considered when formulating a questionnaire?
i. marital status, age, social class, ethnicity, a n d educational level
ii. causes such as the level of isolation from kin, financial difficulties and marital role
expectations
iii. effects such as physical, emotional and psychological ill-health
iv. all of the above
Activity 2.4
Self-Test 1
Instructions
• Use a pencil to put a tick in the box following the selected option.
• Do not consult your notes or any other readings.
• Re-read the section if you get two or more incorrect responses.
1. Which term is not necessarily associated with questionnaires?

a. Open-ended [ ]
b. Postal or mail [ ]
c. Close-ended [ ]
d. Face-to-face [ ]
2. Which is not an advantage of questionnaires?

a. It saves time and money. [ ]
b. It collects standardized data. [ ]
c. It provides in-depth information.[ ]

d. It is easily replicable. [ ]
3. Which group represents types of social surveys?

a. Sample, explanatory, attitude, descriptive [ ]
b. Sample, snapshot, representative, government [ ]
c. Sample, selective, attitude, numerical [ ]
d. Sample, large scale, representative, descriptive [ ]
4. Which group best summarizes the advantages of quantitative data?

a. Objective, valid, numerical, attitudinal [ ]
b. Reliable, valid, theoretical, attitudinal [ ]
c. Objective, valid, theoretical, reliable [ ]
d. Reliable, attitudinal, subjective, descriptive [ ]
5. The facts below are relevant to a particular quantitative method. Which is it?
i. Saves time and money
ii. Usually free of researcher bias
i i i . Can challenge ideas of contemporary life
iv. Depends on organizations
a. Questionnaires [ ]
b. Surveys [ ]
c. Pilot studies [ ]
d. Official Statistics [ ]
You should be able to resume reading once your score on the self-test was satisfactory.
Structured Interviews
Structured interviews are similar to questionnaires, since respondents are required to answer the
same questions in the same order. Most items require the person interviewed to select one
from a number of options (i.e., fixed choice).
Structured interviews have been used extensively by the Ansa-McAl Psychological Research Centre
at the St Augustine Campus of the University of the West Indies. In particular, they
are advantageous for investigating current issues such as crime and voting behaviour intentions.
Advantages of Structured Interviews

1. Practical – they save researchers time and money. For instance, the structured nature of the
questions and the fixed number of choices per question makes tabulation of the results a fast
process since researchers do not have to decipher lengthy or vague responses.
2. Theoretical – because the data are usually in numerical form, theories can be formulated.
3. The sample is geographically dispersed; hence, the research study may cover a wide
cross section of the population, allowing generalizations about human behaviour to be
made.
4. Reliable – the research can be easily and quickly repeated so that the chances of
getting similar results are enhanced. This is usually the case with opinion pollsters. When
combined with quota sampling techniques, this technique ensures that a representative
sample is more easily attained.
5. Valid – there is opportunity for clarification of misconceptions on the part of the interviewer
and interviewee. In addition, the likelihood of the observer effect is minimized when the
interview is conducted via telephone (i.e., it does not involve face-to-face interaction).
Disadvantages of Structured Interviews

1. Partial validity – this may occur because respondents may have little opportunity to
elaborate their views, especially when they may not fully agree to any of the g i ve n
options.
2. In addition, qualitative researchers may criticize structured interviews on the same
grounds as questionnaires, because it is the researcher who determines what questions are
important (i.e., there is a lack of complete objectivity).
Readings
Mike O’Donnell, A New Introduction to Sociology, 3rd edition (London: Thomas Nelson
and Sons, 1992), 25–36, chapter 2.
A. Barnard and T. Burgess, Sociology Explained (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1996), 33–40, chapter 1.
Activity 2.5
Read the following passage then answer all of the questions that follow.
The use of quantitative methods requires that sociologists exercise caution in the
collection of data. Mistakes by the researcher or the respondents can lead to the collection of
inaccurate information.
i. What is another term for inaccurate data?

ii. State three mistakes the researcher can make in the collection of quantitative data.
iii. Explain two ways in which respondents may mar the accuracy of data.
iv. Explain why official statistics may be less accurate than data obtained from social surveys.
Qualitative research methods will now be discussed.
Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research methods include the following primary or secondary forms:
a. Unstructured interviews (primary)

b . Participant observation (primary)
c. Non-direct/non-participant observation (primary)
d. Case studies (secondary)
e. Documents (secondary)
Qualitative research collects in-depth subjective data such as information about people’s emotions,
feelings and values and focuses upon obtaining the reasons behind human behaviour.
The researcher usually interacts directly with the respondents (that is, face-to-face) or by
actually joining in their everyday activities. We will now examine each method by stating its
main advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of Qualitative Data

• Practical (appropriate) for studying sensitive issues such as rape, domestic violence
and drug addiction.
The essence of some phenomena, such as the aforementioned, may not be adequately captured
via the structured nature of quantitative techniques. This is because further clarification and
explanation of the human emotions and experiences can be better obtained through the loose
framework and open-ended nature of qualitative inquiry.
• Can challenge already existing theories of behaviour because of the use of small
samples that provide an in-depth understanding of personal life.
• Data are high in validity because researchers get first-hand accounts of events. People
are usually studied in their natural environment.
Disadvantages of Qualitative Data

Low in reliability because they take a long time to be collected.
May raise ethical concerns since researchers may have to witness crime or immoral acts in
order to obtain data for their study. Moreover, ethical concerns are also raised in cases where
subjects are unaware that their actions are being observed and recorded. This is known as covert
observation and will be elaborated upon further along in the chapter.
Unstructured Interviews
The unstructured interview is a face-to-face interaction process in which a researcher tries to
get as much useful information as possible from a respondent or a number of respondents.
It can take the form of a one-session interview or a number of sessions that seek to explore the
topic further.
It is important that the researcher should gain the respondents’ trust. Factors such as the social
class, sex or ethnicity of the interviewer can influence the level of trust. W. Labov (1973) reported
that black children did not trust white interviewers as much as they did black interviewers.
Feminists insist that women are best suited to interview other women, especially in cases of rape,
assault or intimidation (by male perpetrators). It can be understood therefore, that ethical
considerations are of paramount importance to qualitative studies.
Interviewers can employ either the directive or non-directive approach. H. Becker (1971) admitted
to the use of persuasive tactics (the directive approach) to get teachers to acknowledge their more
positive perception of middle-class pupils. Those who are non-directive interviewers refrain
from offering their personal opinions and encourage power sharing.
Advantages of Unstructured Interviews

1. The v alidity of data is enhanced by the following:
a. The researcher can detect lies or inconsistencies in the interviewees’ accounts by
observing facial reactions or body language.
b. Due to the interaction between interviewer and respondent, misunderstandings can
be clarified.
c. The researcher can understand the world from the point of view of the interviewee.
J. Young (1971) in a study of hippie marijuana users in Notting Hill, England,
found that they began to see themselves in terms of the police’s perception of
them – as ‘worthless’ and ‘lazy’. Patricia Mohammed (1988) found, in her interview
of two East Indian women in Trinidad, that she could understand their feelings about
the traditional female role as housewife and mother.
d. The researcher can gain information that he never thought about asking. Such was
the case of Elizabeth Bott (1971) who found that conjugal relationships are affected
by spouses’ social networks. The more involved a spouse is in a social network,
the less dependent he/she is on the other partner.
2. The use of unstructured interviews may be the most practical research technique for
exploring specific issues. A questionnaire completed by a rape victim may provide limited
amounts of data but an unstructured interview can help the interviewer understand
the victim’s experiences.
3. Because small samples are used, the unstructured interview can be useful for challenging
or refuting already existing theories. For example, Ann Oakley interviewed her respondents
in order to dispute Young and Willmott’s claim that by the 1970s the working-class
family had become symmetrical, that is, there was more sharing of housework, child care
and decision-making (Young and Willmott 1969).
4. The interviewer loses reliability, especially if a lot of time has elapsed between successive
interviews of the same respondents.
Despite the advantages that unstructured interviews provide according to mainly interactionist
and feminist researchers, caution must be exercised to avoid the disadvantages.
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews

1. The validity of the data can be reduced (that is, made invalid) by a number of factors.
These are explained below:
i. The ‘observer effect’ – this occurs when the presence of the interviewer influences or
inhibits the interviewees. They may provide responses that they believe the researchers
want to hear. Rice reported that researchers often induce specific responses when
they express their views to respondents.
ii. A related case involves deliberate lies on the interviewees’ part. Laurie Taylor (1984)
experienced being lied to by former members of the London underworld who wanted
to see how gullible he was.
2. Interviews may also be time-consuming, especially if the researcher has not yet gained
the trust of respondents.
3. The large quantity of qualitative data collected by interviews can pose problems in
analysis.
4. Having to listen to long transcripts of talk can also prove both tedious and time-
consuming.
5. Sometimes interviews can produce limited information on a particular topic. This happens
in times of unwillingness or open hostility on the part of the respondent. This point can
be directly related to the issue of trust and acceptance.
6. Interviews of respondents in geographically dispersed areas can prove to be quite expensive
and time consuming.
However, in spite of these drawbacks, the unstructured interview remains one of the more popular
research techniques, since it can be used in a wide range of social situations. Relations within
schools, mental asylums, prisons, the workplace and home have all been studied via the use
of unstructured interviews.
Observational Studies
Figure 2.1: Role of the Observer
I. Role of the Observer
Full Partial Onlooker:

participant observation observation as
observation outsider
Source: adapted from Patton (1986)
Figure 2.2: Portrayal of Role of Observer to Others
II. Portrayal of Role to Others
Overt observations: Observer role is Covert observation:

subjects know that known by some, but Subjects do not know
observations are not others that observations are
being made and who being made or that there
the observer is is an observer
Source: adapted from Patton (1986)
Figure 2.1 above shows the three main types of observational studies: Full Participant, Partial
Observation and Non-Participant Observation. In Figure 2.2 the types of participant observation
are shown.
Participant Observation
Participant observation is widely regarded as a scientific tool because the researcher studies
people in their natural environment by joining their daily activities. However, he/she tries to
be as objective (non- j u d g m e n t a l , not overly involved) as possible, in order to capture the
reality of the subjects.
The researcher can opt to be overt, by letting the group members know that they are being
studied, or can choose to keep his/her identity secret (covert). Ken Pryce (1976) employed both
overt and covert forms in a study of West Indians in St Paul’s, Bristol (England).
As in unstructured interviews, the researcher must gain the group’s trust at the start. Subjects
must not be made to feel uncomfortable. In the case of deviant gangs or delinquent groups, it is
crucial that the participant observer should fit into the group without arousing suspicion. ‘James
Patrick’(1973) faced a difficult situation when studying a violent gang in Glasgow, Scotland. He
was sickened by its violence and fled when he could no longer bear it.
The Advantages of Participant Observation

1. The validity of data is enhanced by the fact that
i. the researcher witnesses the group first hand, which makes it difficult for people
to provide false information repeatedly over an extended period of time;
ii. the ‘observer effect’ is minimized if the researcher does not reveal his/her identity
to the subjects (for example, in covert studies);
iii. the researcher can ask questions to clarify events and actions of the group (for
example, in overt studies);
iv. the researcher can understand the group’s subjective point of view by studying them
in their natural environment.
2. i. The information is useful for formulating theories about human behaviour. By

studying a group over a protracted period of time, the researcher understands
the effect of social change. Thus, a change in leadership over time can lead to
new group dynamics in a deviant group of young people.
ii. Data from participant observation can be used to challenge already existing theories.
3. Participant observation may be the most practical method for studying deviant or secret
groups and activities such as gangs and homosexuality. The covert form allows the researcher
the opportunity to gain information that would not be obtained from open methods like
unstructured interviews and questionnaires.
The Disadvantages of Participant Observation

1. The validity of data may be compromised in the following situations:
i. The covert observer may overlook information when making secret recordings
(that is, in the field notes).
ii. The covert observer may provide his/her o wn interpr etations of the gr oup’s
behaviour because asking for clarification may re veal the r esearcher’s identity.
iii. O vert observation is likely to produce the ‘observer effect’, since the participants
may change their behaviour once under the scrutiny of the observer.
2. The data may lack reliability because
i. the study takes a long time to be completed, thus social changes such as further
education or maturation may change the social outlook of the group, making
it impossible to study the group again; and/or
ii. ther e is no standar diz ed way to observe people’s behaviour. Sociologists will
use their own observational techniques. Cicourel (1968) admitted this in studying
delinquency in the US.
3. Participant observation is costly and time-consuming. The researcher takes very long
to collect valid data and this may prove too expensive for the researcher, especially if
sponsorship is inadequate. For example, anthropologists inter ested in studying tribes in
less - developed societies for long periods may need financial assistance during the research,
for basic items such as food, clothing, and toiletries.
At this stage you should realize that with the use of covert or overt research forms of participant
observation, what is gained in validity is lost in terms of reliability.
Non-Direct Observation
This involves the researcher being completely detached from the group under observation. It is
effective in experimental situations where people are observed under laboratory-like conditions.
A good example of this is the observation of Hawthorne workers’ attitude to changes in their physical
environment. A similar situation involves examining people’s behaviour from the outside, under
laboratory conditions. Effects research of the 1930s reported that people exposed to violent television
are more likely to act violently if provoked. The experiments isolated two groups of people for
a week; one group watched violent programmes, the other did not.
The Advantage of Non-Direct Observation

The data are more objective than data obtained from participant observation, because the
researcher’s presence does not influence the group’s behaviour.
The Disadvantages of Non-Direct Observation

1. The validity of the data is compromised by the fact that the researcher draws conclusions
about the behaviour of people with whom he/she did not interact (that is, findings
may result from personal interpretation or guesswork). As such, data are dependent upon
the researcher’s subjective interpretation and objectivity is undermined.
2. Putting people under laboratory conditions creates artificiality (that is, people are
aware that their behaviour is to be observed and thus may respond unnaturally). The
‘Hawthorne effect’ is the most applicable way to describe this phenomenon.
Case Studies
Case studies are unique because they do not require the use of any specific data-gathering tool or
tools. The researcher turns to this method when he/she wants to gain an in-depth insight into
a typical example of specific phenomena. Such studies are similar in nature to social surveys in
one way: they cannot be actually administered to respondents. Some other method(s) must
be used to gather the data for the case studies to be effected.
Ken Pryce (1976) in his study of St Paul’s, Bristol, employed this method to study West Indian
subcultures. He used both covert and overt participant observation (together with unstructured
interviews) in order to collect the data. Undoubtedly, one of the most famous case studies is that
done by Paul Willis (1977) who also made use of participant observation and unstructured
interviews. He focused on a group of 12 working-class male students in a single school in England.
The study demonstrated that schools are not always successful in transmitting middle-class
values, as the ‘lads’ displayed resistance to academics by deliberately disrupting classes.
The Advantages of Case Studies

1. The data may be valid because a number of qualitative methods are used. These provide
an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon being studied.
2. They are useful for challenging theories because of the use of non-representative samples.
3. In-depth information is gained since focus is placed upon a single phenomenon.
The Disadvantages of Case Studies

1. They are low in reliability, since they are time-consuming.
2. They cannot be used for generalizing about human behaviour because one may not know
the extent to which one example may demonstrate the typical characteristics of a
particular social phenomenon.
Documents
Documents contain information, usually in qualitative form. There are two main types of
documents: personal and historical. Personal documents include letters, diaries, biographies and
autobiographies. However, historical documents usually contain information written by people
who lived during a particular era, for example, Columbus’s log, or accounts by plantation
bookkeepers or owners.
Documents, unlike unstructured interviews and observation, are secondary data sources.
The data already exist, and hence save time for the sociologist.
The Advantages of Documents

1. Documents save the researcher time and money.
2. They provide insights into aspects of life to which sociologists would otherwise have
no access. For example, diaries can provide information about the individual’s private
life that he/she would not easily disclose (we can see the world through the eyes of the
producer).
3. Documents may be the most practical method of studying past events. For example,
we will rely on documents to help us understand the social and economic history of
the Caribbean. In this way, documents can provide a solid framework for background
information concerning a particular area under study.
4. The information from documents can be used to measure the extent of social change.
For example, planters’ log entries can help us understand how levels of social justice have
increased since slavery.
The Disadvantages of Documents

The main disadvantages of documents are the invalidity and unreliability of the data.
1. The data may be invalid because of producer bias. People may deliberately falsify
information, especially if they know that their writing will attract an audience. People can
forge documentary evidence.
2. Information from old documents may be difficult to read, and some documents may be
damaged or affected by missing pages. This reduces the usefulness of the document
for drawing conclusions.
3. Some types of documents may be extremely difficult to access (that is, they may be lost,
misplaced or stolen).
4. The researcher may have to supplement documentary evidence with information from
other sources, since the evidence may be dated or limited in scope.
Readings
Andy Barnard and Terry Burgess, Sociology Explained (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1996), 33–40, Chapter 1.
Paul Taylor et al., Sociology in Focus (Bath: The Bath Press, 2002).
Activity 2.6
Read the following passage then answer the questions that follow.
Interpretivists often resort to the use of subjective data-collection techniques. They believe
that these offer them a rich source of data about human behaviour. With this information, they
can understand the ways in which people make sense of their everyday experiences.
1. Explain the phrase ‘subjective data-collection techniques’.

2. State two advantages of subjective data-collection techniques mentioned in the passage.
3. Explain why it is important for subjective researchers to gain the trust of their subjects.
4. State four types of subjective research methods.
5. Explain why subjective research methods are well suited to challenging theories of social
life.
6. Describe the main differences between documents and other subjective research methods.
Activity 2.7
Self-Test 2
Instructions
• Re-read the section if you get two or more incorrect answers.
1. Which of the following are classified as documents?

i. Letters ii. Diaries iii. Autobiographies iv. Biographies
a. i, ii and iii [ ]
b. i, iii and iv [ ]
c. ii, iii and iv [ ]
d. i, ii, iii and iv [ ]
2. Which is not a general advantage of qualitative research?

a. It provides an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon. [ ]
b. It can be used to test or challenge theories developed from quantitative research. [ ]
c. It produces data that are reliable because the process is time-consuming. [ ]
d. It leads to an understanding of the subjective view of respondents. [ ]
3. Which research method do the statements below refer to?

a. The researcher studies people in their natural environment.
b. The researcher can ask questions on some occasions.
c. The subjects only make changes in their behaviour initially.
a. Documents []
b. Unstructured interviews []
c. Overt participant observation []
d. Covert participant observation []
4. The Participant Observation research method is recommended by which of the following?

a. Structural functionalists []
b. Conflict theorists []
c. Interactionists []
d. Marxists []
5. How is participant observation similar to unstructured interviews?

a. The trust of respondents is important for the validity of the data. []
b. People are always studied in their own environment. []
c. They can only study one person at a time. []
d. They are equally unreliable. []
Activity 2.8
Self-Test 3
Instructions
• Re-read the chapter if you get two or more incorrect responses.
1. How is quantitative research advantageous to qualitative research?

a. The data are more valid. []
b. The data are more reliable. []
c. The researcher is detached from the subjects. []
d. The information is more subjective. []
2. Which pair of research methods contains data produced by people other than sociologists?
a. Unstructured interviews and official statistics []
b. Unstructured interviews and social surveys []
c. Documents and official statistics []
d. Documents and social surveys []
3. The statements below should be associated with

i. Quantitative data ii. Multiple correlation iii. Laws of human behaviour
a. Positivism and Durkheim []

b. Positivism and Weber []
c. Interpretivism and Weber []
d. Interpretivism and Durkheim []
4. Qualitative data are more useful than quantitative data because there is
a. greater validity since respondents cannot lie. []

b. greater reliability, since people get to give their point of view. []
c. more practicality, because the information is not very detailed. []
d. greater validity, since the researcher and respondent interact a great deal. []
5. Which is the best inference we can make about quantitative and qualitative research?
a. Sociologists will never combine them because their disadvantages will reduce the
validity of data. [ ]
b. Their use will depend on the purpose of research and the intentions of the
researcher. [ ]
c. It is always best to combine both to enhance the reliability of data. [ ]
d. Sociologists will use alternative methods in the future, because both types of
research have their limitations. [ ]
6. Match the following research methods with the appropriate research design
Research Methods Research Design
Social survey Qualitative Research
Unstructured interviews Quantitative Research
Official statistics Qualitative Research
Participant observation Quantitative Research
Structured questionnaires Quantitative Research
Activity 2.9
Instructions
• Write a plan for any one of the essays from each section below.
• Use the plan to write an essay of 500–600 words.
• Ask your teacher to mark the essay as follows:
Knowledge and Understanding (8 marks)

Interpretation and Application (10 marks) and
Analysis and Evaluation (7 marks)
Section A
1. Can questionnaires really capture the truth about people’s behaviour? Illustrate, using
examples from research. (25 marks)
2. ‘Social surveys are popular because the information is reliable.’ Explain and assess this
statement. (25 marks)
3. Why and how should Caribbean sociologists use official statistics in their research?
(25 marks)
Section B
1. Assess the usefulness of unstructured interviews as a data-gathering tool in sociology.
(25 marks)
2. a. ‘Participant observation of social groups provides the best opportunity for sociologists
to really understand their behaviour.’ Explain and critically assess this statement.
(25 marks)
OR
b. Compare and contrast overt participant observation with covert participant

observation. (25 marks)
3. Examine the benefits and limitations of documents to sociological research. (25 marks)
At this point you should be able to compare quantitative and qualitative research
methods. Since they both help us understand human behaviour, we should see them as
complementary (mutually inclusive) instead of diametrically opposed (mutually exclusive).
Middle Range Studies

These can collect both quantitative and qualitative data even though they may be used to collect
more of one than of the other.
Longitudinal or Panel Studies

Longitudinal studies involve the study of a large sample of people over a long period of time.
It is usually a quantitative research process but some researchers do employ qualitative methods.
Longitudinal studies are not very popular in the Caribbean. One possible reason may be
the high cost involved. Another may be the small size of some Caribbean populations, making
it difficult for researchers to select a large sample of individuals with the same characteristics. In
Nevis or Anguilla (with a population of less than 15,000), sociologists will be hard-pressed
to select a sample of say, 3,000 or 4,000 for follow-up study.
The Advantages of Longitudinal Studies

1. The validity of the data is enhanced, because conclusions are drawn from data collected
from multiple methods.
2. The large sample may enhance the validity of data.
3. Researchers can understand how social changes – for example, the gaining of higher
education may impact on an individual’s outlook on life. J.W.B. Douglas (1964) and his
associates found that middle-class pupils are socialized to place greater value on education
from infancy right up to secondary school. Their homes place much more emphasis on
educational success than those of their working-class counterparts. (Of course this is a
sweeping generalization). As such, the researcher is able to trace, identify and account for
changes over an extensive period of time.
The Disadvantages of Longitudinal Studies

1. The data are usually low in reliability, due to the fact that the study takes a long time
to complete. The J.W.B. Douglas et al. study took five years. Beverly Skeggs (1997)
took 12 years to study female sexuality.
2. The original sample size is difficult to attain the second time, because people may die,
migrate or refuse to participate. In this case, attrition makes it more difficult to compare
the information obtained from the initial and follow-up studies. Douglas et al. had lost
almost 500 of their original sample between 1957 and 1962.
3. The use of questionnaires and unstructured interviews can pose problems in
drawing conclusions. Standardized and subjective data may measure different issues.
Cross-Sectional Studies
The main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies is that cross-sectional
studies take place at a single point in time, whereas longitudinal studies involve a series of
measurements taken at different points in time. Cross-sectional studies usually employ primary
research methods. Researchers may study a cross section of the population when undertaking
a descriptive or attitude survey.
However, in some cases, cross-sectional studies can involve the collection of data from secondary
sources. In the case of cross-cultural studies, secondary data are used. A good example of this
is G.P. Murdock’s cross-cultural study of family life, leading him to conclude that the nuclear
family is a universal social institution.
The Advantages of Cross-Sectional Studies

1. The data are valid because they come from people in different geographical regions
(either within or between countries). For example, Durkheim’s survey considered 11
different European nations and drew conclusions about the nature and types of suicide in
Europe (Durkheim, 1970).
2. The researcher can compare and contrast social life between places differentiated by
factors such as religion, culture and social class.
3. The researcher can make generalizations about the cause of human behaviour because of
the large sample size.
The Disadvantages of Cross-Sectional Studies

1. The act of generalizing the findings may distort social reality. For example, the findings
may relate more to some sections of the sample than others especially if the sample
was inappropriately drawn. This will be explained later, when the multistage sample is
discussed.
2. The information collected will be subject to the same disadvantages as questionnaires,
since researchers often opt for more fixed-choice questions when undertaking a large
study.
3. The findings of secondary surveys can be distorted by cultural biases. For example,
ethnocentrism can result from interpreting the behaviour of people in pre-industrial and
less developed societies.
Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies are described as middle range because they can
collect both quantitative and qualitative data, despite the fact that most involve the collection
of statistical information. B. Skeggs and G.P. Murdock are notable exceptions, however.
Readings
M. Haralambos and M. Holborn, Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, 7th edition (London:
Harper Collins, 2008).
Mike O’Donnell, A New Introduction to Sociolog y, 3rd edition (London: Thomas Nelson
and Sons, 1992).
Activity 2.10
Sociologists sometimes opt for studies that take a long time to complete, because it enables them
to understand how people’s lives are shaped by a variety of economic, social and political factors.
1. Name one economic factor that has changed the outlook of young people in your society
over the last five years.
2. Differentiate between longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies.
3. State two similarities between a cross-sectional study and a census.
4. Identify and explain two reasons why people in your country may hesitate to
participate in a longitudinal study.
Activity 2.11
Self-Test 4
Instructions
• Re-read the section if you get two or more incorrect answers.
1. Which is true of longitudinal studies?

a. They collect mainly quantitative data. []
b. They collect mainly qualitative data. []
c. They are low in reliability. []
d. They are low in validity. []
2. Which statements about cross-sectional studies are true?

i. They are useful for comparative purposes.
ii. They use only secondary data sources.
iii. They are conducted on small numbers of people.
iv. They can collect data about the culture of different groups.
a. i and ii []
b. ii and iii []
c. i and iv []
d. i, ii and iv []
3. Which groups of factors can reduce the size of an original sample for a panel study?
a. Death, refusal, inaccessibility []

b. Death, subjectivity, attrition []
c. Attrition, socialization, geographical mobility []
d. Attrition, maturation, social mobility []
4. Which pair of research studies is best classified as ‘middle range’?
a. Longitudinal and quantitative []

b. Longitudinal and cross-sectional []
c. Cross-sectional and qualitative []
d. Censuses and cross-cultural []
5. Which is not an advantage of ‘middle range’ studies?
a. They allow for generalizations to be made. []

b. They usually use large samples. []
c. They usually produce very reliable data. []
d. They are more practical than participant observation. []
Sampling
The study of sampling is very important, because in many instances sociologists select samples
in order to obtain information for their research. You should become familiar with the terms
used in sampling: Sampling Unit, Sample, Sampling Frame and Population.
a. Sampling Unit – each individual selected for the sample.

b. Sample – a group of people selected from the population. The sample refers to a
subset of the entire population. The units selected are deemed to be representative
of the population from which they are drawn (that is, they have the same characteristics
as those of the population, or are selected in proportion to their numbers in the
population). Sampling lowers the cost attached to research and make the data collection
process much faster.
c. Sampling Frame – a list of persons drawn from the population. It comprises those
sampling units possessing the social characteristics relevant to the research, for example,
social class background, religious affiliation, educational attainment. The sampling
frame thus selects only those individuals who are considered important for the study
because they may have relevant information. A good case in point arises in victim-studies.
Only victims of crime will be selected from the population if the researcher wants to
determine their personal experiences. On many occasions there may be no need to consider
the sampling frame. This occurs when general information is being sought so that almost
anyone in the population may have answers to researchers’ questions.
d. Population – all the individuals who make up a particular society, group or organization
with a wide range of social characteristics such as sex, religion, age, and social class.
Simulated Example
Purpose of Study: To determine the association between social class and the impact of crime
Population: 1 million
Sampling Frame: 50,000 citizens who are victims of crime
Sample: 1,000 victims of crime of upper-, middle-, and working-class

status (50:100:850)
Sample Unit: one victim of crime
Samples are divided into two broad groups: probability and non-probability. Probability samples
provide the chance for almost any sampling unit to be selected. They can be randomly drawn;
in this case there is no predetermined or patterned system independently. However, in non-
probability samples the researcher may deliberately select some individuals since it is known that
they possess the characteristics relevant to the research. In this case, sampling units do not have
an equal chance of being selected.
Probability Sample
The main types of probability samples are:
1 . Simple Random Sampling 2 . Systematic Random Sampling

3 . Stratified Random Sampling 4. Multistage Sampling
Simple random is the most basic way of selecting a sample. The researcher chooses the sample
from the population in a manner similar to selecting numbers from a hat. The advantages
are that a large sample can be quickly drawn and every unit has the same chance of selection.
However, the chance of drawing an unrepresentative sample increases, as there is no control over
the proportions of units in the population. For instance, since each person has an equal chance
of selection, then certain characteristics – for example sex, race, or socio-economic status – of
the population may be overrepresented or underrepresented as the case may be.
Systematic random samples are particularly useful in house-to-house surveys. First, the units are
ordered or arranged in some logical order (such as first to last, alphabetically or chronologically).
The research then finds the sampling interval k. This is the total population divided by
the desired sample size. Then, a number between 1 and k is randomly selected. Finally, the
researcher selects every kth house/person is a particular locality. Once this is completed the sample
is selected by picking the appropriate units. For example if the kth/ = every 25th household,
then every 25th, 50th, 75th, 100th, 125th, 150th etc. would be chosen.
Systematic sampling may reduce the amount of randomness. This means that every member
of the population or sampling frame will not have an equal chance of selection. Despite this
drawback, systematic sampling is practical because it saves time when samples are to be drawn
from large geographical areas. Compared to simple random, systematic random can yield
slightly more representative samples because of the ordering of the units.
With stratified random sampling, the sampling frame is divided into groups before a proportionate
number of units is selected from each group. A researcher interested in studying class and
gender will divide the population into, say, middle-class male, middle-class female, working-class
male and working-class female. This sample is more representative than the simple random but
it reduces the chance of some individuals being selected.
Multistage sampling is more complex than the first three types. It involves the division of
the population into groups considered to have the features typical of the society. For instance,
in an opinion poll on voting intentions, the researcher will select only those constituencies
in which all the major political parties obtained substantial support.
The following illustrates a simple example of multistage sampling in Trinidad and Tobago.
No. of constituencies = 41
Marginal constituencies = Tunapuna, St Joseph, San Juan/Barataria, Point-a-Pierre (for example)
• The sociologist will select the marginal constituencies because they comprise people
likely to support both political parties almost equally.
• From these he/she will then randomly select a representative sample proportionate to
their numbers in the population.
Non-Probability Samples
The main non-probability samples are
i. Quota
ii. Snowballing
iii. Non-Representative
Quota samples are biased, primarily because the researcher determines the relevant characteristics
of the people being studied. For example, the researcher may require individuals who are within
a particular age grouping and a specific socioeconomic standing. Since certain criteria are to be
met, each member of the population does not have an equal chance of selection. Additionally,
the researcher knows the proportion of each group in the population.
Quota samples are advantageous because they save researchers much time. No sampling frame
is necessary. One easy way for quota samples to be selected is to have an interviewer stand at a
busy street corner and ask passers-by questions to ascertain whether or not they fit the relevant
criteria. Once they do, the questions can be asked (either through an interview or questionnaire).
These samples are especially useful if the researcher wishes to test a particular theory. An example
is illustrated below.
Research objective: To find out whether or not married women aged 25–40 are victims of domestic
violence.
1. The sample: 20 married women aged 25–40
2. Procedure: Have a trained interviewer stand at the corner of Frederick and Queen Streets,
Port of Spain to find out from women passing by:
i. If they are married

ii. If they are between 25 and 40 years
iii. If they are willing to answer the questions for the research.
The main drawback with quota samples is their lack of randomness. In other words, some members
of the population have no chance of selection because they do not have the characteristics deemed
important for the research.
Snowballing is not frequently used by Caribbean sociologists. This could be attributed to

the small population size in many territories. With this technique, the researcher builds up a
sample by asking one respondent to name other potential respondents because they have the
relevant characteristics. In this case there may be no sampling frame. This type of sample is
built incrementally and relies on personal contacts and referrals.
The advantages of snowballing are that the researcher may gain access to information that
would not otherwise be obtained and it saves the trouble of selecting a sample from a sampling
frame. This method is particularly useful for getting in touch with members of a population
that may not easily be accessible, for example drug traffickers, since there may be no sampling
frame from which respondents can be drawn. However, these samples are likely to be small
and unrepresentative, and therefore sociologists could hardly generalize from such findings.
Laurie Taylor used this method to study crime in the London underworld. First he located
John McVicar, a known former criminal and interviewed him. Following this, he asked him to
suggest the name of another former member of the underworld, and so on.
Non-representative sampling, like snowballing, is not very popular in the Caribbean. For this
sample, the researcher looks for an atypical example of a phenomenon and studies it in detail
mainly through qualitative methods. In other words, non-representative samples are useful
in case studies. For example, in Trinidad and Tobago, the Matelot Community School may
be a non-representative or an atypical example of schooling, because it contains a number of
educational levels simultaneously under the control of one principal. The Hedonism III
institution may be suitable for a case study because it may be the only institution that allows
organized nudity in Jamaica, for example, people can get married without clothes.
Activity 2.12
Self-Test 5
Instructions
• Use a pencil to put a tick in the box following selection option.

• Do not consult your notes.
1. Which is the best example of snowballing?
a. Meeting people at a public place [ ]

b. Interviewing a number of people with the same characteristics [ ]
c. Studying an atypical example of a social phenomenon [ ]
d. Building up a sample incrementally through personal contact [ ]
2. Which of the following statements is correct?
a. Surveys use probability sampling [ ]

b. Unstructured interviews use probability sampling [ ]
c. Participant observation uses probability sampling [ ]
d. Structured interviews use non-probability sampling [ ]
3. For which of these samples will a researcher divide the sampling frame into groups in
accordance with their relative proportion in the population?
a. Quota [ ]
b. Non-representative [ ]
c. Stratified random [ ]
d. Simple random [ ]
4. A researcher is able to generalize from the findings of a study if which one of the
following sampling techniques is used?
a. Stratified random [ ]
b. Quota [ ]
c. Snowball [ ]
d. Non-representative [ ]
5. A researcher wants to conduct an opinion poll on people’s views of the Caribbean

Single Market and Economy (CSME). Which is the correct order for selecting the sample?
i. Selecting countries known for supporting other regional initiatives

ii. Mailing questionnaires to respondents
iii. Selecting a proportionate number of respondents in each country
a. i, iii, ii [ ] b. i, ii, iii [ ]

c. iii, ii, i [ ] d. ii, i, iii [ ]
Activity 2.13
1. Most sociologists make use of some kind of sampling technique in their research. The
aim may be to select a representative sample, or one that the researchers know beforehand
is biased.
a. What do you understand by the term ‘representative sample’?

b. List two factors that can contribute to a sample becoming biased.
c. Name three research methods that may require researchers to use biased samples.
d. Distinguish between probability and non-probability samples (giving examples of
each).
2. Attempt the three essay- type questions below: (Follow the instructions outlined earlier).
You may ask your teacher for feedback.
a. Why do sociologists select samples in their research projects?

b. Discuss the claim that the sample selection process is critical to sociological
research.
c. Evaluate the usefulness of non-probability samples in Caribbean research.
Ethical Issues in Research

Ethical issues are important in all cases involving the treatment of human subjects. In psychological
research, medical research and in sociological research, for example, the respondents must either
directly or indirectly benefit from the process. However, their lives should not be endangered
nor should their privacy be invaded in a way that could lead to any negative repercussions.
While there are many ethical issues, the following ones seem to be worthy of mention for our
purposes:
a. The safety of the researcher and participant

b. Informed consent
c. Anonymity (privacy rights and confidentiality)
d. Adversity
e. Right to service.
The Safety of the Researcher and Participant

This deals with the physical and emotional safety of both the researcher and the subject. For
instance, some sociologists have been accused of unethical behaviour in the course of their
research. Ken Pryce (1976) in his study of West Indians in St Paul’s, Bristol, was accused of having
a good time with the sample of subjects whom he studied using overt participant observation.
Sometimes researchers can upset subjects by asking them to recall painful events in their lives or
may put pressure on them to act immorally. Some participant observers of deviant acts have
been known to condone them in the interest of discovering the subjects’ meanings and motives.
Howard Parker (1974) may have unintentionally caused ‘deviancy amplification’ by conversing
with a delinquent gang of car-radio thieves so that he could ‘see the world through their eyes’.
Informed Consent and Privacy Rights

This suggests that the researchers proceed with the research only with the participants’ consent.
However, sometimes researchers may have to conceal their true identity in order to gain consent.
William Foote Whyte (1993) found that by telling his subjects he was a writer, he was able to
study a group of Italian-American men.
We can also consider the instances when participants are unaware that they are being studied. For
instance, researchers have been known to watch people as they go about their social life in grocery
stores, on street corners, in classrooms and public restrooms, without their consent.
In other instances, researchers may fail to adopt privacy protecting strategies such as requesting
anonymity in filling out a questionnaire or using voice modification systems in taped conversations.
This, according to the Belmont Report on ethics, is the first principle of ethics in research (National
Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioural Research 1979).
Adversity
This pertains to the researcher’s manner of dealing with open hostility from respondents. As a
good professional and ethical practitioner, the researcher should avoid meeting hostility with
hostility. ‘James Patrick’ showed good sense by opting out of research of a violent Glasgow gang
when he became sickened by its activities and developed fear for his life.
The positivist Durkheim provided an alternative to this by suggesting that researchers avoid
personal contact with subjects. In this way, they pre-empt adversity and maintain a higher level
of objectivity (neutrality and value freedom) by keeping their personal opinions and biases out of
the research. He also advocated the avoidance of social experiments that also put the researcher in
a position of having to deal with open hostility at times. The events of the Hawthorne experiment
demonstrate Durkheim’s position. Because the subjects were aware of their ‘guinea pig’ status,
they acted contrary to expectations. Instead of varying their productivity to match physical work
conditions, researchers observed that workers worked harder because they knew that they were
part of the research process.
Right to Service
According to Trochim (2002), this issue arises in experimental research particularly in medicine.
A case in point is the use of no-treatment groups. Such participants may feel disadvantaged
because they will not benefit from the treatment being tested. Kimmel (1988) suggests that the
issues of values and adherence to strict professional standards are also significant ethical concerns.
In most developed societies, research institutions have established Institutional Review Boards
(IRBs). These boards consist of individuals who review grant proposals with respect to ethical
implications, and decide whether additional action needs to be taken to assure participants’
safety and rights. IRBs also advise researchers about the legal implications of conducting research,
and may also ensure that justice is meted out to all participants. For example, young children,
prisoners and other vulnerable groups should never be coerced into taking part in any research
process.
It should be noted that some research methods pose more ethical concerns than others. With
questionnaires, researchers need to avoid asking ‘leading’ questions. These questions tempt
respondents to provide answers that researchers wish to hear or read. Researchers need also to
ensure that their samples are drawn scientifically, or in congruence with the aims and objectives
of the research.
However, qualitative research poses more concerns about researcher attitude and conduct. In
interviews, the deliberate attempt to influence respondents by intimidating eye contact or body
language is highly unethical. With participant observation, questions of bias are frequently
raised. Sometimes findings are contaminated by over-sympathetic judgements. This arises
because the researcher may become too involved in subjects’ lives, and lose his/her sense of
objectivity. The opposite can occur if the researcher negatively evaluates subjects’ culture
(i.e., ethnocentrism) and presents a view based on his cultural standards.
Readings
William M.K. Trochim, The Research Methods Knowledge Base, 2nd edition (Cincinnati,
OH: Atomic Dog Publishing, 2002).
Activity 2.14
Self-Test 6
Instructions
1. Which statement about ethics and research is true?
a. Quantitative methods pose more ethical issues. [ ]

b. Qualitative methods pose more ethical issues. [ ]
c. Neither quantitative nor qualitative methods pose ethical issues. [ ]
d. Both quantitative and qualitative methods pose the same risks of unethical
behaviour among researchers. [ ]
2. In which pair of research methods would ethical issues most likely affect the process?
a. Questionnaires and social surveys [ ]
b. Questionnaires and documents [ ]
c. Unstructured interviews and participant observation [ ]
d. Unstructured interviews and documents [ ]
3. In which type of research may some subjects benefit more than others?
a. A quasi-experimental research design with no control group [ ]

b. A structured interview with direct observation [ ]
c. Participant observation of a deviant gang [ ]
d. A cross-sectional survey of a large country [ ]
4. Which is the best example of ethical behaviour in the face of participant hostility?
a. Walk away as quickly as possible from the hostile participant [ ]

b. Return the hostility to let the participant know how the researcher feels [ ]
c. Thank the participant for his contribution before leaving politely [ ]
d. Coerce the participant to behave politely [ ]
5. The Belmont Report says that one of the following is the first ethical issue.
Which is it?
a. Dealing with adversity [ ]
b. Right to service [ ]
c. Informed consent [ ]
d. Right to privacy [ ]
Activity 2.15
1. Researchers need to exercise extreme caution when conducting research. This is especially
the case in medical and psychological laboratories where people may adopt ‘guinea pig
status’.
a. What do you understand by the phrase ‘guinea pig status’?

b. State two situations in conducting sociological research that may involve the
sociologist unethically prying into people’s lives.
c. Explain why functionalists, like Durkheim, believe that people should not be
used as ‘laboratory rats’.
d. State and briefly describe two reasons why some researchers may deliberately
falsify their findings.
2. Distinguish between the pair of terms/concepts/phrases, giving examples of each.
a. Quantitative and qualitative (research)

b. Positivism and interpretivism
c. Questionnaires and interviews
d. Validity and reliability
e. Non-direct observation and participant observation
3. a. Explain why a sociologist might opt for a quantitative method.
b. Explain why some researchers prefer qualitative methods.

c. Explain the association (if any) between the sociologist’s research method and the
choice of a sample.
d. Describe two measures that sociologists can take to minimize the influence of ethical
problems in their research, thereby improving the quality of data they collect.
e. Briefly explore the relationship between social surveys and longitudinal studies.
Activity 2.1 6
Do the essay-type questions below:
1. Evaluate the proposition that sociological research can and should be free of ethical
problems. (25 marks)
2. To what extent do the researchers’ values, beliefs, attitudes and opinions influence the
degree to which their research is ethically sound? (25 marks)
3. Outline and discuss the reasons why ethical issues may arise during the conduct of
sociological research. (25 marks)
Chapter 3
CULTURE AND IDENTITY
OBJECTIVES
On completion of this chapter, students should be able to:
• discuss the elements and characteristics of culture;
• discuss Caribbean cultural diversity and change.
CONTENT
Culture and the Social Order
a. Caribbean socio-cultural diversity: continuity and change, conflict and assimilation, creole
and plural societies;
b. Caribbean popular culture, for example, music, dance, art, theatre or folklore (historical
background and social context).
INTRODUCTION
Today, the world’s population consists of more than six billion people who have developed a
multiplicity of lifestyles in accordance with their particular physical and social environments.
When people speak about ‘the way of life’ of people with a distinctive lifestyle, whether they
live in Australia, Africa or the Caribbean, they are speaking about culture. Culture is a powerful
human tool for survival, but it is constantly changing and may easily be lost. Culture is a
large and integral part of our everyday lives. Culture accounts, in part, for the unprecedented
success of the human species in adapting to extreme environments. People could not survive
without culture. Culture provides the context (background) that people use to interact with one
another. It defines boundaries that have emerged to distinguish social groups from one another.
It defines what is considered important and unimportant to different people.
Culture and Identity | 87
Definition of Culture
The word culture has many different meanings to the average person. For some, it refers to
an appreciation of good literature, music, art, food, governments, buildings, and other man-
made things. These, however, are merely the manifestations of culture; they are not culture in
themselves. In sociology, we define culture as the full range of learned human behaviour patterns.
It refers to everything that people create or develop. Values, norms, goals, and culture in general,
develop as people interact with one another over time. It includes beliefs, values, behaviours,
and physical objects that create a people’s way of life. In a sense, people create their culture,
and this culture, in turn, shapes their behaviour.
According to Tylor (1871), culture is ‘that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief,
art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member
of society.’
Linton (1945) defines culture as ‘the way of life of [a society’s] members; the collection of
ideas and habits which they learn, share and transmit from generation to generation.’
In sum, culture encompasses the total way of life of individuals in a given society. It creates a
sense of belonging and identity among people who share the same beliefs and values. With this
in mind, it is important to note that culture is not static, that is, it is not constant over time and
space. Every society has its own ideas of what are acceptable or unacceptable forms of behaviour.
These ideas themselves change over time and vary among individuals. For instance, the members
of a particular gang may gauge stealing as an acceptable form of behaviour while members of a
prayer group will judge this action as deviant.
Material and Non-material Culture

In the eyes of the sociologist, there are two types or parts to culture: the material and the non-
material.
Material culture is the part that is concrete and tangible, the material things that a society
creates and uses for survival. These consist of the physical or technological aspects of
our daily lives, including food items, houses, clothing, paintings, books and other types of
stationery, musical instruments, household appliances, factories, cars, telephones, computers,
and raw materials. These objects do not have inherent meaning but rather they are significant
because of the meaning that is imbued by a given society. These include all the tools that are
used both in the developing and in the highly developed societies. Thus, material culture
consists of the physical objects that those members of a society produce to reflect their interests
and preoccupations.
The non-material culture refers to all intangible components of our ways of life. They are the
languages, norms, ideas, values and beliefs of human societies. We can neither see nor touch
them. It includes things like religion, ideas, techniques, customs, beliefs and philosophies shared
by members of a society. Culture is the embodiment of the people, it is all of the things
they share and do together. Culture is the totality of learnt, socially transmitted behaviour,
constantly shaping behaviour and consciousness within a human society from generation to
generation. Culture gives us a ‘design for living’. Culture is concrete, in that we can observe the
cultural objects and practices that define human experience. Culture is abstract in that it is a
way of thinking, feeling, believing and behaving. It creates continuity across time because it
is transmitted from one generation to the next, and is often transported, even in the migration
process, as will be seen when Caribbean culture is discussed.
Activity 3.1
State whether the examples below represent material or non-material culture:
• food
• norms
• monuments
• values
• religious beliefs
• clothing
• ideas
• church buildings
• beliefs
• art.
Characteristics of Culture
• Culture is learnt – One of the primary ideas within sociology is that people are not born
knowing how to behave; there is no automatic or instinctive heritage. A society’s culture
has to be transmitted to each succeeding generation by the institutions of society. This
transmission of culture occurs through the process of socialization whereby individuals
become acquainted with the norms and values of society.
• Culture is shared – This means that systems consist of negotiated agreements. Members
of a human society must agree to relationships between a word, behaviour, or other
symbol and its corresponding significance or meaning. For example, members of a
society share a common language, which facilitates day to day exchanges with others.
No person can escape entirely from his/her culture. Different individuals may behave
differently in society, even though they have been raised in accordance with similar
cultural values.
• Culture is transmittable – Culture comes down from the past, is not created by
any one person or generation, and continues beyond the individual lifespan. Each
generation passes it on to the next and constantly reinforces it. If the culture is not
transmitted, it will eventually die.
• Culture is adaptive – In order to survive, culture must adapt to changes in society.
In this regard, culture can be regarded as relative as it evolves to suit the changing needs
of a constantly evolving society.
• Culture is dynamic – It is variable over time and place. It is dynamic, rather than static.
The culture of your grandparents or parents is not identical with your own (a major
cause of the so-called generation gap). In the process of changing a culture, members
of a society often borrow from other cultures. When aspects of a dominant culture is
imposed on another culture, this process is referred to as ‘acculturation’.
• Cultures are symbolic – Symbols are things or behaviours to which people give meaning,
such as the national flag and religious deities.
Functions of Culture
• It enables us to communicate with others through language.
• It makes it possible to anticipate how others in our society are likely to respond to our
actions.
• Culture gives us standards for distinguishing between things that are right and wrong
(norms), beautiful and unpleasant (values), reasonable and unreasonable.
• Culture provides methods for training children to behave in certain ways generally
considered appropriate in society (socialization).
• Culture provides the knowledge and skills necessary for meeting sustenance needs.
Structural and Cultural Universals

Structural universals refer to issues that must be addressed if a society is to survive and
evolve. They pertain to the basic problems of human existence. Cultural universals are values,
norms, or other cultural traits, items such as religion and language, that are found everywhere, in
every culture. They refer to possible similarities in the particular way a society (or social group)
chooses to solve structural problems of existence. These are learned behaviour patterns that
are shared collectively by all of humanity. No matter where people live in the world, they share
these universal traits. Examples of such ‘human cultural’ traits include:
1. communicating with a verbal language consisting of a limited set of sounds and

grammatical rules for constructing sentences;
2. using age and gender to classify people (for example, teenager, senior citizen,
woman,man;
3. classifying people based on marriage and descent relationships, and having kinship terms
to refer to them (for example, wife, mother, uncle, cousin);
4. raising children in some sort of family setting;
5. having a sexual division of labour (for example, men’s work versus women’s work);
6. having a concept of privacy;
7. having rules to regulate sexual behaviour;
8. distinguishing between good and bad behaviour;
9. having some sort of body ornamentation;
10. making jokes and playing games;
11. having art; and
12. having some sort of leadership roles for the implementation of community decisions.
While all cultures have these and possibly many other universal traits, different cultures have
developed their own specific ways of carrying them out or expressing them. For instance, people
in deaf communities frequently use their hands to communicate with sign language instead of
verbal language. However, sign languages have grammatical rules just as verbal ones do.
The problem we have, when looking at the idea of cultural universals is that of deciding how
specific something has to be, in order to count as a ‘universal’ feature of human social organization.
In effect, how widely or narrowly we draw the definition of universal affects the conclusion
reached about cultural patterns.
Activity 3.2
a. How would you define culture?
b . List four characteristics of culture.
c . Provide three unique aspects of the culture of any named Caribbean society.
CULTURAL VARIATIONS
It was stated earlier that culture is relative to time and place. The same act that is considered
normal and acceptable in one culture may be highly undesirable or even reprehensible in another
culture. Humans of different cultures react in different ways to various cultural traditions.
Dominant Culture
The dominant culture is the lifestyle of the elite or the most influential in society. It is the cultural
form that is held in the highest regard, receives the most support from major institutions and is
legitimized by the dominant belief system. The elite’s control of society’s institutions reinforce
their culture as the dominant form in society as their values and beliefs are transmitted through
these institutions. Importantly, it need not reflect the statistical majority; rather, it reflects those
with the most social status and power and is generally considered the norm in society. Cultural
forms in the Caribbean today no doubt reflect the dominant culture left by colonial masters.
The dominant culture has a potential influence on facets of life such as education, media
and public policy.
Decisions about school curriculum and funding for arts programmes are often guided by the
dominant culture.
Ideal Culture
Ideal culture refers to the values and standards of behaviour that people in a society profess
to hold, and that are worthy of aspiring to. This is where norms are ideally adhered to, for
example, monogamy or the notions of ‘till death do us part’. Ideal culture thus speaks of perfect
and desirable morals; however, this ideal is not always achieved.
Real Culture
Real culture refers to the values and standards of behaviour that people actually follow in society.
What people actually do usually falls short of the cultural ideal. For example, although marriage
is the ideal, if things do not work out between spouses it is acceptable for them to separate or
to divorce.
Ideal culture, therefore, refers to the norms and values that members of a society profess to hold,
while real culture refers to those that are followed in practice.
Culture Shock
Over time, people develop a sense of what to expect in their familiar surroundings. Culture
becomes the lens through which people perceive and evaluate what is going on in the society.
These assumptions are not generally questioned by people. However, when one travels into a
completely different culture, different assumptions are encountered.
Culture shock is the disorientation that people experience when they come into contact with a
fundamentally different culture. Culture shock is precipitated by the anxiety that results from
losing all familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse. These signs are the thousand and
one ways in which people orient themselves to the situations of daily life: when to shake hands
and what to say when they meet people; when and how to give tips; how to give orders
to servants; how to make purchases; when to accept and when to refuse invitations; when to
take statements seriously and when not to. These cues, which may be words, gestures, facial
expressions, customs, or norms, are acquired by people in the course of growing up, and are
as much a part of culture as the language spoken or the acceptable beliefs. People generally
depend on hundreds of these cues in their lives, most of which are unconsciously learned.
When an individual enters a strange culture, all or most of these familiar cues are removed.
The world now seems unfamiliar. Without doubt, a series of props have been knocked from
under this person, followed by feelings of frustration and anxiety. Most people react to the
frustration in much the same way. First, they reject the environment that causes the discomfort:
‘The ways of the host country are bad because they make us feel bad.’
Another phase of culture shock is regression. The home environment suddenly assumes a
tremendous importance; everything becomes irrationally glorified. All difficulties and problems
are forgotten and only the good things back home are remembered. It usually takes a trip
home to bring one back to reality.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism can be broadly defined as an attitude whereby other societies are judged by the
standards that apply in one’s own society. Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to view one’s
own culture as the norm. There is a tendency to assume that one’s culture is superior to others.
‘Our’ truths and values are so central to who ‘we’ are, that it is difficult to accept the possibility
that our culture represents only one of many. A particular culture does not represent universal
‘TRUTH’. This is not to say that to be proud of one’s heritage is inappropriate. On the contrary,
a little ethnocentrism (in the sense of pride in one’s cultural identity) is beneficial because of
its bonding effect. Ethnocentrism becomes a problem, however, when people expect others
to become like them.
Additionally, ethnocentrism can also refer to the way the lifestyles, experiences, values and
norms of one group in a society are assumed to be common to everyone in society. An example of
this might be classifying people who live in non-industrial societies as ‘primitive’. This refers
to the use of one’s own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other individuals or
societies, which generally leads to a negative evaluation of their values, norms, and behaviours.
For example, the assumption that everyone lives in a loving, two-parent family home, or that
everyone should eat with knives and forks, demonstrates ethnocentrism.
All cultures come with a sense of in-group feelings that encourage people to see themselves as
the ‘centre of the universe’. Ethnocentrism occurs when this sense of in-group feelings involves
three tendencies:
1. To evaluate other cultures from the perspectives of your own (for example, the New World,
the Far East)
2. To view your own culture as ‘morally correct’ while raising moral questions about the
people and practices in other cultures.
3. To become so deeply engrossed in your culture that other cultures, and the people in
them, become unimportant.
It is hoped that the study of sociology will enable the student to look at how the elements of a
culture fit together without judging those elements as superior or inferior to one’s way of
life. The level of cultural diversity that seems to exist amongst human societies means that it is
important to avoid the trap of ethnocentrism when trying to understand the nature and scope
of human cultures.
Ethnocentric attitudes are not uncommon but, sociologically, we need to be as objective as

possible. Sociology is not about making moral judgments (disguised as some kind of ‘objective
truth’), about the relative worth of people’s lifestyles. Rather, it is about the attempt to understand
and analyse the reasons for the development of cultural diversity.
Cultural Relativism
This is an attempt to appreciate other ways of life rather than just saying ‘our way is right’.
Cultural relativism understands a culture on its own terms. To study unfamiliar cultures accurately,
sociologists have to avoid culturally-based biases. Also, the sociologist should eliminate bias and
prejudice as much as possible. One needs to encourage the practice of understanding a unique
culture from the standpoint of others. Cultural relativism understands a culture on its own
terms. In essence, ‘you have to be able to stand in the other person’s shoes.’ When you can ‘see’
from the perspective of another, you can then understand that culture. For most of us, this is not
an easy thing to do. Adopting cultural relativism does not mean that we like or endorse every
custom and practice. It is about understanding, not approval. Cultural relativity is an attempt
to understand the cultural development of societies and social groups on their own terms;
that is, without trying to impose absolute ideas of moral value, or trying to measure different
cultural variations in terms of some form of absolute cultural standard.
We should guard against viewing all cultural practices as being equally valid and worthy of
respect. Customs may be more beneficial to one group than to another and thereby give advantages
to, say, men over women, or to the rich and powerful over the poor and humble. For example,
most people consider the tradition of female genital mutilation a form of horrible violence
against women, and child abuse. Those who believe that the practice is correct say that it Morals
causes an enhancement of women’s natural beauty, modesty, chasteness, health and fertility. So
although females are caused a lot of health and emotional problems by this surgery, many females
themselves support the tradition. Similarly, cosmetic surgeries such as breast enhancement,
liposuction and lip enhancement, are seen by some to be appropriate and desirable, based
on their values and social circumstances. In this sense, under specific circumstances, any form
of human behaviour can appear to be good or bad. A good example here is our attitude to
the killing of another human being. In times of peace this may be considered to be murder or
manslaughter, whereas during war this may be considered a duty. As these examples suggest,
what is significant is not the act itself but the social context of the act.
The concept of cultural relativity does present problems, however. On one hand, there is the
idea of judging others by one’s own cultural standards. On the other hand, in some instances,
such as murder, cannibalism or child abuse, we have a right or even a responsibility to make
a value judgement. Just because someone believes strongly in his or her values, it does not
mean that our relativistic stance allows us simply to overlook what is actually happening, and
condone any act whatsoever. The classic position of social science is both that observers must be
context-sensitive and that they ought not to make moral judgements in the course of conducting
social science. While the first of these positions is strongly held today, the latter remains hotly
debated, and in no way follows from the former.
It may well be necessary to understand others’ values in order to make sense of their behaviour,
but one need not condone those values nor excuse that behaviour, no matter how sincerely the
actors may believe in them. The fact that people differ in their conceptions of what is right
does not by itself mean that every view is equally correct. It means that there is no empirical
support or absolute standard to which one can refer for guidance. We have to accept any form
of behaviour as acceptable, as long as it conforms to the cultural expectations of the society in
which it takes place.
Subcultures and Countercultures

The discussion, thus far, has focused on the larger, dominant culture to which members of a
society belong. The dominant culture is where group members share common meanings
and experiences. However, there are variations in most cultures, especially in those societies
characterized by a high degree of heterogeneity, where group members maintain a distinctive
set of values, norms, lifestyles and even languages.
These unique segments of society are our subcultures and countercultures. When particular
groups in a population develop and maintain a unique way of life, we refer to them as subcultures.
When that way of life is deliberately oppositional to the dominant culture, some sociologists
refer to them as countercultures.
Subcultures
The term ‘subculture’ refers to cultural patterns that set apart some segment of a society’s
population. Young people who have certain traits in common may display subcultural patterns.
Ethnicity and religion set people apart from one another, sometimes contributing to serious
conflicts. Clearly, subcultures are a source not only of diversity and variety but also of tension
and outright violence. Subcultures involve not just difference but hierarchy. Too often, what we
view as ‘dominant’ or ‘mainstream’ culture is a set of patterns favoured by powerful segments of
the population, and we view the lives of disadvantaged people as ‘subculture’.
According to Doob (2000), a subculture is defined as ‘the culture of a specific segment of people
within a society, differing from the dominant culture in some significant respects, such as in
certain norms and values or in language’. The subculture has features in common with the larger
culture and develops whenever a group of people share some situation or experience that is
different from that of others in society.
Subcultures are a world within the larger world of the dominant culture. Although subcultures
have goals, values, and norms that are different from those of the dominant culture, they do
not usually oppose the dominant culture. Importantly, subcultures share some elements of the
dominant culture and coexist within it, although the subculture may become quite separated from
the dominant culture. Subcultures may arise out of a shared interest, or may reflect one’s earlier
culture – such as an immigrant culture. Members of subcultures are usually content to avoid the
dominant culture and remain relatively isolated from the dominant culture.
Subcultures have a set of distinctive characteristics, behaviours, practical and symbolic objects,
and vocabulary, to distinguish them from others; these are cultural variations – the identification
with a group and with others in that group. Subcultures provide members with meanings and
answers to life’s problems that the larger culture may not be able to provide. Where you live can
put you into a subculture. Belonging to a church, a professional organization or an ethnic group
also constitutes membership in a subculture. Certain religious groups such as Kumina in Jamaica,
or the Orisha in Trinidad with their distinctive norms and lifestyle, are also considered subcultures.
Regarding ethnic subcultures in the Caribbean, the situation is slightly different, because initially
we are talking about people who have arrived in a new country. Immigrants arriving in the
Caribbean brought with them their distinctive cultural traditions, values and norms from their
home society. In this case, particularly during the earlier period after arrival, any immigrant group
(such as East Indians, Chinese, and Portuguese) would have generally formed a subculture in
the host society.
Thus, when we use the term ‘subculture’ sociologically, we are referring to a group of people whose
behaviour is such that it sets the group apart from the wider (or dominant) culture of the society
in which it develops. Such groups are considered to be subcultures, rather than cultures in their
own right, because they retain links to, and possess features of, the wider culture.
Countercultures
Cultural diversity also includes outright rejection of conventional ideas or behaviour.
Counterculture consists of cultural patterns that strongly oppose the established norms of the
dominant culture within a society. Countercultures are groups that have values, interests, beliefs,
and lifestyles that are contrary to those of the dominant culture. These are groups that develop
as a reaction against the values of the dominant culture. These forms of subculture are also fairly
commonplace amongst ethnic minority groups, mainly because of discrimination. Thus, groups
who believe they are unjustly persecuted develop subcultural responses to the situation. They
are distinct from a subculture, in that they often are actively rejecting the dominant cultural
values, often for political or moral reasons, and develop cultural practices that explicitly defy
the norms and values of the dominant group. They openly oppose the dominant culture and
actively seek to change the dominant culture. Conflict exists between the counterculture and
the larger culture. Thus, it acts as a signifier of a society’s present values, and a benchmark of
social change and unrest. The Rastafarian Movement and Voodoo, especially during the earlier
period, could be viewed as examples of countercultures in the Caribbean. These religious
movements developed in response to the unacceptable conditions under which the people
involved were made to exist.
The most important difference between subcultures and countercultures is that subcultures
want to coexist peacefully with the dominant culture, whereas countercultures do not wish to
coexist with the larger culture.
Activity 3.3
1. State whether the following statements are true or false:
a. Non-material culture is more resistant to change than the material culture.

b. Material culture includes knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and ideologies
c. A major distinction between elements of material and non-material culture is that
material culture is practised by the wealthy and non-material by the working class.
d. Culture is subjective to time and place.
e. Little of human behaviour is instinctive.
2. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
• acculturation and interculturation

• material culture and non-material culture
• subculture and counterculture
• ethnocentrism and cultural relativism
Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is a sharp turn away from the past, for example, when Caribbean society
downplayed cultural diversity and defined itself primarily in terms of European standards and
culture. From the outset, however, the many cultures were still negotiating their relationship
with one another and took time to evolve into the stratified system that emerged. At the top
were the Europeans, being the dominant group, established their language as the nation’s official
language. Further down, people of other backgrounds were advised to model themselves
on ‘their superiors’.
In practice, then, ‘melting’ was really a process of adopting European ways. As multiculturalists
see it, early in Caribbean history, European culture was established as the ideal to which all
should aspire and by which all should be judged.
In this early period, historians have reported events from the point of view of the English and
other people of European ancestry, paying little attention to the perspectives and accomplishments
of natives and people of African and Asian descent. Multiculturalists call this view Eurocentrism,
the dominance of European (especially English) cultural patterns.
Proponents also portray multiculturalism as a way of coming to terms with Caribbean society’s
increasing social diversity. Although multiculturalism has found favour in recent years, it has
provoked criticism as well. Opponents say it encourages divisiveness rather than unity, urging
people to identify with their own category rather than with the nation as a whole. According to
its critics, multiculturalism, instead of recognizing any common standards of truth, maintains
that we should evaluate ideas according to the race and culture of those who present them. Our
common humanity thus dissolves into an ‘African experience’, an ‘Asian experience’, and so on.
Globalization and Culture

In the not too distant past, there existed greater cultural variations among peoples of different
societies. But today, similar cultural practices are found in markedly different geographical regions
the world over.
Individuals in different countries worship similarly, wear the same clothes (we find jeans
everywhere), listen to the same music, and consume many of the same types of food, and
English is rapidly emerging as the universal language in most countries of the world. Are we
witnessing the birth of a single global culture?
It is true that societies around the world have more contact with one another than ever before,
involving the flow of goods, information, and people:
1. The global economy: the flow of goods. There has never been more international trade.
The global economy has spread many of the same consumer goods (from cars and TV
shows to music and fashion) throughout the world.
2. Global communication: the flow of information. Satellite-based communication enables

people to experience the sights and sounds of events taking place thousands of miles away,
often, as they are happening.
3. Global migration: the flow of people. Knowing about the rest of the world motivates
people to move where they imagine life will be better. Moreover, today’s transportation
technology, especially air travel, makes relocating easier than ever before. As a result, in
most countries, significant numbers of people were born elsewhere (including some 30
million people who are now in the United States, 11 per cent of the population).
These global links make the cultures of the world more similar. But there are three important
limitations to the global culture thesis:
1. The global flow of goods, information, and people is uneven. Generally speaking, urban
areas (centres of commerce, communication, and people) have stronger ties to one another,
and rural villages remain isolated. Furthermore, the greater economic and military power
of North America and Western Europe means that these regions influence the rest of the
world more than the other way around.
2. The global culture thesis assumes that people everywhere are able to afford various new
goods and services. In developing countries, where many people experience extreme
poverty, many are deprived of even the basic necessities of a safe and secure life.
3. Although many cultural practices are found throughout the world, people everywhere do
not attach the same meanings to them. In short, people everywhere look at the world
through their own cultural lenses.
CULTURE AND CHANGE

Cultural Lag
Some elements of culture change faster than others. William Ogburn (1964) observed that
technology moves quickly, generating new elements of material culture (such as test-tube babies)
faster than non-material culture (such as ideas about parenthood) can keep up with them.
Ogburn (1964) called this inconsistency cultural lag – the fact that some cultural elements
change more quickly than others, which may disrupt a cultural system.
How are we to apply traditional notions about motherhood and fatherhood when one woman
can give birth to a child using another woman’s egg, which has been fertilized in a laboratory
with the sperm of a total stranger?
All societies experience change. All we can say with certainty is that, given our reliance on
culture, for as long as we survive, the human record will show continuous change. Change in
one dimension of a culture usually sparks changes in others. For example, women’s increased
participation in the labour force parallels changing family patterns, including first marriages
at a later age and a rising divorce rate. When a society experiences change, it undergoes a shift
in its core values. Our previous discussion on subcultures and countercultures demonstrated
that there are groups in society that often have different values than those of the dominant
culture. Because of contact with other cultures, the values of a society are constantly exposed
to the pressures of change.
Each culture embraces values, which it considers vital to its survival. But societies are not always
successful in living up to their core values. In addition, societies face the problem of value
contradictions. How do values in a society change? Values change for a number of reasons.
Causes of Cultural Change
Value contradictions
These are values that conflict with one another or are mutually exclusive (achieving one makes it
difficult to achieve another). To follow one, means you will come into conflict with another.
Value contradictions usually serve as a force for social change. For example, the conflicting values
of racism and democracy make it difficult for all members of society to experience equality.
Cultural diffusion
This is the spread of cultural characteristics from one group to another, or the spread of cultural
traits from one society to another. Because new information technology sends information around
the globe in seconds, cultural diffusion has never been greater than it is today. This borrowing of
cultural traits from another culture can be direct or indirect, forced or voluntary, through factors
such as trade, intermarriage or warfare. For example, there are people all over the world who
listen to American music, watch American television shows, and adopt American business methods.
American ideas of work, leisure, and democracy have spread across the globe. Not everyone in a
society is happy about the importation of another culture’s values. Some people believe that too
much cultural diffusion takes away the distinctive qualities of the native culture. The term
cultural levelling refers to the process by which cultures become similar to one another. One
can travel to just about any corner in the world and find a McDonald’s or a Burger King.
Not all sectors of society experience change equally, nor do all parts of a culture change at
the same pace. Some elements of a society may lag behind in response to pressures to change.
Cultural lag refers to a situation in which non-material culture lags behind changes in the
material culture. There is a delay between change and the corresponding adjustment in
norms and values.
Acculturation and Interculturation

Acculturation is the extensive borrowing of cultural traits by one group (usually subordinate)
from another – also called cultural assimilation. In many cases, acculturation is due to a deliberate
attempt by the dominant group to force its culture on the subordinate group. The long-
term, close contact between groups also leads to the exchange of cultural traits between groups
in society (interculturation) and the emergence of a new culture. This was evidenced in the
Caribbean during colonialism.
Innovation
Innovation is the process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture. There are two forms
of innovation: discovery and invention. Invention refers to the process of creating new cultural
elements. Invention has given us the telephone, the airplane, and the computer, each of
which has had a tremendous impact on our way of life. The steel pan is a good example of a
Caribbean invention. The process of invention goes on constantly and changes our way of life.
Discovery, a second cause of cultural innovation, involves recognizing and better understanding
something already in existence.
Globalization
Globalization allows international economic and political systems to dominate local cultures.
Societies today are more interdependent than ever before. Such interconnection has been facilitated
by economic imperatives and social needs, as well as significant developments in transport and
communications. As standards and perspectives become institutionalized, culture becomes
more or less stable. But in reality, culture is constantly emerging as ideas and norms change,
and as material aspects of a group’s way of life change. We produce culture, even though it
influences everything we do.
Ideology and Social Change

Ideology is an integrated system of ideas that explains/justifies/questions the way society is
organized or should be organized. It implies that people choose or reject beliefs on the basis of
deeply held principles. All societies experience change. When a society experiences change, it
undergoes a shift in its core values. Because of contact with other cultures, the values of a society
are constantly exposed to the pressures of change. Each culture embraces values that it considers
vital to its survival. But most societies are not always successful in living up to their core values.
Perspectives on Culture
We need to keep in mind the notion of perspective when talking about culture. A culture
is a ‘shared perspective’. It is not absolute truth. Perspectives are limited by their nature, and
filter what we see. They allow us to see life from a certain angle only. As we interact, we come
to share ideas about the way the world is. The perspectives on culture are outlined below.
1. Structural Functional Analysis

The structural-functional paradigm indicates that culture exists to fulfil a human need. Culture
has different functions to ensure that everyday life continues to exist. With respect to cultures,
structural-functional theorists are of the view that norms, values and beliefs ‘give meaning to
life and bind people together’. One of the predominant sociologists embracing this paradigm,
George Murdock (1949), studied different cultures to find evidence to support this theory.
He found that all cultures share many of the same traits. He believed that one example of a
universal cultural trait was the family, because it controls sexual reproduction and child rearing.
Critics find fault with this theory because it does not adequately address change, since it
emphasizes stability and continuity.
2. Conflict Analysis
The social-conflict paradigm indicates that culture is established in order to oppress members
of a society. Social-conflict theorists argue that inequalities in societies are perpetuated through
culture. The ruling class establishes rules of acceptable behaviour, and when violated,
the subordinate groups may sometimes face sanctions, and, as a consequence, are viewed as
oppressed. This is modelled after the ideas of Karl Marx. Critics find fault with this theory
because it fails to recognize the areas in society where integration is promoted.
3. Socio-biology
The socio-biology paradigm asserts that culture is influenced by genetics. Just as species evolve,
so does culture. Charles Darwin, one of the original proponents of evolution, indicated that
there are four principles of evolution. First, reproduction has to occur. Second, the blueprint
of life is located in the genes. Third, genes vary within the species, and fourth, there is
survival of the fittest. Culture is simply a way of adapting to an environment.
Socio-biologists are of the opinion that cultural universals prevail in all societies because people
have the natural instinct to develop certain specific norms, values and ideologies.
Critics find fault with this theory because there is not sufficient information to support it,
and the theory can easily be used to defend the superiority of a particular group.
4. Cultural Evolution
This theory is a counterargument to socio-biology. Its import is that our physical features have
changed over the past 100,000 years because of adaptation to the environment. As people came
to terms with environmental conditions, their physical features have usually changed – for
example, the development of an upright posture. Cultural evolution denies that people have
any innate instincts. It suggests, instead, that culture creates the basis for the natural selection
that enhances our adaptation to physical and social environments.
SUMMARY
Culture
Definitions and Components
• Culture consists of knowledge, language, values, customs (non-material) and material
objects, such as tools and equipment.
• Human groups and societies transmit culture from generation to generation.
• Culture is a survival mechanism for individuals and groups.
• Culture is universal and there are cultural universals. Cultural universals are those
aspects of material and non-material culture that all cultures demonstrate, even if in
different forms.
• Culture determines how people behave in society.
Concepts Pertaining to Culture

• Material culture: This refers to the physical products of a culture.
• Non-material culture: This refers to the abstract aspects of a culture, such as values,
beliefs and ideologies.
• Ideal culture: This refers to how people should behave.
• Real culture: This refers to how people actually behave in society.
Levels of Culture
• National culture: This is generally shared by people within one nation.
• International culture: This refers to cultural traditions shared by people in more
than one nation.
• Subculture: The subculture shares cultural traditions of a larger group but has certain
cultural traits of its own.
• Counterculture: Members of countercultures reject, usually strongly, the dominant
culture’s values.
Cross-cultural Comparisons
• Cultural universals are traits that are found in all human societies.
• Cultural generalities are traits found in many cultures.
• Cultural particulars are traits unique to one culture.
Ethnocentrism
• Using one’s own cultural values to judge people from another culture.
• Finding behaviour in other cultures strange or threatening.
• It is a cultural universal, and helps to give a sense of solidarity to people within one
culture.
Cultural Relativism
• Behaviour and values in one culture should not be judged by the standards of another
culture.
• Cultural rights – the right of a culture to preserve its knowledge, language and economic
base.
• Human rights – universal, inalienable, individual human rights.
Culture Change
Diffusion: This refers to the borrowing of cultural traits from another culture.
• It can be direct or indirect, forced or voluntary.

• It may occur by trade, intermarriage or warfare.
• Examples include: religion and food.
Acculturation: This is the forced imposition of one culture upon another, usually by a powerful
group upon a weaker one. It involves the extensive borrowing of cultural traits by one group
(usually subordinate) from another (also called cultural assimilation).
Interculturation: This refers to the mutual exchange of cultural traits between cultures in
long-term, close contact.
Independent Invention: This refers to the creation of solutions to a problem in society,

for example, the invention of agricultural tools to facilitate production in the Near East,
Middle America and China.
Convergent cultural evolution: this refers to the development of similar cultural traits by
groups in similar environments.
Globalization
• Nations and people today are interlinked and mutually dependent.
• This is promoted by economic and political forces, modern systems of transportation
and communication.
• It allows larger economic and political systems to dominate local culture.
Chapter 4
CULTURE IN THE CARIBBEAN
OBJECTIVES
• discuss the elements and characteristics of culture in the Caribbean;

• discuss Caribbean cultural diversity and change;
• discuss issues related to Caribbean popular culture.
Plantation Society and Culture

Contemporary Caribbean society is relatively young, as compared to African or European societies.
In addition, the Caribbean did not evolve in the same manner as these larger societies. According
to Orlando Patterson, the Caribbean was artificially created to serve the economic needs of the
European colonists. To achieve this end, people of different nationalities were removed
from their homelands, forcibly in many cases, and brought to the Caribbean to work on the
sugar plantations. The various groups of people were thus brought to the region mainly for
economic reasons. The resultant demographic changes had an irreversible social and cultural
impact as very heterogeneous populations were consequently created in respective territories.
This artificial creation of the Caribbean society was therefore due to the plantation system.
Caribbean history has a long and tumultuous colonial past, with the plantation being the
dominant form of economic and social organization, thereby resulting in a rich cultural legacy.
The history of the Caribbean is premised upon two Ss: sugar and slavery. The plantation often
relied on some form of forced or cheap labour. This resulted in the near total destruction of
the indigenous population and the eventual importation of various groups of people into the
Caribbean to work on these plantations. All these groups, especially those who entered the region
by force, had to reconstruct elements of their culture in order to survive. Colonialism therefore
created a culturally diverse region with various ethnic groups being brought to the Caribbean,
each with its own language, religion and way of life. This section examines the various groups
and their contribution to the cultural pluralism that exists in the Caribbean.
Culture in the Caribbean | 107
The Indigenous People

Prior to the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the West Indies in 1492, Amerindian tribes
populated the region. The arrival of the Spaniards and the establishment of colonies in the
Caribbean represented the beginning of a new era. The settled and stable lives of the indigenous
people were disrupted irreversibly by the Spanish arrival; the clash of cultures between the
Amerindians and the Spaniards resulted in the physical and cultural genocide of the Amerindians.
Columbus began the practice of granting Spanish settlers some Tainos to work for them.
This was known as the repartimiento system, the beginning of Amerindian enslavement. This
was a system of forced labour that was imposed upon the native tribes of the region. Most of the
Spaniards came to the ‘New World’ in search of quick riches; they had no sympathy for
the peaceful Tainos. The Amerindians were overworked and poorly fed, and a large number
died as a result.
Apart from the Tainos, we also hear about another major indigenous group, referred to as the
Caribs by the Europeans. According to many historians, these people referred to themselves as
the Kalinago. The literature also mentions the ‘Black Caribs’ of Belize also called the Garifuna.
According to Lennox Honeychurch, the words Kalinago and Karifuna (Garifuna) are today widely
used by anthropologists and historians to describe the Caribs.
With the almost total elimination of the native population, the Europeans obtained the necessary
labour importing the slaves from Africa. In the ensuing years, this led to a significant demographic
change since descendants of Africans eventually comprised the largest group in the Caribbean.
The Africans
There was great demand for sugar in Europe, and the Caribbean had the fertile soil and tropical
weather conditions to cultivate sugar cane. Since the British West Indies cultivated sugar
on a very large scale and it was a labour intensive enterprise, there was a great demand for
labour. This problem was solved with the introduction of African slaves in large numbers to
work on the sugar plantations.
The sugar plantation was a separate community made up of different groups of people, the main
aim being to maximize profits. There was a rigid class structure on the plantation, and colour was
the main determinant of social status. The two main groups were the European whites and the
African slaves, but subsequently a third group emerged called the mulattoes or coloureds. Also
referred to as the ‘browns’, this group resulted from the sexual encounters between Europeans
and enslaved Africans.
During slavery, the Europeans viewed the culture of the Africans in a rather ethnocentric
manner. On the plantations, slaves were subjected to acculturation, as they were not allowed
to openly observe their ancestral religions. Since the African religions were viewed as pagan
many of the enslaved were converted to Christianity. Sir Charles Metcalfe (Ryan 1991) noted
that the dress of ex-slaves rivaled the clothes of the planter class. Best (1968) claims that they
even aspired to the culture of the Europeans.
Slavery was abolished between 1834 and 1863 (1834 in the Anglophone islands, 1848 in
the Francophone islands, and 1863 in the Dutch islands), and the ex-slaves were no longer
willing to work on the estates (Augier et al. 1960). They therefore cultivated other crops, and
this led to the development of the Caribbean peasantry. Some of the ex-slaves also worked
as craftsmen. The planters were unable to attract the ex-slaves back to the plantation. The
planters felt that they could not pay higher wages without significant reduction in profits,
and the solution was therefore to import large numbers of immigrant workers from abroad,
namely East Asia.
The Chinese
Chinese immigrants were brought to work on the plantations under the indentureship system.
Only a few of them came at first, but from 1852 large numbers of Chinese immigrants were
brought into the Caribbean. By the year 1893 an estimated 20,000 Chinese immigrants had
arrived in the British West Indies, with the majority going to British Guiana, Jamaica and
Trinidad. There were problems associated with the importation of Chinese labourers, since
the cost of transporting the Chinese was very high and they were not particularly suited to
plantation work. The planters then turned to India for labour.
The East Indians

It was the Indians who ultimately provided the solution to the shortage of labour for the
plantation. The first shipload reached British Guiana in 1838. In 1845 the importation of
Indian labourers had begun on a large scale and, apart from a break between 1848 and 1851,
it continued until 1917. The Indians were cheaper and more dependable workers unlike the
Chinese who generally left estate work as soon as the opportunity arose. By 1917, over 416,000
East Indian immigrants had entered the British West Indies with most of them going to British
Guiana, Trinidad and Suriname. Many restrictions were placed on the indentured labourers; for
instance, they could not leave the plantations without certified permission in the form of a
pass. They were not allowed to stay away from work, even when sick, as they could be arrested
and imprisoned. Because of the harsh conditions and physical punishment, some described
indentureship as a ‘new system of slavery’ (Tinker 1993). Although the East Indians were
allowed to practise their culture, they were sometimes perceived as ‘pagans’ and ‘heathens’.
They kept to themselves and resisted assimilation into the culture of the wider society.
Each new immigrant group introduced its cultural values and attitudes to add to the already
diverse cultural milieu of the region. The plantation system also created a complex system of
social stratification, especially in British Guiana, Trinidad and Suriname, where large numbers
of immigrants had arrived, especially East Indians and Chinese. Today, in these societies, race
and ethnicity create divisions; there is sometimes hostility between ethnic groups, especially
in Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana. The legacy of colonialism and the plantation system
continue to influence culture and identity in Caribbean society. There are three major theories
that attempt to explain Caribbean society: the Plantation Society Model, the Plural Society
Model and the Creole Society Model.
The Plantation Society Theory

The plantation system played a dominant role in the economic, social, political and cultural
life of the Caribbean. George Beckford (1972) saw the plantation system as a total economic
institution, where ‘the internal and external dimensions of the plantation system dominate the
countries’ economic, social and political structure and their relation with the rest of the world.’
By this, Beckford means that the plantation experience has transcended the boundaries of the
plantation and its features manifest themselves in each aspect of society. Plantations have not only
been a product of metropolitan capital, but they have also produced mono-crop cultivation for
overseas markets. The distinct features of the plantation society are as follows:
• the prevalence of mono-crop cultivation

• the marginalization of the peasantry and focus on large producers
• dependency on foreign investors to aid Caribbean development
• little control of the price at which crops are sold on the international markets, since
international forces influence prices
• demand for foreign products at the expense of locally produced goods
• social stratification based on factors such as race and colour
The plantation played the principal role in the development of Caribbean culture. The
islands were developed where the demand for foreign products dominated, and vast amounts of
goods were brought in from abroad to satisfy the needs of the people. Even technology was
imported, and today we continue to see a high demand for many aspects of foreign culture.
Some examples include television programming, food, and music.
The plantation system was an all-pervasive design, which governed the lives of all members who
were engaged in production. Horowitz (1971) sees it as a societal design that perpetuates a
society divided into segments: one large and unfree, and another that is small and free,
and which controls power in the society. Beckford notes that in the twentieth century, long
after emancipation, Caribbean society was still modelled along the lines of the plantation. Best
(1968) comments on the lack of social integration and sees the populations that were brought
from all over the world, existing as a plural society, with no basis for integration.
M.G. Smith (1965), writing about Jamaican society, also observed that nationalism was slow to
develop, and that the abolition of slavery ‘freed a race, but failed to create a society’.
The Plural Society Thesis

M.G. Smith applied the plural society thesis to Caribbean societies. The original concept of the
plural society was outlined in the work of J.S. Furnivall, a Dutch economist. Smith believed
that ‘people’s culture forms the matrix of their social structure.’ In his model, Smith explains that
a common system of basic institutions is shared in homogeneous societies. However, in plural
societies, there are alternative and exclusive institutions that exist and, as a result, the basic
institutions are not shared. Smith does not see such plural societies as being stratified by
class, but there may be internal classification among the various races. In Caribbean societies,
he sees the major cultural elements, the whites, Africans, East Indians, and Chinese, each
practising different forms of the common institutions such as marriage, family and religion.
Smith (1965) examined Grenadian society, where he identified two sections of the society: the
whites and the blacks. He also studied Jamaican society in which he identified sections in
society such as the whites, blacks and browns (an intermediate category). In Jamaican society,
Smith identified alternative forms of all institutions in the society. In looking at the family, he
recognized other forms besides the nuclear family.
Smith’s thesis identifies the following:
1. Homogeneous societies are those with one set of institutions, whilst those with alternative
institutions are heterogeneous.
2. Those societies where the basic institutions (family, education and religion) are not shared
are plural societies.
3. The cultural sections in the Caribbean are whites, browns and blacks, with East Indians
and Chinese, in some territories.
Smith’s plural society thesis has been criticized by Braithwaite (1960), who redefines a plural
society as ‘one composed of such varying groups, each with its own subculture, that only a few
cultural symbols are shared by all.’ Braithwaite criticizes Smith’s theory on the following grounds:
1. that every society is ‘pluralistic’, in that there is no ‘homogeneous’ society;
2. that distinguishing between plural societies and homogeneous societies is difficult;
3. that plural societies are not always unstable; societies may possess ‘a rich cultural
variation’ within a ‘highly unified national society’;
4. that societies should not be defined in cultural terms. He speaks of shared values: universal-
achievement values as opposed to particularistic-ascriptive values. Universal-achievement
values are those to which all the groups aspire, whereas particularistic-ascriptive are those
values common to a specific group in society. Braithwaite was of the opinion that the
universalistic-achievement values shared by groups in society are those values that hold
the society together, as in Trinidad and Tobago with the East Indians and the Africans.
Carl Stone’s (1973) critique of Smith’s thesis was based on a survey which Stone conducted
in Jamaica. According to his critique:
1. The differences are not between the cultural sections, but have a material base. These
differences are related to income and resources.
2. The economy and the occupational structure should form the basis for any analysis.
3. Respondents saw themselves as belonging to ‘classes’ and not to ‘cultural sections’. They
were of the opinion that they belonged to one of the upper, middle, working and lower
classes.
Susan Craig (1981) has criticized Smith’s thesis for being unable to explain social change, especially
cultural change. For Craig, Smith sees the social institutions as being ossified and impermeable
to change. However, the composition of the population of Trinidad and Tobago indicates
a growing ‘mixed’ category.
The Creole Society Theory

This theory originated with Caribbean literary scholar Edward Kamau Brathwaite. Creolization
is a process of change and adaptation that occurs over time. In the Caribbean, the mixture of
languages, religious rituals, musical expressions, cuisine and people, represent the Creolization
of Caribbean culture and society. Creolization involves both acculturation and interculturation.
As stated earlier, acculturation is a process in which contacts between different cultural groups
lead to the acquisition of new cultural patterns by the subordinate groups. On the other hand,
interculturation refers to the mutual, symbiotic exchange of cultural traits.
Plantation society fostered assimilation from the day of ‘discovery’, as the Europeans suppressed
the cultural beliefs and practices of all groups they encountered. When differing cultural traits
diffuse into a society on a massive scale, the culture of the subordinate group is significantly
changed. However, acculturation does not necessarily result in new, alien cultural traits completely
replacing the old ones. There often is a syncretism, or an amalgamation of traditional
and introduced traits. The new traits may be blended with or worked into the indigenous
cultural patterns to make them more acceptable.
Creole Society Theory Applied to the Caribbean

• Creolization is reinforced by a paradigm of white dominance and black subservience.
• In the Caribbean, different groups or cultures are placed in a superior/inferior
relationship to each other. This relationship has been Eurocentric in nature: the culture
of the whites was perceived as respectable and acceptable, whereas that of the blacks
was seen as inferior or unacceptable.
• Relationships are based upon a colour/class hierarchy.
• Acculturation is determined by the Eurocentric superiority in society. Dominant
colonial powers dictated the official cultures (language, religion or dress) in the
colonies.
• Native and acquired cultures are dependent on links with the homeland.
• Creolization applied mainly to the African–European relationship, which was true
until the mid-nineteenth century. Subsequently, one witnessed the arrival of many
other groups.
• Creolization presents a threat to Caribbean groups who are trying to preserve their
culture and heritage by excluding others.
• Among the reasons for Creolization were adaptation and survival. Creolization
and indigenization led to the creation of new cultural forms.
Weaknesses
• It considers mainly the European-African relationship, and has largely ignored the
other groups in the Caribbean such as East Indians or Chinese. For instance, in
Trinidad and Tobago, there exists a strong East Indian presence in the society, which
has had a significant impact on the society’s n a t i o n a l culture.
• The theory does not give enough weight to macro/structural factors in explaining the
shaping of society.
COLONIALISM AND CULTURE

A strong African influence pervades music, dance, the arts, literature, speech forms, and religious
practices in Latin America and the Caribbean. Africans, whether as enslaved peoples or as free
immigrants, brought a variety of African cultural influences to the New World. The experience
of slavery made it difficult to continue their ancestral patterns of living. In addition, they
came from different tribes in Africa and were themselves a diverse group, but wherever
possible, they did their best to reconcile reality with their beliefs. Like all other immigrant
groups, they abandoned some aspects of their culture, modified others, and created new forms.
As discussed earlier, this adaptation to local conditions is called Creolization. The number
of Africans, their proportion in local society, and the length of time they spent in any one place
were crucial to the development of an Afro-Caribbean culture. Though their culture has largely
been suppressed, a strong African sensibility persisted.
African immigrants were often marginalized, having to deal with a dominant European society
and culture. The African communities survived, and in some instances proliferated, but they
did so against the stiff and relentless competition of the European or ‘high’ culture. Aspects of
the African ethnic subculture were eventually adopted by the mainstream. In most societies of
the Caribbean, the descendants of the Africans formed the majority of the inhabitants. In the
essentially plantation societies of the Caribbean islands and Guyana, people of African ancestry
retained considerable control over their daily lives, despite the efforts of the politically dominant
group to restrain and coerce them. The lack of cultural homogeneity as well as the paucity of
the plantation elites provided an almost unique opportunity for the African masses to fashion
their own society and influence the ‘high’ culture.
Caribbean people speak variants of the standard European languages, whether the spoken
language is English, Spanish, French, or Dutch. The Creole dialect spoken in Haiti, though
with a largely French vocabulary has a significant African input. It therefore constitutes a
language of its own. In Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire, Papiamento, a blend of Dutch, Spanish,
and Portuguese, is one of the official languages. These Creole languages are not confined to
the poorer, unschooled classes. Creole has now been accorded greater respect in the literature
and political life of the islands.
Official acceptance modifies some forms of culture, for example, carnival. The French introduced
carnival around 1785. Alongside their elaborate masked balls, the slaves developed their own
parallel celebration using African rituals and folklore, but also imitating their masters’ behaviour.
After emancipation, the freed Africans began to host their own carnival celebrations in the streets,
and they grew more and more elaborate. For some time, the black population continued the
annual celebration of this carnival; the upper classes deplored carnival and tried to destroy it as a
public festival. By the early twentieth century, however, it had attracted all classes and races, and
currently it has official government support in The Bahamas, Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago,
and Brazil. Although folk festivals have earned respectability and their festivities are open to
all races and classes, the chief participants, for many aspects of these festivals, are still the
African-Caribbean people. In addition to the Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago, this also
applies to the Jonkonnu (John Canoe) in Jamaica and other territories. In some cases, however,
the transition from low to high culture has obscured the origins.
Caribbean Culture: Past and Contemporary

The term ‘Caribbean’ conjures up in the minds of outsiders, images of carnival, Voodoo, calypso,
beaches, palm trees, Rastafarians, reggae and rum. These stereotypical images are due, in part, to
the Caribbean governments’ proliferation of avid tourism campaigns often void of any historical
roots, the unwillingness of the Europeans to learn about and respect the psyche of other peoples,
and the acceptance and perpetuation of these stereotypes by Caribbean citizens themselves.
Further, the adherence to the above stereotypes serves another agenda, whether intentional
or not: it helps to conceal the multiplicity of interacting cultures in the Caribbean, and the
inherent conflicts in these cultures competing for legitimacy.
Culture in the Caribbean is multifaceted, dynamic, and rich. At a broad level, culture in the
Caribbean has emerged as a result of the fusion between European and African cultures,
and a later blending with cultural elements from Asia. At a more definitive level, culture in the
Caribbean spans, among others, popular, folk, resistance, religious, and class cultures. It is
the popular culture of the Caribbean that is amplified, while resistance culture, for example,
which has played a pivotal role in the emancipation of enslaved Africans and the fight of the
underclass, receives little fanfare. It is the latter culture that forged people like Marcus Garvey,
Paul Bogle, Uriah Butler, Maurice Bishop, and Walter Rodney.
One of the primary motivating forces behind early resistance culture among African-Caribbean
peoples was the search for an African identity. Sometimes slaves ran away and formed their own
communities. In Hispaniola, these ‘maroons’ even intermarried with the Arawaks. There
were maroon communities in all the territories, but they were hunted down and destroyed. The
only communities that survived were in Jamaica, Hispaniola, Cuba and Suriname (Greenwood
and Swamber 2003).
The Maroons in Jamaica, Saint Kitts, and Barbados, for example, waged 50 years of resistance
against plantation owners, and formed their own communities with their own leadership. In
addition to the relentless pressure on the sugar plantations from the Maroons, there were numerous
other rebellions. Toussaint L’Ouverture led Haiti to independence in a war against the French.
In Jamaica, Sam Sharpe led a plantation uprising in 1831, protesting the harsh treatment
under slavery. Paul Bogle led the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica in 1865. All these individuals
were protesting dehumanization and acculturation brought about by the European Slave Trade.
Even after the Africans were freed, they continued their resistance movement, refusing to work
for former slave owners, in an attempt to destroy the plantation economy.
While there were several other bloody uprisings throughout the Caribbean, Africans also waged
their resistance to slavery and cultural domination on other fronts. They fought back through
music, to express anger and frustration. The blaring of the abeng (cow horn) was a call to take
up arms. Drumming was used to dispel the forces perpetrating self-hatred and a rejection of
Africa. And though the drumming was forbidden, Africans resisted vehemently. They adapted
European music to suit their own needs, being forced to participate in it. Several forms of folk
music in the Caribbean reflect the fusion of African and European musical forms: the beguine
in Saint Lucia, mento in Jamaica, salsa in Cuba, and bossa nova in Brazil, are all examples
of this fusion.
Several other musical forms have emerged. Calypso, which originated in Trinidad and Tobago,
provided, and continues to provide, an excellent vehicle for social commentary. Jamaican reggae
music has its roots in the plight of the underclass, and is by far the most internationally known
form of Caribbean music. Artistes like Bob Marley, Bunny Wailer, Rita Marley, Judy Mowatt
and Steel Pulse have all been international ambassadors of reggae music. Reggae music is also
at the root of protest culture in Jamaica, as well as in some other parts of the Caribbean,
England, and North America. It is largely the Jamaican populace in those countries that help
to maintain the use of reggae in protesting racism and other forms of social injustice in
England, Canada, and the United States.
Afro-Trinidadians in the urban areas of Trinidad invented steel pan music, which was
initially dismissed by the upper class as noise. The instrument made from the steel drum has
its roots in the stick-fighting tradition. Stick-fighting was a way for Africans to demonstrate and
maintain their skill and prowess. When they participated in Carnival processions, Africans
performed stick-fighting rituals. The Africans also used their sticks to provide rhythmic sound.
To the slave-owners this was unsettling, as the sticks were effective weapons. This was soon
banned, and the Africans had to find other forms of rhythm. By hammering the surfaces of
drums and dividing the sections to produce different sounds, the steel pan was created. To the
Afro-Trinidadian, the steel drum made a powerful political statement – it symbolized African
creativity, power, and ownership.
The Rastafarian movement in Jamaica is another popular form of protest culture. Rastafarians
drew their inspiration from the teachings of Marcus Garvey. Garvey preached that black people
should return to Africa (Ethiopia) to reunite with their ancestors. Garvey also prophesied
that a black king would one day be crowned in Africa. This prophecy was fulfilled in the
1930s with the crowning of Ras Tafari (crowned Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia). The
two most basic beliefs of Rastafarians (or Rastas) are first that Ras Tafari (Haile Selassie) is
the Messiah and second that Africa (Ethiopia in particular) is the Promised Land. Though
his movement was extremely popular with the working class, Europeans and those Africans who
had by then become assimilated into European cultural values despised it.
Africans in the Caribbean fought to maintain their cultural traditions by forming clubs called
Nations in all the islands. Each nation had to pledge to preserve African language, culture,
religion, and music. As in the case of North America, much of the African resistance movement
was steeped in religion. Despite the attempts at Christianization, Africans were determined
to have their religions survive. The Orisha in Trinidad, Voodun in Haiti, Santeria in Cuba,
Puerto Rico, Brazil and the Dominican Republic, Kumina in Jamaica, and Umbanda and
Candomble in Brazil, are still surviving today as a result of this resistance. It is still possible to
find a midnight ceremony in progress in parts of Cuba and Haiti against the backdrop of
African drumming.
The church played a strong role in many uprisings. Sam Sharpe, Paul Bogle and George William
Gordon, were all Baptist preachers. The Africans formed their own churches in resistance to the
mainstream churches. In addition, churches provided an effective meeting place for Africans.
African-Caribbean resistance culture further manifests itself in educational issues. Today, there
is a major drive towards the reclamation of history and vocabulary. In post-emancipation Haiti,
a group of African writers formed what they called the Griots (Storytellers) society. They
were determined to erase the negative images of the African painted by Europeans.
A number of languages and dialects evolved in the Caribbean as a result of the imposition of the
slave-owner’s language on the African. Kweyol, which represents a fusion of African and French
(not broken French as many style it), is spoken in the French Antilles (Haiti, Martinique,
Guadeloupe, and French Guiana in South America). In the English colonies, a fusion of African,
and English (or French in some cases) led to other Creoles being developed, sometimes referred
to as patois. In the Dutch Antilles, the fusion of African, Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch is
called Papiamento. Papiamento, Patois and Kweyol were all perceived as inferior, as they represented
to the European elite the bastardization of their language. Class-seeking Africans and the mixed
African-Europeans also despised those languages. Nonetheless, the Africans recognized the
power in them. Kweyol, for example, played a very important role in the Haitian revolution.
These languages now form the vernacular of these islands because of the persistence of the
people who spoke them. Today, these languages enjoy prominence, and in some places, such
as in the French Antilles, and the Dutch Antilles, there are government-sponsored attempts
to document the language, and to create dictionaries. In that regard, the Dutch Antilles are
further ahead.
Today, resistance culture continues to describe a major part of the lives of Africans in the Diaspora.
Many of the injustices faced by our African ancestors in the Caribbean and in North America
are still being dealt with today. The use of churches, the formation of societies, the pens
of our writers (Griots), the use of vernacular poetry, calypso, and reggae music are all elements
of the contemporary resistance movement. This bears striking resemblance to the resistance
movement during the enslavement period. Though some aspects of early resistance culture
have crossed over to popular culture (namely, carnival, calypso, and reggae), these vehicles often
reflect a duality. They are in fact still used to defy much of the colonial baggage Caribbean
people still carry.
Activity 4.1
1. Match the following names with the statements below:
• M.G. Smith
• J.S. Furnivall
• Toussaint L’Ouverture
• E.K. Brathwaite
• Paul Bogle
• George Beckford
a. was the first to develop the concept of a plural society.

b. introduced the plural society theory to the English-speaking Caribbean.
c. associated with the Creole society theory.
d. associated with the plantation society theory.
e. led Haiti to independence in a war against the French.

f. led the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica in 1865.
2. Discuss the ways in which the culture of a named Caribbean territory has been influenced
by any two groups brought to the region during the period of colonialism.
East Indian Culture

East Indians were introduced mainly into Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname. A few
were introduced into other territories such as Jamaica, Grenada, Guadeloupe and Saint Lucia.
The Indians were to replace the labour that was previously provided by the enslaved Africans. The
majority of Indians came from North India, more specifically from the Gangetic Plains region of
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Oudh. They came under what was known as the ‘Indentureship’ system.
Under their contracts, the Indians were free to leave when their contracts ended; however, the
majority chose to stay in the Caribbean.
The Indians were located on settlements surrounding the plantations and they were allowed to
continue many of their ancestral traditions. These included East Indian family patterns, Indian
culinary practices, Indian fashions and patterns of worship. They were also allowed to establish
both temples and mosques shortly after their arrival in the West Indies. East Indians were allowed
more opportunities than the African slaves to retain their ancestral culture. However, with time,
their culture has inevitably undergone change and adaptation.
The most significant change among Indians occurred through the efforts of Christian missionaries,
especially the Canadian Mission. Churches and schools were established in Indian areas, leading
to substantial conversion to Presbyterianism. In Trinidad and Tobago, many Indians attained
social mobility through educational attainment at the schools of this mission.
East Indians were marginalized in Caribbean society, but contact with their ancestral homeland
was maintained through music, movies and missionaries. Indians have contributed to the rich
cultural landscape of the Caribbean in several ways: through Indian movies, Indian music, food,
clothing, and religious festivals.
Caribbean Popular Culture

Popular culture includes a range of expressions of creativity that are accessible to, produced
by, and enjoyed by the majority of a society. Popular culture has been one important means by
which, even during colonialism and slavery, people were able to express their identity. Popular
culture helped to preserve parts of the heritage of the various ethnic groups that were brought
into the region. Caribbean popular culture in recent years is being marketed all over the world.
Calypso, carnival, cricket, reggae, literature and the steel pan, have not gone unnoticed
across the globe. Most aspects of Caribbean popular culture originated among the grassroots in
society; but within recent times, a greater appreciation of Caribbean popular culture has
developed among all strata of society.
Carnival
Carnival, as celebrated in the Caribbean, originated in Trinidad and Tobago, and has been
exported to other territories. However, though always a celebration of joy, abandonment and
‘freeing up’ oneself, the format for the festival is somewhat different in specific territories, based
on their people’s specific interests and experiences. Carnival has also been promoted overseas by
West Indians in cities such as Montreal, New York, Toronto, and London.
As stated earlier, Carnival originated among the French planters. The word carnival comes from
the words carne and vale, meaning farewell to flesh. Carnival is celebrated on the Monday and
Tuesday before Ash Wednesday, which is the beginning of the Lenten season. The French and
Spanish played the major part in Carnival until 1838 when slavery was abolished. It is believed
that after the abolition of slavery, the slaves began to organize their own celebrations. Today, the
celebrations include very elaborate masquerade bands; people spend exhorbitant sums of money
to acquire costumes. This is a far cry from the origins of the celebrations, when it was the formerly
enslaved who were engaged in the festivities in the streets. In the past, the steel bands also played
the major role on the actual day when they played in the streets. Today, the steel bands have lost
some ground to the sound systems of disc jockeys who blast music from large trucks in the streets.
The Trinidad and Tobago Carnival is characterized by several competitions, which begin weeks
before the actual two days of celebrations. Competitions include Parade of the Bands, Calypso
competitions, Steel band competitions and many other events. Many tourists come to participate
in the celebrations, which have become a major source of revenue for many Caribbean territories.
Music
Music in the Caribbean has been following different trends. It is one of the most popular
forms of expression and is used by artistes to voice their opinions on the contentions in
local politics, on other current issues in their countries, or on global issues. Trinidad and
Tobago is well-known for its calypso, while Jamaica is famous for reggae, and Martinique
and Guadeloupe for zouk.
Trinidad and Tobago’s calypso has developed out of the rhythm of African songs that the enslaved
sang on the plantations as they worked. It is believed that the origin of the word ‘calypso’
was the African word ‘caiso’ which means ‘bravo’, a word that was used to praise a good
singer. Since the slaves were not allowed to talk as they worked, calypso was used as a form
of communication. The calypsoes were sung in French creole dialect, which is also known as
patois. After slavery, the tradition continued and grew into an attraction for tourists. The
musical accompaniment for calypso traditionally came from bamboo and rattles, but today it
includes drums, guitars, brass, steel pans and other instruments. Today, calypsoes are sung in
calypso tents that have become very popular around carnival time. In these tents, calypsonians
sing about current events, politics, and other issues of national and international concern.
Calypso has played an important part in the life of the African slaves and their descendants.
It has always been a source of expression – both political and social. Today it is the subject
of much debate. It is the subject of seminars in Trinidad and Tobago and is now being studied
at the university level. Famous calypsonians in Trinidad and Tobago include the Mighty Sparrow,
Lord Kitchener, and David Rudder.
Calypso, like most art forms, has been subject to evolution. Today, different forms of calypso also
incorporate other musical sounds such as American Soul and Disco, reggae and pop music. These
influences are evident in many calypsos. Other musical art forms that have evolved from the
calypso are soca, chutney, soca-chutney and other variations. These are relatively new art
forms and are really versions of calypso in which new influences have been incorporated.
The Mighty Sparrow or Slinger Francisco, also known as ‘the Birdie’, is sometimes referred to
as the ‘Calypso King of the World’. He was born on July 9, 1935, in Grenada, and his family
migrated to Trinidad and Tobago when he was just a little over one year old. He has won many
competitions and the University of the West Indies has also awarded him an honorary doctorate.
Reggae and Rastafarianism

Rastafarianism is rooted in the principles of black self-reliance and self-empowerment, combined
with a ‘back to Africa’ doctrine. Although Rastafarianism has inspired people since the 1930s, it
became more widely known internationally in the 1970s with the reggae music of Bob Marley.
Marley is credited with capturing the essence of Rastafarianism in his lyrics and introducing
these principles to the world.
Today, reggae is very popular throughout the world and its beat has been incorporated into
many American and British songs. Bob Marley, an ardent follower of Rastafarianism, contributed
significantly to the popularity of reggae.
Rastafarianism soon became an official religion in Jamaica and is now recognized throughout the
Caribbean and the rest of the world. Haile Selassie I, Emperor of Ethiopia, was acknowledged
as ‘God incarnate’, the ‘Black Messiah’ who would lead the peoples of Africa and the diaspora to
freedom. He was given the official titles, King of kings, Lord of lords, Conquering Lion of the
Tribe of Judah and Root of David. These are believed to be the titles of the returned Messiah
in The New Testament Book of Revelation. Today, Rastafarianism is a cultural force and has
spread to other parts of the Caribbean and the rest of the world, including Britain and
the United States.
Literature
Many writers from the Caribbean have made a name for themselves in the wider literary world.
Among these renowned novelists and writers are the following:
• Erna Brodber of Jamaica

• George Lamming of Barbados
• Wilson Harris of Guyana
• V.S. Naipaul of Trinidad and Tobago
• Derek Walcott of St Lucia
• Caryl Phillips of St Kitts
Many Caribbean writers focus on the folklore of the Caribbean, which is rooted strongly in
African folklore. The literature that emanates from the Caribbean is largely a reflection of life
in Caribbean society.
Each society of the Caribbean has its own folklore. Although the folklore of each territory
is quite different and diverse, its common thread is the allusion to African culture. In much of
the literature, the focus is on the lifestyles and relationships between the various groups in the
islands. La Diablesse or the Devil Woman, Anansi the trickster, Spiderman, the Soucouyant, Old
Higue, Douennes and Papa Bois are well-known characters in Caribbean folklore.
Activity 4.2
State whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE
a. Derek Walcott of Saint Lucia is an important literary figure.
b. Lloyd Best of Trinidad and Tobago is associated with the plantation society theory.
c. The British introduced Carnival to the Caribbean.

d. Rastafarianism originated in Africa.
e. African culture had little influence on Caribbean folklore.
f. The ‘zouk’ musical form is associated with Martinique and Guadeloupe.
g. Voodoo, Orisha and Santeria are examples of African-derived religions.
Vodun or Voodoo
Many of the slaves in Haiti came from the Dahomey area in Africa. These slaves brought their
ancestral religious practices with them, but were forced to practise their rituals secretly under
the restrictions of slavery. Voodoo believers worshipped several gods, one of whom was very
powerful and known as Vodun. Voodoo followers attribute powers to their different gods, and
they call on them for help and protection. The cult includes religious practices, dances, music,
medicine, art and rituals. Voodoo practices have often been viewed as evil, and have been met
with opposition from the traditional Christian religions. Santeria, a syncretic religion of
Caribbean origin, also has roots in Africa. It is a nature religion based on stones, seashells,
water and herbs. Yoruba slaves brought their deities, called Orishas, with them. Today, this
religion appears to have similarities to the Catholic religion. In the New World, Catholic
saints were identified as the Orishas in order to preserve the tradition. It incorporates the
worship of the Orisha (literally ‘head guardian’) and beliefs of the Yoruba and Bantu people in
Southern Nigeria, Senegal, and Guinea Coast. These are combined with elements of worship
from Roman Catholicism.
Cricket
Cricket has been a significant institution in the expression of the culture and identity of the
English-speaking Caribbean. Cricket was introduced by the British to control and ‘civilize’ the
people of the Caribbean. However, the sport has become a major form of Caribbean resistance to
the internal and external forces of control. Over the decades, especially from the mid-twentieth
century, the West Indies cricket team has had a tremendous impact on the international
game, with their own u n i q u e style, which has been dubbed ‘calypso’ cricket. Some of the
best players the world has ever seen have originated in the Caribbean: George Headley, Learie
Constantine, Frank Worrell, Malcolm Marshall, Vivian Richards, and Brian Lara among others.
According to C.L.R. James (1963), cricket goes ‘beyond a boundary’, as it explains the life of
the people of the region. The cricket arena is like a carnival stage where the culture of the
region is expressed through music, dance, and food.
Caribbean Culture and Globalization

Globalization and its attendant forces such as trade, technology and travel, made accessible
a wide range of attractive foreign cultural products. These have the potential to supersede what
already exists in the Caribbean if allowed to do so. These products are introduced by the internet,
television programmes, mostly from the United States, the growth of American fast-food outlets
such as Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), Burger King (BK), and Subway throughout the region,
and exposure to the way of life of the metropolitan cities, through ease of travel. In other words,
the region, through the new forces of globalization, is further challenged to maintain its
cultural identity.
Conclusion
Caribbean culture is rich and diverse. The culture is steeped in the history of the region
and involves aspects originating from the different people (Spanish, French, Dutch, British,
Chinese, Syrians, Portuguese, East Indians and others) who occupied the Caribbean at one time
or another. Each country’s culture arises out of a common heritage, that of slavery, yet the culture
of each territory is unique in many ways.
There is no gainsaying that the peoples of the Caribbean have fought hard to maintain their
cultural heritage despite the forces of colonialism. However, the peoples of the Caribbean
are now faced with a new cultural challenge in the form of globalization.
Activity 4.3
Attempt any two of the following essays.
1. To what extent can the cultural diversity of the Caribbean be explained by the history
of the region?
2. Discuss the relative impact of indentureship and slavery i n t h e C a r i b b e a n upon

culture change among East Indians and Africans respectively.
3. Critically discuss major issues underlying the racial and ethnic antagonism in Caribbean
society today.
Activity 4.4
Essay Questions
1. Which of the following theories is most appropriate for the analysis of continuity and
change in Caribbean society?
a. The Plural Society Theory

b. The Creole Society Theory
c. The Plantation Society Theory
2. Present an outline of the most significant influences on the evolution of contemporary
Caribbean culture.
3. ‘The Caribbean was artificially created to serve the economic needs of the European
colonists.’ Discuss.
4. Define popular culture. Describe the role and function of any two aspects of popular
culture in Caribbean society.
5. The Caribbean territories have been importing culture from countries external to the
region. Outline and discuss three measures that can be adopted by Caribbean governments
to promote the region’s culture in an effort to resist the dominance of foreign cultures.
UNIT 1 - MODULE 2
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS:
FAMILY, RELIGION AND EDUCATION
CHAPTER 5
THE FAMILY
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the chapter students should be able to:
1. explain the characteristics, functions and transformations of the Caribbean family;
2. discuss the various family types in the Caribbean;
3. evaluate different theoretical perspectives commonly used for the analysis of the Caribbean
family;
4. discuss the issues associated with Caribbean families.
CONTENT
i. Family Theoretical Perspectives; Functionalism; Conflict; Interactionist; Feminist
perspectives; social pathology.
ii. Family types in the Caribbean: nuclear, extended, joint, reconstituted, matrifocal, other.
iii. Ethnic diversity and Caribbean kinship. Two of the following: Afro Caribbean; Indo-
Caribbean; Indigenous peoples.
iv. Changing Caribbean kinship patterns (rates of marriage and divorce, men and fatherhood,
female-headed households, single-parent households, family ‘break-down’); the impact of
slavery, indentureship, migration and contemporary factors.
v. Family and Gender (the changing role of women and men in the family).
vi. Problems associated with the family: domestic violence, child abuse, conjugal separation,
divorce, and teenage pregnancy.
Introduction
The family is one of the oldest social institutions, which George Peter Murdock (1949)
defined as ‘a social group characterized by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction’
(Murdock 1949).
According to Murdock, the family ‘includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain
a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, their own or adopted, of the
sexually cohabiting adults’ (Murdock 1949).
Human beings have always lived in family structures of some kind in which they cooperate,
and work together for the well being of all the members. The family in most cultures has
always been understood as an institution which unites people and which is responsible for the
care and upbringing of children.
In all societies, human beings organize themselves into units such as families or households
based on:
• a biological relationship,
• marriage or
• kinship.
The family may vary in organization, and its specific form may be related to social and
cultural factors. The family plays a key role in all societies since it serves to socialize the young
members (primary socialization) into the norms and values of the society.
In most societies, families may involve some sort of marriage or union, whether symbolic or
sanctioned by the law. A marriage may be defined as a legally or socially sanctioned relationship
between two individuals, which usually involves economic cooperation, as well as sexual activity.
Traditionally, the primary purpose of marriage was procreation, that is, marriage was seen as
the most socially acceptable means through which individuals could express their sexual desires
and ensure the continuity of the human species. This continuity took two forms: first and most
directly, it allowed for sexual reproduction and the provision of a nurturing environment for the
young; second, it allowed for the socio-cultural continuity of society through the passing down
of norms and values.
Today, the purpose of marriage has been expanded, and reproduction is no longer seen as the
sole reason for getting married. Moreover, in some cases, relationships are entered into without
either partner having the intention of producing offspring.
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Types of Families
Family types include those that involve polygamous or monogamous unions. Polygamous
families are those in which the husband or wife has more than one spouse simultaneously. There
are two forms of polygamy:
• Polygyny – where a man has multiple partners or spouses

• Polyandry – where a woman has multiple partners or spouses
Polygamy is more readily found in traditional societies, as opposed to modern industrial society. It
is also important to note that polygyny has been found to be much more common than polyandry.
Examples of polygynous and polyandrous societies respectively are Mardudjara of Australia and
The Tibetan, Toda, Sherpa, and Marquesan.
In contrast, a monogamous marriage is one in which two partners commit to each other, either
through religious and/or legal means. It is a union in which an individual has only one spouse
during his/her lifetime. Monogamy, however, is not limited to marriage and also refers to being
committed to one partner during the course of a relationship.
Monogamous marriages are often regarded as the ‘norm’ in modern industrial society; however,
polyamorous unions where there are multiple partners at times living within the same household
are becoming a focus of contemporary research on family types in modern society.
The Nuclear Family

The nuclear family, also known as the traditional family, or the ‘cereal packet’ family, consists of
two adults (a mother and a father) and their unmarried offspring. This is often regarded as the
most basic unit of social organization. The members of a nuclear family may be related to
one another by blood, marriage, or adoption and share a common residence.
In previous times, nuclear families were larger than those of today, which are small in size. Some
factors which have brought about the change in the size of the nuclear family are: urbanization,
the changing role of women, and economic conditions within the family and/or society.
The Extended Family

In addition to a nuclear family, the extended family includes additional generations and relations.
It may consist of two or more adults from different generations of a family, who share a common
household.
In addition to parents and children, the extended family may include other relatives such as
cousins, aunts, uncles, and grandparents. The extended family may live together for various
reasons. In many instances it provides financial and emotional support to help to raise children,
or it may be a convenient arrangement to support an ill or elderly relative.
Sometimes children may be raised by their grandparents when their biological parents have
died, migrated or are unable to take care of them financially or otherwise. In these domestic
situations, the grandparents may be primarily responsible for the care of the children.
There are two types of extended families: the vertically extended (consanguine) and the
horizontally extended (joint). The vertically extended family or consanguine family may be
one-, two- or even three-generation families. The possibility of the three-generation family has
increased with greater life expectancy. More than likely, extended families evolve from nuclear
families.
Horizontally extended families or joint families are those that are extended as a result of the
siblings introducing their spouses into the households. The household is eventually extended
to include their children as well. This type of family is more prevalent in North India or among
members of the Indian Diaspora.
Murdock’s (1949) definition of the family suggests that the nuclear family is the most ‘usual’
and functional form of family arrangement. However, Giddens (2008) extends the concept
of family to include kinship. Kinship is a social bond which is based on blood, marriage or
adoption and which joins individuals into families. These connections may be the result
of biological relationships or marital links. Kinship units normally play a more significant role
in non-industrial societies. In the Caribbean, the concept of ‘family’ often includes the wider
kinship network. The most important characteristic of both the nuclear family and the extended
family, is the shared financial arrangements and support.
The Reconstituted Family

This family type, also known as the blended family, is formed through the union of people who
were previously married to others. This may occur through death of a spouse or divorce between
previous partners. In many cases, each partner comes into the n e w marriage o r u n i o n
with children from their former marriage. This may present additional challenges such as
the allocation of roles and responsibilities within the family. There will be a need for defining
the role of the ‘new daddy’ and ‘new mommy,’ while at the same time giving consideration to
the child’s/children’s other parent, who is not part of the new family. There may also be clashes
of personalities as children may now be living with other children with whom they only had
brief encounters prior to their parents’ marriage.
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Problems of Definition
Murdock’s claim regarding the universal ‘nuclear type’ family has been widely criticized.
The definition of the family as advanced by Murdock has been widely challenged, not only by
theorists but also by the mere existence of the diverse family forms today. Although Murdock
assumes the norm to be a nuclear family type, many exceptions have been identified. These
include the following:
1. Single-Parent Households
In many industrialized societies such as the United States and Europe, there is a growing
proportion of single-parent families. This is also the case in many Caribbean societies where
there is a predominance of the matrifocal (female headed) households. This type of family
structure has raised questions about the universality of the nuclear family. The traditional family
(as defined by Murdock) may be under threat of dissolution. Single-parent families may
originate through divorce, separation, desertion, abandonment or from the death of a spouse. In
some instances, they are due to the tendency among some women today to be career-oriented,
and may choose to parent a child outside of marriage.
2. Sibling Families
Another uncommon family type that Murdock did not take into consideration is the sibling
family. This type of family, which is also found in the Caribbean, can be defined as a unit where
an older brother or sister is the head of the household. No parents are present in this family type.
Some of the reasons for the absence of parents may include migration of parents to a foreign
country, death, imprisonment, or desertion by parents.
3. The Nayar in Kerala

This is another type of family that did not fit Murdock’s definition. Among the Nayar in
Kerala, South India, a matrilineal situation existed, where the woman entered several short-term
relationships with different men. The mother and her relatives carried out family responsibilities,
and husbands/fathers contributed little to the maintenance and upbringing of children. Long-
term sexual relationships did not exist, and the male and female did not constitute an economic
unit. This family type is no longer in existence.
4. Same-sex Marriages
With the legalization of same-sex marriages in some societies, such as some states in the United
States, some European countries, South Africa and more recently Argentina a new family type
has emerged. This family type may also include children, who may be from previous marriages,
adopted or conceived through surrogate mothers by artificial insemination.
Activity 5.1
1. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
a. Polyandry and polygyny

b. Endogamy and exogamy
c. Patrilocal and matrilocal
d. Patriarchal and egalitarian family
e. Patrilineal and matrilineal descent
f. Extended and nuclear family
2. In no more than two lines each, briefly explain the following terms, using examples
where possible.
a. Serial monogamy
b. Polygyny
c. Joint family
d. Matrifocal family
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE FAMILY

Sociologists have presented different perspectives on the family. Functionalists view the family
as performing functions which are necessary for the survival of society as a whole as well as its
members. Conflict theorists, on the other hand, perceive the family as an oppressive mechanism
for some members of society, namely the working class or proletariat. Feminism offers a view of
the family in which women hold a disadvantaged position; this has traditionally been the position
of women although the extent to which this still exists is highly debatable. Interactionists focus
on the interaction among family members, and unlike the macro-theorists, give deeper insights
into the inner workings of families. Social Pathology is a model which emerged in the 1930s in
order to explain features of Caribbean families which were seen as dysfunctional to the colonial
powers. These perspectives and theories will now be discussed.
The Family | 133
Functionalism
For Functionalists or Consensus theorists, the family like all other social institutions has prescribed
functions which are necessary for the society as a whole to operate smoothly and with little or no
conflict. Early Structural Functionalists such as Herbert Spencer used the analogy of an organism
to explain the operation of the society. An organism consists of different parts, each of which
contributes to the equilibrium and well-being of the organism. For Functionalists, society is
made up of a series of interrelated parts that contribute to the smooth operation of the social
system. Each part functions to meet the needs or ‘functional prerequisites’ of the total structure.
The integration among the various parts assists in maintaining the order and stability of the
whole. This is provided by value consensus and patterned relationships. The Functionalist
approach looks at the effectiveness of the family in relation to its ability to carry out functions
essential for stability and continuity in society.
According to the Functionalist perspective, the family is a social institution which is vital to
maintaining order and stability in society. They see the family as contributing to order through
the functions that it performs.
For Murdock, in traditional societies, the family performs four central functions that are necessary
for the survival of society. The family facilitates the following:
• Companionship and sexual gratification

• Reproductive functions
• Economic functions
• Educational or Socialization functions.
Companionship and Sexual Gratification

The family provides members with opportunities to develop regular face-to-face communication
and intimate relationships. All societies have norms and values with regard to marital relationships
and patterns of sexual behaviour. In many societies, heterosexuality is regarded as the ‘normal way
of life.’ Consequently, a system of norms, values and practices develop in order to foster ‘safe’,
‘acceptable’ unions between males and females. This may lead to arranged marriages in some
cultures, such as rural India and dating in others, such as the United States of America.
Many traditional cultures support heterosexual unions, and sexual relations within the
framework of marriage. They also have some form of ceremony to formalize marital relationships.
The purpose of these unions is to provide security for both partners. Traditionally, this aspect
was especially important for women as their role was believed to be in the domestic sphere.
Marriage or committed unions also provide a sense of comfort to both partners; companionship
leads to contentment and thus, in Functionalist terms they are both better able to cope with
everyday stresses and perform their roles in society.
Exogamy is the cultural norm in which people marry outside a particular group, while endogamy
allows people to marry within the same lineage, group, class, village, or race. Family and societal
norms therefore control sexuality and provide emotional and psychological stability for adults.
Reproductive Functions
As previously discussed, Murdock saw the family as comprising adults of both sexes who engage
in a socially approved sexual relationship. The family provides a space within which desires
can be fulfilled in a manner which is not harmful to the wider society. Sex is part of marriage
and is the acceptable means by which reproduction takes place. The family provides a stable
framework for procreation, thereby providing new members of society with the expectation
of care and compassion associated with parenting. This function ensures the continuity of
society through the replacement of passing generations.
Economic Function
A key function of the family, according to Murdock, is the provision of economic needs for its
members. These are the means of subsistence which are necessary both for human survival and
comfort. The family provides for the economic needs of its members, especially the younger
members, the elderly, the ill and the incapacitated. These members are usually unable to care
for themselves.
Societal norms will also define the economic roles of adult members. Murdock examined the
division of labour in the nuclear family along the lines of sex. Men, due to their physical strength,
have the responsibility of provider, that is, they are responsible for working outside of the home
and providing an income for their family. Women, on the other hand, are characterized as the
caregiver due to their biological abilities to give birth, and feed babies. As a result, Murdock’s
historical analysis of the nuclear family showed that women had been assigned the role of taking
care of the home and children.
Educational or Socialization Functions

The family is the agent of primary socialization. Being the first institution responsible for
primary socialization, it prepares the child for his/her role in society. The family provides the
The Family | 135
child’s first contact with society. Through the creation of a safe, nurturing environment, the
family provides the structure within which norms and values can be transmitted to the young.
This is particularly the case where there is an extended family or where kinship networks play an
important part in the upbringing of the child. The notion that ‘it takes a village to raise a child’
may be mentioned here as the family operates within the wider society. The family is supposed
to link the individual to the society. Norms, values, beliefs, mores and folkways should be in
tandem with the larger society or culture. In this way, through the family the child learns about
society and what is expected of him/her in the public space. Thus, the family equips the child
with all the knowledge and skills necessary for functioning as a useful and productive member
of society (primary socialization).
In modern societies, some institutions such as the school are also responsible for socializing
young children. Many norms and values which are important to their functioning in society
as young adults are conveyed by nurseries, pre-school facilities and day care centres. These
agencies are today performing many of the functions that were previously performed by
the family in traditional societies.
The Modern Family

The family is constantly evolving to meet the changing needs of its members. It is not seen as
an institution leading to social change, but instead, one that adapts to social change. According
to Parsons, as society becomes modernized, institutions specialize in fewer functions. He sees
the modern family as one example of this, as it has been reduced to just two basic functions:
• the socialization of children, and

• the stabilization of adult personalities.
Historically the family was a traditional unit of production. In modern industrialized societies,
specialist organizations such as factories, schools and health services are now performing some
of the functions previously performed by the family. Nowadays the family can become more
specialized in its functions. Since it is isolated from the wider kin, closer and warmer ties develop
between husband and wife. This is good for the harmony of family, institutions and society.
This view presents a conservative stance and suggests that the contemporary Western family, the
nuclear family, is the best possible organization of a family. This family form lives in isolation
from the wider kinship network.
Figure 5.1 shows some of the changes taking place in the American family from 1970–2000.
Figure 5.1: Households by Type in the US, 1970–2000
Household by Type: Selected Years, 1970–2000

(Percent distribution)
1.7 Nonfamily households

3.6 4.6 5.7 Other nonfamily households
11.5
14 14.9 14.8
5.6 Women living alone
8.6
10.6 9.7
10.7 Men living alone
12.9
14.8 Family households
16
Other Family households
30.3
29.9
29.8
28.7
Married couples without
own children
40.3
30.9
26.3 24.1
Married couples with
own children
1970 1980 1990 2000

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, March Supplements: 1970–2000
Conflict Perspective
The conflict or Marxist perspective often offers a critical and radical view of the family. For
the Marxists, the family is not necessarily a haven of love and protection from the social world
as the Functionalists advocate. Rather, Marxists purport that this unit acts as an institution of
exploitation that is designed solely to meet the needs of the capitalist economic system. The
institution of the family, therefore, is a system of power relations that reinforces and reflects the
inequalities in society.
Marxists believe that the family has four major roles. The family is:
1. An agent of reproduction – To Frederich Engels, the family initially emerged from the need
to ensure paternity amongst the Bourgeoisie. Secondly, with the rise of capitalism, Marxists
The Family | 137
contend that a large Proletarian or working class family is essential to the reproduction of
the labour force.
2. An agent of economic production – Pre-capitalist society necessitated subsistence production
(i.e., the production of basic needs). Hence, individuals chose to have numerous children as
more children meant a larger workforce.
3. An agent of female subjugation – Engels contends that the family unit oppresses women
since women provide unpaid services, particularly in the area of household chores and
childcare.
4. A prop to the capitalist system – Marxists also believe that the capitalist system benefits
from the family because of a variety of reasons. Firstly, the family provides unpaid labour
rendered by women and children. Further, the worker is refreshed daily from the rest and
comfort he receives from his/her home and can face the stresses of the workplace. Finally,
the family is a major consumer of capitalist products.
In general, conflict theorists posit that the family is an institution of subjugation and exploitation
and is subject to the same conflicts and tensions that characterize the rest of society. Families are
not isolated from the problems facing society as a whole.
The Feminist Perspective

In recent decades, Feminism has probably had more influence on the study of the family than
any other sociological approach. In addition to the Marxist perspective, the Feminist theory also
provides a revolutionary view of the family. Feminists’ main concern, however, is the negative
effects of family life on women. Feminist theory sees the family as contributing to the exploitation
of women in society. Such exploitation is seen either as a consequence of the woman’s subordinate
position in the family or as a result of the impact of the capitalist system.
Radical Feminism
According to Ann Oakley (1974) in The Sociology of Housework, women are exploited in
contemporary society. The main assertion is that the family is the foremost means of maintaining
male dominance over women. She points out that:
1 . Gender roles are culturally and not biologically determined;
2 . There is no evidence to show that there are some tasks more suited for men or women in
societies, for example, that women are better suited to do housework and to take care of
children;
3 . Although women are now in the workforce, they are still expected to maintain their role
as housewife; thus women are asked to do two jobs, yet seen as unimportant;
4 . Women’s role as housewife ensures that they remain subordinate to men; the role of
men is seen as more important since it is outside of the home and they earn the income
for the family;
5 . The housewife’s role, which is allocated to women, has no status, is unpaid but takes
precedence over all other roles;
6 . The patriarchal nature of the family exploits women and keeps them oppressed in society.
According to Oakley, women will gain their freedom in society only if the division of labour,
based on sex, the roles of housewife, and the present family structures, change drastically.
Margaret Benston (1969), a Marxist feminist, in ‘The Political Economy of Woman’s Liberation’
argues that the capitalist system leads to the exploitation of women. According to Benston,
1 . capitalism leads to exploitation of women in the home; women perform housework but
are unpaid;
2 . the family acts in the interest of men and employers, and is disadvantageous to women;
3 . the family socializes its members into the dominant value system of the ruling class.
Criticisms
The following criticisms have been made about feminist theories:
1. feminist theory focuses too much on the role of women at the expense of other
family members;
2. the concept of a patriarchal structure is too generalized;
3. the implication that all women are exploited in the family is overstated.
The Feminist perspective presents an alternative to the traditional perspective of the family,
where women are seen as providing the expressive functions, and are in a subordinate role to
the income-earning husband.
The Family | 139
Social Pathology
This thesis, developed in the Caribbean, considers the family within the context of certain social
problems. The approach was followed by the West Indian Royal Commission of 1937, which
concluded that the man in West Indian society was not viewed as the head of the household.
It also identified the woman as the supporter of the home and claimed that promiscuity and
illegitimacy were prevalent. As a result of this report, a team from the Colonial office was sent
to investigate the problem.
The main objectives of the Colonial Officials were:
1 . to identify the problems of family life among the poor in the Caribbean; and
2 . to devise a programme to deal with the social problems of Caribbean society.
The problems they identified were as follows:
1 . Family life was seen as loose and unstable, and relationships appeared to be casual.
2 . Conjugal ties were occasionally faithful and enduring but were more often ‘promiscuous’
and ‘transitory.’
3 . The father’s contact with children was irregular, and because of poverty he was usually
unable to provide economic support.
4 . Children were illegitimate, effectively fatherless, unschooled and subject to severe parental
discipline.
5 . The crisis in Caribbean family life brought with it a range of social problems. The
problems of society are attributable to the inadequacies and weaknesses of the family.
The reader is advised to consult Christine Barrow’s book, Family in the Caribbean for
further details.
Solutions were attempted as follows:
1 . The central concern was to persuade people to adopt what was deemed the ‘superior’
co-residential, nuclear family sanctioned by marriage and producing legitimate offspring.
2 . Policies were implemented to try to alter the structure of lower-class African families. It
was felt that this would improve and develop the ‘moral’ and ‘social well-being’ of Caribbean
societies. There was, for example, an island-wide campaign to encourage marriages in
Jamaica.
Criticisms of the Colonial Officers’ report include the following:
1. Social pathology was seen as ethnocentric: the Caribbean family was seen as a failure since
it did not meet Western Christian standards.
2. Data collection, though superficial and biased, nevertheless provided the basis for an
assumed understanding of family forms in the Caribbean, and thereby misrepresented what
was perceived as shortcomings.
Table 5.1 shows the percentage distribution of woman aged 15–49 years by marital/
union status according to age group in Haiti and Jamaica.
Table 5.1: Marital Status of Women 15–49 years in Haiti (1994–95, 2000) and
Jamaica (1993, 2000)
The Family | 141
Table 5.2 shows the percentage distribution of woman aged 15–49 years by marital/
union status according to age group in the Dominican Republic and Mexico.
Table 5.2: Marital Status of Women 15–49 years in the Dominican Republic
(1991, 1996) and Mexico (1986)
Activity 5.2
Choose the most appropriate response to the following:
1. According to the Functionalists, which of the following is best suited to modern industrial
society?
a. extended family
b . nuclear family
c. joint family
d. symmetrical family
2. Which of the following is made up of two or more adults from different generations in
the same household?
a. extended family
b. nuclear family
c. joint family
d. symmetrical family
3. Which of the following theorists is not a Functionalist?
a. Parsons
b. Murdock
c. Weber
d. Durkheim
4. According to the literature, which of the following is not viewed as a contributory factor
to the widespread occurrence of matrifocal family forms in the Caribbean?
a. Plantation slavery
b. The African heritage
c. Economic factors/Culture of Poverty
d. Promiscuity
The Family | 143
5. According to the literature, which of the following is not viewed as a significant influence
on the family worldwide?
a. Ageing
b. Ethnic conflict
c. Increased migration
d. HIV/AIDS
ETHNIC DIVERSIT Y AND CARIBBEAN KINSHIP

The evolution of family forms in the Caribbean has been influenced by the region’s unique history.
The variety of family forms is representative of both the region’s historical experience as well as its
contemporary life. The Caribbean has been referred to as an ‘artificially created’ region (Patterson
1973). This means that many aspects of its culture have not been indigenous, but instead have
been transplanted and adapted from other societies and cultures. This has resulted in a diversity
of ways of life in Caribbean societies, one example of which is the family. The cultural traditions
and heritage of the many groups of people which came to the Caribbean – including Europeans,
Africans, and East Indians – have contributed to the diversity of family forms in the region. In
addition, factors such as slavery, indentureship and colonialism have also contributed in some
way to the present day family forms. Diverse kinship patterns and forms of family organization
are to be found in Caribbean society.
The African Caribbean Family

Within the Afro-Caribbean population, women have been acknowledged as the backbone
of the family. Marriage is not considered necessary for procreation, and many women may
choose to have and raise children independently. Some of the resultant family formations are
adaptations to economic and social conditions. For this reason, there is a high prevalence of
family forms such as the matrifocal household, visiting unions and common-law union among
the Afro-Caribbean population.
In the lower classes, marriage usually occurs after the children have been born. European theorists
viewed the Caribbean family as ‘dysfunctional.’ Children are in many instances brought up by
relatives for the greater part of their lives. This may be because the relatives are childless, or
because these relatives may be able to offer the children better opportunities because of their
close proximity to educational facilities, or even to offer the children better living conditions. It
may also be as a result of the absence of one or both parents from the traditional family structure
for various reasons. In the latter instances, even though one or both parents are absent, they may
contribute financially to the child’s upbringing.
According to Herskovits (1964) and Frazier (1939), the lower-class Afro-Caribbean family was
‘maternal’ and frequently extended, and rates of illegitimacy were high. Herskovits (1964) argued
that the Africans brought with them cultural practices that they retained while enslaved on the
plantation system. One of these practices was polygamy. The affective bonding and structural
closeness was between a mother and her child or children. The husband or father was marginal
to the group. Herskovits maintained that this pattern of behaviour persisted in the Caribbean
family forms. It is for this reason that men are seen as having marginal roles within the family,
while mothers are seen as leaders and supporters of the household.
According to Oscar Lewis (1966) poverty impacts on the poor at three levels – the individual, the
family and the community – and becomes a cultural design for living. Males tend to abandon
their families when they are unable to fulfil their expected male function of financial provider for
the family. Hence, the responsibility of maintaining the family falls upon the female with regard
to both economics and nurturing.
Economics also plays a major role in family structure, and is by no means unimportant in the
Caribbean. Unemployment and poverty have in many instances been responsible for absentee
parents with one or both parents migrating to earn a living elsewhere, leaving the children behind
in the care of a relative, usually the grandparent. Some writers see this practice as having the
advantage of being part of a global network.
Edith Clarke (1957), in My Mother Who Fathered Me, stated that family structure in Jamaica was
dependent on economic conditions, social status and the stability of the relationship between
the couple. According to her, it was not considered proper for a man to propose marriage unless
he owned a house and was able to support a family. It was also considered derogatory for a wife
to ‘go out to work’. She indicated that men enjoyed talking about sexual prowess and it was a
status factor to have fathered children from different conquests. Generally, cohabitation prior to
marriage was not frowned upon as this was seen as providing evidence of stability between partners.
The East Indian Family in the Caribbean

In countries such as Trinidad and Tobago, and Guyana, where the East Indian population
is large, family patterns are very different from those of Africans. While the African family
structures are more matriarchal, East Indian families are patriarchal in nature. According to
Morton Klass (1961) this was because of their kinship ties. In Klass’ study of Central Trinidad,
an area with a predominantly East Indian population, he indicated that kinship relations were
of vital importance in the life of the East Indian. The first allegiance of the members of the
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East Indian family is to family, next of kin and those held in high esteem. As a result of strong
kinship ties, marriage is in accordance with the taboos involved in kinship. There are also strict
guidelines dictating marriage practices. For example, marriage is prohibited among any form
of kin to the family, such as a close relative, even first and second cousins.
In the traditional East Indian family, authority is in the hands of the older males in society, and
those who go against the wishes of elders will be ostracized from the community kin.
This ensures conformity. On account of kinship ties, the family structure is extended. Marriage
is strongly encouraged and is used to strengthen kinship ties.
Klass explained that the presence of the extended family is a feature of the East Indian heritage.
According to his study, women tend to marry young, and seldom engaged in visiting relationships,
as did African women, while in their father’s home. Family tended to have a strong patriarchal
influence. Klass attributed these patterns of behaviour to Hindu and Muslim cultures and
the fact that East Indians have retained or recreated them in the Caribbean, especially in
Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname.
Changing Family Patterns

Family forms in the Caribbean have been undergoing changes. This has resulted in changing
family and kinship patterns that are emerging as a result of modernization and acculturation.
The Nuclear Family – This unit comprises husband, wife and child/children. It is more common
in the upper and middle classes of society. The traditional theorists have always viewed the
nuclear family as the ideal family structure. However, in the Caribbean there have been several
modifications to the nuclear family.
The Visiting Union – This is a relationship where the mother and her children live separately
from the male in the union. The male visits from time to time. R.T. Smith (1956) stated
that such relations are found in low-income African families. The woman, in order to support
herself and her children, may enter into a relationship with another man who provides her with
economic support. A large number of first-born children may be born to visiting relationships,
some of which may later lead to common-law unions.
Common-Law or Consensual Unions – Common-law relationships share many similarities

with the nuclear family, without being legally formalized. Spouses may be committed to each
other but because of personal, social and economic factors may not have been married legally.
This relationship is more common among the Afro-Caribbean communities. Among the early
East Indians it may have been common since, although they were married through their religious
ceremony, the respective laws of their territories did not legally recognize the marriage. In many
instances, these marriages may not have been registered in keeping with the law, although it may
have been socially sanctioned within their culture. As a result, many who were married according
to their ancestral religious traditions were not considered to be legally married.
Common-law relationships in many islands have implications for inheritance. In many Caribbean
countries, since these marriages were not formalized legally, individuals could not lay claim
to the estate of their deceased spouses. In some countries such as Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica
and Barbados, the laws have now been amended to recognize the rights of individuals in such
unions. For instance, in Trinidad and Tobago, the Cohabitational Relationship Act was passed in
1998 which meant that, if certain conditions were met, the union was viewed as legal by the State.
The Caribbean Matrifocal Family – The household is female-headed and authority is in

the hands of the woman. There are no resident husbands, nor are there necessarily long-term
sexual relationships. These families are usually more affected by poverty than the nuclear
family and the extended family forms.
In the Caribbean, there is a kinship system that R.T. Smith (1973) described as bilateral. In
this system there is a separation of the domestic domain from the economic and political
domain. This leads to a division of labour by gender, in which women’s roles are in the domestic
domain where they focus on child-rearing and household chores. In this arena, the woman
is the focal point of the family and the role of the male, if he is present, is marginal. Power
and authority are in the hands of the female. This type of family structure is found mainly
among people of African origin and there are several explanations for its existence:
1. A consequence of African Retentions (Herskovits et al. 1947) – Africans brought with

them their cultural traits, one being the cultural pattern of polygamy. The father or
male has several wives and so his role in each home is marginal. According to Herskovits,
this has persisted in the Caribbean.
2. A consequence of the Plantation system of slavery (M.G. Smith 1965) – Matrifocality is
dominant in the Caribbean because of the legacy of slavery. Under slavery, stable family
life was impossible since males were sold in order to break the unions. As a result, males
tended to be marginal to the relationship and this trend has persisted after emancipation.
On the plantation, the men were often kept in separate living and sleeping quarters from
the women and children and this practice may have also influenced familial and kinship
patterns for the descendants of the enslaved population.
3. A consequence of Economic Factors (Oscar Lewis 1966) – Official statistics indicate that
over 35 per cent of families in the Caribbean are female-headed households. Matrifocality
is linked to the existence of poverty among lower-class Afro-Caribbean families.
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The males are unable to support the family economically. As a result, they are unable
to meet their responsibilities of fatherhood. Matrifocality is a characteristic of the
subculture of poverty.
Caribbean Trends
In the Caribbean today, there are numerous changes taking place within the family structures.
Single parenting is becoming popular in modern industrialized societies. As a result of the
changing roles of women, family stability is no longer as strong as before, and divorce rates are
increasing. Women are now seeking independence from troubled marriages. Fathers are also not
taking responsibility for children and it is left to the women to support their children both
financially and emotionally. However, these changes occurring in the family in the Caribbean
are not unique but are taking place in families globally.
In most societies, there is a division of labour within the family. The role of the mother and father
are generally conceptualized as distinct social roles. In most societies, some form of marriage,
involving legal sanction or social acceptance, is seen as the best framework for child-rearing
(nuclear family model). Many theorists have criticized alternative family forms such as the
single-parent or extended matrifocal family as being dysfunctional since it lacks male role models,
and is therefore one of the root causes of problems in society.
Activity 5.3
Essay Assignment
From the literature, outline three explanations for the high incidence of single parent households
in the Caribbean. Which of these appears to be the most plausible explanation? Give reasons
for your answer.
FAMILY AND GENDER

It has been suggested that women’s roles have changed since they have greater opportunities to
choose whether to be a housewife and mother, or to have a career, or both. It is also suggested
that men take a greater part in domestic duties. The role of both men and women is changing
for the following reasons:
1. Educational Changes
Women have greater opportunities to improve their education. Many are able to gain access
to higher education and, therefore, to gain jobs previously held by men.
2. Economic Changes
There are many more women in the workforce than previously. As a result of technology, jobs
previously held by men through physical prowess are now open to women, since little physical
strength is now required. According to Marxist theorists, women also help to keep men in check.
They accept lower wages and if men refuse to work, they are ‘the reserve army of labour’ ready
to fill the positions.
Some researchers, citing the increased divorce rate, suggest that family life is adversely affected by
the changing role of women. As a result of paid employment, women are more independent and
therefore rely less on the male for their economic needs. They have more options open to
them than previously, since they can take care of themselves and their children on their own.
Many families’ living standards have improved through the added income of working women.
Other Changes
a. Family size is affected since women who are working tend to have children late in life
(after being established in their careers) and as a result they have fewer children. Increased
focus on their careers also means a smaller family size.
b. Authority in the home is also affected. Since both spouses work, decision-making is more
egalitarian. In many instances, there is no longer a sole breadwinner.
c. In some cases, men may resent and resist having women work in jobs that are regarded as
male jobs. This may result in hostility towards women in these jobs. Some men in the
home also abuse spouses as a way of asserting their dominance in the home.
d. Men are now doing more in the home, since women are now contributing financially to
the home. However men still do less housework than their wives. Child care is sometimes
shared equally.
e. The length of time that couples spend together as a family has significantly declined.
This is as a result of career, recreational, and work-related obligations.
f. Women are choosing to marry later in life, and as a result they are also choosing to
have smaller families. An increasing number of people are choosing to remain single
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longer and the number of unmarried couples is also increasing. Some couples are also
choosing to remain childless.
The changing role of women affects the role of men in society. Women now also hold roles
previously held by males and they contribute financially to the household, so men no
longer have economic control in the home. This has resulted in men feeling alienated or
marginalized in the family. Some view the woman as neglecting her family responsibilities to pursue
careers. Because of the dominance of matrifocal families, women have long been acknowledged
as the backbone of Caribbean families. In the dominant culture of the region, marriage is not
considered necessary for procreation, so women may choose to raise children independently.
Today, the female-headed household, which was common in the Caribbean, is also increasing
in prevalence in the West.
The family today has been subjected to many structural changes. Family formations are adaptations
to economic and social conditions. As a result, the definition of the family according to George
Peter Murdock is widely criticized nowadays. A more apt definition will include different family
forms and does not preclude modern family forms. The notion that single-parent families
are dysfunctional needs to be re-examined and equal recognition and support should be given to
alternative family lifestyles. Based on today’s trends, the family may be defined more as a group of
people who are related to one another by blood, marriage or adoption, and who usually cohabit.
The section below shows some trends affecting families.
Major Trends Affecting Families Worldwide

The following four trends tend to affect families globally.
• Changes in family structures

• Demographic ageing
• An increase in migration
• The HIV/AIDS pandemic
Changes in Family Structures

• The shift from extended to nuclear families, as well as rise of one-person households
and of cohabitation, became evident during the last 50 years.
• Falling fertility rates, migration, an increase in divorce rates and an increase in the number
of older people, are responsible for smaller-size households.
• Household size has fallen to an average of 3.7 persons in East Asia, 4.9 in Southeast
Asia, to 4.1 in the Caribbean, 5.7 in North Africa and to 2.8 in developed regions.
• Age at first marriage has risen to the mid- to late twenties in all regions of the world,
often because of better educational and employment opportunities for women, as
well as increased life expectancy.
• Women now have fewer children later in life.
• Current fertility rates are 1.57 children per woman in developed regions, 3.1 in
less developed countries and 5.47 in t h e least developed countries.
Demographic Ageing
• Lower fertility rates and higher life expectancy contribute to a larger share of older
people in the overall population.
• Globally, the number of older people (60 years and over) will more than triple from
606 million to two billion by 2050.
• In developed regions, 20 per cent of the population is older than 60 — by 2050 it
will have reached 33 per cent. In developing regions the share will increase from
eight per cent to 20 per cent.
• Support ratios (number of working people in relation to retired people) have
been declining.
• Ageing impacts on inter-generational solidarity, housing, social security systems,
care giving and health costs.
Increase in Migration
• 175 million people (three per cent of world population) reside outside their country
of birth; there were 20 million refugees in 2001.
• Violence, discrimination, natural disasters and the hope of better economic opportunities
have been the main reasons driving migration.
• Migration can cause major stress on family life because of cultural, ethnic, racial
and religious differences and a lack of integration.
• Seasonal and internal migration of men contributes to a higher number of female-headed
households around the world.
• Trafficking in and sexual exploitation of women and children have increased and
have become a major part of organized crime.
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The HIV/AIDS Pandemic

• Thirty four million people live with HIV/AIDS today (www.cdc.org)
• HIV/AIDS affects the most productive members of society, who have often just
started their own families.
• Care for infected relatives, coping with the loss of numerous family members, and
the increase in the number of orphans, cause major stress on families and societies.
• Family structures have changed to include increasing numbers of adolescent
and grandparent-headed households in some regions of Africa.
Effects of the Four Trends

These trends challenge the ability of the family to fulfill the basic functions of production,
reproduction, and socialization, as well as to satisfy the needs of family members regarding
health, nutrition, shelter, physical and emotional care, and personal development.
Policy Considerations
• Any social policy should have in mind the above-mentioned trends and the changing
needs of families.
• Best national practices should be studied when designing a new approach to family
policies.
• Families should be at the centre of any future social policy development.
Source: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/family/majortrends.htm
Some Issues Facing the Contemporary Caribbean Family

Domestic Violence
Statistics show that the rate of domestic violence has been increasing in most Caribbean
territories. Although all ethnic groups and social classes are affected, it appears that the lower
socio-economic groups are the most vulnerable. Also, women and children are most often
the victims, due to their dependence on the male adult breadwinners. Women with less skills
and education are usually less independent, have fewer options, and therefore tend to remain in
abusive relationships longer. Also, teenagers growing up in homes where they lack adequate
love, care and attention may be lured into early sexual encounters, thereby leading to teenage
pregnancies. Such youngsters may subsequently end up in abusive relationships themselves.
Rhoda Reddock, cited in the Jamaica Observer December 4, 2006, states some reasons for the
pervasive problem of domestic violence. These include:
1 . the increasing violence in the society in general;
2 . the result of the normalization of violence in the US dominated media;
3 . the increase in drug trafficking and the accompanying gun violence;
4 . the high demands for conspicuous consumption, characteristic of the current neo-liberal
economic context; and
5 . alcohol and drug addiction with inadequate facilities for prevention or treatment.
In Jamaica in 2004, domestic fights leading to homicides ran a close second among the list
of top motives for murder with 29 per cent or some 1,401 of the total number of murders for
the given period.
Elsie le Franc of the University of the West Indies, speaking in October 2006 stated that HIV/
AIDS and interpersonal violence are currently the biggest killers of those under 19 years of age.
Jamaica Observer Monday, December 4, 2006
According to Diana Mahabir-Wyatt, Chairperson of the Trinidad and Tobago Coalition against
Domestic Violence, one out of every four women in Trinidad and Tobago was a victim of
some sort of physical, sexual, psychological or financial abuse. She has labelled the country as
the domestic violence capital of the Caribbean.
Trinidad Guardian October 4, 2004 http://www.guardian.co.tt/
Similarly, statistics provided by the Barbados Police Research and Development Department
show that, in 2004, ‘the number of crimes reported, investigated and determined to be cases of
domestic violence’ was 489, which was a decrease from the 1,406 counted in 2002. However,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2005 notes that even though Barbados has laws
and programmes designed to protect women, abuse and violence against women remain ‘significant
social problems’ in the country. And according to the Guyana Government Information Agency
(2008), domestic violence is the most pervasive form of interpersonal violence in Guyana
Child Abuse
This refers to ‘intentional acts that result in physical or emotional harm to children’ and includes
a wide range of activities. Abuse may range from acts of physical aggression towards the child by
parents or other adults, to the neglect of the child’s basic needs.
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As is the case with domestic violence generally, all ethnic groups and social classes are affected by
child abuse, but the lower socio-economic categories tend to be the most vulnerable.
The Types of Child Abuse

1. Physical abuse includes deliberate acts of violence, including whipping, scolding or use of
force generally so as to inflict temporary or long-term hurt or discomfort on the child.
2. Sexual abuse includes a wide range of activities. It could range from exposing children to
pornography, using them for pornographic ends, and getting them involved in sexual activity.
Sexual activity ranges in seriousness from unacceptable touching and fondling to actual sexual
acts committed against minors.
3. Emotional abuse including verbal abuse, confinement, and isolation
4. Neglect is another common form of abuse. Physical neglect is the inadequate provision for
the child’s basic physical needs, whereas emotional neglect occurs when a parent or caretaker
fails to meet a child’s need for affection and comfort. Another form of neglect involves failure
to meet a child’s basic education needs, such as denying access to educational opportunity.
According to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, more than 900,000 children
in the United States were victims of child abuse or neglect in 2006. Among these cases, 64
per cent involved neglect, 16 per cent involved physical abuse, 9 per cent involved sexual
abuse, 7 per cent involved emotional or psychological maltreatment, and 15 per cent involved
other maltreatment, such as abandonment.
See: http://www.ndacan.cornell.edu/
Causes of Child Abuse

According to the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), child abuse results from a complex
combination of personal, social, and cultural factors. These include:
1. History of child abuse
2. Substance abuse
3. Witnessing abuse
4. Education level
5. Low socio-economic level
6. Lack of social support.
Source: http://www.paho.org/English/AD/DPC/NC/child-abuse-lac.htm
At this website, there is also a very useful PowerPoint presentation on child abuse entitled
Child and Youth Health: Action, Research and Advocacy based on a presentation at the eighth
Canadian Conference on International Health, in November 2001. This presentation has
many useful recommendations to deal with the problem.
In Guyana, according to the ‘Voices of Children’ Report (2005), 86 per cent of 14–17-year-old
girls, 50 per cent of 10–13-year-old girls and 6 per cent of 6–9-year-old girls have been sexually
harassed. In Jamaica in 2006, out of a total of 1,389 reported sexual offences, close to a
third were committed on children younger than 16. Women and girls remain silent victims of
most major crimes in Jamaica as only 20 per cent of rapes get reported to the police. In the
Eastern Caribbean a nine-country survey of Caribbean school age children found that about 11
per cent girls and 9 per cent of boys reported that they had been sexually abused including
through incest. In the same survey, 40 per cent of the girls reported they had their first sexual
experience forced upon them. Twenty per cent of adolescent girls in Jamaica reported the same.
Source: www.unicef.org/jamaica/press_release_abuse.doc
The increasing violence in the Caribbean takes a high toll on its children. In Jamaica for example,
over the last two years close to 100 children were murdered each year. Data from the Belize
report, ‘The Impact of Crime and Violence of Children and Adolescents (2005),’ indicate that
children and adolescents continue to be a major target for crime and violence where 37 per
cent of boys and 43 per cent of girls felt unsafe in their communities.
UNICEF calls upon:
• Policymakers and legislators to review legislation put in place to protect children with
an aim to stiffen penalties and strengthen enforcement and monitoring mechanisms.
• Educators to make a difference by ensuring that children know about their rights and
how to protect themselves from abuse through appropriate child-friendly materials
and by reporting suspected cases of abuse.
• Health providers to ensure that services are made more youth-friendly and provide
necessary confidentiality and comfort to help young victims of abuse.
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• Parents to learn alternative ways to discipline their children without resorting to

and teaching them violence.
• Community leaders to act as watchdogs and provide unequivocal leadership against
child abuse in their communities.
UNICEF also very strongly and specifically reiterates previous calls on gang leaders to leave
children out of their cycle of killings and reprisals, and to cease from recruiting children into
criminal activities.
See http://www.unicef.org/lac/media_10551.htm
Teenage Pregnancy
In most instances, teenage pregnancies are unplanned and occur out of wedlock or some other
socially acceptable arrangement. A 1993 study in Jamaica found that nearly 45 per cent of
young women aged 15–24 had at least once been pregnant. Seventy-seven per cent of those
pregnancies were mistimed or unwanted (Morris et al. 1995).
Persons below the poverty line usually have a history of inadequate health care, poor nutrition,
and lower levels of education. And since teenage pregnancy is more common among the lower
socio-economic groups in society, such teenagers usually get inadequate prenatal care, thereby
exposing them to a higher risk of pregnancy-related complications. It is also more likely for the
baby to be born prematurely and have a low birth weight. Teenage pregnancies therefore present
many health risks both to the mother and the child and could even become life-threatening.
Younger mothers face an increased risk of maternal mortality because their bodies are not yet
mature enough to bear children.
In many countries, teenage pregnancy carries a social stigma when it occurs outside of marriage,
especially if the girl is still at school. Such stigmatization and labelling present additional
challenges for the teenager and her parents. In many countries, the problem is further exacerbated,
as the girl does not return to school, thereby reducing her chances of a proper formal education.
As a result, she will continue to face a low standard of living. In Colombia, 46 per cent of young
women with less than seven years of schooling have their first child by age 20, compared to
19 per cent of women with seven or more years of education (Guttmacher, 1996).
Rates of teenage pregnancy vary significantly. Rates as high as 143 per 1,000 can be found
in some sub-Saharan African countries. In the western industrialized countries, the United
States has the highest rate of teenage pregnancy. The teen birth rate in the United States
increased in 26 of the 50 states in 2006, representing almost every region of the country,
according to one government report. According to Medline Plus, the US Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention reported an increase in the teen birth rate for the entire nation
for the first time in 15 years in 2006, from 40.5 births per 1,000 women aged 15–19 in
2005 to 41.9 in 2006.
Source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/news/fullstory_73573.html.
Teen pregnancy is on the rise in Chile, as it is in most of the countries of Latin America and the
Caribbean. According to the IPS News Agency, more than 30,000 adolescents between the
ages of 15 and 19 give birth every year in Chile (population 15.6 million). Also, from 1990
to 2003, the proportion of live births to teenage mothers rose from 13.8 per cent of all births
to 14.9 per cent, reaching a record of 16.2 per cent in 1998.
Adolescents who are more sexually active are more susceptible to contracting HIV/AIDS. This
is especially so for girls and may be due in part to their early initiation into sexual activity. In
addition, in some cases, poorer schoolgirls engage in unprotected sex with older men in exchange
for money, food or clothing. Teenagers from abusive domestic situations, usually having
lower levels of self esteem also show an increased likelihood to be involved in such types of
sexual activity.
Sexual Orientation
The issue of sexual orientation has implications for the types of families that exist worldwide. As
mentioned earlier, the growing Lesbian, Gay, Bi-sexual and Transgender (LGBT) community and
the legalization of same-sex marriages in some countries in Europe, North America, South Africa
and Argentina, the traditional normative nuclear family type has been questioned.
In the Caribbean, heteronormativity has been the dominant discourse and this has been reinforced
by religious teachings and the culture of machismo. Therefore, disclosure of one’s sexual orientation
that veers from the dominant sexual discourse is seen as problematic as it is seen as ‘unnatural’
and ungodly. As a corollary, homophobia has become an established way of responding to non-
heteronormativity. Homophobia can be defined as the extreme or irrational aversion, hatred
or fear of homosexuals, which sometimes results in acts of violence – physical, emotional and
psychological. Homophobia manifests itself across class, ethnicity, gender and power.
Arguments for same-sex marriages:
• Homosexuals are people with feelings, emotions and have the right to live accordingly.
• Marriage is a basic human right that should be considered a private affair.
• Same-sex marriages can meet the functions of the family as other family types that are
not nuclear has shown to do.
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Arguments against same-sex marriages:
The main reason in the Caribbean against same-sex marriage are:
• The practice is unnatural and is an abomination to God.

• It is argued that children who are raised in a homosexual family would become
emotionally scarred and confused for life.
• It is purported that the sanctity of marriage is compromised.
It is very difficult to find accurate information and statistics about the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual
and Transgender (LGBT) community in the Caribbean because of the stigma and taboo assigned
to this group in society. Although same-sex marriage will continue to be a sensitive issue in the
Caribbean it may present itself as yet another family type to function in the region that does not
fit the description of the ‘ideal’ family type.
Readings
Morris L., et al. Contraceptive Prevalence Survey, Jamaica 1993. Vol. 4. Sexual Behaviour
and Contraceptive Use Among Young Adults. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Dept. Health &
Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1995.
Alan Guttmacher Institute. Risks and Realities of Early Childbearing Worldwide. New
York, NY: The Institute, 1996.
Activity 5.4
1. Briefly explain the following terms:
• Spouse abuse
• Child abuse
• Elderly abuse
• Sibling abuse
2. What measures would you recommend to deal with these issues?

Activity 5.5
1. Indicate whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE.
a. The nuclear family is only found in the advanced industrialized countries.

b. Functionalists argue that the nuclear family is the ideal form of the family in
modern society.
c. Female-headed households are only found among the middle class in Caribbean
societies.
d. According to Herskovits, the matrifocal family developed in response to slavery.
e. Extended families are no longer found in the Caribbean today.
2. Outline and assess the reasons advanced for the prevalence and persistence of the
diverse forms of the family found in studies of Caribbean society.
3. Some studies suggest that Caribbean family structure is dysfunctional. Critically assess
this view, using appropriate examples.
4. For a named Caribbean territory, discuss the effects of the changing role of women over
the past three decades.
5. Discuss the effects of emigration on the family in the Caribbean.

CHAPTER 6
RELIGION
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, students should:
1 . explain the characteristics, functions and transformations of selected Caribbean religions;
2 . discuss the various religious forms in the Caribbean;
3 . evaluate different theoretical perspectives commonly used for the analysis of religion; and
4 . discuss the issues associated with Caribbean religions, e.g., secularization.
CONTENT
Religion
a. Types of belief systems, for example, animism, supernaturalism, polytheism,

monotheism
b. Organisation of religious groups: church, sect, cult, denomination
c. Theoretical perspectives: consensus; conflict, interactionist and feminist
d. the emergence, character and dynamics of:
– one world religion
– two Afro-Caribbean religions
e. Issues associated with religion in the Caribbean, e.g., intolerance, prejudice,
discrimination, secularization
DEFINING RELIGION
Religion is an important aspect of social life. It is interwoven into the culture of a people and is
intimately linked to the issues of social integration and conflict between different groups within
a society and between societies. Sociologists examine the impact of religion in society as well as
its role and significance. They seek to understand and explain the impact of religious beliefs at
both the micro and macro levels of society. At the micro level, sociologists examine the impact
of religious beliefs on individuals and at the macro level, they examine the effects of religion on
society and the effects of society on religion.
According to Tischler (2002), religion may be defined as a ‘system of beliefs, practices, and
philosophical values shared by a group of people; it defines the sacred, helps explain life, and
offers salvation from the problems of human existence’ (380).
A similar view is shared by Giddens (2001); who states that religion involves ‘a set of symbols,
invoking feelings of reverence or awe, and is linked to rituals or ceremonials (such as church
services) engaged in by a community of believers’ (531).
Features of Religion
According to Tischler (2002, 380), all religions share common sets of elements such as prayer
and ritual, belief and organization.
Prayer and Ritual

Religious rituals consist of repeated formalized social behaviours that communicate sacred
symbolic meaning to its members (Scupin 2006). Examples of religious rituals are the Catholic
Mass, and the Hindu cremation. Religious symbols are communicated both verbally and
behaviourally. Religious rituals convey unique meanings to its members and they may be
interpreted differently by members of society.
Religious rituals may also consist of private acts such as prayer. Since religions include beliefs
concerning the supernatural and forces that are outside of the explanation of human beings,
prayer serves as medium of communication with these unknown forces and the supernatural.
Prayer may be performed quietly or aloud and may include formalized bodily postures and
gestures.
Both rituals and prayers are reflective of the values and beliefs of the particular religion.
Additionally, these rituals and prayers develop according to the culture of the society. For
example, some Muslims in Trinidad and Tobago practice the ritual of a 40 day ceremony
following the death of a relative; however, in other cultures such as in the Middle East where
Islam is also practised, this ritual is not customary. This shows that the same religion can be
expressed differently in terms of its rituals and prayers depending on the society and culture
in which it is practised.
Religion | 161
Belief
Another feature of all religions is a belief system about the supernatural. An important function
of religion is to provide explanations for different aspects of life such as birth, growth, success,
failure and death. These beliefs inform the official religious doctrines which translate into
rituals. Beliefs vary across all religious persuasions. In some religions, it is believed that the powers
of healing can be transmitted from God through certain individuals, for instance, Pentecostal
pastors lay their hands on the forehead of their followers whereby divinity would be channelled
to the afflicted persons to heal them.
Organization
Many religions are arranged along the line of organizational structures. These organizational
structures tend to be hierarchical with religious leaders at the helm. The organization serves
to foster and solidify the relationship between members of the religion. The organization
of the religion also serves as a means of promoting the religion to the wider community.
Types of Religion
Religion is often classified into four types (Tischer 2002). These are:
• Supernaturalism
• Animism
• Theism
• Abstract ideals
Supernaturalism
Supernaturalism implies the existence of supernatural forces that have the potential to influence
human behaviour. These supernatural forces can influence both animate and inanimate objects.
These may include people, trees, animals and places. These forces tend to function on their own
will.
The belief in the supernatural is common in Melanesia, which comprises areas of the South Pacific
such as Papau New Guinea. Melanesians believe in mana, a sacred impersonal force existing in
the universe. Mana can inhabit both animate and inanimate objects.
Animism
Animism is the belief in spirits or ghosts that are believed to coexist with humans in the world.
Like the belief in the supernatural, the spirits associated with animism can inhabit both animate
beings such as humans and animals and inanimate things such as water, and the wind.
The spirits are usually associated with either good or evil. Animistic beliefs are not limited
to ‘primitive’ cultures but are also found in varying degrees in many mainstream religions. In
medieval Europe, witches and sorcerers were deemed to be possessed by evil spirits.
Theism
Theism is the belief in the existence of gods and goddesses who shape human behaviour. Gods
are viewed as being omnipotent and worthy of human reverence in the form of worship. Theism
can be either polytheistic or monotheistic.
Polytheism is the belief in many gods. Each god commands strength or force over a particular
aspect of life in the universe such as birth, death or success. Generally, overriding control and
influence reside with one god or goddess over the rest.
Ancient Greeks practised polytheism, with Gods and Goddesses such as Ares, Posiedon and
Aphrodite controlling war, the sea, and love, respectively.
Monotheism is the belief in the existence of one god. There are only three monotheistic religions
in the world (Giddens 2001; Tischler 2002). These are Judaism, Christianity and Islam, and are
sometimes referred to as the Abrahamic faiths since their leaders are biological descendants of
Abraham. They all believe in the supremacy of one powerful being.
Abstract Ideals
Unlike religions that focus on the belief in the supernatural, spirits or divine being, some religions
stress the importance of abstract ideals. Abstract ideals focus upon correct thinking and behaviour
that facilitate the achievement of personal goals. The followers of religions that focus on abstract
ideals do not subscribe to the manipulation of spirits and worship of god or gods. Buddhism
is an example of a religion that is based on abstract ideals as it places emphasis on meditation as
opposed to worship of any god or belief in spirits.
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Forms of Religious Organization

Church
Churches are religious organizations that have become institutionalized. They are supported
by society’s norms and values and have become an active part of the affairs of society. Their
engagement in society does not necessarily mean that they have compromised their core
values and beliefs. A prime example of a church is Roman Catholicism. Characteristics of a
church include:
• it tends to be large, with inclusive membership;

• it usually supports the status quo, and is in low tension with the norms of the society
in which it is found;
• it is well-established, with a bureaucratic structure and a hierarchical ordering of
positions; and
• has its affairs managed by trained clergy and other paid officials.
Denomination
A denomination is an organization that bears several features of a church. Denominations
tend to exhibit features of adjustment to the wider society. They support and are supported
by the institutional structures of society and they endorse and embrace the basic values and
beliefs of the society. Examples of denominations are the Lutherans and Methodists. Some of
the characteristics of denominations are:
• formal bureaucratic structures

• hierarchical structure
• official creeds specifying religious beliefs
• large in size
• established facilities
• predominantly middle-class membership.
Sect
These are religious organizations that reject the social environment in which they reside. Examples
of these are the Shakers, who reject sexual relations, and nineteenth-century Mormonism, which
rejected monogamy. Some of the characteristics of a sect are:
• has a small, exclusive membership;

• is usually in high tension with society;
• is usually formed as a result of a split from a church;
• has a negative relationship with the other institutions in society;
• claims religious legitimacy;
• has members who are normally converted, rather than born into the faith;
• is dogmatic and fundamentalist, believing in literal interpretations of scriptures;
• has no formal organization;
• is usually intolerant of other groups;
• is usually short-lived but may grow in size and eventually become a denomination.
Cult
A cult is a religious organization that is independent of the religious traditions of a society. Cult
movements tend to arise in times of distress and rapid change where established religions are
unable to satisfy the questions of individuals and members of society as a whole. Examples
of cults are Scientology, and the Hare Krishna Movement.
Some of the characteristics of a cult are:
• introduces a new, different religious tradition in the society and is usually led by a
charismatic leader;
• is very innovative, with new ideas, new beliefs, and combinations of beliefs;
• if successful, can over time become a new church or sect within the mainstream
tradition;
• is loosely organized and usually short-lived;
• rejects the norms and institutions of larger society for a purer form;
• has few coherent doctrines, makes little demand for moral purity, and rather, focuses
on the personal benefits;
• usually appeals to the lower socio-economic groups;
• may make use of astrology, black magic, or transcendental meditation.
Religion | 165
Activity 6.1
1 . a. Give two differences between a church and a sect.
b . Give two differences between a church and a cult.
c. Give two examples of churches in the Caribbean.
d. Give two examples of cults in the Caribbean.
2. State whether the following statements are true or false
a. A church is a large group organized for religious purposes, with a hierarchy of

officials.
b. A sect is usually larger than a church.
c. Polytheism is the worship of one god.
d. Monotheism does not exist in the Caribbean.
e. Most cults have belief systems that seem exotic and unconventional.
SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF RELIGION

Sociologists study religion and its relationship to society. Functionalists examine the functional
aspects of religion as it relates to social life whilst Conflict theorists examine religion as a
means of controlling the working class and reinforcing the interest of the ruling class. The
views of various theorists will be outlined below.
The Functionalist Approach

This approach examines religion in terms of fulfilling several important needs of society.
Functionalists are concerned with the contribution of religion towards establishing social
solidarity and stability in society.
Emile Durkheim
In the Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912), Durkheim states that the defining components
of all religions are the separation of human experiences into the profane and sacred. The profane
refers to all the taken for granted day to day routines and activities. The profane tends to be
known, controllable and malleable. In contrast, the sacred are objects and events that are held
in awe and high veneration. The sacred is not known or controlled.
Functions of Religion
Durkheim believed that religion was functional to both individuals and society as a whole.
Individuals benefited from the rituals and beliefs that surrounded religious activities, which
provided a means of comfort and solace especially in times of need and hardship. For example, in
times of bereavement, individuals derive solace and peace from engaging in the rituals associated
with acts of burials and/or cremation. The performance of the various religious rituals helps
to nullify the impact of the loss of the deceased. In other situations, participation in religious
activities offers a sense of belonging to individuals in the form of moral cohesion.
At the societal level, Durkheim argued that religion provided the foundation for the promotion
and reinforcement of the main values and norms of the society. These values and norms
rise above just being usual ways of doing things to becoming the moral code of behaviour in
the society. These values and norms become sacred. Therefore, he sees religion as part of the
way of life of a society that helps to maintain cultural traditions. Society will only continue
to survive if its people share common beliefs. Therefore, for Durkheim, the worship of God
is a disguise for the worship of society.
Malinowski’s Theory
Like Durkheim, Bronislaw Malinowski (1948) sees religion as reinforcing social norms and values
and promoting social solidarity.
He differs from Durkheim in that
i. he does not see religion as reflecting society as a whole; and
ii. he does not see religious rituals as the worship of society.
Malinowski believed that there are specific areas of social life where religion is important. These
are usually situations of emotional stress that threaten social solidarity. Anxiety and tension
tend to disrupt social life. Situations such as birth, marriage and death cause great anxiety.
It is religion that helps individuals to deal with these problems. At a funeral ceremony, for
example, the social group unites to support the bereaved family. Rituals reduce anxiety by
providing confidence and a feeling of control, especially in situations that are unpredictable.
Religion also offers explanations for the occurrence of traumatic events and therefore, serves as
a coping mechanism for adherents.
Religion | 167
Criticisms
Malinowski has exaggerated the importance of religious rituals in helping people to cope with
situations of stress and uncertainty. The rituals are related to the maintenance of prestige in that
society, and have little to do with cementing solidarity or dealing with uncertainty and danger.
Talcott Parsons
Parsons believed that religion through its belief system provides the foundation upon which
social order and stability can be achieved in society. In other words, religion contributes to
the functional prerequisites of society.
Like Durkheim, Parsons believes that religion can provide solace and comfort to members in
society when they are befallen by unexpected sudden events such as death. Parsons believed that
religion through its belief system can provide a means by which people can adjust and adapt
to such events. Additionally, Parsons states that religion provides a mechanism for coming to
terms with events of ‘uncertainty’, for example, the questions that would appear on a sociology
examination paper.
Parsons also believed that religion helps to provide meaning to life. Religion serves as a social
antidote to some of the social inequalities in society. It helps to provide ‘rational answers’
to some of the concerns people may have about their social condition.
Religion, therefore, contributes to the acceptance of people’s situations and ensures social
order and stability.
Karl Marx
Marx saw religion as a social drug that nullified the negative effects of the exploitative relationship
between the owners of the means of production (capitalists/ bourgeoisie) and the owners of labour
(working class/ proletariat). For Marx, religion serves to reinforce and legitimize the position of
the capitalists by negating proactive actions on the part of the afflicted working class. Religion
is therefore seen as an illusion.
Marx believed that religion serves the social function of masking the foundation of power and
exploitation in a class-based society. This masking of ‘reality’ precludes the development of class
consciousness that would reveal that the world is produced and shaped by human effort, rather
than by divine forces. Religion also serves as a means of self-alienation, although it is a comfort
valve for the oppression experienced through the conflict of economic interests. Therefore, the
exploited find comfort in what is promised in the hereafter for enduring material deprivation.
As Marx noted, religion is the ‘opiate of the masses’; it numbs the pain experienced from life in
a capitalist society, making it less likely for class consciousness to be developed and by extension,
minimizes the possibility of revolt on the part of the working class.
Feminist Theories of Religion

Feminist theories, like Marxist theory, view religion as an instrument of domination and oppression.
However, they see religion as a product of patriarchy – rather than of capitalism – where men
oppress women.
1. Women were not always subordinate in most religions. In the Middle East, Asia and parts
of Europe, archaeologists have uncovered symbols of the Great Mother Goddess. There
were few early symbols of gods as men. However, the status of women in religion declined
with time.
2. Jean Holm argued that, although many religions stress equality between men and women,
in practice, women have been given subordinate roles. Women’s second-class status is
often related to women’s sexuality. For example, menstruation and childbirth are universally
regarded as ‘polluting’.
3. Religion can be used by the oppressors (men) to control the oppressed (women) and it
also serves as a way of compensating women for their second-class status by a s s u r i n g
t h e m o f equality in heaven. This helps to maintain a status quo in which women are
unequal.
4. Religion became patriarchal through the misinterpretation of religious beliefs by men. As
monotheism became prominent, religion became oppressive to women. Therefore, the
only way women can improve their position is by seeking their own liberation.
Max Weber
In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905), Weber argued that the Protestant
Reformation paved the way for the development of industrial capitalism in Western Europe.
He identified three aspects of Protestantism as being important features: predestination, the
concept of a calling and rationalism. Predestination relates to individuals searching for the
signs of being saved or damned by God. The concept of calling emphasizes the need for
hard work to please God. The final aspect of Protestantism is rationalism, which is a means
of salvation.
Religion | 169
The combination of the three aspects produced what Weber called the Protestant ethic, a belief
that work, rationalism and plain living are moral virtues, while idleness and indulgence are sinful.
In the Protestant ethic, wealth was an unintended consequence of behaviour directed by religious
motives. According to Weber, however, it was not long before wealth became an end in itself. At
this point, the moral values underlying early Protestantism had become the moral values underlying
early capitalism: (1) Work is moral and everybody should work hard; (2) Rational cost/benefit
calculations should be the basis of economic decisions; (3) Profits should be reinvested rather than
spent on luxuries; and (4) wealth rather than aristocratic lineage is the best indicator of people’s
importance in society. With this belief, the masses that practised the dominant religion at that
time, Calvinism, were willing to toil in the factories as this would be the means through which
they could attain both wealth and salvation in the afterlife. This work ethic contributed to the
growth of industrialism and capitalism. Therefore, it can be concluded that Weber’s contribution
to the sociology of religion is that religious ideas can result in changes in social institutions.
Activity 6.2
1. a. State two functions of religion in society.
b. State two dysfunctions of religion in society.
c. Who claimed that religion is the opium of the masses?
d. Give two instances in which religion may promote conflict in society.
2. Distinguish between the Functionalist and Conflict theories of religion.
3. With reference to any Caribbean society, describe the role of religion in maintaining
social order.
4. Which sociological perspective is most appropriate to study the role of religion in Caribbean
society?
5. Compare the views of Marx and Weber on the extent to which religion may promote
social change.
Secularization
When the sacred and the mysterious do not have significance for members of society, then the
society is said to be experiencing the process of secularization. Secularization has increased as the
processes such as rationalization and industrialization of society increase. It is also characterized
by the increasing role of the state and the separation of religion and state.
Secularization has also been facilitated by the impact of science and technology on religious
beliefs and practices. As science and technology provide answers to many questions with high
levels of accuracy and reliability, some of the ‘uncertainties’ of social life could be understood,
thereby limiting the need for reliance on religious beliefs for answers. In fact, in several cases,
greater reliance and trust are placed in the precision of science over religious prayers.
Early Sociologists’ View of Secularization

Auguste Comte’s evolutionary theory of society comprised three main stages. The first stage of
the evolution of society is the theological stage where religion and superstitious beliefs dominate.
The second stage is the metaphysical stage, and the third stage is the positive stage where science
informs all aspects of human behaviour. Hence, in the positivist stage, the influence of religion
on society is reduced.
Emile Durkheim believed that religion is more influential in traditional society as compared to
modern society. Although he did not believe that religion will disappear, he is of the view that its
influence will decline. As specialization increases in modern society, other institutions in society,
such as education, would replace some of these functions e.g., social solidarity.
Max Weber argued that there would be a decline in religious beliefs as rationalization would
replace religious influence. Thus, individuals would turn to science and rationality, rather than
religion, to solve their problems. Karl Marx saw religion as disappearing with the overthrow of
the capitalist system.
Critique of Secularization
A number of criticisms have been directed toward the secularization thesis. Firstly, the view
that a decline in institutional engagements reflects a decline in religiosity is moot. For
instance, it may be asked: is public participation in religious institutions a good indicator
of religious commitment?
Secondly, the question as to whether religion has given way to science has to be answered. The
answer to this question would depend heavily on the definitions of both religion and science.
Religion | 171
Additionally, if there is agreement on a definition of religious beliefs, does the secularization

thesis argue that religion is weaker today than in the past?
Activity 6.3
1. Examine the view that secularization is not taking place in the Caribbean today.
2. Assess Weber’s claim that scientific rationality will replace religious ideology in modern
industrialized societies.
3. Carry out a study of church attendance figures over time at any church, temple, or mosque
in your area to determine whether attendance is on the decline. Suggest reasons for this.
RELIGION IN THE CARIBBEAN

Religion has been used as a tool in the conquest and colonization of the Americas, Asia, Africa
and Australia (Hylton 2002). The conquerors used religion as a means to reinforce their military
prowess by ‘debasing and vulgarizing the culture of the subject peoples’ (Hylton 2002).
Christianity through Roman Catholicism and Protestantism was used by the Europeans to
promote their culture over those who were conquered and exploited such as the Amerindians
and African slaves.
According to Hylton (2002), religion is deep-seated in the psyche and social behaviour of
Caribbean people. Religion is manifested in both material and non-material cultural aspects
such as talking, dancing, singing, eating, and drinking. Religion also plays an important role
in the political arena. The
...historical role played by religion in the struggles of the people has been
so influential that any socio-political analysis or any contemporary political
movement that fails to take this into account will undoubtedly be committing
a grave error (Hylton 2002).
The heterogeneous nature of Caribbean societies and the inevitable interaction among the
constituent groups have resulted in many instances of syncretism. Religion in the Caribbean
therefore changed and adapted to allow various groups to survive under what was described
as ‘acculturative conditions’. Borrowing from other religions, and other instances of
interculturation, seem to indicate that relationships among religions were sometimes cordial.
Most post-colonial societies in the world today, including the Caribbean, are characterized by
religious pluralism. Thus, religion is probably the most significant phenomenon that highlights
the cultural heterogeneity of the Caribbean. It is a reflection of the different traditions and
cultures that occupied the Caribbean region; it also highlights the common experience of slavery
and indentureship. The strength of the various religions is dependent on the territory as
well as the social, educational and economic status of the members of that religion. The
sociological distribution of religions in the Caribbean has its roots in the colonial past and is
maintained by the existing social order.
Christianity
Christianity was introduced into the Caribbean and the New World by European conquerors as a
means by which the inhabitants would have been ‘civilized’ (Hylton 2002). European expansion
was therefore not only to extract wealth from the region but also to convert the ‘heathens’.
Specifically, in the late fifteenth century, the Spanish began their conquest and introduced the
Catholic faith into the Caribbean via conversion (Williams 1970, 32) which was in most instances
forced. While most of Europe followed Catholicism, the British pulled away from it creating
the Protestant faith and fuelling religious conflicts (Augier and Gordon 1962). Therefore, the
denomination of Christianity that was followed in a particular Caribbean country was largely
dependent upon the European country that colonized it in the latter period.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the churches of Europe were making a significant
impact upon religious developments in the Caribbean. The dominant religions were Roman
Catholicism and Protestantism. However, several missionary groups that seceded from the Anglican
Church in England began visiting the Caribbean and establishing their presence. These included
the Moravians and the Baptists (Edmonds and Gonzalez 2010). These Non-Conformist groups
were particularly influential in introducing religion to the peasantry as well as educating the newly
freed slaves (Edmonds and Gonzalez 2010).
When the plantations sought to utilize Indian indentured labourers, Canadian Presbyterian
missionaries were able to exert some influence in the education of their children and subsequently
converting a large amount of them(Edmonds and Gonzales 2010, 88). Over time other Christian
religions have impacted on the religious development of the Caribbean such as the Methodists
and the Pentecostal Church.
In Trinidad and Tobago, influenced by the Spanish, French and British, there are many prominent
Christian branches such as Catholics comprising 26 per cent of the population, Anglicans 7.8
per cent, Pentecostals, 6.8 per cent and Seventh Day Adventists 4 per cent of the population.
These forms of Christianity survived and even grew after independence since they were already
Religion | 173
entrenched in the institutions of the country, particularly in education as many primary and
secondary schools were established by these churches. Education is therefore accompanied with
religious instruction and much emphasis on religious observances in many of these schools.
No discussion of Christianity in the Caribbean can be complete without examining the historical
influences from the early colonial period to independence. Additionally, special mention must
be made of the subtle or sometimes overt differences among all these forms or branches of the
Christian faith that are practised in the Caribbean today.
African Religions
According to Hylton (2002)
Most of the Africans who came to the Caribbean and the New World had a
religious outlook that was essentially similar to Shamanism. Each ethnic group
had its own religion, but the differences between them were more formal
than substantive. Their religious and social practices varied according to
region, climate, environment and other factors.
This view is further reinforced by van der Hilst (1996, 1) who states that the religions that
came to the Caribbean despite their differences can be divided into four main categories:
• Those that came from the Gold Coast

• Those that came from the Ewe-Fon kingdom of Dahomey
• Those that came from the Yoruba in Nigeria
• Those that came from the Bantu from Congo and Angola
Although the African slaves were coerced into accepting the cultures of the Europeans at the
expense of their own, they utilized very creative ways through religion to allow for some form
of religious retention. However, this process was not without challenges and extreme difficulties
as noted by Hylton (2002) in the following statement:
The problem of the religious retention was further compounded by the deliberate
policy of the colonizers to separate members of the same ethnic group in order to
reduce the incidence of revolts.
According to Hylton (2002), Henry (2000), and van der Hilst (1996), a number of syncretized
African religions have survived in the Americas such as Winti of Suriname and Cayenne;
Vodun of Haiti and the Dominican Republic; Santeria of Cuba and Puerto Rico; Shango of
Trinidad and Tobago, and Grenada; Big Drum of Grenada and Carriacou; Kumina and Convince
(Bongoism) of Jamaica; Goombay of Belize; Kumfa of Guyana; Kele of Saint Lucia; and Xango,
Candomble and Macoumba of Brazil.
Henry (2003) notes that all these religions display to varying degrees, African-derived
characteristics and Christian elements. Some of the African derived characteristics include:
• syncretism of African deities with Catholic saints

• spirit possession of believers by deities
• animal sacrifice
• the use of items such as flour, oil and grain products that are believed to have spiritual
powers
Some of the Christian elements include:
• recital of prayers (Our Father)

• singing of Christian hymns and use of candles
• identifying deities within the Christian framework
Henry (2000) further notes that the interplay between African retention and Christian influence
varied from group to group and country to country.
Hinduism
Hindus came to the Caribbean to work as indentured labourers. Slave emancipation resulted
in a mass exodus of the formerly enslaved from the plantations. This led to a labour shortage
and therefore, indentured labour was introduced from India to the Caribbean to fill this
gap. Between 1845 and 1917 over 140,000 Indians came to Trinidad alone. The Indians
brought with them their culture, which included their religious beliefs. As a result, Hinduism
took firm root in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname. Approximately 85 per cent of
the Indians who came to the Caribbean were Hindus.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, temples dedicated to the worship of Rama and
Krishna began to appear in Trinidad and Guyana. These were built in villages and settlements
that were established by immigrants on the expiration of their indentureship. The appearance
of flags (jhandi) testified to the fact that Hinduism was a part of the religious landscape. These
flags were put up as part of puja (worship of the gods).
In Trinidad and Tobago, the Hindus constitute the second largest religious grouping in
the country. Approximately 25.65 per cent of the population subscribes to the Hindu faith
Religion | 175
and Indians constitute 40 per cent of the population (CSO National Census Report 2000,
Trinidad and Tobago). The Hindu communities built places of worship (mandirs) where
they came together to worship and re-established their religious festivals a n d c e r e m o n i e s
such as Divali, Kartik Nahan and Phagwa. In Trinidad and Tobago, Divali is a public holiday.
Any discussion of the Hindu faith, whether in India or in the Caribbean must consider the
tremendous variety of practices and beliefs that are included under the umbrella of Hinduism.
There are different sects of Hindus, the major group being the Sanatanist Hindus (Sanatan
Dharma Maha Sabha) but other groups include the Arya Samaj, the Kabir Panth and the Seunarini
Panth. These sects have certain important variations in rituals such as funerals, weddings, Divali
and other ceremonies.
Islam in the Caribbean

The early Muslims that would have entered the Caribbean as early as in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries were then enslaved (Mustapha 2004; Buckridan 1996). These Muslims
came mainly from the Mandingo, Fulani and Hausa tribes. The survival and transmission of
the faith was precluded by the harsh conditions of the plantation system, which viewed any
alien practices as ‘heathen’.
The end of slavery coincided with the second major arrival of Muslims in the Caribbean through
Indentureship labour system. According to Mustapha (2004), approximately 15 per cent of the
indentured labourers were Muslims. The conditions under Indentureship and the efforts of
conversion of the missionary movements resulted in the Muslim Indians developing great
tenacity, resistance and resolve towards their culture and religious practices. This resolve
and resistance was manifested according to Mustapha (2004) in an attitude that was ‘very
defensive and introverted, with an emotional attachment to many traditions.’
Some of the traditions of the Trinidad Muslim have been influenced by contact with Hindus
on the voyage to the New World and the villages in which they lived.
In terms of the wider Caribbean it is noted by Buckridan (1996) that ‘the Muslim community in
the Caribbean today consists not only of descendants of indentured Indians but also of enslaved
Africans who have retained their roots. In addition, there are a few Middle East immigrants who
came, motivated by commercial and other interests.’ Muslims can be found throughout the
Anglophone Caribbean such as Jamaica (which now has five mosques), Barbados, Guyana, St
Vincent, and Saint Lucia.
Orisha/Shangoism in Trinidad and Tobago

During slavery, the practice of all ancestral African rituals was forbidden. From the 1830s
until 1867, there was a significant influx of Yoruba from Nigeria into Trinidad. This, together
with the complete emancipation of slaves in Trinidad in 1838, provided the context for the early
evolution of this syncretized religious form. During this time, former slaves combined traditional
African religious beliefs with elements of Christianity. The faith that emerged was referred
to as the Orisha religion (also called Shango by some). It is therefore a combination of elements
of Yoruba traditional religion, Catholicism and the Baptist faith. Ceremonies were conducted
in secret and the Orisha statues were camouflaged in their altars by putting Catholic saints
in front of them.
Over the years the cover up became an integrated part of the faith (syncretism). The Orisha
religion in Trinidad and Tobago is therefore an African-derived religion that incorporates the
beliefs, rituals and culture of several religions in its worship.
Vodun (Vodoo) in Haiti

Vodun is a religious syncretism involving traditional African religion and Catholicism.
When the slaves were brought to the plantation, the Code Noir prescribed baptism and
instruction in the Roman Catholic religion. The slaves did not understand this new religion
and so continued to rely upon old tribal beliefs for spiritual needs.
The Dahomean religion, which formed the basis for Vodun, is rich in subtleties and refinements.
However, much was lost or changed in transition, and as such, Vodun developed as a synthesis
of older beliefs, modified and adapted to New World conditions.
Vodun includes a wide range of ritual practices and attitudes, which regulate, for most of the
people of Haiti, the crucial intercourse with a supernatural world of ancestor spirits and personified
forces. The harsh conditions of slavery and the suppression of the slaves’ culture provided
the context in which Vodun evolved.
Kumina/Cumina/Pocomania in Jamaica
Of all religious movements in Jamaica, Kumina is probably the most African. This is evident
in the dancing, drumming, spirit possession and in some respects, the belief. This is a more
syncretic possession cult that has developed in Jamaica from the surviving forms of African
religions filtered through the Great Revival of 1860–62. ‘Pocomania’ (a little madness) is merely
the outsider’s misunderstanding of the forms of possession and of their value.
Religion | 177
The Kumina cult has been in decline since the advent of the Rastafarian movement and the new
Pentecostal churches from the USA. However, observances continue in the interior of the island,
and have been taken up both as tourist attractions and by those seeking to discover and foster
authentic Jamaican cultural forms. Kumina has also provided material for the National Dance
Theatre Company (NDTC).
Activity 6.4
1. What is meant by religious syncretism?
2. Give two examples of syncretism in the Caribbean.
3. To what extent does religious syncretism demonstrate the process of creolization?
Rastafarianism in Jamaica
Through the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and African Communities
League (ACL) led by Marcus Garvey, the stage was set for the Rastafarian movement to evolve.
Garvey’s goal was to raise the pan-African consciousness by apprising blacks of their African
past. Garvey preached that black people should return to Africa (Ethiopia) to reunite with their
ancestors. Garvey also prophesied that a black king would one day be crowned in Africa.
This prophecy was fulfilled in the 1930s with the crowning of Ras Tafari (crowned Emperor
Haile Selassie of Ethiopia).
The Rastafarian movement therefore began to take shape around 1930 amidst the negative
mental psyche that had developed amongst the African community ( Chevannes 1998).
Today, Rastafari is found in many countries. It is no longer confined to the grassroots members
of society. Persons of all strata in society now follow its belief system and body of rituals.
Rastafarians have promoted an interest in African culture and history and communication with
African people everywhere.
To this end, Chevannes (1998) notes the following features of Rastafari:
• the religion must be included as part of African-derived religions in Jamaica and

the wider Caribbean;
• Rasta is a world view movement that emphasizes a belief system and
consciousness; and
• the religion is more of a cultural movement than a millenarian one that exhibits a
political character.
Religious prejudice, discrimination and intolerance in the

Caribbean
Although religion is often seen as a source of good and unity, there are many negative associations
with the concept of religion. Some of the ways in which religion can cause problems is by leading
people to become intolerant, prejudiced and discriminatory. First, it is important to define these
terms:
• Religious prejudice is a preconceived notion or view regarding a religion that is not

based on reason or experience.
• Religious discrimination is the unjust treatment of a person or group based on their
religious persuasion.
• Religious intolerance is unwillingness to accept religious views, practices or beliefs that
vary from one’s own religion.
The unique history of the Caribbean has led to a diverse population where men and women of
different cultures, religions and backgrounds live together in one region. However, because of
the multi-cultural and multi-ethnic nature of Caribbean societies, it is evident that differences
in opinions and beliefs can sometimes lead to animosity and antagonism. Although religious
tolerance is embedded as a cornerstone of the diverse Caribbean societies, more mainstream
religions tend to cast aspersions on other unconventional religious groups, which vary from their
religious dogma. For example, monotheistic religions may denounce or condemn polytheistic
religions because it goes against their central belief of one God.
During the colonial period, non-Christian religions (such as Hinduism, Islam, Orisha and Vodun)
were frowned upon and deemed as uncivilized and unrefined. Even today, there are many negative
stereotypes associated with some religions, such as Afro-Caribbean religions, because of a lack of
understanding or religious prejudice towards these practices. Oftentimes, individuals who belong
to non-Christian religions are often labelled as ‘outsiders’ in the overwhelmingly Christian region.
However, in more recent times, there have been many attempts to reduce religious persecution
and intolerance. For example, in 2008 in Trinidad and Tobago, the country’s highest award (the
Trinity Cross) was renamed, following a landmark judgment in the courts which deemed it as
discriminatory to other religions, as both the Cross and the Trinity are pre-eminent Christian
symbols worldwide. The new award (the Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago) was
deemed to be a more inclusive award for a multi-religious society, such as Trinidad and Tobago.
There have also been other attempts at religious tolerance; for instance, some Caribbean states
have promoted discontinuation of Christian prayers at government schools in recognition that
students of many different religious backgrounds attend these schools. Even at national functions
Religion | 179
and ceremonies, different religious leaders are often called to offer prayers in an effort to endorse
religious tolerance.
Although attempts have been made to reduce religious intolerance, discriminatory practices still
continue today. For example, in the Caribbean, there have been instances of educational institutions
and even employers with policies that discourage or prohibit the dreadlocks hairstyle associated
with the Rastafarian religion. In some countries, there are also government institutions that overtly
oppose of the wearing of Muslim attire such as the hijab and burqa. Following the devastating
earthquake in Haiti in 2010, there have been accusations against several Christian charities who
have denied Vodun followers access to the donations solely because of their religious affiliation;
all of these are stark examples of religious discrimination and prejudice. These practices will have
negative effects on these groups who will feel isolated and discriminated against simply because
of their religious persuasion.
Conclusion
In this section, a brief outline of some religions found in the Caribbean was presented. One may
gather that the various immigrant cultures that formed part of Caribbean society introduced
their religions to the region. These faiths have inevitably undergone all the transformational
processes experienced by other aspects of culture to produce the multiplicity of religious
forms that exists today. In the contemporary Caribbean, most of the religions of the world are
to be found, but they have undergone some creolization and adaptation.
Activity 6.5
1. For any named religion found in the Caribbean, examine
i. its emergence;
ii. its basic belief system;
iii. its most important rituals.
2. Compare the dynamics and beliefs of an ‘imported’ religion with those of one which
‘emerged’in the Caribbean.
3. Account for the religious diversity that exists in the Caribbean today.
4. Demonstrate the processes of acculturation and interculturation among the religions

of the Caribbean.
CHAPTER 7
EDUCATION
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to:
1 . explain the characteristics, functions and transformations of educational systems in the

Caribbean;
2 . evaluate different theoretical perspectives commonly used for the analysis of education;
3 . discuss the issues associated with educational systems in the Caribbean.
CONTENT
i. Theoretical Perspectives: Consensus, Conflict and Interactionist.
ii. The development of education in the Caribbean:
a. Establishment and expansion (post-emancipation, post-independence);

b. Decolonization and indigenization;
c. Globalization.
iii. Problems in Caribbean education, for example, student delinquency and dropout rates,
male academic under-achievement, and lack of human and material resources.
INTRODUCTION
Education is the social institution guiding a society’s transmission of knowledge – including
basic facts, job skills, and also cultural norms and values – to its members (Macionis 2003).
Sometimes knowledge may be transmitted in an unplanned and unstructured manner, without

any fixed programme of study or evaluation. This constitutes informal education. Such learning
may take place in family settings, religious services, and visits to places of interest, recreational
Education | 181
activities or even by watching television. The transfer of knowledge often takes place through
observation or social interaction.
In traditional societies, most forms of education took place through informal mechanisms involving
the family, tribe or clan. As these societies increased in size and became more complex,
the family was no longer capable of providing the specialized knowledge required to prepare
youngsters to function as adult members of society. In industrial societies, education transmits
the knowledge necessary for adult life and specialized careers.
Educational systems have had to respond to the changes and developments in society, particularly
in the economic sphere. As societies have evolved from traditional to modern, educational systems
have had to change accordingly. Institutions such as schools provide formal education.
The formal system of education comprising schools, colleges and other institutions created and
legally sanctioned for the process of deliberate instruction, is governed by a standardized
curriculum and is delivered by trained professionals – teachers, lecturers, and professors.
In contemporary society, which is highly technologically-driven, in addition to basic literacy

and numerical skills, individuals are also being exposed to technical skills that have been brought
about by developments in information technology (IT). This highlights the fact that, as with
all social institutions, the education system as a vehicle for transmission of skills and knowledge,
must adapt to the changing needs of society and its members. Education is also responsible for
providing individuals with what they need in order to function in society. Thus, in addition to
providing job-related skills, the educational system is also responsible for inculcating life
skills in members of society. To meet this need, some educational institutions are now providing
technical and vocational training in addition to the academic subjects. Opportunities are also
provided to enable individuals to match their knowledge with specific career objectives. To
this end, many educational institutions both public and private have been forging close
linkages with public and private sector corporate bodies.
Formal education is a key institution in modern society, as it reflects and transmits the values,
norms and culture of society. Individuals are prepared, through this educational process, for
assuming different roles in society.
With time, a society’s educational system becomes increasingly sophisticated and differentiated.
Most institutions of learning are targeted at particular levels (often identified by chronological
age), such as primary, secondary and tertiary levels. Some institutions also specialize in specific
fields of learning. In the English-speaking Caribbean, the primary school normally caters
for students between the ages of 5 and 11 years. At this stage, students are exposed to reading,
mathematics, language, arts, science, social studies, among other subjects. This level serves
as the foundation of the further stages of the learning process. The secondary level caters for
students between the ages of 12 and 17. This stage involves the development of specialized
knowledge in certain subjects. This level prepares students for higher learning at the tertiary
level. The tertiary level prepares students for specialization in certain fields of study such as
foreign languages, biology, literature, or economics.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
In this section, the functionalist, conflict and interactionist theories of education will be discussed.
Each perspective adopts a different view of the role of education in society.
The Functionalist Perspective on Education

The Functionalist asks two main questions:
a. How does the educational system promote order and stability in society?
b. What functions does education fulfil for the individual members of society?
Emile Durkheim
1. The process of education helps to provide an important link between the individual and
society. According to Durkheim (1961), education is ‘the methodical socialization of the young
generation’. In order for society to survive there must be homogeneity. Education achieves
this homogeneity by instilling the values of a society into its younger members.
2. The educational system also helps in creating a skilled labour force by reacting to the
economic needs of society. As societies become more complex and modernized, education
prepares the individual to assume specialized occupational roles and to subscribe to modern
values, and thereby to promote value consensus in society.
3. Education also has the social function of providing a space within which interaction can
take place. Students meet and interact with others who may be of varied ethnic, religious
and socio-economic backgrounds thus giving them the opportunity to learn about different
ways of life. Additionally, through classroom and out-of-classroom activities students learn
important life skills such as cooperation, tolerance and leadership skills.
Education | 183
Talcott Parsons – The Positive Role of the School

1. According to Parsons, education performs the function of ‘secondary socialization.’ The
school provides individuals with appropriate ideas on how to live and contribute to society.
The school is a vital source of socialization. In the family, individuals are socialized into
‘particularistic values’, where they are special to the family and have family loyalty. Formal
educational systems instil in children the idea that they are one in many; they are socialized
into ‘universalistic values’. They learn that, in order to succeed, it is important to work and
achieve on the basis of merit.
2. The school prepares students for their adult roles in the wider world, whereby the best
performers, regardless of sex, race or social class, are able to rise to the top of the social
hierarchy.
Criticisms
1. Like Durkheim, Parsons fails to consider adequately that the values and norms transmitted
by the educational system may be those of the ruling elite or ruling class, and not those
of the whole society.
2. The meritocratic nature of many school systems has often been questioned.
Davis and Moore

Building on the work of both Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons, Kingsley Davis and Wilbert
Moore (1945) looked at the education system as being based on three main principles:
• Role allocation
• Sorting and placement
• Functional importance
For these theorists, education is intricately linked with stratification. As Functionalists, they view
society as meritocratic, that is, they see everyone as having an equal chance to attain mobility
and hold any position they desire. The education system is part of this meritocratic social
system, and provides the means through which individuals acquire the skills and knowledge
needed for their occupations.
By providing these skills and knowledge to all students, the school aids in what is referred to as
role allocation. In a meritocratic society, roles are allocated according to ability. Therefore, in
the school system as students are educated it becomes apparent which student is most suited for
certain jobs, such as those in medicine, accounting, history, etc. The school is the place where
role allocation begins. An example of this would be students being placed into a ‘Science class’
where they show aptitude for areas like biology, chemistry and physics. By extension, they are
also being allocated roles such as doctors or engineers, as these are in line with these subject areas.
The example above highlights the second principle, sorting and placement. The education
system, according to Davis and Moore, acts as a way of separating individuals based on their
ability within the school system. The educational system is a selection mechanism whereby
the best performers (and hence the most talented) are selected to fill the most important
positions in society.
Functional importance is another key component of Davis and Moore’s theory. According to
these writers, positions in society are not all of equal importance. The functional importance of
a job/occupation is based on:
• Dependence: the number of people dependent on the job, for example, the Prime Minister
has a very important job due to the citizenry depending on his/her for policy etc.
• Skills: the skills required for the job, for instance, anaesthetists require high levels of
training as the patients’ lives are in their hands.
• Scarcity: the numbers of people available to carry out such a job, for example, structural
engineers or highly-trained architects are in few numbers in the Caribbean and receive
high payment for their skills.
According to Davis and Moore, functional importance and years of training determine the
amount of reward an individual should receive in the society. They maintain that those who
undertake higher levels of education should be rewarded with higher income and prestige. The
school therefore assists society in allocating its human resources to positions in society to which
they are best suited.
Criticisms
1. It is difficult to determine which positions are more important to society. The highest
paid positions are not necessarily the most important. According to Tumin (1967), the
rewards offered to different occupational groups reflect the distribution of power, rather
than the functional importance of different jobs.
2. There is little equality of opportunity in the educational system. The Conflict theorists
have stated that the education system reflects and reproduces the inequalities of the wider
society. Education reinforces the status quo in society.
Education | 185
3. Education and training do not always involve hardship and sacrifice. They provide
intrinsic benefits and are enjoyed by many. Thus, a person does not necessarily have to
receive lifelong compensation for undertaking education and training.
4. There are different values being taught to different groups within the educational
system. The so-called ‘prestigious schools’ in the Caribbean have different values from the
schools meant for the working class, including Junior and Senior Secondary schools.
This is reflected in the different curricula offered at these institutions.
5. The Conflict theorists also state that the educational system serves the interest of the
capitalists. The skills being taught are not those that are beneficial to society but rather
those that are beneficial to the ruling elite.
6. Stratification may lead to hostility and social instability.
Activity 7.1
In your society, indicate the extent to which the school system operates on the basis of meritocratic
principles, as claimed by the Functionalists. In answering the question, you should
• state the basic premise of the Functionalist perspective of society and the role of education
in society;
• summarize the views of Durkheim, Parsons, and Davis and Moore on the role of education
in society;
• use the critique by conflict theorists (Tumin 1967), (Young 1961), and the interactionists
(Becker 1971), and argue whether or not the principles of meritocracy operate in the
school system;
• use examples to help support your points.
The Neo-Marxist/Conflict Perspective

The Conflict theorists, like the Functionalists, base their analysis on the larger social
structure, but place more emphasis on the role of education in relation to the economic
system. The Conflict perspective views the education system as a means of transmitting
ruling-class values and ideologies.
Bowles and Gintis

Bowles and Gintis (1976) in Schooling in Capitalist America, claim that the main purpose of
education is to produce a workforce that can be exploited without resistance by the ruling class.
They also claim the following:
1. Education serves to reproduce the existing social structure through the hidden
curriculum.
2. The curriculum in schools is fragmented into small packages of knowledge, for example,
mathematics, history and Spanish. There is little opportunity to reconcile the content of
one subject with that of another. This hampers the overall development of the student. In
existing economic systems, work is similarly fragmented and is therefore meaningless to
the worker.
3. Educational systems reflect the power of the ruling class and enable the elite to maintain
senior positions. The belief that the system is meritocratic serves to mask the inequality
and unfairness of the system.
4. Children are alienated in schools to prepare them for alienation in the workplace.
5. Pupils are organized in a competitive hierarchical structure, and this prevents them from
gaining much intrinsic value or satisfaction from their work. This prepares the student
for work, where the satisfaction comes from the salary and not the job itself.
6. Those who conform to authority and discipline in schools gain the highest reward.
This prepares students to be subservient and obedient employees to their employers.
Criticisms
1. Bowles and Gintis (1976) have been criticized because they made assumptions about the
hidden curriculum but had little empirical evidence to support their claims.
2. They have been criticized for underestimating the influence of the formal curriculum.
This curriculum focuses on academic subjects rather than subject matter related to work.
3. The hidden curriculum was supposed to result in subservient students. However, there
are numerous schools where students show little regard for school rules, teachers and
authority.
4. Bowles and Gintis (1976) also stated that education legitimates inequality by stating that
educational success and failure are based on merit. However, according to some studies,
Education | 187
most people believe that success is dependent on family background and economic factors.
Thus, education did not succeed in legitimating inequality.
The Interactionist Perspective

This perspective is based on the idea that social action arises out of interpretations and perceptions
derived during the course of social interaction. Interactionists concentrate on the relationships
observed in the classroom, that is, how perceptions of pupils’ by teachers and other pupils
may affect their chances of educational success. Interactionists focus on the social roles of
teachers and pupils. They are concerned with the manner in which pupils’ self-concepts are
shaped during the process of schooling. Some major issues of this perspective include typing,
labelling and the self-fulfilling prophecy, streaming and banding, pupil adaptation and
subculture. We will now examine each of these in some detail.
Typing – Hargreaves, Hester and Mellor (1975) interviewed teachers of two secondary schools
in the early 1970s to understand the different ways in which teachers come to understand
new pupils. Their work resembles that of the phenomenologists who say that people make
sense of the world by making ‘typifications’ (categorising social and natural phenomena based
on experience). Hargreaves et al. (1975) claim that teachers come to know their pupils by
engaging in three main processes: speculation, elaboration and stabilization. Speculation involves
examining pupils’ physical appearance, their abilities and aptitudes, their social characteristics
such as personality and interpersonal relationships, and the extent to which they conform to
school rules. Elaboration is a reflexive process in which the teacher looks for evidence to confirm,
refute or modify the speculation. Elaboration shows that teachers use ethnomethodological
principles in their interaction with pupils. Thirdly, the process of stabilization occurs when
the teacher has come to a sound understanding of the pupil. In a way, it becomes the teacher’s
‘permanent’ perception of the pupil under his/her charge. As Becker says, it becomes the
pupil’s master-status since all other actions will be evaluated in terms of the teacher’s definition.
Interactionists, in some instances, mimic Conflict theorists’ views of education since they see
education as reproducing social inequalities – in particular class inequalities. The end result of
typing is that pupils are categorized based on their social class background. The middle
class is typed as ‘conformist’, and the working class as ‘deviant’ or ‘delinquent’.
Labelling and the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – Other researchers adopt a more direct approach
to their understanding of classroom relations. They argue that pupils are labelled by school
authorities (administration, teachers, and non-teaching officials) and their peers. Labels are
put on pupils because of the perceptions of others. However, labels usually are associated with
social class. Middle-class pupils are more likely to be positively labelled as ‘bright’, ‘smart’,
‘intelligent’, ‘able/capable’ and ‘having a promising future’. On the contrary, their lower
class counterparts are more likely to be negatively labelled as being ‘at risk’ (e.g., to drugs,
delinquency, dropout or failure), ‘slow’, ‘dull’, ‘a trouble-maker’ or ‘deviant’. The Interactionists
usually assume that, once labelled, a pupil will act in accordance with the label, making it a
self-fulfilling prophecy. While this may occur, there are sometimes unintended consequences.
M. Fuller (1984) proved the latter when she undertook a study of black girls in a London
Comprehensive School. She found that instead of fulfilling negative labels arising out of their
lower class, black and female status, they resolved to become successful in later life by putting
much emphasis on academics and doing well at school.
However, in the 1960s Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) illustrated the success of teacher perception
by reporting on an experiment that tested the self-fulfilling prophecy. Their study is more popularly
known as ‘the Pygmalion in the Classroom’. It reports that once teachers hold positive views of
pupils, they are likely to have more positive interaction with them and so encourage them to
hold more positive self-images. We can thus conclude that a classroom climate that promotes
feelings of efficacy in pupils will produce more desirable academic performances. Teachers
may well be advised that the more effort they make to reduce threats to pupils’ emotional safety
and well-being, the fewer the problems to be overcome in the classroom.
Streaming
Streaming has been widely practised in the Caribbean. It involves putting all pupils of similar
ability in the same class, where the same knowledge and instructions are given. It is believed that
streaming will improve the quality of learning because all pupils in the same stream will benefit
from ‘equality of opportunity’. However, interactionists have studied this (streaming) in
comprehensive schools and have shown its deleterious effects on pupils. Nell Keddie (1973),
in a study of a London comprehensive school, found that pupils in higher streams were given
more ‘finely graded knowledge’ than those in lower streams, who were exposed to simpler,
more concrete and less sophisticated knowledge.
In the Caribbean some educators have vehemently opposed this practice. V. Jules for instance
has argued that it produces severe lifelong (negative) self-images among those in low streams.
This can lead to social problems later on, such as deviance by those who may wish to ‘hit-back’
at society for condemning them to a life as ‘second-rate’ citizens (poor employment prospects,
unemployment, marginality and dependence).
One related process is tracking/banding. Tracking is intended to select pupils for courses
of study based on their ability (or perceived ability). S.J. Ball’s (1981) classic study on Banding at
Beachside Comprehensive School demonstrates the principle of banding. He found that middle
class pupils were over-represented in Band I (for the most academically able). In addition,
Education | 189
those in Band II (mainly lower-class pupils) were allowed to ‘cool-out’ since this was for pupils
with behaviour problems. They were encouraged to pursue the more practical subjects for
Ordinary level examinations. Band III pupils, thought to be not as difficult to deal with, were
usually of lower-class origin. Thus, it is clear that, in schools designed to promote social-class
integration, teachers were helping to preserve the status quo by favouring the middle class for
‘better’ education.
Pupil-Adaptation and Subcultures

P.J. Woods (1979) deviates slightly from the prevailing proposition that pupils adapt to
school life based on teacher-perception. Instead, he views pupils as having greater autonomy and
direction over their lives. Woods suggests that there may be at least eight modes of adaptation
to the school. These modes of adaptation can be classified under the categories Conformity,
Middle Ground, and Non-conformity.
Conformity – Pupils act in accordance with rules for instrumental reasons (i.e., they wish
to succeed). This is the case with those who ingratiate, comply and act in opportunistic ways.
Middle-Ground Adaptation – This describes pupils who reject the goals of education (ritualism),
who reject goals and the legitimate channels for success (retreatism) and who are indifferent and
uncertain about their purpose.
Non-Conformity – Non-conformist pupils may act in intransigent or rebellious ways. They

may deliberately break class and school rules because ‘school is not the place for them’. They
may bide their time, then engage in activities counter to schooling. In Learning to Labour,
P. Willis (1977) discovered a group of 12 working-class boys who fitted this categorization.
Willis thought that they had come to view schools as a waste of their time because it could not
provide them with the knowledge, skills and experiences required for the reinforcing of the
working-class ethos.
Advantages of the Interactionist Perspective in Education

The Interactionist Perspective is based on much empirical evidence, using direct observation of
teachers and pupils in classrooms. It shows that educational success is based on a wide range of
factors such as parents, school, teachers and the pupils themselves.
Disadvantages of the Interactionist Perspective on

Education
Many studies of labelling are outdated; e.g., Becker’s study of the ‘ideal pupils’ dates back to
the 1960s. (The perspective may be becoming less relevant to modern education systems).
Interactionists fail to take into consideration those out-of-school factors such as diet, parental
interest and housing conditions that are important in success. What takes place in school is
merely part of the process of education.
Activity 7.2
Self-Test 1
Instructions
• Re-read the section if you get two or more incorrect.
1. Which set is correctly associated with the Functionalist perspective of education?
a. role allocation, meritocracy, equality of opportunity [ ]

b. bias, maintenance of the status quo, hidden curriculum [ ]
c. labelling, streaming, banding [ ]
d. role allocation, self-fulfilling prophecy, apolitical values [ ]
2. Which pair is correctly matched?
a. Becker – Schooling in Capitalist America [ ]

b. Keddie – The counter School Culture [ ]
c. Willis – Learning to Labour [ ]
d. Parsons – Persistent Poverty [ ]
Education | 191
3. Which is not a process involved in typing students?
a. Elaboration [ ]
b. Stabilization [ ]
c. Graduation [ ]
d. Speculation [ ]
4. What view do Marxists and Interactionists hold in common?
a. Schools promote equality for all. [ ]

b. Girls are doing better than boys. [ ]
c. Minorities are labelled and placed in low streams. [ ]
d. Schools ensure that middle- class privileges are maintained. [ ]
5. Which is true of labelling?
a. All labels ‘stick’ on pupils. [ ]

b. Not all negatively labelled pupils fulfil the prophecy. [ ]
c. A test of labelling was conducted by Bowles and Gintis in 1993. [ ]
d. Teachers today do not label pupils. [ ]
Education in the Caribbean

The educational systems that evolved in the British West Indian societies were shaped in no
small way by the region’s history. Some of the more important historical events include conquest
and colonization by different powers, slavery, the European dominated power structure and a
single export crop, East Indian indentureship and the development of a stratification system
based largely on race and colour.
Historical Development – The development of education in the Caribbean can be discussed

in three phases: (a) Pre-emancipation (b) Post-emancipation (c) Political Independence.
Pre-Emancipation – During slavery, formal education was limited to the whites, and was not
available to the enslaved. It was not feasible for the colonial administrators to make education
available to the enslaved for two main reasons. Firstly, educating the slaves in reading and writing
may have resulted in revolts on the plantations. Secondly, offering education to the enslaved would
have incurred heavy economic costs, as it would have meant labourers spending time away from
the plantation. Thus, education was used to maintain the status quo in Caribbean society.
Planters sent their children abroad or had tutors educate them. The missionaries made the first
attempts to educate the enslaved, mainly in the rudiments of reading and writing. In any
event, the infrastructure for formal education (school buildings, teacher-training facilities and a
supply of teachers) was not available in many of the West Indian colonies. The settlers’ primary
interest was making profit via the sugar industry. The formal education of t h e e n slaved was
not high on their list of priorities.
In the early nineteenth century, education was frequently interpreted to mean ‘Christianization
and civilization’. Thus, integral to the Amelioration Act of 1812, was moral and religious
instruction for slaves. Amelioration meant an improvement in the slaves’ physical conditions
as well as preparation for freedom. Blouet (1980) describes early education initiatives in Barbados.
These entailed exposing greater numbers of slaves to instruction, and opening day schools.
Every parish began a Sunday school for slave education in religion. In some Spanish-speaking
colonies, such as Puerto Rico, more concerted efforts were made to develop formal schooling.
Some historians remark that, as early as 1512, schools were built. The main goals were to
provide education for Spanish colonists and to educate the natives in the language and culture
of the mother country. The latter reflects the principle of acculturation aimed at the ideological
control of the native population.
Post-Emancipation
1. The black population saw education as an instrument through which their children could
achieve economic and social advancement in society. As a result, there was a great demand
for education.
2. There were difficulties for many freed people in gaining education:
a. There was a decline in the economic prosperity of the sugar industry. Thus,
the local legislatures were unable to provide funds to support an expansion of
education.
b. The sugar planters remained the dominant economic group. They therefore resisted
any increase in opportunities for upward mobility among the black population.
c. Political power was still in the hand of the sugar planters. As a result, educational
policies and programmes that were later developed reflected the interests of the
planter class.
d. The plural nature of the societies in the West Indies posed many difficulties and
Education | 193
challenges for their educational systems. Various denominational groups, instead of

the state, provided education, and this created a problem for the emergence of a
common educational system.
3. While measures continued to place importance on education as an instrument of the
blacks’ social and economic advancement, the elites viewed it as a tool of social control.
Education was also used as a mechanism to reinforce the ideology of the superiority of
Europeans and all their social, political and cultural institutions.
4. The Church’s involvement was a mechanism used to ensure that the ex-slaves could read
the Bible for religious instruction.
Political Independence and Education

The achievement of political independence was a major turning point in the English-speaking
Caribbean. Halliday (1991) observed that there was a direct link between education and the
political process, since education was perceived as the major vehicle for de-colonization and
nationalism. Black nationalists such as Bustamante (Jamaica), Adams (Barbados) and Williams
(Trinidad and Tobago) believed that educational investment would also bring economic prosperity
to the region. This belief is supported by Human Capital Theory (HCT). This theory promotes
the principle that education and training will, in future years, increase productivity and raise
standards of living. Proponents of HCT include Theodore Schultz, who cited evidence that
educated farm workers in America were more productive. In the 1960s, HCT was quite popular
as a developmental strategy in the Third World. Many governments in the Caribbean and south
East Asia (Malaysia, Singapore, etc.) were said to have spent as much as 60 per cent of their GNP
on education. The main goals were to improve access to education, enhance teacher-training
and provide suitable employment for recent graduates. Critics argue that so much was spent
on education that there was economic imbalance and uneven growth, because little attention
was paid to other critical sectors of the economy (such as employment creation, agriculture and
infrastructure) as well as other vital institutions such as health, social welfare, housing and security.
Today, HCT has given way to Human Development (HD) approaches that aim to develop the
individual more holistically. HD takes into account education, life expectancy and GNP per
capita. (You will learn more about HD later in this text).
HD therefore focuses on improving people’s knowledge, health and occupational prospects. It

takes into consideration all aspects of human life necessary for the individual to develop.
The Caribbean is indebted to a number of regional and international lending agencies, such
as the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) and the World Bank, for many of its advances in
education. Some of the more noteworthy ones have been improved access to education at all
levels – preschool, primary, secondary and tertiary; improvements in the quality of teaching,
and enhanced teacher-training; the development of more examination bodies, examinations
and certification (e.g., The Caribbean Examination Council [CXC]); greater collaboration
among member states through the University of the West Indies (UWI) and its initiatives;
curriculum reform at all levels (greater relevance and choice); and improvements in literacy
(child and adult).
Access to tertiary education is especially significant, since most regional governments have
agreed to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). These are concerned with issues such
as poverty reduction, health, and educational reforms.
Since independence, the region has witnessed the continuous expansion of services offered at the
three campuses of UWI, as well as the proliferation in the number of community colleges for
the provision of certificates, diplomas and associate degrees. The Sir Arthur Lewis Community
College in Saint Lucia, the Clarence Fitzroy Bryant College in St Kitts and Nevis and the State
College of Antigua and Barbuda are examples of this.
The post-emancipation era of the 1840s represents a period of significant improvement in the
education of non-whites in the English-speaking Caribbean. Besides an increase in educational
access for the children of ex-slaves, there were provisions for primary school teacher-training and
the introduction of the ‘ Monitor’ (pupil-teacher) system for teacher-recruitment.
The pupil-teacher system involved placing 15-year-old pupils under the tutelage of the head-
teacher (principal). The monitor (pupil-teacher) was expected to qualify for teacher-training
after spending a few years under the head-teacher’s guidance.
In the late nineteenth century, the British government undertook several measures to improve
the quality of education. Missionary groups such as Moravians and Methodists were allowed
to instruct the former slaves. In the Leeward Islands, such as Antigua and Barbuda, these
groups began constructing their own schools.
In other islands, the Roman Catholic, Anglican and State Boards were quietly competing for
hegemony by building schools. For instance, in Trinidad in 1836, St Joseph’s Convent in Port of
Spain began admitting girls. By 1849, Governor Lord Harris set up the first ward (government)
schools for the provision of secular education. The emphasis was on reading, writing and arithmetic
(the 3Rs).
Another important development included a system of secondary school selection. In some

islands it was referred to as the ‘College Exhibition’, which was aimed chiefly at selecting
boys from white backgrounds for secondary education. In addition, the British implemented the
system of certification involving the writing of external examinations at Ordinary level. Cambridge
Education | 195
University was one of the first to offer examinations to pupils educated in the Caribbean.
The education pupils received undoubtedly reflected the ideals of the mother country. The
geography, history, art and literature were selected from British culture. Early reading schemes
developed by Cutteridge are ample testimony of this. Stories taught English and Scottish morals
and values. The British left a legacy of high academic standards. It was up to Caribbean nationals
to chart a comparable standard of education that was more reflective of its people’s history and
experiences.
Using Trinidad and Tobago as an example, we can outline some of the major changes in Caribbean
education since the political independence of the 1960s.
Some Educational Initiatives in Trinidad and Tobago

• 1972 – Introduction of New Sector Schools: junior and senior secondary.
• 1973 – Opening of the School of Education at UWI, St Augustine (for secondary
school teacher training).
• 1979 – Centralization and standardization of primary school teacher training.
• 1979 – Piloting CXC (CSEC examinations in Mathematics, Geography and English).
• 1998 – Opening a Medical Faculty at UWI, St Augustine.
• 2000 – Piloting the Secondary Education Modernization Programme (SEMP).
• 2000 – Replacement of the Common Entrance Examination with the Secondary Entrance
Assessment (SEA).
• 2004 – Introduction of Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination (CAPE), in order
to replace GCE/ A’levels.
Activity 7.3
Compile a list of five reforms or improvements in education undertaken in your country over
the last 25 years.
Activity 7.4
Self-Test 2
Instructions
• Re-read the section if you get two or more answers incorrect.
1. Which statements about education in the pre-emancipation period are correct?
i. Economic interests superseded slave education.

ii. Education was aimed at preparing slaves for their freedom.
iii. Most of the education involved religious and moral instruction.
iv. Many planters had their children educated outside the region.
a. i and iii [ ]
b. ii and iv [ ]
c. i, iii and iv [ ]
d. i, ii, iii, iv [ ]
2. In which period in Caribbean history did formal education contribute to significant

increases in social mobility?
a. Pre-emancipation [ ]
b. Slavery [ ]
c. Post-emancipation period [ ]
d. Post-independence period [ ]
3. In which phase of education did the state play the greatest role?
a. European conquest and settlement [ ]

b. From independence to the present [ ]
c. The post-emancipation period [ ]
d. The pre-independence period [ ]
Education | 197
4. Which of the following statements about missionary groups is/are true?
a. They were concerned with educating slaves so that they could find employment
in Europe. [ ]
b. They depended totally on the state for funding. [ ]
c. They had more power than the state in education during colonial times. [ ]
d. All of the above. [ ]
5. Which of the following statements pertaining to education in the Caribbean is incorrect?
a. Education was elitist during colonial times. [ ]

b. The curriculum was Eurocentric in the earlier stages. [ ]
c. CXC has facilitated the decolonization process in education. [ ]
d. Equality of opportunity in education has remained unchanged for the
past 50 years. [ ]
Education and Equality

If you hold the functionalist perspective in high esteem, you will be inclined to believe that
education leads to a more ‘open’ and meritocratic society, through the promotion of social mobility.
However, the evidence from conflict and other perspectives shows that education largely fails
to promote equality. This arises because the education system and the society generally, impose
barriers to the progress of ethnic minorities, females (in some societies), males (in the Caribbean),
the poor and the lower class.
An analysis of data from mobility studies will reveal that the rate of absolute mobility may not
be as large as one may think initially. This is so because mobility is short range – people do not
usually move very far (either upward or downward) from their original class position.
Education and Mobility

Education is one of the main vehicles for achieving social mobility. According to the Functionalists,
the educational system acts as a sieve; it identifies and selects the more talented individuals in
the interests of society as a whole. This is acceptable, since Functionalists (Parsons, Davis and
Moore) suggest that schools operate on meritocratic principles so as to achieve a more efficient
allocation of human resources. According to these theorists, pupils’ achievement levels are largely
a reflection of their innate ability and nothing else.
This view of meritocracy has come under severe attack from the neo-Marxists. Bowles and Gintis
(1976) have condemned such a perspective on education, as it largely ignores the class inequalities
in education. They do not view teachers as neutral to pupils. Teachers are rather partial to
pupils of middle-class backgrounds. Caribbean writers, Gordon (1963) and Beckford (1972)
have adopted a somewhat Marxist approach to education. Gordon, for instance, perceives
education as being largely influenced by colonialism. As such, she says that it maintains the
privilege of whites over other social strata.
Despite the strong anti-meritocratic philosophy of education inherent in schooling, it may be

correct to assert that education in the post-independent Caribbean, in many instances, has
assisted in promoting some degree of social mobility. Based upon a system of meritocracy, it
is argued that every student has equal educational chances of excelling in the educational
system and could thereby attain upward social mobility. However, it is argued, as was seen from
the Conflict and Interactionist perspectives, that educational life chances are not equitably
distributed across all classes.
In a study entitled ‘Education and Equality of Opportunity in Trinidad and Tobago’, Ishmael
J. Baksh (1986) focused his study on the social background of the students attending two types
of secondary schools, and the effects on the social mobility of the students.
The following are some of the findings highlighted in the study:
• Colour is no longer a significant factor in determining social equality in the society.

• Sufficient mobility from the lower classes is likely to take place to sustain the illusion
that equality of opportunity has been achieved.
• Education is likely to function as a means of restricting or controlling social mobility
from the lower classes. This takes place as students from lower social and economic
status are usually assigned to those schools where the curriculum is geared toward
technical and vocational subjects and lower end occupational goals.
• Despite its good intentions, Caribbean educational systems mirror that of industrialized
countries, which discriminates to some extent against members of the lower socio-
economic classes in the selection process. The educational system tends to direct the
young toward educational and social choices that are strongly linked to their social-
class background, and which would most likely result in the maintenance of the class
structure. The school system legitimizes social inequality by promoting the idea that
the stratification system is fair, since the education people have received was what
they preferred.
Education | 199
Activity 7.5
Self-Test 3
Instructions
• Re-read the section if you get two or more incorrect.
1. Which two Caribbean theorists have made claims similar to those of the Marxists?
a. S. Gordon and E. Durkheim [ ]

b. G. Beckford and T. Parsons [ ]
c. G. Beckford and S. Gordon [ ]
d. E. Durkheim and T. Parsons [ ]
2. Which is a good indicator of meritocracy in education?
a. Boys of a particular ethnic group doing badly in schools [ ]

b. Low achieving girls performing poorly in examinations [ ]
c. Awarding secondary school places based on students’ scores [ ]
d. Placing pupils of rural districts in rural high schools only [ ]
3. Which statement cannot be associated with Baksh’s study of education?

a. The educational system can restrict mobility. [ ]
b. Education in the Caribbean produces similar effects to those in developed
countries. [ ]
c. Schooling legitimizes and reinforces social inequity. [ ]
d. Ethnicity and race are the most important issues in e d u c a t i o n . [ ]
4. Which statement about education and mobility is true?
a. Functionalists show that schools can contribute to mobility. [ ]

b. Marxists agree that schooling provides equality of opportunity. [ ]
c. In all Caribbean societies, schools are fair. [ ]
d. Education systems today have reduced the privileges of whites. [ ]
5. Which type of mobility is likely to occur because of education?
a. A nephew replacing his uncle as a labourer. [ ]

b. A mother taking a daughter’s place as a bus driver. [ ]
c. After 10 years, a manual worker practises law. [ ]
d. After 10 years, a doctor is dismissed for malpractice. [ ]
Education and Gender

In comparing gender issues in education, before and after the 1990s, researchers have found
that the disadvantages faced by girls in earlier times have been significantly reduced today.
Reasons for Girls’ Under-Achievement

1. Early socialization (parenting styles which guide boys and girls into different activities)
contributed towards girls’ preferences for the less prestigious subjects such as home economics,
cookery and needlework. Practices include play activities, using differential toys for the sexes
(e.g., boys get guns, trucks and bricks, whereas girls get dolls, tea-sets and soft-toys) and
participation in different domestic duties (e.g., yard-cleaning and dishwashing respectively).
2. Timetabling Restrictions – timetabling subjects so that traditional boys’ and girls’

subjects are taught at the same time (i.e., compelling girls to do subjects deemed ‘girls’
subjects).
3. Lowering the Self-Concept. This may include: underestimating girls’ abilities, allowing
boys to dominate classroom discussions, tolerating boys’ negative labelling of girls in and
out of the classroom, ignoring girls’ contributions and minimizing their presence in the
classroom.
Education | 201
Reasons for Girls’ Improved Performance in Schools

1. The impact of women’s liberation – girls are placing more priority on the pursuit of education
and career goals, and less emphasis on family, marriage and domestic roles.
2. Changes in the nature of work and employment – the growth of the service sector after the
Second World War meant that more occupations required less physical-labour power and
more mental-labour power. This allows for greater female employment.
3. Changes in fertility – many parents have fewer children and thus more resources to devote
to children’s (including daughters’) education.
4. Legislation – governments have passed anti-discrimination laws banning the restriction

of girls from subjects deemed ‘male-oriented’.
Activity 7.6
1. Explain why illiteracy rates in developed countries such as Canada and Britain are relatively
low.
2. Briefly explain why illiteracy rates are higher for women than for men in most developing
countries.
3. Describe three reasons why girls are doing better than boys in the Caribbean today.
4. Identify three ways in which girls in developed societies were disadvantaged in their
schooling in the past.
Male Underachievement
Unlike those for other societies in the world today, educational statistics in the Caribbean show
that boys, rather than girls, are at a disadvantage in school. This is one of the main differences
between education in the Caribbean and in most other societies. A number of authors have
suggested that both labelling and lower parental encouragement are pertinent to an understanding
of male underachievement in the Caribbean. In a small-scale study of male underachievement in
Trinidad and Tobago, Applewhaite (1998) suggested that male underachievement was the result of
inherent female biases in and out of school. Teachers, as well as parents, were more likely to
encourage girls to become academically successful. Errol Miller (1991) wrote that, in Jamaica,
early socialization of boys puts many of them at a severe disadvantage in schools. They were not
encouraged to identify high educational achievement with masculinity. Miller, in discussing
marginalization of the black male, has suggested that in the Caribbean (as well as elsewhere)
women have tended to dominate the teaching profession, which has increasingly become state
controlled. We can argue that with this feminization of teaching, particularly at the primary
level, many boys do not have male role models after whom they could pattern their lives.
Table 7.1: GDP Per Capita and Gross Enrolment in Tertiary Education
Countries Size Population ‘000 Per Capita Gross Enrollment

(sq. km) (2001) GNI in Tertiary
Education
(2001)
Antigua & Barbuda 440 68.0 9,070 10* *
Barbados 430 268.0 9,250 38
Belize 23 240.0 3,110 6* *
British Virgin 58 19.2 2054* 6* *
Islands
Cayman Islands 260 35.0 28,900*
Cuba 110,860 11,222.0 1560* 24
Dominica 750 73.0 3,200 5* *
Dominican 48,730 8,505.0 2,230 14
Republic
G renada 340 99.0 3,720 4* *
Guyana 214,970 766.0 840 8* *
H aiti 27,750 8114.0 480 1
Jamaica 10,990 2,668.0 2,720 16
St Kitts & Nevis 360 41.0 6,880 8* *
Saint L ucia 620 158.0 3,970 25
St V incent 390 116.0 2,690 3* *
Trinidad & Tobago 5,130 1,310.0 5,540 6.5
Turks & Caicos 166 16.9 7,700*
Arg entina 2,780,400 37,478.0 6,960 36
Braz il 8,547,400 172,564.0 3,060 16
Chile 765,630 15,397.0 4,350 38
M exico 1,958,200 99,415.0 5,070 21
Sources: Caribbean Latin American Action, IMF Financial Statistics and Inter American Development Bank.
Adapted from: http://sta.uwi.edu/ACHEA/downloads/ACHEA 2004/Horace William
Education | 203
Activity 7.7
Instructions
Use the data in table 7.1 to complete the statements below:
1. ____________ has the highest rate of enrolment in tertiary education in the Anglophone
Caribbean.
2. ____________ is the poorest country in the entire Caribbean and has the lowest rate
of enrolment in tertiary education.
3. What implications do these figures have for Caribbean development? (Answer in

four paragraphs).
Activity 7.8
Essay Question:
For a named Caribbean society, outline the contribution of formal education to social and economic
development over the last 50 years.
Guidelines
• Define the terms: formal education, social development, economic development.

• Name and explain at least three educational reforms (educational initiatives) that
have contributed to social and economic development.
• Your explanation should be accompanied by statistical evidence of both social
and economic development.
New Developments in Caribbean Education
Education and Technology

In this section, we will examine a number of issues that will help to elucidate the role of technology
in education: education, classroom organization, social change and equality; distance learning;
globalization and education.
In earlier times, technology took on a different role in education. It was confined chiefly to the
classroom. Today, the use of technology is more widespread and advanced. Information Technology
(IT) has established itself as a full-fledged subject with its own aims and subject matter. It teaches
a variety of skills. IT specialists are employed in schools and perform essential functions for
the transformation of curriculum delivery. Even at preschool, pupils are being exposed to the
use of computers. Governments are setting up departments of science and technology that
seek greater collaboration with other stakeholders in education (such as Ministries of Education,
schools and non-governmental organizations [NGOs]).
Correspondence courses have been almost completely phased out. We no longer depend on the
mail to supply us with course material from foreign countries. Modern technology affords us the
opportunity to use online facilities. In the United States, the University of Phoenix is renowned
for its excellence in distance-learning programmes.
The debate about the relevance of technology in education raises the issue of cultural reproduction
– the passing on of values, skills and knowledge critical for social progress.
Education, Classroom Organization, Social Change and Equality

One important issue to consider is the way schools and classrooms are structured or organized.
Sociologists will consider the types of interaction among administrators, teachers and students. We
are hence concerned with the influence of technology on school organization and relationships.
One possible point of view is that technology will enhance school efficiency and efficacy. On
the other hand, some argue that it will reduce the quality of social relationships necessary for
student success.
The issue of social change is most significant in contemporary times. Postmodernists claim that
we live in the ‘information age’. Hence, it is imperative that students comprehend the role of
technology in changing the way the curriculum is implemented (i.e., the way lessons are taught).
In other words, they need to come to terms with the changing role of teachers. Teachers must
move from being transmitters of knowledge to being facilitators of learning.
Once educational technology becomes more commonplace, sociologists of education will begin
to access its impact on levels of social equality. For instance, will greater exposure to technology
lead to greater educational prospects for women, minorities and the working class as a whole?
One position propounded by American research is that the use of educational technology has
provided more opportunity for female occupational mobility. Women and girls are benefiting
because women are able to take on traditional male roles such as managerial and supervisory
positions; and girls are afforded access to computers in schools. Despite this improvement,
Education | 205
significant gender differences in technology use are evident. Boys are inclined to play games
and engage in competitive activities whilst girls prefer word processing and collaborative work.
However, these differences do not appear to be so pronounced when women are significantly
disadvantaged at work.
In essence, technology can promote the acquisition of a wide variety of disciplines. Students
can comprehend its effect on organization, especially in terms of their efficiency. They can also
compare ideologies of past philosophers such as Marx with the prevailing ideologies of today;
for instance, the difference between Marx’s view of technology and that of the postmodernists
can be considered. The former was rather pessimistic believing that it would eventually polarize
society and bring about a proletarian revolution. The latter, however, claim that knowledge is
power and that modern technology (e.g., computers, mass media) is the key to the transmission
of knowledge – a rather optimistic view indeed.
Distance Learning
Distance learning is an educational approach which allows the student the flexibility to study
at his or her own pace to achieve the academic goals which are necessary in today’s world.
(www.instudy.com/articles/saww6a03.htm).
The University of the West Indies (UWI) Open Campus works with faculties of UWI at
locations on the three campuses of Barbados, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago. There are
centres located in all the English-speaking countries that support UWI and it currently extends
its service to 16 countries.
In 1983, UWI formally began offering courses using an audio teleconferencing system. In addition
to the lectures, students also received supplementary print materials. The first programmes
offered were the Certificate in Business Administration and the Certificate in Education.
Programmes currently offered at UWI Open Campus include:

• BEd Early Childhood Development and Family Studies
• BEd Educational Leadership & Management
• BEd Literacy Studies
• BEd Primary (Language Arts Option)
• BEd Secondary English
• BEd Secondary Mathematics
• BSc Banking and Finance
• BSc Banking and Finance

• BSc in Accounting
• BSc in Management Studies
• BSc in Youth Development Work
• BSc Management Studies
• Certificate & Diploma Early Childhood Development and Family Studies
• Professional Diploma in Management Accounting
• Diploma in Instructional Design
• Diploma in Literacy Instruction
• MEd in Literacy Instruction
• Masters in Adult and Continuing Education
• Post Graduate Diploma Adult and Continuing Education
• MA in English Language
Once you have access to the internet you will discover the wide range of courses offered by many
foreign universities. The universities of Leicester, Sheffield, London and Greenwich are just a
few examples. It costs almost nothing to obtain information about faculty, fees and content.
Caribbean nationals have great choices in education. We do not necessarily have to go overseas
to pursue foreign education unless we choose to do so.
Globalization and Education

One issue concerning globalization is its role in democratization throughout the world. Schools
prepare people for participation in the economy and polity, giving them the knowledge to make
responsible judgements, the motivation to make appropriate contributions to the well-being of
society, and a consciousness about the consequences of their behaviour.
Along with the mass provision of schools, technological advances have permitted distance education
to convey Western concepts to almost any part of society. In this way, new regions are exposed
to knowledge generated by culturally dominant groups. The net effect of this is absorption
into Western consumer society. In traditional societies, globalization has a revolutionary effect
on the way knowledge is obtained and used. In fact, it is usually a means of acculturation in
which tradition is challenged and changed. This occurs with much success, because schools
have some degree of autonomy in the socialization of the youth.
Education | 207
Despite this position (schools as agents of change), there is limited success in terms of their
effectiveness in the transmission of Western political and cultural ideologies. In societies farthest
away from Western civilization, schools may operate more independently. Thus, they can permit
the perpetuation of some knowledge associated with their culture (www.answers.com/topic/
globalisation-of-education).
An important initiative supported by proponents of globalization is Education for All (EFA).

The Education for All movement is a global commitment to provide quality basic education
for all children, youth and adults. The EFA movement was launched at the World Conference
on Education for All in 1990 at Jomtien, Thailand. The chief aim of this conference was the
making of education widely available, so that rates of illiteracy could be drastically reduced
within 10 years.
In 2000, a follow up conference took place at Dakar, Senegal. Representatives agreed on six key
goals aimed at meeting the learning needs of children, youth and adults. The main aim was
the further enhancement of literacy rates by 2015. The six specific goals were:
• to expand early childhood care and education;
• to provide free and compulsory primary education for all;
• to promote learning and life skills for young people and adults;
• to increase adult literacy by 50 per cent;
• to achieve gender parity by 2005, gender equality by 2015;
• to improve the quality of education.
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/resources/
While these goals are commendable, one cannot realistically expect that all countries would
achieve them simultaneously (if at all). Factors such as the availability of additional economic
resources, human resources and schools will undoubtedly impact upon the success of their
initiatives. For instance, countries with poor infrastructure (roads, transport and communication
systems) will be hard pressed to pump massive sums of their national income into education.
The relationship between globalization, distance education and technology is obvious. Technology
is the key factor that makes everything else possible. The Caribbean has to take this
path (technological advancement) if it is to keep pace with developments in post-industrial
societies of the North.
Activity 7.9
Instructions
Read the passage below, and then answer the questions that follow:
Schools can become more effective and efficient if technology is used to enhance the delivery
of the curricula. Teachers will not become redundant but will have to change their traditional
perceptions of their roles as educators. They must be called upon to become ‘facilitators’ of
learning.
1. State two benefits of the use of technology in schools.
2. State three ways in which globalization has transformed education in the Caribbean.
3. State two changes teachers must make to their ‘culture’ if they are to become ‘facilitators
of learning’.
4. Identify three reforms in Caribbean education systems necessary for further gains to
be achieved from the use of technology in classrooms.
Activity 7.10
Instructions
Match the theorist on the left with the theories on the right.
1. Bowles and Gintis ______ A. (Typing)
2. Davis and Moore B. (Human Capital)

3. Hargreaves et al. C. (Education and Inequality)
4. I.J. Baksh D. (Role Allocation)
5. McClelland and Schultz E. (Schooling in Capitalist America)
Education | 209
Activity 7.11
Fill in the Blanks. Use each term once.
LABELLING, STREAMING, TRACKING, DISTANCE LEARNING, ROLE ALLOCATION
1. The principle of teaching students of similar ability in the same class is referred to
as _____________.
2. An educational initiative in which teachers and students can interact without being in
the same classroom is known as _____________.
3. The principle of assigning people to occupations based on their academic qualifications

is called _____________.
4. Teachers are accused of _____________ when they type pupils according to their
perceived ability, social class, sex or ethnic background.
5. The educational policy of_____________ involves allowing students to study some

subjects and not others.
Activity 7.12
Instructions
Write a plan for each essay. Your plan should include the following:
INTRODUCTION
• The key term/s to be defined.

• A thesis statement outlining what you intend to do in the rest of the essay.
BODY
• Two or three main issues to be examined.

• The sub-points to support each issue above.
CONCLUSION
• A sociological theory/issue/research study that aptly justifies the thesis statement. Use
the plan to write at least two essays.
TOPICS
1. Compare and contrast the functionalist and conflict perspectives of education.
2. Evaluate the main factors that have shaped education in the Caribbean over the last 50
years.
3. Assess the proposition that gender differences in education are inevitable.
4. To what extent do education systems reproduce social inequalities? (Cite examples

from research studies as evidence).
5. Outline and assess the benefits of technology in Caribbean education.
6. Suggest and explain two reasons why schools may appear to be more ‘meritocratic’ than
they really are.
7. What measures can governments of the Caribbean adopt to ensure that schools
function on the principle of ‘equality for all’?
8. Discuss the view that students’ interaction with teachers influences their
educational performance at school.
9. Critically examine the contribution of either Davis and Moore or Bowles and Gintis to
our understanding of education in the Caribbean.
10. For any Caribbean territory, state whether you agree that the educational system
reinforces the status quo in society.
UNIT 1 - MODULE 3
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND

SOCIAL MOBILITY
CHAPTER 8
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:
CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
1. explain the concepts of stratification;
2. identify types of stratification systems;
3. compare and contrast social equality and social mobility in open and closed stratification
systems;
4. assess the theoretical perspectives on stratification in the Caribbean; and
5. analyse the impact of stratification systems on Caribbean societies.
CONTENT
1. Concepts of Stratification in a Comparative Perspective
i. Class
ii. Colour
iii. Race
iv. Ethnicity
v. Caste
vi. Gender
vii. Status
viii. Mobility
2. Types of Stratification Systems: Open, Closed

3. Theoretical Perspectives
i. Functionalist
ii. Conflict
iii. Interactionist
iv. Feminist
v. Caribbean
4. Education, Equality and Social Mobility
Introduction
As you grow older, you will observe that some of your friends and former classmates would
occupy different socio-economic positions in adult life. After secondary school, some colleagues
may pursue tertiary education at institutions of higher learning either in the Caribbean such as
the University of the West Indies (UWI) or at foreign universities and colleges such as those in
the United States, Canada or the United Kingdom. Those who acquire tertiary education become
qualified professionals, such as doctors and lawyers which are positions of high socio-economic
standing in society. For those persons who did not pursue higher learning and acquire requisite
skills and academic accreditation, they may become taxi-drivers, sales clerks or street vendors,
while others may be unemployed, with many children and living on social security. It is quite
evident that the life chances of persons in society are not equal.
Understanding why the life chances of persons in a society may differ requires answering several
pertinent interrelated questions. What determines the path that people travel through their
life, and their ultimate fortunes? Are the people who attend universities and colleges necessarily
smarter than those who are taxi-drivers or street vendors? Do they work harder, or is it that the
luck of the draw favours them? Did their parents have much more money and influence? Consider
what the future holds for those who attend university compared to those who drop out of the
school system or fail to achieve the necessary qualifications to advance their skills and training.
It is almost inevitable that the life chances of those who acquire tertiary education will be much
more favourable.
Most people dream of an egalitarian society, a society in which all members are equal and no
one is categorized as being poor or rich. It is a society where concepts such as class, exploitation,
oppression, privilege and status would be reserved for the pages of history. Unfortunately, an
egalitarian society continues to be elusive, and occupies only the dreams of people, since human
societies, traditional or modern, have been characterized by some form of social inequality.
Social Stratification: Concepts and Theories | 215
Social inequality may take the form of the unequal distribution of wealth, power, prestige,
opportunities and influence, among individuals and groups (Tischler 2002). When social
inequality becomes patterned and institutionalized, and forms part of the social structure, social
stratification is said to exist.
For Haralambos and Holborn (2008), stratification ‘refers to the presence of distinct social groups
which are ranked one above the other with regard to factors such as prestige and wealth’.
According to this definition, it is clear that social stratification is structured social inequality,
whereby the patterns of inequality are intimately related to the social structure and persists over
a relatively long time. Stratification may occur on the basis of access to scarce resources, assets or
property, but it can also occur on the basis of other attributes such as age, gender, race, caste, and
religion. In other words, social stratification is said to exist where persons are all born equal but
some are more privileged as they have greater access to socio-economic and political resources,
status and power.
In this hierarchical ordering of groups, the most privileged occupy the top strata and the least
privileged occupy the lowest strata. The groups are ranked according to criteria viewed as
important by members of society. Such criteria include differences based on gender, class, age, race
or ethnicity. It may appear that status ranking is based solely on economic differences between
groups. However, it is important to appreciate the fact that groups may be ranked on other factors,
such as status and prestige, as Weber argued.
Examples include the following:
• The ruling class in any society possesses more wealth than the lower class and therefore
holds more economic power.
• In patriarchal (including Western) societies, men are ranked above women in all
institutions.
For instance, in the family, men will make the decisions the spouses consider most important,
while their wives will make the less important decisions, such as interior decorating and the
purchasing of children’s clothes.
• In white-dominated societies, less economically powerful groups (for example blacks,

Asians and Hispanics) may face discrimination in housing, education and employment.
• In most Western societies, the very young and the very old tend to be ranked below
adults (usually aged 29–64). The young and the elderly are more likely to be financially
or physically dependent on others.
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

An understanding of social stratification is fundamental to the analysis of any society. Social
stratification is a central theme in sociology, whether one is addressing crime and deviance,
education, family or religion. In approaching the study of social stratification, it is imperative
to first acquire an understanding of some key concepts. These terms include status, social
class, social mobility, elites, race and ethnicity, sex and gender.
Status
This refers to the amount of honour and prestige enjoyed by a person occupying a particular role
in society. Weber’s work on status is quite insightful. He was of the view that status was derived
from the amount of social honour or prestige an individual was accorded by other members
of the society. Status or social honour is usually expressed through lifestyle. People who share a
similar socio-economic status (which takes into account educational attainment, occupational
achievement and income level) form a community whereby they engage in similar recreational
and social activities. Status may vary both within and between strata. Weber believed that
the newly rich did not enjoy the same status as those who were born into wealth. For example,
a garbage collector, or a labourer who wins the lottery, would not be accorded the same degree
of social honour or prestige as those who were born into wealth.
Although social inequality exists in all societies, there may be differences in the manner in which
the inequality is structured. This may depend upon whether the unequal distribution of rewards
is based on ascribed or achieved status. Ascribed status is fixed at birth and unchangeable during
a person’s lifetime. One’s sex and race are examples of ascribed status. Achieved status refers
to that which a person can achieve during his or her lifetime. Becoming a lawyer and being street
vendor are examples of achieved statuses.
Parsons argued that traditional societies are characterized by ascribed status and modern societies
by achieved status. He believes that, in contemporary Western society, achieved status would
become dominant over ascribed status. This situation will arise, according to Parsons, because
he sees a ‘fit’ between the types of society and the dominant value system. In this light,
achieved status is a prerequisite for the efficient functioning of highly advanced societies.
Therefore, in modern societies the level of education and skills, as opposed to the colour of one’s
skin, or one’s sex would be the major criterion for determining the distribution of rewards.
Social Class
Modern society is stratified by a relatively open class system that is based on economic rewards
(Popenoe 2000). The class system is characterized by demarcating boundaries between groups,
which are reinforced by practices such as endogamy. However, there is a greater degree of social
mobility in the class system when compared to other forms of stratification systems such as
the caste and estate systems. The class system is viewed as being fair as mobility is dependent
upon hard work and achievement rather than ascription. Therefore, the position of those who
occupy the upper or lower strata is reflective of their level of effort and achievements in society.
Although there are opportunities to achieve social mobility, the class system is characterized
by both hierarchy and social stability (Popenoe 2000).
The nature of social class systems is debated in the theories of Karl Marx and Max Weber. Marx
thought that classes came about when differences in income and wealth were so great that one
(small) dominant group exploited the labour of the other, a large mass of ‘propertyless’ individuals
(who owned nothing but their labour). Marx used historical analysis to trace the development
of European society. For him, society passes through four epochs before stabilizing into the
final epoch of communism/socialism. The initial stage, according to Marx, was primitive
communism in which there were no classes. It represented a stage of egalitarianism, and private
property (the forerunner to social inequality) was non-existent. In all the subsequent stages, a
dichotomous stratification system persisted for many centuries. In ancient slavery the unequal
relations between the slave-owners and the slaves characterized the stratified system. In feudal
society (the third epoch) stratification was between nobles and peasants. He believed that it was
in the womb of feudalism that capitalism (fourth epoch), was born, along with the exploitative
relations between the capitalist (the bourgeoisie) and the workers (the proletariat). Marx believed
that in capitalism, one’s class position was determined by one’s relationship with the means of
production. Those who controlled the means of production were the capitalists (the bourgeoisie)
who exploited the working class (the proletariat) by extracting the surplus value of the wealth
that was produced by labour. Later in this chapter, Marx’s theory of dialectical and historical
materialism will be explored. This will allow for a deeper understanding of the classes that have
evolved in Europe’s history.
Max Weber added to Marx’s notions of social class. Weber has elaborated upon Marx’s analysis,
using three hierarchically ranked strata as follows: one-dimensional economic deterministic
notion of social class by emphasizing the importance of prestige, social honour and status in
determining the differences that exist between social groups. Therefore, Weber’s definition
of social class is much more heterogeneous and dynamic in structure, unlike Marx’s, which sees
social classes as relatively homogeneous. The heterogeneous nature of social classes is borne
out in the work of Margaret Stacey (1960) who, in a study of Banbury, Scotland, offers support
for Weber’s position on social classes when she noted the importance of status differences to
social stratification. Stacey identified the following categories among the working class as:
1. the respectable working class;

2. the ordinary working class;
3. the rough working class.
Measuring Social Class

Social class can be measured in three main ways: Objective Measures, Subjective Measures
and Reputational measures.
a) Objective Measures
These are the most widely used measures of social class. One can assign people to various social
classes based on objective criteria such as wealth, power, and prestige. These objective indicators
include occupation, educational level, number of dependents, type of residence, music, art,
literature, leisure and entertainment activities.
b) Subjective Measures
Subjective measures of social class involve asking respondents to identify their own class position.
For example, the winner of a million dollar lottery may believe that he/she is now a member
of the upper class.
c) Reputational Measures
The reputational method is limited to smaller communities, where people are familiar with one
another’s status. People at each class level see class differently. They, therefore, carry around
different personal pictures of society’s classes. People see finer divisions at their own class
level, but tend to place in the same category people who occupy other class levels.
Social Mobility
Social mobility is the movement, usually of individuals or groups, from one social position to
another within the social stratification system in a society. The extent of social mobility in
any society therefore depends largely on the type of stratification system that exists: whether
the society is ‘open’ or ‘closed’. An ‘open’ society, based upon achieved statuses, allows its
members to attain upward social mobility based on education and skills, regardless of race,
ethnicity, religion and gender. A ‘closed’ society, based upon ascribed statuses, determines at birth
the life chances of its members.
Vertical mobility refers to movement up or down in the social hierarchy, which results in a
change in social class. Vertical mobility normally involves intergenerational mobility – a
change in social position that takes place over two or more generations. Many people who toiled
in the sugar cane fields in the Caribbean experienced this type of vertical mobility, as their sons,
daughters and grandchildren became teachers, doctors, lawyers and engineers. Another type of
vertical mobility is intra-generational mobility – a change in the social position of a person
that takes place during his or her lifetime.
When people experience changes in their jobs, but there is no corresponding change in
their social status, then they are said to be experiencing horizontal mobility. For example,
a person may make several horizontal career changes that do not significantly alter his or
her position in the social hierarchy. He/she may undergo a career change from an accountant
to a lawyer, which may be perceived as important, but this may result in little mobility, as there
would not be any significant change in privilege, power or wealth.
Activity 8.1
Define each of the following (giving o n e examples of each):
a) Achieved status
b) Ascribed status
c) Vertical mobility
d) Horizontal mobility
e) Intra-generational mobility
f) Inter-generational mobility.
Activity 8.2
Explain the importance of history to an understanding of social stratification in the Caribbean.
Mobility and Social Stratification

The greater the degree of mobility that exists, the more likely a society is to be regarded as
relatively ‘open’. Functionalist writers, such as Parsons, believe that modern industrial societies
are more ‘open’ than the traditional pre-industrial ones. This is because in modern society,
achievement is more highly regarded than ascription. Individuals place greater emphasis on
hard work and sacrifice, in order to achieve their desired goals. Parsons theorized that as a
result of processes of social evolution, modern institutions (such as schools, families and the
mass media) have become achievement oriented. Students should examine the extent to which
Parsons’ theory is applicable to social mobility in the Caribbean.
Activity 8.3
1. Using as a reference Derek Gordon’s study of mobility in Jamaica (Gordon 1987), answer
the questions below:
a) What were the main methods employed in collecting the data on social mobility?
b) List four problems facing researchers when they attempt to measure the actual
amount of mobility occurring in any society.
The Elite
Most sociologists refer to members of the ruling class in any society as the elite. Pareto
(1963) was of the belief that the elite would always maintain their hegemony. Marxist writers
such as John Scott (1982) discussed several reasons for elite rule. Scott thought that, through
the practice of endogamy (marriage restricted to one’s own social category) and attendance at
prestigious public schools such as Eton and Winchester in the UK, the elite would maintain
their privileges over all other classes.
As far as Westergaard and Resler (1976) are concerned, the elite comprise a small proportion of
the society. In Britain, they include managers of large companies, top civil servants, shareholders
of large firms and senior members of government. Together with other influential groups
and corporations, the elite own most of the wealth in British society.
Race and Ethnicity

A race is a human group that is believed to be distinct in some way from other humans, based on
real or imagined physical differences. Racial classifications are rooted in the idea of a biological
classification of humans according to morphological features such as skin colour or facial

characteristics. The social construction of race is dependent upon the social meanings that have
been accorded by people to particular physical traits. Therefore, the shape of one’s nose,
the texture of one’s hair, and the colour of one’s eyes would carry different meanings, and
thereby affect the life chances of the different groups. For example, during slavery the colour of
one’s skin was a major determinant of one’s fortunes in society.
One legal definition of race attempts to define people who are not white. In other words, anyone
who is not white is considered black or coloured. Such a definition of race was enshrined in the
law books of some southern states of the United States, such as Missouri and Georgia, to ensure
that segregation of whites from blacks – with regard to the schools they attended, the buses
they travelled on and the jobs they held – was enforced (Tischler 2002). That legal definition
of race was also enforced during the Apartheid period in South Africa to ensure segregation
between whites and blacks and other groupings.
Ethnicity, while sometimes related to race, refers to the social and cultural traits that are shared
by a human group.
Some of the social traits often used for ethnic classification include:
• Nationality – Barbadian as opposed to Jamaican;
• Tribe – in Rwanda the two major tribes are the Hutus and the Tutsis;
• Religion – in the Republic of Ireland the major ethnic groups are the Catholics and
the Protestants;
• Language – in Canada, the ethnic classification is between French and English;
• Culture – people of Indo- and Afro-Caribbean ancestry and heritage.
Unlike race, ethnicity is not usually externally assigned by other individuals. The term ‘ethnicity’
focuses more upon a group’s connection to a perceived shared past and culture. Although ethnic
groups may be stratified in a society based on access to resources and power, they are usually not
homogeneous groups. Ethnic groups also are stratified from within, and based on factors such
as economic resources, colour, sex and gender.
The Jamaican anthropologist M.G. Smith (1965) regarded most West Indian societies as plural
societies. This assumption was based on the premise that different cultural segments existed
side by side but did not share important primary and secondary social institutions such as
family and marriage, religion and property. Smith thought that the cultural segments were
colour stratified, with white at the top, brown in the middle and black at the base. In economic
and political terms, whites were more powerful than browns and blacks, since ascription (colour/
race/ethnicity) was well combined with differences in wealth and income.
The stratification system of some highly industrialized societies, such as Britain, is said to be
stratified according to colour differences, into two major cultural segments – whites and ethnic
minorities. The latter groups comprise West Indians, Africans, and South Asians. Jones (1993),
in an analysis of data compiled for the Labour Force Survey, concluded that ethnic minorities
in Britain were likely to face discrimination in employment. They received less pay than
whites with similar qualifications doing similar jobs, and were less likely to be promoted.
Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological characteristics that differentiate males from females, while gender
refers to the social, cultural, emotional and psychological construction of masculinity and
femininity. For instance, from an early age, girls are socialized (gendered) into being nurturers
and caregivers, through their interaction with their mothers and other females, whilst boys are
socialized to be tough and aggressive, by adults and fellow males. Therefore, gender is achieved
behaviour, while sex is ascribed. Gender roles differ from society to society.
Feminists have opposed Marx’s assertion that sociology is fundamentally the study of class
inequality. Acker (1992), for instance, bemoaned the male strewn bias of conventional sociology.
Feminists disagree that studies of class inequality will adequately explicate women’s circumstances
that place them at a disadvantage compared to men. One notable feminist, S. Firestone (1970),
showed that there is a sex–class system in which men belong to the dominant (exploiter) class
and women, regardless of their economic situation, occupy the subordinate class position.
Robert Stoller (1968) suggested that gender relations were culturally rather than biologically
based. Gender was purposively defined in sociology as masculine and feminine. Gender,
for some sociologists, was the major determinant of the domestic division of labour, and of
the subject choices boys and girls made at school.
Explaining Gender Stratification

According to the functionalists, role differentiation based on gender is functional to society.
Males play a more instrumental role, whereas females play a more expressive role. For instance,
Parsons justified the division of labour in the family by stating that women played an important
role in nurturing and providing important emotional support to men, in order for them to meet
the demands of the capitalist system. This role differentiation leads to more efficiency in society.
However, conflict theorists and feminists view gender role differentiation as unequal access to
opportunities between males and females.
Now that the main concepts involved in the study of stratification have been explained, the
types of stratification systems shall be discussed.
Types of Stratification Systems

All stratification systems may be broadly subdivided into two main types: closed and open.
Closed System of Stratification
• A closed system is a rigid system with clearly demarcated boundaries.

• Social statuses are strictly defined, and determine access to opportunities.
• Social position is ascribed at birth.
• There is no social mobility from one level to another.
• An example of a closed system of stratification is the caste system in India. People are
born into a caste and this determines their occupation, social interaction, power, and
education. No level of achievement can change a person’s caste.
Open System of Stratification

• An open form of stratification is based primarily on economic criteria, particularly
income.
• Social position is achieved through one’s efforts.
• The boundaries between classes are more flexible than in the closed system.
• There is opportunity for social mobility, as individuals can move up or down the
class scale, and therefore their status can improve or decline.
• Class membership depends, at least in part, on characteristics, which the individual
can control.
• The class system in modern industrial society is the best example of an open system
of stratification.
According to Giddens (2006), there have been four basic types of stratification systems in human
history: slavery, caste, estate and class. The first three types are closed stratification systems,
whereas social class is an example of an open stratification system. Slavery is a system where some
human beings are treated as items of property, belonging either to another individual or to a
social group, as existed in the Caribbean and southern United States. As an institution, slavery
was reinforced by beliefs about the racial inferiority of the enslaved, and justified by the legal
system. The enslaved occupied the lowest strata of the society, as their position was ascribed.
As an established official institution, slavery has been eradicated throughout the world.
In a caste system of stratification, an example of which is traditional India, a person’s position

regarding occupation and social relationships is determined at birth by ascribed statuses such
as skin colour. People who are born into the caste system spend their entire lives within their
caste, with little or no chance of changing their position. In the caste system, each position
is defined in terms of purity or pollution relative to each other (Jayaram 1987). The most
pure, the Brahmins (priestly caste) are allocated the highest status and are superior to all others
in the hierarchy.
The least pure – Panchamas or ‘untouchables’ – are inferior to all of the other castes and are
at the base of the hierarchy.
The caste system is reinforced by the practice of endogamy – marrying within the caste – and
ritualistic religious values that emphasize practices that involve avoiding contact with members
of a lower caste. If members fail to adhere to the rituals and practices of his or her caste,
then they will be reincarnated into an inferior caste. Today, the Indian caste system has been
officially outlawed; however, it continues to exist informally.
Figure 8.1: The Indian Caste System
Brahmin
Twice
Born
Kshatriya Groups
Vaishya
Sudra
Untouchable
The Caste System
Source: Beyond Books, Apex Learning Inc., Culture and Geography, ‘ The Caste System’, http://www.
beyondbooks.com/wcu91/3g.asp
Estate System
The estate system, also known as feudalism, existed in Medieval Europe. In this system, law and
inheritance determine one’s social position. The system consisted of a social hierarchy with
differing obligations and rights accorded to each stratum. During the Middle Ages, the major
estates, according to the obligations and rights, ranked the aristocracy and landed gentry at
the top, the clergy (abbots and bishops) in the middle, and the merchants, artisans, peasants
and serfs at the bottom of the social hierarchy. Within each major category, there were sub-
divisions; for example, within the clergy itself there existed a hierarchy of statuses.
Although the estate system is similar to the caste system it is not as rigid. Some social mobility
is possible but not to the same extent as in a class system.
Class System
In a class system of stratification, achieved statuses, as opposed to ascribed statuses, constitute
the basis for the unequal distribution of resources. A class system is categorized by large groups
of people who share similar economic and occupational opportunities, lifestyles, attitudes and
behaviours. In a class system of stratification, there is greater social mobility than in slavery, the
caste system and estates. Social mobility results from the acquisition of education and experience,
which allows for the achievement of higher levels and better paying jobs. The class system
of stratification is therefore based on merit or achievement. In a class system, boundaries are
primarily maintained by endogamy and limited social interaction with members from other
strata of society. The class system dominates the modern industrial world.
THEORIES OF STRATIFICATION
The theories of social stratification will now be addressed. Emphasis will be placed on the
contributions of Davis and Moore (1945), Melvin Tumin (1953), Karl Marx (1959) and
Max Weber (1946).
Functionalist Perspective
Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore
The functionalist perspective of society begins with the assumption that the needs of society
are greater than the needs of individuals; in other words, the good of society is greater than the
good of individuals. Hence, functionalists, when assessing the usefulness of social stratification,
begin by asking the question: Does the stratified social system contribute to the maintenance
of society?
The functionalist perspective of social stratification is captured in the work of Davis and Moore
(1945). They argue that social stratification is useful as it contributes to the maintenance
of society. These authors state that there are basic functional prerequisites that must be fulfilled
to ensure the survival and maintenance of society. These functional prerequisites are similar
to those enunciated by Parsons for the survival and maintenance of society, such as the provision
of shelter and food, and filling the manifold social positions in society, such as teachers, engineers,
doctors, janitors, police officers, construction workers, and lawyers.
For Davis and Moore, social stratification provides an effective mechanism for role allocation and
performance. Every society is faced with the double challenge of selecting the best individuals to
fill the social positions required for its survival and maintenance, and at the same time, motivating
them to execute their role expectations. Davis and Moore argue that, in order for society
to attract the right talent to fill the myriad of social positions, a differential system of rewards
must be offered and, based on meritocracy, must be implemented.
Davis and Moore argue that rewards offered must take into account three factors:
1. First is the functional importance of the job. Some social positions or jobs in society are
functionally more important than others. For example, the role of a doctor is believed to be
functionally more important to society than that of a janitorial worker. Therefore, according
to Davis and Moore, doctors must be offered higher rewards than janitorial workers.
2. Natural ability and talent may not be widespread in society. Hence, a system of stratification
offering high rewards is necessary to motivate those with the requisite talent to compete,
which theoretically would lead to the most skilled and talented filling the important roles
in society.
3. A stratification system with differential rewards depending on the functional importance

of the job is necessary, to reward people who have to undergo long periods of training and
personal sacrifices. It is critical that the differential package attached to each functional role
in society should have a built-in motivational inducement that would produce a minimum
acceptable degree of diligence and conscientiousness in the execution of performance.
In essence, therefore, Davis and Moore are of the view that social stratification is an effective
mechanism for ensuring that all the social positions in society, especially the functionally
important ones, are filled by the most skilled, talented and qualified members of society.
Let us apply the reasoning of Davis and Moore to two social positions in society: medical doctors
and garbage collectors. The social position of a medical doctor requires a minimum degree
of skill and intelligence beyond the average, long hours, and years of training, and sometimes
having to work in stressful circumstances. To motivate the people with this relatively
scarce talent to fill such an important social position, Davis and Moore would argue that
high rewards in the form of prestige and income must be offered. Society, however, may deem
that little reward should be offered to those who fill the important role of keeping the society
clean of garbage and reducing the risk of disease outbreaks. Davis and Moore would argue
that although the role of the garbage collector is important, the potential to fill the position is
widespread, especially as little specialized training, skills and qualification are needed. Hence,
the position of garbage collector does not necessitate high rewards in the form of prestige
and income.
From the example above, it is evident that inequality is viewed as a rational response to a social
problem. The Functionalist perspective on society views inequality as a result of societal agreement
on the f unctional importance of social positions and the need to reward them accordingly.
Criticisms of Davis and Moore

The Functionalist perspective, particularly the work of Davis and Moore, has attracted many
criticisms. The major critique of this perspective has been the work of Melvin Tumin (1953).
1. The assumption that some social positions in a society are functionally more important
than others has been questioned by many theorists. According to Tumin (1953) there is
no unanimously accepted way of measuring the functional importance of social positions.
For Tumin, the concept of functional importance is highly subjective. Hence, he would
argue that garbage collectors and doctors are equally important in society.
2. Tumin views these propositions as challenging the idea that social inequality is uniformly
functional for guaranteeing that the most important tasks in a society will be performed
conscientiously by the most competent persons.
3. Davis and Moore, according to Tumin, did not fully appreciate the importance of
power in determining the unequal distribution of rewards. For Tumin, the differences
in prestige and pay between different groups have been as a result of power rather than
functional importance. For example, in Trinidad and Tobago the difference in salaries and
wages between workers in the oil industry and the cocoa industry may be a result of
the relative bargaining power of the two groups of workers. Social stratification systems
function to provide the elite with the political power necessary to procure the acceptance
and dominance of an ideology which rationalizes the status quo, whatever it may be, as
logical, natural, and morally right.
4. According to Davis and Moore, a limited number of individuals have the necessary talent
to acquire the skills needed to match the functionally important positions in society.
Tumin disagrees with Davis and Moore by arguing that there exists no effective mechanism
for measuring talent and ability.
5. Tumin argues that the unequal opportunity structure of society fails to provide any guarantee
that the stratification system, as pronounced by Davis and Moore, would be able to adequately
fill the functionally social positions with the most talented. According to Tumin, those
individuals born in the lower strata of society would always be at a major disadvantage with
regard to the opportunity to realize their true potential, when compared to those born
in the upper strata.
6. Social stratification systems function to encourage hostility, suspicion, and distrust
among the various segments of a society, and thus limit the possibilities of extensive social
integration. Similarly, stratification lowers the loyalty and motivation of the lower classes
to participate in national efforts.
Unlike functionalist theorists like Davis and Moore who see social stratification as useful for the
survival and existence of society, conflict theorists see social stratification as a struggle for dominance
in society. The main writings on class stratification from the conflict perspective are found in
the works of Karl Marx and later Max Weber, who further developed the ideas of Marx.
Karl Marx
Marx saw inequality as a means of exploitation in society, according to the opening paragraph
of the Communist Manifesto,
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle. Free
man and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild master and journey,
in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another,
carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that
each time ended either in revolutionary reconstitution of society at large
or in the common ruin of the contending classes (Marx and Engels 2002,
originally published in 1848).
Those who own the means of production within society maintain their advantageous position
in society by controlling or influencing the institutions in society, such as the political system,
the educational system and the legal system. The values and ideology of the ruling class
become those of the society.
For Marx, in capitalist society there exist two main classes, the bourgeoisie – the ruling class or
capitalists – and the proletariat – the working class or workers. The capitalists own the means of
production while the working class owns the labour, which produces the wealth. Marx believed
that the relationship between capitalists and workers was exploitative, as in all class societies.
Marx believed that history had been characterized by different forms of class conflict, with the
class conflict in capitalism being the culmination. The exploitative position of capitalism
is manifested when the capitalists pay labour a subsistence wage to produce wealth and then
expropriate the wealth for their own benefit. As the gap between the capitalists and the workers
widens, the members of the proletariat would become aware of their true class position in society
and would revolt for the overthrow of capitalism and the rise of communism.
In the communist system all the basic economic needs of all people would be satisfied and there
would be no need for stratification in society.
Criticisms
A number of criticisms have been levelled against Marx’s view of social stratification.
1. Marx has been criticized for viewing society in an overly economically deterministic manner.
As much as it is recognized that economics is important to understanding the operation
of society, his overemphasis on economics was at the expense of other equally important
variables such religion as enunciated by Weber in his work on the Protestant Ethic.
2. The process of change is much more complex than Marx has portrayed it. Change is an
unpredictable process that may proceed in any direction. Hence, the main catalyst for change
may not be economic factors but another powerful factor such as religion. For example,
Weber argued that although the economic conditions for the birth of capitalism were
favourable in India, the religious factor of the protestant ethic was not found there.
3. Marx’s analysis of society fails to incorporate the rise of the middle class. Access to education
and economic resources has facilitated social mobility which has resulted in a growing middle
class in western capitalist societies.
4. The institutionalization of conflict in the modern capitalist world has precluded the
violent overthrow of the capitalist by the working class. Furthermore, laws have been
passed to protect the rights of workers thereby reducing the possibility of violent protest
by workers.
5. Marx’s view that the replacement of capitalism by communism would lead to the end of
inequality has been seen as being utopian.
6. Marx’s theory is incapable of explaining patterns of stratification in the Caribbean, given

its overemphasis on economics. His theory devalues the importance of colonialism and its
social off springs: race, ethnicity and gender.
Max Weber
Weber expanded on Marx’s analysis of class to provide a multi-faceted view of social stratification.
Weber agreed with Marx on a number of issues relating to social stratification. Some of these
points of agreement are the following:
1 . Group conflict is the essence of conflict in society.
2 . People are driven by self-interest.
3 . Those people in society who own property are better positioned to defend themselves
than those who are propertyless.
4 . Institutions in society, especially in the economic sphere, are critical to shaping the
nature of society.
5 . The powerful in society use their ideas and values to maintain control over the powerless.
6 . Only in extreme and abject situations of exploitation would the exploited people object.
Beyond these points of congruence, Weber modified Marx’s basic premises of the operation of
society. In addition to giving weight to the importance of the economic sphere in the shaping
of society, Weber further emphasized the significance of status and power in the analysis of
stratification.
Weber agreed with Marx that the unequal distribution of resources in society results in economic
classes with varying degrees of economic power. Additionally, he maintained that status groups
are shaped by lifestyle, which in turn is influenced by income and education. For Weber, people
who share similar lifestyles display a proclivity to gravitate towards one another to establish
social bonds and thereby develop an attitude of social exclusivity. For example, members of the
same status group may be members of the same golf club and social group among other things.
Those who are outside of the status group are seen as ‘outsiders’.
Weber maintained that there is a relationship between economic based stratification and
social status stratification. Generally speaking, those who have a high social standing also have
high economic power in society.
Weber observed that inequality in political power arises when groups in society are able to
influence activities to their benefit. For example, members of the business community may
lobby the state and political parties to have their interests represented in election campaigns.
Importers may woo the state to lower import taxes so that they can maximize their profits. In
return for the support of the business community, politicians are promised large financial support
for their campaigns. The smaller local manufacturers and consumers may be powerless and
therefore unable to engage in political arrangements like those of the more influential members
of the business community.
Although Weber observed that class, status and power are related, he asserted that they are not
the same. For him, one can exist without the other. For instance, someone may possess economic
power, but may lack the social status to be accepted in society.
Weber in his theory makes a distinction between class, status and power. For Weber, these
concepts were sources of stratification, which could ultimately impact upon the life chances of
individuals.
Unlike Marx, who was somewhat optimistic that the inequality and exploitation that characterized
the capitalist system would eventually give way to a more just and egalitarian society under
communism and socialism, Weber was pessimistic about the future of a just and humane world.
EDUCATION, EQUALITY AND MOBILITY

In ‘open’ stratified societies, education plays an important role in facilitating social mobility
and equality. Education serves as the vehicle for social mobility, as it provides the skills and
training that is required to fill the most important jobs. Education provides an avenue, for
those who have been historically disadvantaged by the nature of the stratification system, to
achieve social mobility. This view is supported by functionalist theorists such as Parsons, and
Davis and Moore, who see the education system as being an important mechanism for providing
the necessary training for the talented members to fill the functionally important jobs in
society. For filling the functionally important jobs, these members are rewarded for their hard
work and sacrifices, with high pay and status. Therefore, education provides an avenue for social
mobility and equality in society.
Education provides an opportunity for members of the lower strata to improve their life chances
and not be limited from social mobility because of ascriptive factors such as skin colour, sex or
racial background. Education allows for members of the society to share in the economic
wealth of the society.
Table 8.1: The Functionalist and Conflict Views of Social Stratification: A Comparison
The Functionalist View The Conflict View
1. Stratification is universal, necessary, 1. Stratification may be universal

and inevitable without being necessary or
inevitable.
2. Social organization (the social
system) shapes the stratification 2. The stratification system shapes
system. social organizations (the social
system).
3. Stratification arises from the
societal need for integration, 3. Stratification arises from group
coordination, and cohesion. conquest, competition and
conflict.
4. Stratification facilitates the optimal
functioning of society and the 4. Stratification impedes the optimal
individual. functioning of society and the
individual.
5. Stratification is an expression of
commonly shared social values. 5. Stratification is an expression of
the values of powerful groups.
6. Power usually is distributed
legitimately in society. 6. Power usually is distributed
illegitimately in society.
7. The economic dimension is
subordinate to other dimensions of 7. The economic dimension is
society. paramount in society.
8. Tasks and rewards are allocated 8. Tasks and rewards are allocated
equitably. inequitably.
9. Stratification systems generally 9. Stratification systems generally

change through evolutionary change through revolutionary
processes. processes.
Source: Henry L. Tischler, Introduction to Sociology (New York: The Harcourt Press, 2004), 201. (Originally
adapted from J.L. Roach et al., Social Stratification in the United States (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall).
Activity 8.4
Please attempt the following essay:
Compare and contrast the functionalist and conflict approaches to stratification. State which
perspective may be more applicable to the Caribbean, and why.
Consequences of Stratification
Whether or not a society is stratified on the basis of achieved or ascribed status, the population
can possibly experience several consequences. In rigidly stratified societies, where there is little
room for social mobility and equality in the distribution of resources, social problems of poverty
and crime are exacerbated. The poor get poorer and new categories of the poor are developed,
such as the ‘working poor’ – as was very evident during the 1980s in countries that implemented
the structural adjustment policies of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) popularly known as the World Bank. Another
phenomenon that has recently been made visible by researchers is the feminization of poverty,
which is linked to the gender stratification of society. Poverty tends to impact much more heavily
upon women than upon men. This situation is further compounded where women have
to exercise the dual responsibility of being the head of the household and being the economic
provider for the family.
The goals of the privileged and the under-privileged, generally speaking, do not differ:
they both seek a high standard of living, which is reflected in the various symbols of material
consumption such as houses, cars, and the latest technology in various other items. In a stratified
society, especially in one that is largely ‘closed’, the evident social and economic inequality
in the distribution of resources may result in an upsurge in social deviance and crime. As Merton
indicated, when the social structure does not facilitate the equitable achievement of societal
goals, a ‘strain’ is placed on the less privileged, which may result in the practice of illegitimate
activities to share in the aspirations of the society. In addition, an exploitative social structure
may result in a sense of hopelessness and anomie, which may be manifested in acts of deviance
such as a lack of respect for rules and authority.
In societies that are stratified along racial and ethnic lines, social tension tends to be quite
evident. The nature of these societies tends to be conflict oriented. The various groups tend
to battle amongst themselves for control of both political and economic resources, to foster
the interest and concerns of its members. Such activities have not always been met with
agreement by all groups concerned, and have resulted in different forms of opposition. Some of
the opposition has taken place in the form of peaceful protest while other action has resulted in
fighting and bloodshed, as in the case of ‘ethnic cleansing’.
In attempting to correct the ills of stratification systems that have been historically ascribed,
new forms of social inequality are created. The use of affirmative action or positive discrimination
policies, despite their manifest functional expectations, may result in the furtherance of ascribed
status in the determination of the nature of the social structure. In other words, it fosters reverse
discrimination, as skin colour, sex and racial background become focal issues in correcting a
historical system that was founded on similar criteria. For instance, Cricket South Africa
(CSA) has implemented a quota policy for the selection of its national cricket team where at
least seven non-white players must be considered for selection to the national team. Such a
policy has sparked enormous controversy and resulted in some of the highly rated players leaving
South Africa to play in other countries. England has benefited from such a policy, as Kevin
Pietersen, in reaction to the policy, made himself available to the English cricket selectors. One
of the key questions that have to be asked when evaluating the effects of positive discrimination
is which is worse: being chosen because of certain ascribed factors, or not being chosen because
of certain ascribed factors?
Summary
• Most societies are characterized by social inequality, which is indicated by the unequal
distribution of wealth, power, prestige and social status.
• Social stratification results when social inequality becomes patterned and institutionalized.
• It is the hierarchical ordering of groups in society.
• There are numerous key concepts that help to explain the basis of stratification in society,
such as status, social class, social mobility, elites, race and ethnicity, and sex and gender.
• Social mobility is the movement between classes. Mobility can be vertical, horizontal,
inter-generational or intra-generational.
• Open stratified systems are characterized by mobility, and closed systems are characterized
by limited mobility.
• There are different types of stratification systems: slavery, the caste system, the
estate system, and the class system.
• The Functionalist perspective views social stratification as inevitable and necessary
for meeting the goals of society.
• The Conflict perspective views social stratification as exploitative and disadvantageous
to the owners of labour.
• Weber viewed stratification as not based solely on economic resources, but also on status
and power.
• Education provides an avenue for social mobility and equality in society.
• Social stratification can result in increases in social problems such as poverty and crime.
It can also result in social conflict and the use of positive discrimination policies may worsen the
system it has set out to correct.
Activity 8.5
Distinguish between the following:
a) ascribed and achieved status
b ) caste and class
c) horizontal and vertical social mobility
d) inter-generational or intra-generational mobility
e) race and ethnicity
f ) sex and gender
Activity 8.6
Essay Questions
1 . Describe and explain one example of a closed stratification system and one example of an
open stratification system.
2 . What do you believe are the major factors affecting the rate of social mobility in a
named Caribbean society?
3 . Of what relevance to the Caribbean is Davis and Moore’s theory on social stratification?
4 . Discuss changes in the system of social stratification in a named Caribbean territory

over the past 50 years.
5 . ‘Colonialism is seen as the major contributory factor to the stratification system in the
Caribbean.’ Discuss.
6 . Discuss some of the consequences of inequality in the contemporary Caribbean.
7 . Distinguish between the concepts of race and ethnicity. Discuss the effects of these factors
in determining the life chances of young people in the Caribbean.
CHAPTER 9
STRATIFICATION IN THE CARIBBEAN
OBJECTIVES
1. discuss the evolution of Caribbean social stratification from slavery to present day;
2. analyse the impact of stratification systems on Caribbean societies.
CONTENT
1. Evolution of Caribbean Stratification
a. Plantation Society (ascribed status, closed system).

b. Post-Emancipation (very limited mobility).
c. Post-Second World War (beginning of achieved status).
d. Post-Independence (achieved status, open system).
2. Impact of Stratification system on Caribbean Societies
a. Social (marginalisation of the lower class; crime; gender).

b. Economic (ethnicity; class; gender).
c. Political (ethnicity; class).
INTRODUCTION
The social structure of the Caribbean has been shaped by its history, especially colonialism
and post-colonialism. During colonialism, ascribed factors such as race, and sex contributed
significantly to determining one’s life chances in society. These ascribed factors were very dominant
during slavery and after its abolition in 1838 and the end of the indentureship in 1917. The
post-colonial period is marked by the independence movement which started in Jamaica and
Trinidad and Tobago in 1962. Political independence implied self-governance and an opportunity
for regional governments to embark upon social and economic programmes and public policy to
promote nationalism and improve the well-being of the population. One of the main objectives
of government programmes has been the provision of equal opportunities to the population
regardless of race, ethnicity, sex, and class to achieve social mobility. Education has been the
main tool used by governments to achieve social equity in the region. However, though there has
been considerable change in the social structure from the colonial period there are still vestiges
of ascription determining people’s life chances.
There are several significant scholarly contributions to the study of stratification in the Caribbean.
The most prominent of these works have been M.G. Smith’s Plural thesis and Lloyd Braithwaite’s
‘Social Stratification in Trinidad and Tobago’. Smith’s work focuses on cultural and racial diversity,
whereas Braithwaite’s focus is on an ascriptive – particularistic value system.
Caribbean Perspectives on Stratification

Race Stratification – M.G. Smith
M.G. Smith argues that most of the societies in the Caribbean are plural societies where
there exist significant cultural diversity and race antagonism. For Smith (1984), it is the cultural
and racial diversity that results in discord between the cultural groups. Smith insists that the
different ethnic or cultural groups in the Caribbean practised distinctive forms of the same
institutions in society.
For example, in Trinidad and Tobago, the Hindus have a distinctive marriage practice of
‘bamboo wedding’, the extended family, and a family system that was premised on a patriarchal
arrangement. Neither whites nor Africans observe these institutions in a similar manner.
For Smith, societies such as Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Jamaica had a closed system
of stratification. Such a system of stratification precluded any significant social mobility. As
a corollary, Smith observed three broad strata in these societies: whites, browns and blacks.
Smith’s model of the region’s social structure draws strength from the impact of colonialism.
The dominance of the whites in society was achieved through their control of the political
system and the economy. Their control of the strategic institutions of society was reinforced
by their attendance at elite schools and the practice of endogamy. Because of the structure of
the stratification system, those groups that were at the bottom of the system experienced
constant resentment and vilification by those at the top of the social structure. Given his view
of society, Smith believed that colonial society was held together by the use of force.
Stratification in the Caribbean | 239
The disturbances of the 1930s across the British West Indies and the 1970 Black Power Revolution
in Trinidad and Tobago are examples of groups in the society expressing their dissatisfaction
with the social structure and the lack of visibility in the promotion of social mobility, especially
for members of the lower strata. Such social upheavals rendered support for Smith’s thesis of
stratification premised upon the ascriptive factor of colour.
Criticisms of Smith
Smith’s theory of social stratification in the Caribbean has been the subject of many debates.
The main criticisms of Smith are summarized below:
1. Caribbean societies have evolved into class societies and not cultural sections as the Smith
model suggests. Many critics argue that education has been the main equalizer in society
and as a result has accounted for social mobility across race and ethnic boundary lines.
The rise of the local intelligentsia comprising members of both Africans and Indians in
countries such as Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana is testimony to the rapid spread of
education to all in these territories.
2. The extent and degree of conflict that Smith expected to come about as a result of cultural
diversity and racial antagonism have been exaggerated. In fact, in many of the islands
interculturation has resulted where cultural and racial diversity exists. For example, in
Trinidad and Tobago new genres of music have been produced as a result of the merging
of culturally disparate musical forms.
Social Stratification in Trinidad and Tobago

– Lloyd Braithwaite
Braithwaite (1960), following on the pioneering work of Talcott Parsons, focused his attention on
the values and norms necessary for the functioning of society. Hence, Braithwaite was concerned
with the problem of integration in society. As a result of the concern for integration, Braithwaite
was interested in the set of pattern variables – universalism versus particularism – that Parsons
associated with the integrative function of society.
He observed that the social structure in Trinidad and Tobago was founded on an ascriptive-
particularistic basis. It was based on the positive evaluation of the white groups in society and
the negative evaluation of the black group. The other groups, such as Chinese and Indians,
that entered society sought to separate themselves from the blacks as much as possible. Hence,
ethnic identification and ethnic purity became the premise upon which the social structure was
established.
The ascriptive value system that prevailed at the time of Braithwaite’s research manifested
itself in a number of spheres of social life. In schools, churches, carnival and sporting clubs,
differentiation was based upon an ascriptive-particularistic basis. For example, in the early days,
the carnival queen was always white.
Although ethnic affiliation and purification were the values upon which the social structure was
erected, the distinct groups were kept together by an assimilation of white values, which
was held up as being the ‘ideal’. This assimilation of the Anglo-Saxon value system allowed
for the functional prerequisites of the society to be achieved. So, for example, English was
accepted as the official language, and the title of doctor and lawyer became symbols of prestige
and status in society. Therefore, unlike Smith, Braithwaite argues that it was not only force
that held order in the societies but also an acceptance of the basic values emanating from
the metropolitan nexus.
Selwyn Ryan (1991), building on the earlier work of Braithwaite, asserts that the ascriptive-
particularistic value system that laid the basis for the social structure in the pre-1953 period in
Trinidad and Tobago has given way to an open class system based upon meritocracy. No longer
does the colour of one’s skin, one’s race or ethnicity play a significant role in determining one’s
life chances in society. For Ryan (1991), the social structure has undergone a transformation, and
the major vehicles of this transformation have been political independence, the transformation
of the economy, education and the creation of new wealth. However, he warns that vestiges of
ascriptive-particularism still exist today.
Therefore, it is evident that over time the social structure in Trinidad and Tobago has moved
from one that was ‘closed’ to one that is ‘open’.
Changes in Caribbean Social Structure

A number of factors have been responsible for the basis of the social structure of the Caribbean
changing from being predominantly ‘closed’ to becoming ‘open’. Most of the factors responsible
for these changes coincide with self-governance and making social mobility accessible to
everyone. These factors include political independence, transformation of the economy,
and the availability of education.
Self- governance resulted in policies and measures being adopted to ensure that the majority
of the population was presented with opportunities to experience social mobility and by extension
enjoy a higher standard of living than they were experiencing. As discussed in the functionalist
model of society, education was seen as the main vehicle for the achievement of social mobility.
Stratification in the Developed World

and the Caribbean: A Comparison
In the following section the main similarities and differences between stratification systems
in the Caribbean and in industrialized societies will be discussed. You will observe that theorists
in both societies fail to agree about the nature of stratification in their particular societies.
Similarities
a. Economic inequality is the main cause of the formation of different social strata.
b. The ruling elites use primogeniture, endogamy and other forms of social exclusion as
a means of preserving the status quo.
c. There is a strong correlation between class and colour: the lighter skinned are more
economically powerful and darker skinned people are more materially deprived.
d. Conflict is kept in check by a number of mechanisms employed by the state. For example,
legislation is enacted to promote opportunities for social mobility among the lower classes.
Differences
a. Social strata in developed societies are more homogeneous than those in many Caribbean
states. The Caribbean’s stratification system has been shaped by a number of forces such
as slavery and indentureship, which have created relatively small and racially and ethnically
fragmented societies.
b. The concepts of race, colour, prestige and the accompanying perceptions are defined
differently in Caribbean and developed societies. Though some ethnic groups in Caribbean
societies exist in small numbers, they may not face prejudice and discrimination, and cannot
really be considered minorities in the sociological sense. For instance, in the Caribbean,
even though the proportion of whites is small, they occupy some elite positions in society
because of their economic prosperity.
c. In the industrialized or developed societies, social mobility is based more on achievement

than on ascription. The reverse is usually true for many Caribbean (developing) societies,
although the trend is changing as these societies become more industrialized.
Activity 9.1
What changes have occurred in the middle class in a named industrial society over the
last century?
The following should be helpful in writing your essay:
1. Are you able to interpret the question properly? (What do you think are the key words
being addressed?)
2. Ensure that you define the characteristics of the middle class.
3. Devise your own plan for the essay. Say what you intend to do in the introduction, body
and conclusion.
4. List, and discuss in detail, the main changes that the middle class has experienced over the
last century.
5. Ensure that you have adequate synthesis. (Convey ideas in your own way, and do not
merely re-tell what a textbook has said).
6. Provide evidence of evaluation in the conclusion.
Activity 9.2
With your teacher’s guidance, you may attempt the e s s a y questions below:
Instructions
• Write only one essay at a time.

• Use the argumentative style of writing. (Your answer should be between 600 and 700
words.)
• Conduct research using different sources before beginning your answer.
• List all the points you intend to use and determine the order of presentation.
Wait for feedback from your teacher before moving on to the next essay.
Essay Questions
1. ‘M.G. Smith’s theory of the stratification of plural societies is suited to plantation societies
but not to contemporary West Indian societies.’ Explain and critically discuss this statement.
2. In what ways would you suggest that Caribbean societies are stratified? Your answer should
make reference to actual research findings in the region.
3. ‘The Marxist theory of stratification is more relevant than the functionalist theory, to
the system of stratification found in the Caribbean.’ How accurate is this claim?
Changing Patterns of Caribbean Stratification

The readings listed in Activity 9.3 below should lead you to a clear understanding of the
nature of Caribbean stratification. They point to a complex system in which there are at
least three bases of stratification in society. You will have realized, by now, that these are race,
class and gender. In contemporary British societies, debate arises about the changing pattern
of class stratification. Some theorists have agreed with Marx that society will become polarized
into contrasting strata with differing levels of wealth, power and prestige. However, it is not
quite evident what the two polarities (classes) are.
Likewise, with regard to the Caribbean context, we need to understand the changes that are
occurring within these societies. The theoretical assumption that governs these changes can
be adopted from the work of the Jamaican theorist Edward Kamau Brathwaite (1971). To what
extent do you agree with his proposition that West Indian societies (in this case Jamaica) are
being transformed by processes of creolization?
You should take special note of the two major means by which creolization occurs. These
are acculturation and interculturation. Decide for yourself the extent to which your society
has been and is currently being influenced by processes of creolization. The ensuing exercise
will assist in clarifying any misconceptions you may have about the processes of change that
may be taking place in the contemporary Caribbean. You should be able to decide for yourself
whether or not there has been modification to the stratification system of the region.
Activity 9.3
Consult the readings below and then answer the questions that follow:
1. Smith, M.G., Culture, Race and Class in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Mona: Department
of Extra-Mural Studies, University of the West Indies, 1984.
2. Brathwaite, E . K., The Development of Creole Society in Jamaica 1770–1820. Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1971; Reissued, Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers, 2005.
a. Explain how Smith describes the stratification system of plural societies.

b . How accurate is his explanation of stratification of West Indian societies in your
opinion?
c. Discuss the relevance of functionalism and conflict theory to Smith’s
conceptualization of society.
d. Explain the meaning of each term below (giving examples where necessary):
i. Acculturation
ii. Interculturation
e. Discuss the role of education, religion and the mass media on culture change in
your society.
f. List five examples of interculturation in your society.
g. Suggest ways in which Brathwaite’s theory of ‘creolization’ serves as a critique of
Smith’s notion of plurality.
h. State the contribution of M.G. Smith and Kamau Brathwaite to the
understanding of the changing nature of West Indian societies.
The Evolution of Caribbean Social Stratification:

Slavery to Present Day
A number of processes forged by European expansionist policies in the West have contributed
immeasurably to the changing patterns of stratification in the Caribbean. In the days of Amerindian
society, it is evident that society was relatively closed. This was the case because, as historians
suggest, status was based largely on ascription, and there was little room for social mobility.
With the coming of the Spaniards, the closure that characterized West Indian society continued.
Spanish enslavement of the Amerindians caused the stratification system to become more
heterogeneous in terms of race. There existed two main races, the Spaniards and the Amerindians.
What was significant, however, was the unavailability of opportunities for the Amerindians to
become similar in status to the Spaniards, regardless of their social and economic circumstances.
The establishment of sugar plantations represented a significant shift in the stratification system.
This era was well described by M.G. Smith in his plural society thesis. Smith believed that
plantation societies were caste-like in their stratification. There was a direct correlation between
race, colour and socio-economic status. The hierarchical structure consisted of whites, browns
and blacks, in that order.
Figure 9.1 depicts a complex stratification system. The three major strata, white, mixed
and black, were in themselves heterogeneous groups. Over time, a limited amount of upward
mobility was possible from the base stratum to the middle stratum. Those born of white
fathers and enslaved mothers were automatically ranked higher than the enslaved. Additionally,
many of the enslaved were able to purchase their freedom and enter the middle stratum. In
this case, their status was close to that of the mulatto (mixed descent).
The student who is familiar with Caribbean history should be able to differentiate between the
stratification systems of the older slave colonies (Leeward Islands) and those of Trinidad
and Tobago, Guyana, and Jamaica in the post-emancipation era.
Figure 9.1: Stratification in Plantation Society
Whites
Planters
Managers
Mixed/Mulattoes
& Freed Negroes Artisans
Blacks House Slaves

Field Slaves
The process of indentureship to a great extent compounded the stratification system in

Trinidad and Guyana. In Trinidad and Tobago, it is explicit that between 1845 and 1917
(the indentureship period) the society was divided further along lines of race, and fostered very
little mobility. Figure 9.2 suggests the way Trinidad and Tobago’s stratification system could
be illustrated.
The more important features you should note are that firstly, the society was race and colour
stratified, and secondly, the races were not homogenous entities but heterogeneous, since they
included different status groups. You should be able to observe the major factors that created
changes in the stratification system of some West Indian societies.
The post-colonial period, marked by Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago achieving political
independence in 1962 from England, has seen significant changes in the social structure of
some West Indian societies. The social structure has undergone significant transformation as
the social mobility was now mainly due to changes in the economy, the creation of new wealth
and greater educational opportunities. Academic achievement has now become the main vehicle
for enabling social mobility.
Figure 9.2: The Stratification System of Trinidad and Tobago in the Period following Emancipation
(post-1845)
White
Coloured/Mixed
Black
East
Indian
Figure 9.3: The Social Stratification of Trinidad and Tobago in the post-independence
1962 period
Upper Class
Middle Class
Lower Class
In figure 9.3 the social structure of Trinidad and Tobago since political independence shows a
change from one being based on race and colour to one stratified by social class. Each class is
not necessarily homogenous as it would include members from the various racial and ethnic
groups in the society. The heterogeneity of the class structure represents the impact of education
and the creation of new wealth as a means of facilitating social mobility regardless of ascribed
factors such race and sex.
The Impact of Stratification Systems on Caribbean Societies

Gender and Stratification
Gender changes have been taking place in the Caribbean over the last 50 years. Women have
entered and excelled in areas of activities in which they were previously restricted or discouraged
from participation, and at the same time, have slid men down the social ladder. According to
Miller (1991), women have been advancing their social position in fields of education at all
levels – primary, secondary and tertiary – and even in the workplace. At the same time,
men have demonstrated relatively lower levels of achievement, and in some cases are being
replaced by women in the workplace.
However, despite the advances that women have made in education and in achieving social
mobility, the patterns of employment reflect gender inequality. Women in the middle class
tend to dominate the lower-status (teaching) and lower-paid jobs, and within the teaching
professions, the better-paid positions of authority and decision-making remain in the domain
of males. Furthermore, although there have been increases in the number of employed women,
especially in the lower strata, their jobs (as maids, babysitters, fast-food attendants, sales clerks,
and typists) tend to reflect an extension of the role in the home – that of nurturer and food
provider. Therefore, although the ‘glass ceiling’ may reflect some superficial cracks, it seems
to be quite intact in terms of maintaining a legacy of patriarchy. It is evident, therefore,
that although there have been some advances towards achieving gender equality, there is a long
road to travel before the gender- based stratification system is corrected.
Comparative Male and Female Enrollment and Achievement

A number of factors have been posited for explaining gender differences in academic achievement
in the Caribbean (Brown 1993; Parry 2000; Evans 1999; Kutnick et al. 1997; Miller 1991).
Some of these factors include socio-economic and home background, biological differences, and
the gender of the teachers. The literature indicates that dropout rates are higher for males than
for females, and that females generally outperform their male counterparts at the primary
and secondary levels (Parry 2000; Kutnick et al. 1997). However, the ‘gendering’ of subjects
along traditional lines still exists, with females excelling better in the ‘soft’ subjects and males
in the ‘hard’ subjects.
According to Parry (2000), the recent trend in gender enrolment and achievement reflects a
reversal of historical trends whereby females were largely absent at the higher levels of the school
system. This change in gender enrolment reflects socio-economic changes in the Caribbean,
in which greater educational opportunities have been made available to females, and also
the debunking of the social and cultural myth that education was not desirable for females.
At the tertiary level, Miller (1991) notes that gender enrolment of Jamaican students at the
University of the West Indies has also shown increased female enrolment. However, closer
examination shows that the enrolment is stratified between the faculties. Males are dominant
in the science-oriented faculties and females are dominant in the faculties that offer subjects
in the humanities. A similar trend is also seen at the St Augustine campus in Trinidad and
Tobago.
Feminization of the Teaching Profession

Like the gender enrolment for the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, the enrolment at the
teachers’ colleges reflects a reversal of the male dominance. According to Miller (1991), female
enrolment at Jamaica’s teachers’ colleges increased from 7.5 per cent in 1872 to 82.3 per cent
by1985 and for the corresponding period, male enrolment declined from 92.5 per cent to
17.7 per cent. A similar trend may be observed in other Caribbean territories. It can be said that
this trend has resulted in the feminization of the teaching profession.
Several factors are responsible for this growing trend within the teaching profession in the region.
The increases in educational opportunities for women over the years, along with their levels of
achievement, have allowed women to take advantage of opportunities in the teaching profession
and thereby experience social mobility. The position of women in the teaching profession has
also been aided by the overall slide of the male in education.
Occupation and Stratification

According to Yelvington (1993) the post emancipation period in Trinidad and Tobago was
characterized by obvious ethnic division of labour. The plantations were owned and operated
by the whites; the blacks and coloured were involved in professional and skilled occupations;
the Chinese and Portuguese were involved in trading activities; and the Indians were involved in
agriculture related activities. Therefore, occupations were racially and ethnically defined during
this period.
However, the post-independence period has seen a transformation of the occupational structure
with regard to race and ethnicity. The major racial and ethnic groups comprise the Public Sector
although there may be some imbalance. This can be explained by the process of seniority or
years of working experience being used as the major criterion for promotion. The professions
also reflect ethnic changes. This is largely due to the increasing importance of education as the
main vehicle for social mobility.
Summary
• The stratification system in the Caribbean has moved from one that was primarily
based on ascriptive-particularistic factors to one based on achievement.
• M.G. Smith’s plural thesis attempts to explain stratification in the Caribbean based
on distinctive cultural segments.
• Lloyd Braithwaite, drawing upon the work of Parsons, explains stratification in Trinidad
and Tobago by focusing on values and norms necessary for the functioning of society.
• Both the functionalist and conflict perspectives of stratification fail to account for
social stratification in the Caribbean using their original orientation.
• Political independence, changes in the economy, and education have accounted for changes
in the Caribbean social structure.
• The Caribbean’s stratification system shares both similarities to and differences
from that which obtains in other Western industrialized countries.
• Gender changes have been taking place in the Caribbean where the traditional
gender stratification system has been challenged, but the gender system is intact, in a
modified form.
• Females are performing better than males at all levels of the educational system.
They also have a lower drop-out rate than males.
• Teacher enrolment reflects a reversal of historical trends where men dominated the
field. This has resulted in the ‘feminization’ of the teaching profession.
• Occupation reflects academic achievement as opposed to ascribed factors.
Activity 9.4
1. Write short notes on each of the following:
a. social closure
b. indentureship
c. emancipation
2. Write an essay (of no more than 800 words) on each topic. Refer to the earlier section on
the guidelines for writing an essay. Re-read these guidelines before proceeding.
a. What are the most significant processes that have effected change in the West
Indian stratification system over the last two centuries?
b. Assess the proposition that West Indian society has historically been stratified on
the basis of ascription. (Your answer should be confined to studies of the British West
Indies).
3. Discuss changes in the system of social stratification in a named Caribbean territory
over the past 50 years.
4. ‘Colonialism is seen as the major contributory factor to the stratification system in the
Caribbean.’ Discuss.
5. Discuss some of the consequences of inequality in the Caribbean.
6. Distinguish between the concepts of race and ethnicity. Discuss the effects of these
factors in determining the life chances of young people in the Caribbean.
Unit 2
Development and
Social Change
UNIT 2 - MODULE 1
POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 10
INTRODUCTION TO POPULATION STUDIES
OBJECTIVES
1 . explain the concepts used in population studies;
2 . explain population trends using quantitative and qualitative measures; and
3 . examine population policies in developed and developing countries.
CONTENT
1. Concepts in Population and Development:
Population Concepts: crude birth rate; crude death rate, fertility rate, natural increase; life
expectancy; migration, population growth rate, dependency ratio, quality of life index, human
development index (HDI).
2. Population Trends
a. Quantitative measures used for explaining trends in population for developed and
developing countries, for example, age, sex, ethnicity, religion, occupation.
Qualitative measures used for explaining trends in population for developed and
developing countries, for example, HDI.
INTRODUCTION
The study of population is critical to the appreciation of issues such as modernization, development,
underdevelopment and dependency in the Caribbean. While most advanced industrialized
societies such as the United States of America and the United Kingdom have, over the last 200
years, been able to maintain a manageable population size, most developing countries continue
to experience population growth beyond a capacity that can be adequately sustained.
A number of theories suggest that development should address two main concerns: the first is
economic and the second socio-cultural. While there is greater concern with the economic
implications of population growth, other issues such as culture, education and health, though
inextricably linked to population growth, are usually not adequately addressed. Experience has
shown that the study of population cannot be compartmentalized, since population size and
population growth are related to a number of economic, socio-cultural and political factors.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN POPULATION STUDIES

Demography is the scientific study of human population. The study includes the size, composition
and distribution of the population. Demographers search for explanations of demographic change
and the implications of such change for societies. They use censuses, birth and death records,
sample surveys of population, visa and other immigration records, even motor vehicle and school
registrations. They shape these data into manageable forms such as simple counts, rates or ratios.
Just as effective development depends on a reliable knowledge of natural and

other resources, so does effective development planning depend upon reliable
knowledge of the size, composition, growth and movement of population (Arthur
Haupt and Thomas T. Kane, Population Handbook, 5th Edition, 2004).
The paragraph above illustrates the dynamic nature of population studies. It explicitly links
the study of population to social problems and social change. Sociologists like C.W. Mills have
long dealt with the idea of the sociological imagination. In his discourse, Mills seeks to
distinguish a social problem from a personal problem. He postulated that social problems can be
appreciated only within the framework of the larger picture in which people experience life.
However, within the Caribbean, M. Cross (1970) makes a more practical distinction between a
social problem and a personal one. Cross argues that it is only when a problem becomes of concern
to an entire society, community or group that it becomes a social one. For many Caribbean states,
population concerns have emerged as a social problem primarily because favourable social and
economic factors have the potential to encourage the almost unchecked growth of population.
It is also important to analyse population in terms of its components. It is against this background
that we present a number of definitions of basic concepts relevant to an understanding of
population. The terms are as follows:
Introduction to Population Studies | 259
• Crude Birth Rate (CBR)

• Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
• Crude Death Rate (CDR)
• Natural Increase
• Infant Mortality Rate
• Life Expectancy
• Internal and international migration (immigration and emigration)
• Population growth rate
• Dependency Ratio
Crude Birth Rate

The birth rate (also called crude birth rate) indicates the number of live births per 1,000
population in a given year (calculated at mid-year). The crude birth rate (CBR) is calculated
by the formula below.
CBR = Number of live births x 1,000

Total Population
For most countries today, it is considered acceptable to have birth rates below 10 per 1,000.
In the year 2000 in the United States, there were 4.1 million live births, a rate of 14.6 per
1,000. This is high indeed, however, the CBR does not take account of differences by age
group of women and is generally not used by demographers and social scientists for explanation
of fertility in a population.
Fertility Rate
People often confuse fertility with fecundity. We shall therefore define fecundity, fertility and
fertility rate, so that you may be able to differentiate the meanings of these terms.
• Fecundity is a w o m a n’s maximum possible childbearing capacity. It is determined

by physiological factors but is sharply reduced by cultural norms, finances, and personal
choice (Macionis 2001).
• Fertility, on the other hand, is the actual reproductive performance of an individual,
a couple, a group or a population. The Total Fertility Rate (TFR), sometimes referred
to as fertility rate or general fertility rate, represents the number of children that
would be born to a woman if she were to live to the end of her childbearing years and
bear children in accordance with current age-specific fertility rates. The rate is usually
calculated using live births per 1,000, of women aged 15–49 years in a given year
(or in some cases 15–44), which is regarded as the reproductive age group for women.
It is biologically practical in most cultures that between these years most women
will bear children.
• The total fertility rate is a more sophisticated or refined measure than the crude
birthrate, since it identifies the specific ages of women who produce children in a society.
For instance, if we were to use the CBR as the only measure of fertility, we could make
the assumption that children under the age of 15 and women over the age of 50 are
bearing as many children as women aged 15–49, since the CBR provides an estimation
of the average birth rate of the entire population.
• Demographers are usually concerned with the measurement of the age-specific fertility
rate (ASFR) because it might become clear that women in a specific age group, say
20–24 years, are more likely than women in other age groups to become pregnant and
produce live children.
We illustrate the above with two formulae. The first is for the t o t a l fertility rate, the second
for the age-specific fertility rate, using the age group 20– 24 years.
TFR = Number of births x 1,000

Number of women aged 15–49 years
ASFR = Number of births x 1,000

Number of women aged 20–24 years
One may compare the 20–24 age group with the 15–19, 20–24, 25–29, 30–44, 35–39 age
groups, depending on the group or groups of women being studied.
One important observation about fertility is the part played by teenage girls and young
women in increasing the birth rate. Teenage pregnancy is of greater concern to underdeveloped
countries than it is to developed countries because teenagers in underdeveloped countries are
more likely to increase the birth rate. This, demographers argue, is because underdeveloped
countries have a higher proportion of youth in their population. Thus, in these countries, a
high rate of teenage sexual activity and pregnancy will, more than anything else, exacerbate the
problem of an increase in the number of births. In Caribbean, Latin American and South-east
Asian countries, this is especially the case.
Crude Death Rate

The crude death rate (CDR) is the number of deaths per 1,000 population in a given year. Like
the CBR, it provides an approximation of social reality. For instance, it does not take note of
social and economic differences between people as contributory factors to higher or lower death
rates. For example, in any given country, the poor, older males, and ethnic minorities may have
a higher rate of mortality (death) than, say, the rich, elderly females and ethnic majorities. The
formula for calculation of the CDR is stated below:
CDR = Number of deaths x 1,000

Total Population
Statistics for 1990 reveal that Taiwan’s death rate was 5 per 1,000, whilst Guinea’s was 22 per
1,000. In a later discussion, the implications of the differences between the CDR of different
countries will be discussed.
In a similar way to ASFR, demographers have measured the age-specific death rate (ASDR).
This illustrates the relative chances of people in different age groups living to a particular age
in a society. For example, in 1987, in Australia, there were 1.7 deaths per 1,000 population for
people aged 40–44 years, whilst for those aged 70–74 years old, the death rate was significantly
higher, standing at 33.4 per 1,000 population.
Natural Increase
Natural increase (NI) also known as the rate of natural increase is the surplus of births over deaths
in a given country for a particular year. Conversely, natural decrease (ND) is the deficit of births
over deaths in a given country for a particular year.
Natural Increase is computed using the formula below:
NI = Number of births in a given year – Number of deaths in a given year.
Of course, the same formula can be used to compute natural decrease. A negative value indicates
a deficit of births over deaths.
Infant Mortality Rate

Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of deaths of infants under one year of age per
1,000 live births in a given year.
The formula for computing IMR is stated as follows:
IMR = Number of deaths of infants under age 1 x 1,000

Total live births
The IMR, like the CDR, is a good indicator of health status in a given year. In 1990, Japan
recorded the lowest IMR in the world. The figure stood at 4.5 per 1,000, while for the
same year that of Afghanistan stood at 182 per 1,000.
Life Expectancy
Life expectancy (LE) is an estimate of the average number of additional years a person may expect
to live, based on the age-specific death rates for a given year. However, the most commonly cited
life expectancy figure is life expectancy at birth. Life expectancy at birth indicates the number of
years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were
to stay the same throughout its life.
Life expectancy is also a hypothetical measure and a good indicator of current health conditions
in a country. Life expectancies are known to differ according to factors such as socio-economic
status, gender and ethnicity. For instance, people of upper and middle classes are generally
expected to outlive those of the lower class. Similarly, women and whites in many societies live
longer than men and non-white minorities respectively. Some researchers have also shown that
life expectancy is associated with marital status, and married men and women tend to outlive
single men and women. Statistics for 1990 indicate that Sierra Leone and Japan had contrasting
life expectancies, at 42 and 79 respectively.
Migration
Migration is the movement of population across a specified boundary for the purpose of establishing
a new residence. However, temporary migration may take place through commuting and/or
tourism.
There are different types of migration:
• internal migration refers to movement within a country; for example, someone in Jamaica
born in Port Antonio may move to Kingston to take up permanent residence there.
• international migration (immigration and emigration) refers to movement between
countries; for example, someone born in Saint Lucia may move to Europe to take
up permanent residence there.
There are two types of international migration: immigration and emigration.
1 . Immigration refers to the number of people coming into a particular country in a given
year. The immigration rate (IR) measures the number of immigrants arriving at a
destination per 1,000 population in a given year; this is usually caused by pull factors,
such as jobs or better educational opportunities. The IR can be computed in this way:
IR = Number of immigrants x 1,000

Total population at destination
In 1989, the rate of immigration in Sweden was 7.8 new immigrants for every 1,000
residents. The higher the IR rate, the more likely it is that a country possesses a high
standard of living.
The opposite is also true.
2 . Emigration refers to the number of people leaving a country in a given year; this is
usually caused by push factors such as war, famine and disease. The emigration rate
(ER) refers to the number of emigrants departing an area of origin per 1,000 population
in a given year.
We can compute the ER using the following formula:
ER = Number of emigrants x 1,000

Total population at origin
In 1989, Sweden’s emigration rate was estimated to be 2.5 per 1,000. When the
immigration and emigration rates for Sweden (1989) are compared, it is clear that more
people were likely to enter Sweden a n d s t a y permanently than to leave. This suggests
that more people from other countries were willing to migrate there than were Swedes
willing to take up residence in other countries.
Other types of migration include the following:
• Regional Migration – this involves movement from one country to another in the
same geographical area; e.g., because of the Caribbean Single Market and Economy
(CSME), there may be greater movement within the region, e.g., from St Kitts to
Barbados or vice versa.
• Domestic Migration – this could be regional migration or movement from one town,
city or village to another; for instance, someone who leaves Ocho Rios to settle in New
Kingston, also in Jamaica, because of greater employment opportunities.
• Urbanization – this is a type of domestic migration in which people move from rural
to urban areas. This was the case in many Caribbean territories as a result of the
implementation of the strategy known as Industrialization by Invitation in the 1950s.
Massive numbers of rural dwellers flocked to the outskirts of capitals in search of a better
life. In Trinidad and Tobago, the Beetham Estate (formerly Shanty Town) is an excellent
example of this phenomenon.
However, urbanization can also mean the transformation of rural areas into towns and cities.
Urbanization had its genesis in the Industrial Revolution of the late nineteenth century
in Europe in general, and in England in particular.
• Commuting – this is daily migration. Most people who commute to work have
to take some form of transportation. This has resulted in massive traffic jams in
Bridgetown, Castries, Kingston and Port of Spain, for instance. The brisk trade in
imported used cars means that the number of motor vehicles on Caribbean roads has
increased by leaps and bounds. The existing road networks seem incapable of carrying
such large volumes of vehicles.
• Transhumance – is a semi-nomadic form of migration. It is characteristic of Europe
(Alpine) countries and involves the movement of people up and down the mountain
slopes during the different seasons. For example, they may move higher up in summer
in order to take advantage of vegetation for their animals. However, in wintertime
when it is colder, they may move downwards.
Population Growth (PG)

Population growth is an aspect of population change arising out of the interrelation between
births, deaths and migration.
Population growth rate (PGR) is the rate at which a population is increasing (or decreasing)
in a given year, due to natural increase and net migration, expressed as a percentage of the base
population.
The PGR can be computed using the formula:
PGR = (Births – deaths, for a given year) + (immigration – emigration, for a given year)
Total Population
An alternative formula may be used to compute population growth, once the rates of natural
increase and net migration have already been computed.
In this case, PGR = Rate of natural increase + net migration rate.
One should realize that it is possible to have negative figures for the rate of natural increase
and net migration rate. In the 1980s, it was reported that, in some advanced industrialized
societies (for example, Italy and Germany), a negative rate of natural increase occurred, primarily
because the number of deaths slightly exceeded the number of births. Also, push factors such
as war and famine may cause a negative net migration rate. In such circumstances, the number
of emigrants would exceed that of immigrants. In other words, negative social and economic
conditions dissuade people from staying in a country and inhibit others from entering.
In the late 1980s, the Sultanate of Brunei had the world’s highest growth rate (6 per
cent) whilst in 1988, Ireland recorded one of the lowest rates of growth at -0.03 per cent.
In 1991, the world’s population was growing at an estimated yearly rate of 1.7 per cent.
Dependency Ratio
The dependency ratio (DRO) is another important measure of a country’s development.
It compares the number of dependants with the number of economically able/productive
people. As the ratio increases there may be an increased burden on the productive members
of the population to maintain the economically dependent. This results in direct impact on
financial expenditure on things like social security, as well as many indirect consequences for
the economically productive member of the population. Dependents are usually the elderly
(those 65 years and over) and the young, (those under 15 years old). The DRO is computed
by the following formula:
DRO = Number of dependants: Number of working population or
DRO = (Population under age 15) + (Population age 65 and older) x 100
Population age 15–64
In most cases, the working population (that is, population age 15–64) is expressed as a percentage
out of 100. For instance, in 1990, the dependency ratio in France was 52:100 and that for
Syria was 116:100. The difference between the dependency ratios for these countries suggests
that France should have had a higher standard of living than Syria, since there was a higher
proportion of economically active people in France’s population.
Summary
You should now be able to define the basic concepts in the study of population. Their meanings
and the methods of computation should be clear. It should be noted that many of these concepts
are interconnected. For this reason, concepts such as birth rate and fertility rates may be confused.
Another important observation is the relationship between births and deaths, migration rates,
immigration and emigration. These variables have several implications for a country’s level
of economic and social development. In fact, countries with relatively low natural increase and
net migration rates are found to have a higher standard of living than many Third World
states where such rates are relatively higher.
The questions in Activity 10.1 should be answered before you move on to population statistics,
the next topic in this chapter.
Activity 10.1
Statement A
In a small country, X, of population 2 million, there were 200,000 births in the year 2000,
of which 800 babies died before the age of one.
Answer questions 1 and 2, using the data from statement A.
1. The crude birth rate for 2000 is

a. 2 per 1,000
b. 10 per 1,000
c. 20 per 1,000
d. 100 per 1,000
2. What was the rate of infant mortality in 2000?
a. 1 per 1,000
b. 2 per 1,000
c. 4 per 1,000
d. 8 per 1,000
Statement B
In the same small country, X, of the 2 million population in the year 2000, there were 3,200
non-infant deaths as well as the 800 infant deaths.
Use the data in statement B to answer questions 3 and 4.
3. What is the crude death r ate?
a. 2 per 1,000
b. 4 per 1,000
c. 10 per 1,000
d. 12 per 1,000
4. Which is true of country X?
a. The population may be expected to decrease in the next 5 years.

b. There were fewer births than deaths for that year.
c. Medical facilities for infants were very poor.
d. There was a net natural population increase.
Answer question 5 using data from statements A and B.
5. Which of these statements about life expectancy are true?
i. It is higher in more developed countries.
ii. In most countries, men outlive women.
iii. Life expectancy indicates patterns of internal migration.
iv. It is related to the factors such as health, education and marital status.
a. i and iii only
b. ii and iv only
c. i, ii and iii only
d. i and iv only
6. Which of the following pairs is not correctly contrasted?
a. immigration and emigration

b. internal migration and external migration
c. out-migration and emigration
d. in-migration and out-migration
7. Which is true for some Caribbean societies?
a. push ——— unemployment, poverty

b. pull ——— unemployment, poverty
c. push ——— high GNP per capita, low life expectancy
d. pull ——— high GNP per capita, low life expectancy
Statement C
In 1990, country Y’s population statistics illustrated migration trends to and from the Caribbean,
America, Europe and Asia only.
From To Nos. From To Nos.

Country Y Caribbean 255,000 Caribbean Country Y 80,000
Country Y America 455,000 America Country Y 150,000
Country Y Europe 167,000 Europe Country Y 50,000
Country Y Asia 53,000 Asia Country Y 20,000
Answer the following questions in relation to statement C.
8. What trend is noticeable about the migration patterns?
a. Country Y has a negative net migration rate.

b. Country Y gets most of its emigrants from Europe and the Caribbean.
c. Country Y experiences a net gain in population.
d. All of the above.
9. In 1990, Country Y had a net natural increase of –20,000. What is its overall population
change?
a. 700,000
b. 720,000
c. 650,000
d. -720,000
10. Which set of factors is directly related to population change?
a. births, morbidity, urbanization

b. births, deaths, migration
c. morbidity, mortality, health
d. morbidity, death, health
11. Which is the most accurate statement of dependency ratio?
a. ratio of working population to dependants

b. ratio of dependants to working population
c. difference between working population and dependants
d. difference between dependants and working population
12. Which is the best example of commuting?
a. Taking a plane from St John’s, Antigua to Charlestown, Nevis

b. Taking a cruise form Gran Anse, Grenada, to Bequia, St Vincent
c. Taking a number nine bus from Bridgetown, to Sheraton Mall, Barbados, every
Monday to Friday for work
d. Taking a fast ferry from Georgetown, Guyana to Paramaribo, Suriname, in 2006, for
a business symposium
13. In a country of 12,000,000, there are 2.5 million children under the age of 15, and 9
million people between the ages of 15 and 64. The rest of the population are elderly
and do not work, because they are either incapacitated or retired.
What is the dependency ratio of this country?

a. 2.5:12
b. 9:12
c. 33:100
d. 75:100
14. Which Caribbean island is most likely to suffer from depopulation as a result of negative
net migration?
a. Barbuda
b. Cayman Islands
c. St Vincent
d. Montserrat
Population Statistics
At the end of this section, students should be able to compare the population statistics of
different countries. Population statistics are used to indicate the level of human development
in a particular country. They are also used to assist countries to gauge the extent to which their
policies and programmes in social services (such as health and education) are meeting the
needs of the population.
As noted in the previous section, demographers use a variety of rates, ratios and other measures
to study population, but these measures are only as accurate as the data from which they are
calculated. Where do demographers obtain data? How accurate are they? Most demographic
measures are based on counts of people or demographic events (for example, births) in a specific
area during a specific time period. Counts come from population censuses, vital registration
systems, national registers, and s a m p l e surveys of population. Their accuracy varies greatly
by country, and even by regions within countries.
Population statistics are mainly collected via censuses which are usually conducted every 10
years. The population census forms the cornerstone of demographic analysis. In many countries,
the census – an enumeration of all households – is the main source of national population data.
It aims to enumerate an entire village, town, city or country and compile demographic, social
and economic information. During the 1980s, about 94 per cent of the world’s population was
enumerated via national censuses. Most demographers estimate that significant changes in
population patterns will become evident at 10-year intervals, and thus plan for counts of the
national population every 10 years.
It is said that the first modern census was conducted in 1801 in Britain. In Trinidad and Tobago,
censuses are conducted in zero-ended years (for example, 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000.) It would
be interesting for you to find out when censuses are held in other countries from the national
population or a statistics agency. In most of the countries in the Caribbean responsibility for
keeping population and other national statistics is vested in a Central Statistical Office (CSO)
usually located in the country’s capital city.
Censuses usually miss a small percentage of the population, especially in hard-to-enumerate

areas such as mountainous regions, poor neighbourhoods or high crime areas. The population
characteristics that are recorded in censuses are also subject to error. Residents may misrepresent
their income or forget the age of some household members.
Vital events – births, deaths, marriages and divorces – are usually recorded in national vital
registration systems. These are the sources of data used to calculate fertility, mortality, marriage
rates and divorce rates. But in areas in which mothers give birth at home, or where many residents
are illiterate, a large proportion of vital events are never recorded.
Less than half of the world’s population live in countries that have ‘complete’ vital registration
systems. Even ‘complete’ systems may miss up to 10 per cent of a country’s vital events. A few
countries have comprehensive registration systems, or national population registers, that track
individuals from birth to death, and record changes in their residence or marital status.
Surveys often provide estimates of demographic events where registration systems are inadequate.
They also aid in developing estimates of population size during the long 10-year interval
between censuses. Surveys are usually designed to collect data for a sample of residents within a
specific geographical area. In the United States, a monthly national survey is used to track the
unemployment rate, as well as many demographic indicators. But surveys suffer from many
of the same accuracy problems as do censuses and registration systems, and their data are
subject to varying degrees of error. Demographers have developed statistical techniques to
overcome some of the shortcomings of the basic data with which they work. They apply
these techniques to the best data available to compute estimates of the actual population
counts and measures. Although estimates based on good data may be quite accurate, users of
these estimates should not forget that estimates are only approximations of the true number.
Likewise, users of demographic data should always question the source and quality of the
data that underlie the rates, ratios and proportions they cite. Judging the quality of data is
one of the most important skills demographers must learn. Demographic measures are only as
accurate as the data from which they are calculated.
Many useful websites with statistical data are found on the Internet. The United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) website provides much useful demographic data.
See http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/ indic/indic_36_1_1.html.
The tables presented on the UNDP website cited above, contain demographic data on 177
countries on issues such as:
i. the human development index (HDI) rank;
ii. the total population for the years 1975 and 2000 (estimated to the nearest million);
iii. a projected population for 2015;
iv. the annual population growth rate for the period 1975–2000, and the projected growth
rate for the period 2000–2015;
v. the percentage of the urban population in 1975 and 2000, and the projected percentage
for 2015;
vi. the percentage of the youthful population in 2000, and the projection for 2015;
vii. the percentage of the aged population in 2000, and the projection for 2015; and
viii. the total fertility rate for the periods 1970–1975, and 1995–2000.
One should pay attention to the following aspects of the UNDP produced tables:
1. Norway is the highest ranked country in human development. The concept of human
development will be explained shortly.
2. There are 53 countries ranked high in human development. Some of them are located
in the English-speaking Caribbean. Particular attention should be paid to indices for
Barbados, The Bahamas, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago, and Antigua and
Barbuda.
3. There are 84 countries ranked medium in human development. Notice that Belize,
Dominica, Saint Lucia, Grenada, Jamaica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Guyana
are contained in this band.
4. Haiti, our French-speaking Caribbean neighbour, is ranked low in human development.
Notice too that its population had almost doubled between the years 1975 and 2000.
The Human Development Index (HDI)

The UNDP defines the HDI as a composite index measuring average achievement in three basic
dimensions of human development – a long and healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard
of living (UNDP 2002, 265).
The HDI is calculated by averaging the indices for life expectancy, education and gross domestic
product (GDP).
HDI = Life expectancy index + education index + GDP index

3
OR
HDI = 1/3 (Life expectancy index) + 1/3 (Education index) + 1/3 (GDP index)
One does not need to know the health index, since this is contained in the index of life expectancy.
The student should consult an economics text to obtain a more detailed description of Gross
Domestic Product. For our purposes, we can say that it is the total value of all goods and services
produced within a country in a given year. Most countries use the US dollar for accounting
purposes. The UNDP (2002) argues:
The GDP index is calculated using adjusted GDP per capita (PPP US$). In
the HDI, income serves as a surrogate for all dimensions of human development
not reflected in a long and healthy life and in knowledge. Income is adjusted
because achieving a respectable level of human development does not require
unlimited income (UNDP 2002, 253).
Based on the available data from the website www.undp.org, the following generalized
observations may be made:
a. there was an increase in life expectancy in almost all countries between 1970 and 2000;
b. people live longer in countries with higher HDI ranks;
c. women generally outlive men;
d. rates of infant mortality have decreased in all countries, but in some middle and low
human development countries these rates are high compared to the low rates in the highest
ranked countries (that is, 1 to 16); and
e. in some middle and low human development countries, the ratio of maternal death to live
births is alarmingly high. In fact, in Malawi, the Central African Republic and Mozambique
the ratio of maternal mortality to live births peaks at 1,100 per 100,000.
Another significant point to note is that there are slight variations in the patterns of data between
countries. For instance, despite Norway’s high rank, people are more likely to live longer
in Japan (which is ranked 9). Can this phenomenon be explained? If you are unable to do so,
please review the concept of HDI. You should appreciate that it is a composite measure; life
expectancy is only one of its three components. Therefore, high life expectancy in one
country does not necessarily mean that the level of human development is superior to that
in another (country) with a lower life expectancy at birth.
More statistical details about population are discussed later in this module. However, the
data are confined to age and sex distribution. The student may obtain other recent data, such
as the ethnic, religious and occupational distribution from the census department or other
reliable public agency.
The student should be familiar with the data that demographers utilize in making predictions
about population in different countries. A useful exercise might be to compile a table containing
the most recent population statistics for territories within the Caribbean.
Upon completion of this table, inferences should be made about the levels of human development
in the region. The student is also advised to read more about the social and economic conditions
in different territories. For instance, levels of access to factors such as health, education and
recreation in Barbados (the highest ranked in HDI) should be compared with those in, say,
Guyana (which is ranked much lower than Barbados).
Activity 10.2
1. Which of the following statements about the HDI is true?
a. It involves measurement of health conditions in countries.

b. It takes into consideration the Gross Domestic Product of a particular society.
c. It incorporates the level of education in any society.
d. All of the above.
2. Based on the HDI, it may be inferred that the most suitable West Indian societies for
permanent residence are:
a. Barbados, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, St Kitts and Nevis.

b. Barbados, St Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago, and Antigua and Barbuda.
c. St Kitts and Nevis, Antigua and Barbuda, St Vincent, The Bahamas.
d. St Kitts and Nevis, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, and Trinidad and Tobago.
3. The following statements are related to censuses:
i. They are usually held every 10 years.

ii. Censuses may miss people in hard-to-enumerate areas.
iii. Censuses provide data in qualitative form only.
iv. Data from censuses are not always valid.
Which of these statements are true?
a. i, iii and iv
b. i, ii and iii
c. i, ii and iv
d. i, ii, iii and iv
4. Governments may choose to conduct censuses using
a. questionnaires, interviews, surveys.

b. interviews, observation, case studies.
c. questionnaires, official statistics, participant observation.
d. surveys, samples, case studies.
5. Data from censuses may be best regarded as:
a. reliable but invalid

b. neither reliable nor valid
c. official estimates of population
d. unofficial estimates of population.
Activity 10.3
Table 10.1: Ten Most Populous Countries in the World
Country Population (2012) As % of World Total

China 1,343,239,923 19.1
India 1,205,073,612 17.17
United States 313,847,465 4.72
Indonesia 248,645,008 3.54
Brazil 193,946,886 2.73
Pakistan 190,291,129 2.71
Nigeria 170,123,740 2.42
Bangladesh 161,083,804 2.29
Russia 142,517,670 2.03
Japan 127,368,008 1.81
Source: http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats8.htm
1. The 10 most populous nations make up approximately
a. 1/2 of the world’s population.

b. 3/5 of the world’s population.
c. 2/3 of the world’s population.
d. 3/4 of the world’s population.
2. Based on the table above we may infer that the most populous continent is:
a Africa
b. Oceania
c. Europe
d. Asia
3. Which is true of the population of the United States?
a. Its population is half that of China’s.

b. It exceeds that of India and Pakistan combined.
c. It comprises less than eight per cent of the total for all 10 most populous nations.
d. It stands at more than 500,000,000.
4. Which countries together comprise 1/20 of the population of the most populous nations?
a. Nigeria and Bangladesh

b. Brazil and Russia
c. Russia and Pakistan
d. Brazil and Bangladesh
Population Statistics for the English-speaking Caribbean

Figure 10.1: Population Pyramid for the Caribbean 1980
POPULATION PYRAMID FOR THE CARIBBEAN -1980

Age-Group
85+
75-79
65-69
55-59
45-49
35-39
25-29
15-19
5-9
400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400
Thousands Male Female Thousands
In 1980 the region had a youthful population. This is indicative of improvements in the standard
of living. Factors such as better food supplies, housing, and health care are contributory to this
situation.

Age-Group
85+
75-79
65-69
55-59
45-49
35-39
25-29
15-19
5-9
400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400

Based on the above pyramid, we can infer that the region has made further improvements in
its standard of living. This is evidenced by the fact that the proportions of people in the
adult ranges (36–59) have increased significantly.

Age-Group
85+
75-79
65-69
55-59
45-49
35-39
25-29
15-19
5-9
400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400
The pyramid resembles that for a developed country (i.e., convex) as a result of further general
improvements in education, health and earnings. Of course, this is only a generalization, as some
poorer countries may be left behind for a number of socio-economic reasons, chief among them
being a rise in poverty due to external shocks.
When the trends in the three population pyramids are compared and population projections
are made, it is clear that
• The proportion of children in the region is stable or decreasing.

• The population of adults aged 25–64 increased by 13 per cent between 1995 and 2010.
• The labour force population comprise 65 per cent of the total population.
• The greatest population increase is in the 45–64 age group.
• With a rate of increase of more than 10,000 per annum, people 65 and over comprise
10 per cent of the total population (CAREC 2000).
Table 10.2: Total Population for CARICOM States, 1990 and 2000
Country 1990 2000 Annual Growth Rates
Antigua 59,355 63,863 0.7

The Bahamas 255,049 303,611 1.8
Barbados 260,491 268,792 0.3
Belize 185,970 232,111 2.5
Dominica 71,183 69,625 -0.2
Grenada 85,123 102,598 1.9
Guyana 723,673 751,223 0.3
Jamaica 2,380,666 2,607,632 0.9
Montserrat 10,639 4,517 -8.2
St Kitts and Nevis 40,618 46,325 1.3
Saint Lucia 133,308 157,490 1.7
St Vincent 106,480 106,255 0.0
Suriname 401,665 492,464 1.5
Trinidad and Tobago 1,213,733 1,262,366 0.4
TOTAL 5,927,953 6,468,870 0.9
Adapted from http://www.caricomstats.org/Files/Publications/...
The data reveal that
1 . With the exception of Dominica, Montserrat and St Vincent, populations have increased
between 1990 and 2000.
2 . Belize has experienced the greatest population increase between 1990 and 2000.
3 . The region’s total population was just over 6 million in 2000.
4 . Jamaica alone accounts for about 40 per cent of Caricom’s total population.
ACTIVITY 10.4
1 . What are the main reasons for the marked decline in population in Montserrat?
2 . Study the data in the population pyramids for Japan, India, Argentina and Sweden.
a. Explain why Japan and India have convex population pyramids.

b. Explain why Argentina and Sweden’s population pyramids are concave.
Argentina: 2000
Sweden: 2000
India: 2000
Japan: 2000
CHAPTER 11
POPULATION THEORIES
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
1 . assess the sociological perspectives of population;

2. apply perspectives of population to the Caribbean; and
3. evaluate population policies in selected developed and developing societies.
Population theories are generally concerned with a number of issues. These include the control
of population, modernization, development and economic growth based on population size.
In this chapter the following population theories will be examined:
i. Malthusian
ii. Marxist
iii. Neo-Malthusian
iv. Demographic transition.
Thomas Malthus (1766–1834)

Thomas Robert Malthus, an Englishman, published an essay in 1798 outlining what has
popularly been referred to as the Malthusian equation. It involves the relationship between
population growth and food supply. He observed that the population of the world tends to
increase more rapidly than the food supply that is needed to sustain it.
Malthus’s arguments rest on two propositions. The first is that unchecked population increases
in a geometrical ratio. The second is that subsistence increases in an arithmetical ratio. These
two propositions together constitute the principle of population growth.
If this trend (Population Growth is greater than the Food Supply) persists, the world would
become overpopulated and the population would quickly outstrip the available food supply.
He suggested that populations would continue to grow naturally until there was not enough
food, in which case some of them would:
• move on to find a new place with food;

• starve; or
• get sick from malnutrition and suffer, possibly dying of disease, since their poor
diet would weaken their immune systems.
Malthus based his principle of population growth on a natural law: the tendency of all animated
life to increase beyond the means available for its subsistence. The natural law of population
is checked by another natural law, the law of necessity, which restrains growth.
The law of necessity operates through two major checks. The first, the preventative check,
entails fertility control (i.e, moral restraint or postponement of marriage, and vice versa).
The second, the positive check, focuses on mortality (death) and examines issues such as ‘poverty,
“unwholesome” occupations, great towns, excesses of all kinds, common diseases, epidemics, war,
plague and famine.’ Malthus regarded these as positive, because they are capable of restricting
unchecked population growth.
In addition, he used the law of diminishing marginal returns to justify the claim that food
production will lag behind population growth. Malthus felt that at some point in time natural
resources would become exhausted.
Malthus’s essay on population contained eight major points regarding social evolution. They
are the following:
1 . Subsistence severely limits population level.
2 . When the means of subsistence increases, population increases.
3 . Population pressures stimulate a growth in productivity.
4 . Increases in productivity stimulate further population growth.
5 . Since this productivity cannot keep up with the potential of population growth for
long, population requires strong checks to keep it in line with carrying capacity.
6 . Individual cost/benefit decisions regarding sex, work, and children determine the
expansion or contraction of population and production.
7 . Checks will come into operation as population exceeds subsistence levels.
8 . The nature of these checks will have a significant effect on the rest of the socio-cultural
system (i.e., misery and vice).
Population Theories | 285
A relevant modern example of this situation is India. India has experienced serious population
control problems and as a result it is likely to exceed even China’s dense population in 20 or
30 years. In Kolkata, for example, people starve in the streets and it is known to be one
of the dirtiest and most crowded cities in the world.
Malthus further noted the following in his essay:
• When the population outstrips the ability of the area to support it, the only
possible biological response is either for the births to decrease (preventive checks) or
for the deaths to increase (positive checks). Malthus saw births being limited only
by celibacy or abstinence (he was not at all optimistic about the ability of the poor to
use either of these methods), so the only alternative was an increase in death rates
due to starvation and disease.
• Malthus argued that the solution to the disproportionate relationship between
population and food supply lay in moral restraint, wars, famine and pestilence (disease).
He blamed the poor and called for the abolition of the ‘poor laws’, which granted
charity to the poor. He believed they were merely encouraged to reproduce more rapidly.
He therefore suggested that since the poor would suffer anyway, any help given to them
would only cause their numbers to grow. His solution was to advocate pouring all of the
economic resources into the elite so that they could contribute to high culture – art,
music, science and medicine. Malthus would disapprove of welfare, public schools and
public libraries as a waste of valuable resources.
• He reckoned that overpopulation would be a necessary evil since the two chief human
desires – food and procreation – were powerful, uncontrollable and unchanging. The
end result would be misery for the majority of the human race via famine, malnutrition
and disease. How then could human misery be averted? This is the Malthusian problem.
Malthus suggested that the family size of the lower class ought to be regulated to ensure
that poor families did not produce more children than they could support. Malthus’s
recommendations to reduce the exponential growth of the poor included marrying later,
spacing children further apart, and abstinence from sexual relations. However, he held
very little faith in the success of moral restraint since he contended that individuals
desired pleasure from sex. Malthus concluded that unless family size was regulated,
famine and misery would become globally epidemic and eventually consume the human
race.
• Although Malthus thought that famine and poverty were natural outcomes, he also
thought that the ultimate reason for those outcomes was divine institution. He believed
that such natural outcomes were God’s way of preventing man from being lazy. He
argued that they also provided a solution to the growth problem that most people find
unacceptable (that is, the increase in death rates). Some find the alternative solution
(reducing births) unacceptable as well.
Thomas Malthus: A Critique

In recent years, Malthus’s theory has gained support. It is claimed that in many less developed
countries, food supply lags behind population growth. However, there have been criticisms of
the theory. The criticisms include the following:
• Malthus’s theory is too simplistic.

• Much of Malthus’s writing occurred during Stage Two of the demographic
transition in Europe. During this time, food supplies were improving because of the
increasing use of machinery in agriculture. Malthus’s view, that poverty and famine
were natural outcomes of population growth and food supply, was not popular among
social reformers who believed that with proper social structures, all human ills could
be eradicated.
• Human ability to solve problems will prevent the cycle of war, famine and disease.
One alternative explanation to Malthus’s theory of human degradation is referred to as
the lifeboat earth view. It claims that international aid will avert malnutrition, hunger
and starvation in the poorest nations. Support for this view is found in the Brandt
Report of 1985.
• The Brandt Report indicated that countries in sub-Saharan Africa will improve their quality
of living if international lending agencies provide financial aid for the improvement of
agriculture and infrastructure.
• Put another way, the lifeboat earth view perceives large industrialized countries
as the lifeboat (hope of rescue) for people in less developed countries faced with
the problems of hunger, disease, war and death, thereby refuting Malthus’ theory of
population growth.
Marx’s Theory of Population

Marx and Engels reacted very strongly against Malthus’s theory, which they saw as an apology
for the status quo. In other words, they held that Malthus supported bourgeois ideology and
thus blamed the poor for many of the problems in the world.
Marx presented a reversal of Malthus’s thinking about population by counter-arguing that

human misery and suffering under capitalism were the result of bourgeois exploitation. Poverty,
unemployment, hunger and malnutrition were the products of the inequalities of capitalism.
The rich got their wealth at the expense of the poor. Marx thus believed that it was in the interest
of the wealthy to have a mass of unemployed, unskilled, disorganized proletariat that is not
conscious of its plight.
This group in the society therefore become easily exploited and oppressed. Some of Marx’s
concerns are listed below:
• Malthus’s theory is another instance of the way in which bourgeois economists reify
social relations (that is, change concrete historical social relations and processes into
universal categories or external nature laws).
• He suggests that Malthus’s principle of population is the principle of the reserve army
of labour or relative surplus population.
• Marx rejects Malthus’s solution to the problems created by the contradictions inherent
in the capitalist system.
Marx’s own theory of population will now be discussed. Marx’s population theory results in an
understanding of three main issues. The first is capital accumulation and surplus, the second
is the principle of the reserve army of labour and the third is competition for scarce resources.
1. Capital Accumulation and Expansion

Marx and Engels argue that the process of capital accumulation and expansion is dependent
upon the supply of labour. Despite the fact that machinery is necessary for production, any
attempt to increase capitalist surplus is accompanied also by an increase in the labour supply.
Thus, labour is encouraged to reproduce itself. ‘Since the demand for labour is determined
not by the amount of capital as a whole, but by its variable constituent alone, that demand falls
progressively with the increase of total social capital’ (Marx 1970, 629).
In Marx’s view, population growth is class-related. The working class is encouraged to reproduce,
since the demand for their labour is directly proportional to the availability of capital. It therefore
becomes imperative for the bourgeoisie to exploit the working class by suppressing wages and
keeping them in relative poverty since, once in poverty, they will have no choice but to exchange
their labour for wages paid out by capitalists.
The accumulation and expansion of capital constitute the driving force of capitalism. It becomes
possible only as long as capitalism can operate with a profit. It also implies a process of increase
in the demand for labour. Marx suggested that an increase in the demand for labour would
lead to a redistribution of wealth in favour of the proletariat. Laws of demand and supply would
operate in a way to produce higher wages and lower the amount of surplus appropriated by the
bourgeoisie (this situation did not occur in reality). Capitalists found ways of maintaining
their profitability, one of which was to increase the prices of goods.
Marx accounted for the widening gap between wages and capital accumulation by arguing that
wages never increase enough to endanger the capitalist system. He goes on to assert that when
wages are high, workers will over-reproduce themselves. The consequent population increase
produces a supply of labour larger than the demand. Wages therefore fall to their natural
level. If workers become class-conscious, they will therefore control the supply of labour by
having fewer children.
In sum, Marx contended that the error of Malthus was in focusing on capital accumulation
and its effects upon specific sectors of production, instead of looking at the relationship between
social capital and the total labour force. Because of this weakness, Malthus was thought to
confuse the laws that regulate that general ratio with the laws that regulate the allocation of
specific sectors of the labour force to specific sectors of production.
2. The Principle of the Reserve Army of Labour

Marx believed that a reserve army of labour was necessary for the survival of the capitalist
system. Based on economic principles of demand and supply, it may be observed that
when labour supply is high, demand for labour will be of necessity low. This is the case, since
it would be easy to find a wide variety of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled labour among a
large supply. The net effect of this is the depression of wages, and the continued increase in
capital accumulation for the bourgeoisie.
In Marx’s analysis, population is the dependent variable. This means that it is affected by capital
accumulation and not the other way round. The production of a reserve army of labour
is the most important mechanism, at the level of analysis of the mode of production. He
thought that the reserve army of labour was international in nature. Here, Marx saw the role of
immigrant labour in modern societies as helping to keep wages down.
Whenever the reserve army of labour is depleted, the level of wages tends to rise thus reducing the
rate of surplus value, a n d the capitalist class will adopt measures to reverse this reduction.
Besides price increases and immigrant labour, they opt for technological advancements and
foreign investments. The combined effect of all these is unemployment, redundancy and a
fall in the demand for labour.
3. Competition for Scarce Positions

Marx felt that as jobs within capitalism would become relatively scarce (in relation to the
supply of labour), labour would increase its technical efficiency. Increased technical efficiency
would mean that those who were employed would work harder in order to keep their jobs.
Their increase in productivity would raise output level. Capitalists would benefit more from
this, since it is they who would receive more profits from the sale of commodities produced
by workers.
Some Marxists, (for example, Zaretsky), in discussing the family, argue that capitalists benefit
from the supply of trained labour since it is parents who have to pay for this (that is, the training
of the labour supply). Marxist feminists add that today it is the women who form a large reserve
army of labour. Capitalists easily exploit women, since many employment opportunities for
women in traditional female occupations (for example, cotton textiles,) require low levels of skill.
Marx’s theory of population can be aptly summarized in these two statements.
1 . A ‘surplus population is a creation of capitalism, and a necessary condition for its

continuation.’
2 . Capitalism requires a surplus of readily exploitable manpower, which it creates by

expropriating land, and by displacing workers with machines.
Neo-Malthusian Theory
Neo-Malthusian theory is derived from Thomas Malthus’s proposition that limited resources
keep populations in check and reduce economic growth.
This perspective first appeared in the 1870s. It tried to justify the growing impoverishment
of working people by pseudo-scientific theories of ‘absolute over-population, and diminishing
returns on the soil.’ Furthermore, it regards birth control, wars and epidemics as a means of
bolstering up capitalism and alleviating the misery of the masses. A great number of its exponents
advocate race discrimination.
One group of proponents of neo-Malthusian theory was the Club of Rome founded in 1968.
In 1972, it raised much public attention with its Limits to Growth theory. It comprised
scientists, economists, businessmen, international high civil servants and former heads of states
from the five continents. It believed that each person could contribute to the improvement of
his society. The neo-Malthusian theorists may be viewed as a splinter group. Essentially they
agree with Malthus that population control is inevitable. An excerpt from Malthus’s writing
of 1798 illustrates this belief:
I think I may fairly make two postulates. Firstly, that food is necessary to the
existence of man. Secondly, that the passion between the sexes is necessary,
and will remain nearly in its present state...Assuming, then, my postulates
as granted, I say that the power of population is indefinitely greater than the
power in the earth to produce subsistence for man.
Population, when unchecked, increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence only increases in an

arithmetic ratio....By the law of our nature, which makes food necessary to the life of man,
the effects of these two unequal powers must be kept equal. This implies a strong and
constantly operating check on population (adapted from Jordan et al. 1994, 48).
However, Jordan et al. disagree with Malthus that factors like war and famine are the key to
population control, and reject such simplistic notions. Instead, they promote a number of ideals,
some of which will be discussed in more detail in later sections of this module. We will now
examine a few neo-Malthusian issues.
Limits to Growth Theory

One strain of the theory purports that unless at or below subsistence level, a population’s fertility
will tend to move upwards. Under-subsistence conditions the fastest growing group in a country’s
population is likely to be progressing most rapidly in agricultural technology. However, in above-
subsistence conditions the fastest growing group is likely to have an extremely high fertility.
According to neo-Malthusian theory, pro-fertility individuals will encourage a hyper-exponential

population growth that will eventually outstrip economic production even in developed countries.
Part of the blame for this increase is put on immigrants who usually tend to be pro-fertility in
orientation.
Neo-Malthusians argued that a Malthusian catastrophe was imminent. Paul R. Ehrlich, one
proponent of this approach, predicted this based on the rapid growth of the world’s population,
especially after the First World War. Coupled with this is the deterioration of farmland. For
example, in South Asia, about half of the land had been degraded. China has already seen 27 per
cent of its arable land suffer irreversible damage due to protracted farming, and continues
to lose about 2,500 square kilometres of farmland annually.
David Pimentel and Ron Nielson working independently, found that the human population
has passed the numerical point where all can live in comfort. In addition, they postulate that
many people today are trapped in misery (see ‘Malthusian Catastrophe’ www.peak-oil-technology.
com/malthusian-catastrophe.html).
Some ecologists conclude that as the earth’s population surpasses the six-billion mark, the
planet’s bourgeoning population will affect the environment and quality of life for humans in
the next 100 years. Evidence of this catastrophe is underway as of at least 1990; for example,
by the year 2000, children in developing countries were dying at a rate of approximately
11,000,000 per annum from strictly preventable diseases. The term ‘misery’ can be taken
to signify conditions such as high infant mortality, low standards of sanitation, malnutrition,
inadequate drinking water, widespread diseases, war, and political unrest.
A 2004 study by Kenneth Arrow and others, suggests that the central concerns regarding
sustainability have shifted from population growth to the consumption/saving ratio, due to
shifts in population growth rates since the 1970s.
Adverse Effects of Population Growth

Ahlburg 1994, and Kelley and McGreevery 1994, claim that unchecked population growth
increases the amount of impoverishment. Additionally, it leads to an increase in environmental
degradation – the misuse of natural resources with adverse consequences for human well-being.
Rapid population growth has also witnessed the depression of wages, especially for the poor who
depend on wages for subsistence. It also strains investment by diverting funds for the purpose
of maintaining a lumpen proletariat (large body of poor people).
Human Causes of Land-Use Change

Land use is constrained by environmental factors such as soil characteristics, topography, and
vegetation. It is a basic factor of production. Human activities that make use of land can effect
change. For example, the conversion of natural forest into cropland can lead to natural disasters
such as landslides, erosion and flooding. Neo-Malthusians are concerned about the impact of
human population growth because of its implications for sustainable development.
The interactions of population, affluence and technology are causes of environmental change.
One type of change that produces devastating effects is desertification. In the less developed
countries this is cause for concern, especially since population growth is still relatively high,
and re-afforestation drives are especially small (Turner at al. 1993).
The Johns Hopkins University and David Bishai (2006) suggests that the following issues are
related to population growth, increases in the world labour force, and problems in agriculture.
1. Population Growth and Development

Issues such as deforestation, agriculture, employment, education, food and nutrition, water
resources and urbanization are important today. The critical point is that man has continued
to put pressure on available land and natural resources, due to increased population growth.
2. Some Problems Facing Agriculture in Less Developed Countries (LDCs)

Deficiencies in economic policy and effects on the environment have crippled the transformation
of indigenous systems of farming. For instance, the use of artificial fertilizers imported
from abroad has contributed to this diminishing of local cultural practices in many LDCs.
3. World Labour Force

The World Labour Force has almost doubled since the 1950s, moving from 1.2 billion to 2.7
billion. This implies that more jobs will have to be created to cater for the burgeoning numbers
of young people who become eligible to work. In the LDCs this is of particular concern.
Criticisms of Neo-Malthusianism Theory

1. Jordan et al. (1994) claim that some heads of Third World governments (especially in
the 1960s) opposed ideas such as Planned Parenthood. China, for example, viewed
these as no more than naked imperialist attempts to keep down the population of the Third
World for fear of being overthrown.
2. Population control policies encouraged the exploitation of Third World peoples. For
instance, since 1925, Puerto Rican women have been used as guinea pigs for testing the
effectiveness of various birth control measures. In some cases, these women have been found
to suffer from cervical cancer. Additionally, it is claimed that apartheid in South Africa led
to the forceful sterilization of hundreds of young black women b e g i n n i n g i n t h e
1950s. However, despite these criticisms, the idea of population control for the Third
World is today highly regarded. Caribbean nations such as Barbados, The Bahamas, St
Kitts and Nevis, and Antigua and Barbuda have indeed been successful in controlling
population in ways that ease high levels of poverty, illiteracy, hunger and unemployment.
3. A Malthusian catastrophe is not imminent. A 2002 study by the UN Food and

Agriculture Organization predicts that world food production will be in excess of the
needs of the human population by the year 2030 (the Green Revolution has contributed
significantly to this).
4. Lenin argued that, instead of becoming impoverished, the working class was becoming
stronger, gaining courage, consolidating itself and becoming steeled in battle. He
suggested that they had begun to learn and were rapidly learning to fight collectively.
Before moving on to a discussion of the Demographic Transition Theory, we will briefly examine
two theories related to the neo-Malthusian cause: The Eugenicist Movement and Planned
Parenthood.
The Eugenicist Movement

The Eugenicist Movement of the early twentieth century, aimed to achieve social and biological
evolution through selective human breeding. It originated with the theories of heredity proposed
by Francis Galton.
The British Eugenics Education Society, founded in 1907, attempted to translate ideals of social
disadvantage into legislative measures for controlling marriage and the reproduction of the ‘unfit’.
Being classified as unfit was based on many different criteria, relating to categories of deviant
behaviour such as alcoholism, promiscuity, criminality and mental retardation.
In Europe and America, the Society hoped to introduce birth control and voluntary sterilization
to prevent reproduction among the ‘unfit.’ This was seen as necessary in order to avert the
threat to survival of the ‘fittest,’ (including the ‘civilized race’).
Eugenicists believed that modern economics encouraged dysgenic (genetically harmful)

birth rates, because those who worked supported those who did not or could not. The New
Right reformers of the early 1980s in Britain held a similar view, arguing that welfare benefits
served to create and perpetuate a culture of dependency.
Before the First World War, British eugenicists were concerned with the adoption of social policy
for the care of the mentally deficient. By this time, too, they were focusing on the declining
birth rate, family allowances and family tax relief, voluntary sterilization, eugenic marriage,
and changing the demographic structure of society. In Scandinavia and the United States,
eugenicists were successful in securing compulsory sterilization of the mentally retarded and
various types of criminals.
Eugenicism was combined with other ideologies in Germany around 1933. For instance, Hitler
remarked that the First World War had led to the loss of many people of desirable genetic stock
and the growth of a population of many of undesirable character. One measure he adopted
was the setting up of the ‘Peoples Court’, which was empowered to re-balance the equation (i.e.,
the imbalance between the desirable and undesirable genetic stocks). The aim of the Court
was cleansing – the process of getting rid of ‘undesirables’ such as Jews, Roma (gypsies), the
mentally ill, and political dissenters. The genocide of many Jews during t h e Se c o n d World
War is a well-known historical fact.
What most united the thinking of Malthus and the eugenicists was their anti-democratic stance
along with their contempt for the poor (Ross 1998).
Planned Parenthood (PP)

Planned Parenthood began as the national Birth Control League, which was founded in 1916
under the leadership of Mary Dennett. Margaret Sanger headed a follow-up organization, the
American Birth Control League, which clamoured for the legalization of birth control throughout
the 1920s and 1930s. In 1942, the League gave way to the Planned Parenthood Federation of
America Inc. Between 1978 and 1992, the organization strengthened its campaign for women’s
reproductive rights.
Today, Planned Parenthood advocates the following:
a. wide availability of emergency contraception measures;

b. the removal of laws requiring parental consent as notification for girls under the age of
18 to have an abortion;
c. the removal of laws requiring a waiting period for an abortion;

d. the right to have an abortion without an ultrasound;
e. the removal of refusal (conscience) clauses which allow pharmacists to refuse to dispense
contraceptives on the grounds of conscience;
f. sex education (instead of abstinence-only education) in public schools. (i.e., comprehensive

sex education involving the discussion of abstinence and birth control).
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_Parenthood
This policy was indeed adopted with some success in China between 1970 and 1992. Jordan
et al. claim that, between 1970 and 1990, the total fertility rate dropped from 5.9 births per
year per woman to 2.7. By 1992, it had reached 1.9. Billboards posted in China promoted
slogans such as ‘One couple one child eugenical [sic] and well-bred.’
In other countries such as India, Planned Parenthood was not so successful. Mamdani (1972)
presented an article outlining several cases in which families deliberately opposed the use of
condoms, contraceptives and other birth control measures. Instead, such families bred more
children.
The Demographic Transition Theory

This theory of population in some ways resembles Marx’s theory of the development of capitalism
in Europe. It mirrors the transition of European society from primitive communism to nineteenth-
century capitalism. Jackson and Hudman (1986) have described the demographic transition
as follows:
The rate of population growth in some countries, particularly industrialized ones, followed a
pattern of increase and then decline. The experience of the major industrialized countries in
Western Europe and North America, in a period of rapid population growth rates, is referred
to as the demographic transition (Jackson and Hudman 1986, 70).
They also explain it as a model of population change, which suggests that countries move
from a slow population growth stage, with high birth and high death rates, to a stage of rapid
population growth, when death rates drop, and then to a stage of slow population growth, as
birth rates also fall. Others add a fourth stage that involves a convergence of birth and death
rates. At times, the birth rate falls below that of the death rate, causing depopulation.
The stages of the theory will be briefly examined in figure 11.1.
Figure 11.1: The Stages of the Demographic Transition Theory

60
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
50
Number Per 1000 Per Year
Birth Rate
40
30
20
10 Death Rate
0
Time
Stage 1 – High Fluctuating

This represents Britain’s demography before 1700. Birth rates were high, averaging more
than 40 per 1,000, but death rates also remained high, resulting in slow rates of population
growth. In some years, an increase in population followed a good harvest, partly because
of a rise in births and a fall in deaths. In any event, the world’s population remained relatively
low and stagnant, primarily because of disease and limited agricultural capacity. In addition, life
expectancy was much lower than it is today.
Stage 2 – Early Expanding

The process of industrialization (the Industrial Revolution) marks the beginning of this
stage. It lasted for approximately 100 years, from 1770 to 1870. During this time, birth rates
remained relatively high, but death rates fell sharply to almost half the birth rates.
In less-developed countries, this stage was reached sometime around 1988. In both the developed
West and the developing countries, industrialization brought certain positive forces of scientific
progress, which helped to increase life expectancy. Some of these included better housing and
hygiene, wider availability of and access to health care, and more abundant and nutritious food.
Stage 3 – Late Expanding

This stage occurred during the period 1870–1920, when changes in cultural values superseded
all other forms of change. Parsons’s theory of modernization helps us to appreciate the
complementary blend of economic and cultural factors in population change.
Stage 4 – Low Fluctuating

This is a stage of relative consistency in population movement. Both birth and death rates are
low. Sometimes one may slightly exceed the other. Negative population growth (depopulation)
may occur or population may grow in miniscule proportions.
It is argued that some advanced countries (for example, Germany and Italy) experienced negative
net natural increase as a result of austere fertility control policies (for example, delayed marriage)
and strict immigration policies.
Figure 11.2: The Demographic Transition Model
The Demographic Transition
birth
rate
total
population
Death
rate
time
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

High birth rate Declining death rates Declining birth Low death rates
high, but fluctuating and continuing high and death rates and low, but
death rate birth rates fluctuatingbirth rates
Figure 11.3: The Demographic Transition Model Showing Stage 5
Stage 1 2 3 4 5
Birth rate
25 40
Death rate per 1000 population
Birth rate per 1000 population
20 30
15 Death rate
20
10
10
5 Total population
0 0
Time
The original Demographic Transition model has just four stages, but it is now widely accepted
that a fifth stage is needed to represent countries that have undergone the economic transition,
from manufacturing based industries into service and information based industries, called
deindustrialization. Examples of countries in this category include Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal,
Greece, United Kingdom and most notably Japan, whose populations are now reproducing well
below their replacement levels, and are not producing enough children to replace their parents’
generation (source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_transition).
The Demographic Transition Theory: An Evaluation

The theory of slow population growth and modernity finds much support in the theories of
social change and progress of the early functionalists in sociology. Herbert Spencer’s evolutionary
theory of European society embodies many of the principles of the demographic transition
theory (DTT). Both illustrate the effects of population growth on social and economic life. For
instance, it was only when populations grew beyond certain levels that additional hands were
freed from traditional agriculture, giving the opportunity for people to engage in scientific
pursuits.
The DTT also finds support in Durkheim’s theory of solidarity. Stage 1 and, to some
extent, Stage 2 reveal a society steeped in mechanical solidarity. This is the case, since Europe
was based largely on agriculture and role resemblance, that is, an unspecialized division of
labour. Stage 3 initiated the transition to organic solidarity. In this stage, values became
more individualistic and large families became hindrances to personal wealth and success. To
use Parsons’s words, life became increasingly complex and differentiated. People and institutions
began taking on highly specialized functions. For example, the family and school became
institutionalized as agencies for informal and formal learning (particularistic and universalistic,
respectively). Stage 3 is marked by a rapidly declining birth rate and a continued falling death
rate. The industrialized countries advanced in technology and benefited even more (than
in Stage 2) from technological advancements in social and economic life (for example, in
health and occupational factors).
However, and more significantly, changing attitudes towards children and family created a further
decline in birth rates. With greater technology in agriculture, rapid urbanization and educational
expansion (formal and non-formal), large families were seen as burdens. Parsons argues that the
large extended family gave way to the smaller privatized nuclear units. Achieved status rose to
prominence via the adoption of universalistic values such as equality of opportunity and
meritocracy.
One may infer that many of the developing countries of the Caribbean have more recently (over
the last 20 years or so) entered this phase. In Trinidad and Tobago, the oil windfall of the
early 1970s is a strong contributor to the development of ‘modern’ values.
The Demographic Transition Theory: A Caribbean Perspective
Historical Background
George Roberts, renowned Jamaican demographer, suggests that there are five stages in
the demographic transition of Jamaica. The motor for this transition was slavery. These
stages are typical of many other islands in the British Caribbean. The stages are listed below:
Stage 1: Early slavery to the early eighteenth century
Stage 2: Late eighteenth century to Emancipation
Stage 3: Emancipation to 1880
Stage 4: 1880–1921
Stage 5: 1921–present
According to Norma Abdulah, in Ryan’s The Independence Experience, population growth in

the Caribbean is influenced by
a. fertility;
b. mortality; and
c. international migration.
This is illustrated in the following table.

Table 11.1: Population Growth, Rates of Growth and Components of Growth 1960–85
in Trinidad and Tobago
Census Date
1960 1970 1980

Population (000)
827,957 940,719 11,079,791
1960 to 1970 1970 to 1980
Total Growth 112.8 139.1
Births 306.8 273.2
Death 68.2 71.4
Natural Increase 238.6 201.76
Estimated Net -125.8 -62.7
Migration Balance
Migration as % of -111.5 -45.0

Total Growth
Average Annual Rate 1.29 1.39
of Growth (%)
Stage 1
In this stage, islands such as St Kitts, Nevis, Antigua and Montserrat gained population
as a result of the triangular trade institutionalized by the sugar plantation system. Whites and
blacks lived with mutual hostility but also in symbiosis, or mutual interdependence. The
former depended on the latter for labour to produce sugar, whilst the slaves depended on the
whites for their existence (social, cultural and economic). See table 11.2 below for data on slave
importation in 10 Caribbean territories in the eighteenth century.
It is during this stage that the process of acculturation began. Edwards (quoted in Barrow and
Reddock 2001) describes the process of white cultural hegemony. Institutions and traditions
of the whites/Europeans (for example, family, marriage and religion) were portrayed as
superior to comparable slave institutions. Race relations during this time were antagonistic
and volatile, as whites and Africans mistrusted and despised one another.
Table 11.2: The Trade in Enslaved Africans in the Eighteenth Century
Average
Year Colony Importation importation
per year
1700–89 Jamaica 610,000 7,000
1747–66 Barbados 148,821 3,100
1680–1776 Saint Domingue 800,000 8,247
1720–29 Antigua 12,278 1,362
1721–30 St Kitts 10,358 1,035
1721–29 Montserrat 3,210 357
1721–26 Nevis 1,267 253
1767–73 Dominica 19,194 2,742
1763–89 Cuba 30,875 1,143
1700–54 Danish Islands 11,750 214
Stage 2
In this stage, there was the rise of anti-slavery sentiments and movements. Organizations
such as the Quakers of 1765, and such political figures as William Wilberforce and William
Fox promoted an end to the slave trade. This eventually occurred early in the nineteenth
century (1806).
One of the main features was the rise of an intermediate group – the browns or mulattos
(offspring of white masters and African/slave women). In the French territory of Saint Domingue
(now Haiti) there was widespread and open hostility among the three major groups – whites,
browns and blacks. The social differentiation in the Caribbean led Smith (1965) to conclude
that British West Indian societies were inherently plural.
Stage 3
The period after emancipation (1834–80) saw the transformation of West Indian societies.
Trinidad, for instance, became a crown colony (that is, ruled by a governor who wielded immense
political power and authority). In Barbados and the Leeward Islands planter representatives
in the assembly had the right to engage in legislative procedures.
Economically, the implementation of emancipation according to Brereton (1985) represented

an end to the success of ‘King Sugar’. This was the case since the removal of preferential duties
on West Indian sugar and stiff competition from beet sugar (among other things) effectively
crippled many West Indian economies.
However, the indentureship system implemented largely in Trinidad, Guyana and Suriname
(and to some extent Jamaica) assisted in propping up the economy. Indeed, new societies were
created in Trinidad, Guyana and Suriname. Social and cultural pluralism became evident, as the
Indians now had an indelible effect on the cultural landscape. Food, dress, religions, family,
marriage and other institutions were distinct from the acculturated society created by the
yoking of white culture onto black institutions.
With regard to population transition, during this period there was a marked decline in the
proportion of the white segment and an increase in the proportion of non-whites (chiefly Africans
and East Indians). This was due partly to the repatriation of some whites to England. Many of
them were desirous of returning home to enjoy the newly emerging success of industrialization.
The Africans were left free to procreate. Scholars such as M.G. Smith, R.T. Smith and C. Barrow
argue that the prominence of matrifocality encouraged an increase in fertility and birth
rates. The large patriarchal, extended East Indian family, (despite the early deficiency in
the number of women), also spurred on an increase in the Indian population. The process
of demographic transition thus led to the transformation of West Indian colonies (especially
Trinidad and Guyana) into societies marked by high levels of social and cultural pluralism.
Stage 4
By about the late 1800s, most of Europe had become unified. This meant a decline in
the significance of the West Indian islands to Europe’s economic survival. T h e Fi r s t World
War (1914–18) and the emergent revolution in Russia compounded the situation by turning
Europe’s attention more to the threat of the spread of communism than to the circumstances
in West Indian colonies.
These events spurred on certain cultural changes within West Indian societies. The rise of black
consciousness in Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago (in particular) triggered the development
of the anti-white sentiments. Events such as the Water Riots (1903) in Trinidad and Tobago
had, to some extent, encouraged instrumental cooperation between the two dominant groups.
Calls for improved wages, and working and living conditions, were met partially by white rulers.
Though insignificant in comparison to social reforms of today, improvements in health and
hygiene led to an increase in the number of births among the non-white population.
Stage 5
In this phase, especially in the post-independence era, population growth was triggered by a
number of economic and social reforms. International aid fostered higher levels of sanitation and
the development of physical infrastructure such as roads, telephone and other communication
systems. This, together with the strong influence of religions such as Roman Catholicism, Islam
and Hinduism, pushed the birth rates up.
At the same time, there was a marked decline in the number of deaths, comparable to that
experienced by Europe during Stage 2 of its demographic transition. In more recent times,
however, most of the Caribbean islands have been moving towards, or are in, Stage 3 (as experienced
by Europe in its demographic transition of the late nineteenth century). Two excellent examples
of this trend are Barbados and The Bahamas, which are ranked high among nations that promote
acceptable levels of human development. In these countries, projected population growth rates
are very small indeed. Barbados, for instance, has been successful in promoting population
control, especially through its condom use campaign.
The Main Criticisms of the Demographic Transition Theory (DTT):

• It is too simplistic, since it sees human progress in a unilinear pattern with changes
occurring in a predictable manner (i.e., one after the other). It is this same simplicity,
according to Weber, which is characteristic of the functionalist and Marxist theories
of social change.
• The role played by institutions other than culture and technology in shaping rates
of births and deaths has been undervalued; for example, the role of the state, and the
desire for competitive markets in an imperialistic world, spearheaded by core or centre
states in Europe, such as England, France, Germany and Holland.
• According to Weber, social change is a complex process very much like a railway track.
It may occur in any direction and in any magnitude. Sometimes regression (social
disaster via war, famine and disease) may occur. This thwarts social progress.
• It is Eurocentric and fails to account for demographic change in other parts of the world.
For instance, Africa and Asia experienced comparable population growth increases long before
that of Europe became pronounced. The migration of people to the Americas long before
Columbus’s arrival in the New World, as is alleged, is ample indication that some countries had
surplus populations to export.
Now that you have read about four theories of population change, you should be more familiar with
the different explanation of population growth and other kinds of change. In the other sections,
some of these ideas will be applied to the understanding of population change in the Caribbean.
An interesting reading activity is to examine W.W. Rostow’s theory, ‘Stages of Economic Growth’,
and compare it with the demographic transition theory.
Table 11.3: Comparison Stages of the DTT and Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth
DDT Rostow’s
1. High Stationary Traditional society
2. Early Expanding Preconditions for Take Off and Take Off
3. Late Expanding Drive to Maturity
4. Low Stationary Age of High Mass Consumption
There are five stages in Rostow’s Growth theory. However, for purposes of comparison, we have
combined Stage 2 (Preconditions for Take Off ) and Stage 3 (Take Off ).
Conclusion
The process of demographic transition in the Caribbean has been examined in a similar
manner to criminology. Pryce (1976) and Chuck (1986) have steadfastly argued the need for
a Caribbean criminology capable of promoting an understanding of the unique circumstances
in the region (for example, academic failure, inequality and socialization) that cause criminal and
deviant behaviour. Similarly, an attempt has been made to examine some of the historical, social,
economic and political factors that impact upon the demographic transition of the countries
of the region. A good history text – for example, Brereton (1985) or Williams (1970) – will
provide a deeper appreciation of these issues.
Activity 11.1
1. Using your own words, define each of the following terms in no more than two or three
lines, giving examples where necessary:
i. Demographic transition
ii. Reserve army of labour
iii. Capital Accumulation
iv. Industrialization
v. Preventative Checks
2. Distinguish between each of the following pairs of terms:
i. Population change and population growth

ii. Exponential and arithmetic growth
iii. High stationary and low stationary (stages of population)
iv. Malthusian and neo-Malthusian theories of population
Reminder: In order to distinguish between two or more concepts, you must first find out
their common and different characteristics and highlight them (especially the differences).
3. Write T for True or F for False after each statement below.
a. Population control is a concern of both Malthus and neo-Malthusians.________

b. Marx largely agreed with Malthus’s theory of population. ________
c. There is no evidence of demographic transition in the West Indies. ________
d. Crown Colony governments were set up in The Bahamas and Antigua in the
eighteenth century to help their population growth policies. ________
e. The neo-Malthusians are concerned with issues such as deforestation, global
warming and sustainable development. ________
CHAPTER 12
POPULATION GROWTH RATES AND

TRENDS
OBJECTIVES
On completion of this chapter, students should:
1. understand population issues with specific reference to the Caribbean;
2. compare population statistics in developed and developing countries; and
3. assess the implications of population growth rates.
CONTENT
1. Population Composition
Quantitative measures used for explaining trends in population for developed and developing
countries, for example, age, sex, ethnicity, religion, and occupation.
2. Trends in Population Growth
3. Population Issues
a. Urbanization
b. Migration
POPULATION COMPOSITION
Population composition refers to the distribution within a group or groups of people in regard
to specific individual attributes such as sex, age, marital status, education, religion, ethnicity,
occupation, and relationship to the head of household. Populations consist of groups such as
social classes and religious groups. In this section, we will discuss the variables age, sex, ethnicity,
religion and occupation. Following an examination of the relevant sociological theories, some
demographic characteristics of specific Caribbean territories will be presented.
Age
Age is an important concept in sociology, since it indicates an individual’s place in the structure
of the population of a society. People may be classified as youth (0–15), adult or working age
(15–64) and elderly (65 and over). Of course, each category may be subdivided into more
specific groups. For example, people who have not yet celebrated their first birthday are regarded
as babies. People 13–19 are adolescent and straddle two groups, youth and young adults.
However, in studying population, age is a critical variable since it is of relevance to many

aspects of demography. Age is important to the study of many factors including life expectancy,
fertility, mortality and morbidity. Life expectancy tells us how long individuals (on average)
are expected to live. Age and sex indicate whether populations will explode or not, for instance,
if women 15–19 are bearing more children than those, say, 20–24 or 25–29, then we may
infer that population growth can be expected if this trend continues for a protracted period.
Youthful populations are usually represented by a convex shaped pyramid since the base tends
to be broad. Economists contend that youthful populations are kept back by limited investments
in the more productive sectors such as jobs, exports, banking and manufacturing. This is
so because of the large dependent population requiring goods and services such as food, shelter,
education and health care.
Population pyramids are useful for comparing levels of development in different societies.
Waugh (2003) provides a detailed explanation of the most important features of populations.
He demonstrates the following:
a. Pyramids are used to show the age-sex distributions of countries such as the UK,
Kenya, India and Japan. These pyramids are used to show the relationship between
population and development. The shape of the pyramid indicates the level of
the country’s development.
b. Pyramids enable comparisons to be made between countries, thereby helping a
country to plan for future service needs. These include senior citizen’s homes if it
has an ageing population, or fewer schools if the young population is reducing
(Waugh 2003).
Population Growth Rates and Trends | 309
Figure 12.1 Population Pyramids for India, Japan and Kenya, 2000
Table 12.1: Population Under Age 15, and Aged 65 and Above at the Year 2000 and
Projected Population to 2015 as Percentage of Total Population for Selected
Caribbean Countries
Under 15 Population 65 and over Population
COUNTRY (as % of total) (as % of total)
2000 2015 2000 2015
Barbados 20.7 16.7 10.4 11.4

The Bahamas 29.6 24.5 5.4 7.7
Trinidad and Tobago 25.0 19.4 6.7 9.6
Cuba 21.2 16.4 9.6 14.1

St Lucia 32.1 27.2 5.7 6.0
Jamaica 31.5 25.4 7.2 7.8
Guyana 30.6 25.7 5.0 6.5
Haiti 40.6 35.1 3.7 4.1
(Source: http://www.undp.org)
From the table above, some general conclusions may be drawn:
• There will be a decline in the youthful population in the Caribbean by 2015.

• More people in the Caribbean are living to an old age (that is, beyond 65).
• There will be an increase in the ageing population in the Caribbean by 2015.
Activity 12.1
1. Using the data in table 12.1 draw a bar graph.
2. Which country do you believe has high fertility rates? Justify your answer.
3. In which country will the elderly fare best by 2015? Explain your answer.
Sex
Demographers are interested in the composition of a society b y s e x since it can help them
predict rates of growth and patterns of morbidity and mortality. A society with a large excess
of females has the propensity to grow faster than one in which males outnumber females or
where the ratio is balanced.
Table 12.2: Age and Sex Distribution
COUNTRY 0-4 5-14 15-19 20-44 45-49 60-64 65+ All Ages
MALE
Trinidad & 66,410 109,939 39,430 126,489 46,843 8,093 14,376 411,580
Tobago
British 49,490 81,423 25,405 80,449 29,085 5,577 7,699 279,128
Guiana
Barbados 16,224 28,063 10,403 29,327 14,756 2,738 4,098 105,159
Jamaica 134,954 197,662 68,372 230,195 95,366 18,375 28,533 773,439
FEMALE
Trinidad & 65,217 109,485 41,438 129,374 43,385 8,163 19,315 416,377
Tobago
British
Guiana
48,687 76,628 26,476 82,895 26,802 5,600 11,111 281,202
(Now
Guyana)
Barbados 16,240 28,240 28,355 10,801 38,195 10,769 126,808
Jamaica 132,937 196,955 76,440 271,278 97,192 20,435 41,136 838,375
TOTAL
Trinidad &
131,627 219,424 80,868 255,863 90,228 16,256 33,691 827,958
Tobago
British
Guiana
98,177 161,051 51,884 163,344 55,887 11,177 18,810 560,330
(Now
Guyana)
Barbados 32,464 56,418 21,204 67,432 32,881 7,061 14,867 232,327
Jamaica 267,891 394,677 144,812 501,473 292,558 38,792 69,669 1,609,814
Table 12.2 illustrates the age and sex distribution for four selected Caribbean territories. The data is based
on the population census of 1960.
Source: Population Census Report 1960
Based on table 12.2 it can be stated that:
• the Caribbean had a youthful population in 1960 since there was a considerable
number of people below age 15 and a comparatively smaller number of people 65
and over;
• women generally tend to live longer than men, this is reflected in the 65 and
over category;
• in the Caribbean, females usually outnumber males.
Activity 12.2
Obtain from a recent source the latest sex-distribution data for your country. Use the data
to (briefly) answer the questions below:
1. To what extent is the population youthful? Suggest at least two reasons for your answer.
2. Do women still live longer than men?
3. Do women outnumber men?
Ethnicity
In most Western industrialized nations today, there are some groups regarded as minorities (in a
numerical, rather than a sociological sense). These usually originate from the Caribbean, Latin
America, China, Africa or South East Asia. Within the last hundred years or so, their proportions
have been steadily rising, mainly because of the effects of mass international migration, in which
immigrants are lured in times of labour shortages.
In most Caribbean societies (with the exception of Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago), ethnicity is
not so important to social stratification due to their relative population homogeneity. The fact is
that most of their populations are descendants of African slaves. These societies therefore contain
less cultural diversity. In Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, there is greater diversity as a result of
the significant numbers of descendants of African slaves and East Indian indentured labourers.
Jordan et al. identify ethnic communities within a particular country. West Indians (though
culturally diverse) form ethnic communities in various parts of New York (Bronx, Brooklyn,
Queens). Urban ethnic neighbourhoods and ghettos also exist in large cities. People may live
together in order to defend themselves against racism and prejudice. Many Afro-Americans have
typically flocked to inner city areas in the US. In Britain too, newly mobile Indian immigrants
have migrated to suburbia in areas such as Golders Green. We shall examine data from the United
States to illustrate ethnic composition of populations.
Table 12.3: Large Ethnic Groups in the United States, 1990
Ancestry Group % of Total Population
German 23.3
English 18.4
Irish 17.8
African 11.7
Hispanic 9.0
Italian 5.9
French 5.3
Scottish 4.4
Polish 3.8
Oriental* 2.9
*Oriental includes South Asian, East Asian and Filipino only

Source: Jordan et al. 1994, 339
Activity 12.3
List and explain at least three reasons why the United States is ethnically diverse. Answer in
no more than three paragraphs.
Religion
Table 12.4: Religious Affiliation in Various Territories
Territory Religion
a. Haiti Voodoo
b. Jamaica Revivalism, Myal, Kumina or Pukumina
c. Guyana Comfa
d. Trinidad and Tobago Rada, Shango, Spiritual Baptist
e. Grenada and Carriacou Shango, Spiritual Baptist
Although the Caribbean is dominated by Christianity, there are many different sects and cultural
adaptations of Christianity to be found throughout the region. This diversity originated in the
colonial history of the region, the adaptations and retentions from the period of slavery and the
religions brought to the region by the East Indian indentured servants.
Reading:
For a more detailed understanding of religion in the Caribbean, the student may peruse
the following suggested readings:
1. Barry Chevannes, Rastafari: Roots and Ideology (New York: Syracuse University Press,
1995).
2. Marianne D. Ramesar, Survivors of Another Crossing: A History of East Indians in Trinidad,

1880–1946 (St Augustine, Trinidad: School of Continuing Studies, University of the
West Indies, 1994).
Table 12.5: Patterns of Religious Affiliation in Selected Islands
Grenada Jamaica Trinidad and Antigua and

Religious Affiliation
1981 1982 Tobago 1990 Barbuda 1991
Anglican 17.1 7.1 10.9 31.6

Baptist 2.1 10.0 3.0 2.7
Brethren --- 1.1 --- ---
Church of God 1.5 18.4 --- ---
Jehovah’s Witnesses -- --- 1.3 2.7
Methodist 2.8 3.1 1.2 1.1
Moravian --- 1.4 --- 9.0
Pentecostal 3.9 5.2 7.5 5.1
Presbyterian --- --- 3.4 ---
Roman Catholic 59.3 5.0 29.4 10.6
Seventh Day
5.7 6.9 3.7 8.7
Adventist
TOTAL
92.4% 58.20% 60.4% 83.3%
CHRISTIAN
Hindu 0.1 --- 23.7 ---
Muslim 0.1 --- 5.9 ---
Rastafarian 11.2 --- ---
Other 5.6 12.9 1.2 0.8
None /Not stated 1.9 28.9 10.0 14.3
Sources: Pocket Book of Statistics for Jamaica 1991; Population Census Report for Grenada 1981; Annual Statistical
Digest 1993, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, No 40; National Population Census Report 1991, Government of
Antigua and Barbuda.
Table 12.5 reveals the following observations about religious affiliation in the selected islands:
• Christianity is the major religion in these islands.

• Roman Catholics are the dominant religious group in Grenada, and Trinidad and Tobago.
• Non-Christian religions are more likely to be found in Trinidad and Tobago than in
the other islands.
• There is a steady rise in the percentage of people who do not practise any form
of religion.
Activity 12.4
For any Caribbean society, describe how its religious composition has changed over the last 100
years. Suggest the main reasons responsible for the change.
Occupations
In many countries, people’s occupations are related to social factors such as race, ethnicity,
gender, and social class. Of all these factors, social class is most directly correlated to occupational
status. The Marxist perspective takes an oversimplified approach by dividing the economy
into two main occupational groups: bourgeoisie and proletariat.
Weberians have examined four main occupational groups: propertied upper, property-less white
collar, petty bourgeoisie, and manual or blue-collar workers. Today, however, occupational groups
are quite complex, due to an increase in the levels of automation and education. We need only to
look at the wide range of trade unions representing the interests of various working-class groups.
Sometimes, even middle-class workers are members of these organizations. Here is a list of a
number of trade unions or trade union-like groups in Trinidad and Tobago:
i. Oilfield Workers Trade Union (OWTU)
ii. National Union of Government and Federated Workers (NUGFW)
iii. Public Services Association (PSA)
iv. Trinidad and Tobago Unified Teachers Association (TTUTA)
v. Bank and General Workers Union (BGWU)
vi. Medical Professionals Association of Trinidad and Tobago (MPATT)
Here is a list of regional trade union groups:
• Caribbean Congress of Labour

• Caribbean Public Services Association
• Caribbean Union of Teachers
Activity
Create a list of trade unions or union-like groups in your country. Note the groups they represent
as some trade unions represent groups of workers other than those suggested by their names.
The primary role of trade unions is to ensure that workers are treated fairly via good wages and
good working conditions. They look after the interests of a nation’s human resources. Many
trade unions go so far as to provide housing and other social amenities for their members. In
addition, they may offer scholarships or bursaries to members and children (of members) for
the furtherance of education at secondary and tertiary levels.
Race, Ethnicity and Occupation

In some developed countries, research into the labour force has unearthed the following:
a. minorities are concentrated in the lowest-status and lowest-paid occupations,

such as cleaning, bus driving and agricultural labouring work.
b . minorities with similar educational qualifications to whites are paid less and have
lower promotional prospects.
c. minorities are more likely to be employed in inner-city areas, where living
conditions are harsher than those of suburban districts.
In the Caribbean, there has always been a close association between race, ethnicity, and occupation.
During slavery, Africans were the manual class who provided physical labour power for the
production of sugar. In Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana, the period following emancipation
in 1838 saw the introduction of Asians to the lower class. While the East Indians remained on
the sugar estates, other groups such as the Chinese, the Portuguese and the Lebanese went into
small-scale commercial enterprises, chiefly shopkeeping and other small-scale enterprises such
as selling haberdashery.
The Centre for Ethnic Studies at the University of the West Indies (St Augustine Campus) has
made the following claims with respect to ethnicity and occupational status in Trinidad and
Tobago during the late twentieth century:
• Africans dominated the public services, protective services, nursing and social services.
• East Indians dominated the legal, medical and agricultural professions.
The cause of this dichotomy is undoubtedly the historical processes of slavery and indentureship,
and subsequently, the work of missionary bodies, which promoted religious and secular education
primarily among the East Indian indentured labourers.
In most of the English-speaking Caribbean, the white minority dominates the business class.
However, in the Windward Islands, a black elite has emerged mainly out of the windfall of the
‘green gold’ (banana) industry since the 1970s.
The situation in some territories suggests the existence of an ethnically stratified occupational
system. The following quotation from C.L.R. James in 1973 exemplifies this and provides a
context for the present day:
Our West Indian classes are for the most part coloured people of some
education in a formerly slave society. That means that for racial and historical
reasons they are…excluded from those circles that are in control of big
industry, commerce and finance….Thus they, as a class of people, have no
knowledge or experience of the productive forces of the country (C.L.R. James
quoted in Lowenthal and Comitas 1973, 80–81).
Sex, Gender and Occupation

Feminists bemoan the fact that women are unequally treated, compared to their male counterparts.
This is evidenced by a number of inequalities facing women at work:
i. Women get lower paid, lower status jobs.
ii. Women are more likely to be unemployed.
iii. Women face horizontal segregation (the glass-ceiling).
iv. Women have fewer promotional prospects.
v. Women are less likely to be unionized.
Despite the great strides in education and family, women are not yet equal with men in the
area of occupations; this is true in developed and Caribbean territories. Women tend to be
concentrated in the secondary labour market. This includes jobs such as primary school teaching,
nursing, social work, textile processing and domestic work. On the other hand, men dominate
the primary labour market by taking up the major share of jobs in accounting, legal work,
higher education and medical fields.
One theory advanced for this ‘sex class’ system is patriarchy. It suggests that because men
dominate finances, they dominate the distribution and supply of jobs. One Marxist writer, Harry
Braverman (1974), argues that technology has encouraged the ‘feminization’ of clerical
work. He claimed that by 1975, three-quarter of all clerical workers in America would be
female. This represented a dramatic increase compared to the mid-nineteenth century when
the majority of clerical workers were male.
Activity 12.5
Check with your local Statistical Offices to obtain current data on the distribution of women
in occupations. After you have examined the data complete the following by placing a tick in
the box following the selected option.
1. Which is true of the distribution of jobs today?
a. Women get all the top jobs in medicine and law. [ ]

b. Women are largely employed as nurses and primary-care workers. [ ]
c. Women dominate low-grade, low-paid work in developed countries only. [ ]
d. Women and men have almost equal access to top jobs in many industries. [ ]
2. The concept of ‘feminization of clerical work’ was illustrated by:
a. Max Weber [ ]
b. Karl Marx [ ]
c. Steve Jones [ ]
d. Harry Braverman [ ]
3. Which of the following is true of Caribbean societies such as Trinidad and Tobago
and Guyana?
i. East Indians dominate agricultural jobs.

ii. Africans dominate the public service.
iii. Whites dominate teaching and nursing.
iv. Chinese dominate teaching and nursing.
a. i and ii [ ]
b. i and iii [ ]
c. ii and iv [ ]
d. ii and iii [ ]
4. Which statement can be attributed to Max Weber?

a. There are two main social classes in Western society. [ ]
b. Marx failed to see that women would dominate clerical work. [ ]
c. There are three main occupational statuses in industrial society. [ ]
d. The propertied and property-less group account for four social classes in
capitalist societies. [ ]
5. Which is the correctly matched pair?
a. ‘Horizontal segregation’ – female workers []

b. Glass-ceiling – male workers [ ]
c. Manual work – clerical workers [ ]
d. Africans and East Indians in the Caribbean - business elite []
Types of Occupations in the Contemporary Caribbean

We will follow the typology of industrial regions outlined by Jordan et al. (1994). They insist
that each type of industrial activity – primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary and quinary –
displays unique spatial patterns.
Primary Occupations
These comprise jobs in activities such as fishing, farming and mining. They are concerned with
the extraction of both renewable and non-renewable resources from the sea and the land including
minerals such as oil and bauxite. The indigenous Amerindians were involved in primary
occupations that are still practised in all the islands today. However, much extraction is now
done via the use of heavy machines, for example, in bauxite mining in Jamaica and Guyana.
Secondary Occupations
Secondary occupations are concentrated in manufacturing firms and plants. Occupations range
from managerial and professional, supervisory and clerical, to manual (skilled, semi-skilled and
unskilled).
The Saint Lucian economist, Sir Arthur Lewis, promoted the view that it was in the development
of manufacturing enterprises that the economic growth and progress of the West Indies could be
realized. The establishment of industries would boost savings and subsequently induce
autonomous economic growth through the adoption of technology and expertise from the First
World.
Activity 12.6
1. Make a list of all the foreign-based companies in your country.
2. Explain the contribution of the major foreign-based companies to employment creation

in your territory.
Tertiary Occupations
Tertiary occupations also known as service occupations comprise workers in transport,
communication and utility services. Tertiary occupations involve the provision of services to
other businesses as well as individual consumers. Services include the transport, distribution
and sale of goods such as workers provide in the wholesale and retail industry, or occupations
in the entertainment industry or the fast foods restaurant industry. Like secondary occupations,
they range from managerial and professional, supervisory and clerical, to manual (skilled,
semiskilled and unskilled). However, the focus is on people interacting with people and serving
the customer rather than the manufacture of tangible/physical goods.
It is observed that more-developed countries have a larger proportion of their workers involved
in occupations beyond the secondary range. Sociologists account for this phenomenon as the
process of de-manufacturing which began shortly after the Second World War.
Quaternary Occupations
Quaternary occupations, like tertiary, are non-manufacturing. They include workers whose
services are required by producers. Among them are workers in trade, insurance, legal services,
banking, advertising, wholesaling, retailing and real estate transactions. Sociologists observe that,
as societies become more modern, the proportion of the occupational sector taken up by these
occupations will increase.
Quinary Occupations
These occupations are concerned with consumer or household-related services such as education,
politics, administration, recreation, tourism, and health and medicine. It is here that a high
level of professional training, skill and competency is required. Sociologists Davis and Moore
argue that occupations that require such levels of education and skill are the most functionally
important to society.
Activity 12.7
People are employed in different kinds of work; some are manual and others non-manual.
Whatever work they do, people contribute towards economic development.
a. Give one example of manual work.
b. State two types of non-manual workers involved in tertiary industries.
c. Distinguish between quaternary and quinary industries, giving an example of each.
d. Explain why paid work usually contributes to economic development in any country.
Table 12.6: Employment by Economic Activity (%)
COUNTRY Agricultural Industry Services
Female Male Female Male Female Male
Barbados 3 5 11 30 85 64
Bahamas 1 6 5 24 93 69
Trinidad & Tobago 3 11 13 37 83 52
Belize 6 37 12 19 81 44
Dominica 14 31 10 24 72 40
St Lucia 16 27 14 24 70 49
Suriname 3 7 10 32 86 56
Grenada 10 16 12 32 77 46
Jamaica 10 30 9 26 81 45
Source: UNDP Human Development Report 2002.

The table illustrates employment data in three sectors (agriculture, industry and services)
for nine selected Caribbean countries.
The following observations may be made:
• Men dominate agriculture but women dominate the service sector, in all countries.
• Agriculture employs the smallest number of people, whilst most people in the Caribbean
are engaged in service sector employment, for example, tourism.
• The Bahamas is more service-oriented than all other territories.
Activity 12.8
Based on the latest census data for your country, answer the following questions.
1. What are the main ethnic groups?
2. What is the sex composition of the population ?
3. What is the total percentage of all people in the working age category, that is, 15–64?
4. Compute the dependency ratio using the formula given earlier. State the implications of
the dependency ratio for your country.
A Word of Caution
At this stage, you should have acquired a vivid picture of some of the main elements of population.
You should be aware that the data about any one phenomenon (for example, age, or sex structure)
might vary according to its source. Even though validity is critical to many aspects of social
life, it is common to find different sources having variations in statistical measurements.
Trends in Population Growth

In global terms, the major trend has been a decline in the rate of population growth from a
peak of 2.1 per cent per annum in 1965–70 to approximately 1.7 per cent in 1992 (World
Bank). There continues to be more people (over 90 million per annum) being added in total
to the world population than ever before in human history. While the distinction between
low (or no) population growth in ‘developed’ countries and high population growth in
‘less developed countries’ continues, a major feature of the last four decades has been the
wide divergence of the demographic trajectories of the ‘less developed’ countries. While the
detailed pattern is complex, in general terms there has been rapid fertility decline in East Asia,
moderate decline in parts of Latin America and to a lesser extent South Asia, and very little
decline in sub-Saharan Africa. The most authoritative estimates point towards global population
rising from 5.5 billion in 1993 to 6.5 billion by 2010, possibly stabilizing at 10.1 billion by the
middle of the twenty-second century (World Bank 1992). Even if population growth follows the
rapid fertility decline scenario, population projections beyond the near future need to be taken
into consideration with special caution (N. Ford quoted in Waugh 1995, 322).
The above statements indicate that there is need for concern about world population. It is
implicit that, in poorer countries, there is still need for more drastic measures to curb the
spiralling rate of population growth. There are serious social, economic and geographical
consequences arising out of an uncontrolled population explosion. The threat of factors such as
disease, unemployment, slums, housing shortages and crime, is quite serious. The oversupply of
unskilled labour in ‘less developed’ countries will exacerbate the problem of underdevelopment
arising from the multinational corporation (MNC) control of the economic and political
aspects of life in these societies. Furthermore, the growing demand for housing will threaten
the sustainability of life, since much arable land will be converted to planned and unplanned
housing estates. In some territories, lands of this nature have already been allocated for human
settlement in both private and government housing projects.
Table 12.7: Population of the Earth up to 1970 (millions)
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

World 2,070 2,295 2,517 3,005 3,632
Poor Countries 1,328 1,494 1,683 2,058 2,580
Africa 164 191 222 278 344
Asia (except Japan) 1,056 1,173 1,298 1,567 1,953
Latin America 108 130 163 213 283
Rich Countries 742 801 834 947 1,055
Europe 355 380 392 425 462
Japan 64 71 83 93 103
Northern America 134 144 166 199 228
Oceania 10 11 13 16 19
Russia 179 195 214 214 243
Source: W. W. Murdoch 1975, 41.

Based on table 12.7, the following observations about world population may be made.
• The world’s population increased by more than 50 per cent between 1930 and 1970.
• The increase in population in poor countries is nearly twice that for the richer countries.
• Within the poor group, Latin America experienced the greatest increase in population.
Table 12.8 depicts a historical record of world population growth up to 1985. It is clear that the
average annual rate of growth has been steadily increasing. Governments are therefore under
tremendous pressure to provide adequate housing, employment, education, and food, as well as
other essential services, for the burgeoning number of people.
Ten countries are predicted to contribute most significantly to an increase in world population
over the next 30 years. They are India, China, Pakistan, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Indonesia, the USA,
Bangladesh, Zaire and Iran, in that order.
Table 12.8: World Population Growth
(%) Actual Growth Average Annual Growth
1st billion by 1825

2nd billion by 1927 0.68
3rd billion by 1960 1.23
4th billion by 1975 1.92
5th billion by 1985 2.23
Source: W. W. Murdoch 1975, 49.

Table 12.9: Projected Population Growth for Selected Countries between 1995 and 2025
POPULATION GROWTH
COUNTRY
(in millions)
1 India 401
2 China 260
3 Pakistan 133
4 Nigeria 127
5 Ethiopia 80
6 Indonesia 78
7 USA 65
8 Bangladesh 62
9 Zaire 61
10 Iran 60
TOTAL 1,194 (approximated)
Source: UN Population Division (1996) World Population Prospects (Annex 1)
From these statistics, it is obvious that there is greater cause for concern in developing countries
because they are expected to have the greatest effect on the impending population explosion. We
say this in the light of recent global food shortages caused partly by negative climate conditions,
partly by the use of common staples for bio-fuel (especially wheat and corn), and partly by other
factors.
The United Nations Population Division projects a global population of 8.04 billion by 2025
and 9.37 billion by 2050. These projections are frightening, given the relatively high Total
Fertility Rate (TFR) in many of the less developed countries. In Pakistan, Nigeria, Iran
and India, the TFRs are above the reproductive level of 2.1 children per woman. Thus, Asia
would continue to be the most populous continent.
Natural Increase in the Caribbean

Family planning services have been visible, accessible and active in the Caribbean. In Jamaica,
since the 1960s, the success of family planning reduced the country’s birth rate by about 35
per cent between 1965 and 1985. The Planning Institute of Jamaica estimated that the
crude birth rate (the annual number of births per 1,000 population) was 24.3 per 1,000 in
1985. This was still quite high.
The total fertility rate (the average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime)
decreased from 5.5 in 1970 to 3.5 by 1983. On the other hand, the crude death rate
(the annual number of deaths per 1,000 population) was quite low, at 6 per 1,000. This was
quite impressive, being lower than that of the United States (which stood at 9 per 1,000).
Between 1965 and 1985, the country’s crude death rate declined by 44 per cent, the result of
significant levels of investment in health care delivery systems and improved sanitation facilities
during the 1970s.
In 1985, life expectancy at birth (the average number of years a new-born infant can expect
to live) was 73. The infant mortality rate (the annual number of deaths of children younger
than 1 year old per 1,000 births) was 20 per 1,000 births during the mid-1980s. This rate was
consistent with that of other English-speaking Caribbean islands. Latest figures indicate that
Jamaica’s infant mortality rate compares favourably with that of Trinidad and Tobago, which
stand at 25 per 1,000 births. It is higher than that of Barbados (9 per 1,000) (PAHO 2002).
Jamaica’s annual rate of population growth has been relatively stable since the end of the First
World War. From 1921 to 1954, the rate of population growth was 1.7 per cent per year. From
1954 to 1970 it decreased slightly to 1.4 per cent. The major fact contributing to this decrease
was excessive out-migration to Britain and North America. This trend continued in the early
1980s when about 276,000 men and women (approximately 10 per cent of total population)
left the island. The brain drain resulted in the loss of many skilled workers, technicians, doctors
and managers. This drain was kept in check by the economic recession of the mid-1980s, which
saw many developed nations implementing tighter immigrant controls to stem the growing tide
of migrant labour from the poorer countries of the South.
To help the country effectively manage population growth, the National Population Policy was
instituted in July 1983. Its main objectives were:
i. to keep the population below 3 million by 2000;
ii. to promote health and increased life expectancy;
iii. to create employment opportunities and reduce unemployment, underemployment and

emigration;
iv. to provide access to family planning services for all and to reduce the number of children
per family from four to two;
v. to promote balanced rural, urban, and regional development;
vi. to improve the satisfaction of basic needs and the quality of life, through improved
housing, nutrition, education and environmental conditions.
Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and Barbados have reduced their natural increase to
a rate of less than two per cent per annum. However, the attractions of North America will
continue to lure many Caribbean immigrants. The Bahamas, in particular, acts as a bridge
to the United States for many illegal immigrants from Cuba and Haiti (Bouvier and Simcox
1986) (see www.cis.org/articles/paper2html).
Population Growth
Table 12.10: Annual Population Growth Rate for Some Caribbean Countries
Annual Population Growth Rate 2000

HDI Rank
1975 to 2000 to 2015
31. Barbados 0.3 0.3
41. The Bahamas 1.9 1.1
44. St Kitts & Nevis 0.7 0.6
50. Trinidad & Tobago 1.0 0.5
52. Antigua and Barbuda 0.4 0.3
55. Cuba 0.7 0.3
58. Belize 2.1 1.6
61. Dominica -0.4 ()
66. Saint Lucia 1.4 0.9
74. Suriname 0.5 0.3
83. Grenada 0.1 0.3
86. Jamaica 1.0 0.9
91. St Vincent and the 0.8 0.6
Grenadines
103. Guyana 0.1 -0.1
146. Haiti 2.0 1.5
Source: UNDP, Human Development Report 2002, 162–64. See undp.org for further details.
Table 12.10 is extracted from a table showing population growth rates for 177 countries.
Here are some conclusions that may be drawn about population growth in the region:
• Rates of growth compare favourably with those in the more developed countries
(for example, Norway, Australia and the United States of America).
• Population growth is more likely to be of serious concern in Belize and Haiti, since
rates of growth exceed one per cent per annum.
• Population growth will slow down for the period 2000–15 compared to the growth
experienced during the quarter century from 1975–2000.
• Guyana is expected to experience negative net population growth between 2000
and 2015.
• Grenada will experience a greater population increase from 2000–15 than it did between
1975 and 2000.
The 2000 censuses for the 14 CARICOM member states showed that the total population was
6,468,870. Of this number there were 3,263,170 women and 3,205,700 men. Even though the
number of women exceeded that of men, this was not the case in several territories, including
Belize, Dominica, Guyana, Montserrat, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad
and Tobago.
Table 12.11: Percentage of Caribbean Population for Selected Caribbean Territories
Country Percentage of Caribbean Population in 2000

Jamaica 40.3
Trinidad and Tobago 19.5
Guyana 11.6
Suriname 7.6
The Rest 20.9
Source: http://www.caricomstates.org/Files/Publications/...
A significant question that needs to be asked is, ‘Why have most Caribbean governments made
some attempt to reduce fertility rates?’ The answer hinges on issues of development (social
and economic). The student will be in a better position to provide an elaborate answer after
studying the last sections of this module.
Population Change
Apart from natural increase, there are other factors which impact significantly upon population
change in any particular society. Some of the factors of importance to the Caribbean are migration,
urbanization, age, nutrition, health and natural disasters. The latter three will be discussed
in Module 3.
Migration
Jordan et al. (1994) suggest that most of the world today is populated essentially because
of migration from Africa (where life is believed to have originated). Migration can be either
voluntary or forced.
Voluntary migration occurs when people decide it is best for them to move for economic,
social or political reasons. Migration is governed by a host of push and pull factors. Push
factors are more likely than pull factors to trigger off movement from one place to another.
History has shown that economic factors provide the dominant catalyst for migration. In the
nineteenth century, more than 50 million Europeans migrated to other lands. In fact, the
Caribbean today owes its demographic structure to the massive influx of migrants from
other parts of the world. It began with Spaniards and other Europeans (Dutch, French and
English) and was later extended to Africans and Asians.
This movement of people to all parts of the world is quite phenomenal. In fact, by 1970
nearly half of all Caucasians lived outside Europe. Great Britain today loses almost half a million
people yearly, especially to New Zealand and Australia, countries that share some similarity to
British culture.
According to Thomas-Hope (1986), variations in Caribbean migration are due to:
1. the purpose for the movement: e.g., work, education, accompanying persons;
2. the length of stay at the destination – long-term or short-term; and
3. return migration.
Thomas-Hope claims that ‘a single migrant may engage in all three of these types of migration
in his or her lifetime, and certainly a single household may have members engaged in any
combination of types at the same time.’ You are advised to visit this website for a detailed article
on Caribbean Migration by Thomas-Hope. http://www.eclac.org/celade/proyectos/migracion/
ThomasHope.doc
Table 12.12: Migration Trends to The Bahamas from Other Caribbean Territories
Country 1970 1980
Haiti 6,151 8832

Jamaica 3,526 2,571
Turks & Caicos 3,185 2,689
Trinidad & Tobago 388 257
Barbados 338 269
Guyana 263 151
Cuba 175 78
Others 459 102
Total Caribbean 14,485 15,149
Source: Sealy, Caribbean World, 200.
Table 12.12 illustrates the numbers of people migrating from other Caribbean territories to The
Bahamas for the years 1970 and 1980. It is clear that, with the exception of Haiti, fewer people
from other Caribbean islands have moved to The Bahamas between 1970 and 1980.
Figure 12.2: Migration from Jamaica, 1970–89
25000
20000
15000 UK
10000 CANADA
USA
5000
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1989
Table 12.13: Some Differences between Rural and Urban Centres
Rural (Gemeinschaft) Urban (Gesellschaft)
Strong face to face relations; Impersonal, contractual and calculated

kinship ties; emotional support relationships; loss of primary group
and cohesion relationships; instrumentalism and
advanced division of labour; blasé attitudes
Mechanical solidarity Organic solidarity
Slow-paced Fast-paced
In the late nineteenth century, the German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnïes (1855–1937)
demonstrated the differences between life in rural and urban centres. He described Gemeinschaft
as a type of social organization in which people are closely tied by kinship and tradition. Durkheim
describes this close-knit structure as mechanical solidarity, which arises from a commonality of
consciousness, occupations, goals and ideals. There is a strong bond that firmly cements society,
since it is small and relatively culturally and socially homogenous.
On the other hand, Tonnïes describes Gesellschaft as a type of social organization by which
people come together only on the basis of individual self-interest. Durkheim refers to this as
organic solidarity – a situation in which there is mutual interdependence owing to the
specialization of roles and duties within a rapidly expanding and heterogeneous population.
Robert E. Park, an American sociologist, describes the modern city as a human kaleidoscope.
To Georg Simmel (1858–1918), individuals perceive the city as a crush of people, objects and
events. In order to survive, city dwellers become detached (the blasé attitude) so that their
time and energy are focused on what they consider to be more important people, issues and
events. Simmel contends that they care about others, but must remain self-centred in order to
avoid getting subsumed by larger events and occurrences.
Reading
Macionis, J. Sociology, 9th edition, ( New Jersey: Prentice Hall 2001, 578–83).
The Chicago School theorists (Shaw and McKay 1942) of the United States were able to
apply concepts earlier articulated by Tonnïes (gemeinschaft – rural, and gesellschaft – urban) to
Concentric Zone Theory. They regarded cities (for example, Chicago) as being composed of
zones that revolved round some central area, or business zone. Zones closest to the centre were
more urban, fast-paced and rational, whilst the outer ones were bounded by the rural area.
Life was spaced according to class. The lower class and migrants were concentrated in Zone 2
(the Twilight Zone or Zone of Transition) while the wealthier classes lived in Zones 3 and 4.
With reference to the Caribbean, it is claimed that massive urbanization occurred, especially
after independence, when regional governments increasingly sought the financial assistance
of multinational corporations (MNCs). These industrial giants brought much false hope
to the people and failed to provide as many jobs for the local people as was envisaged. The
end product of this was a massive rural-urban drift with its accompanying problems, such as
inadequate housing, unemployment, crime and delinquency, a breakdown in family values,
and slum or ghetto formation.
Lloyd Best, a Trinidadian scholar, linked this unplanned urbanization of the Caribbean
to dependency. He argued that massive drift (urbanization) out of rural areas meant that such
areas had become ‘hinterlands’ for further underdevelopment and poverty. He believed that the
resultant neglect of rural areas meant further decline of the agricultural production. The region
would be further catapulted into being peripheral states or satellites of the developed world,
depending on it for food, technology and culture. Of course, globalization has served only to
exacerbate the situation in the Caribbean.
Activity 12.9
Put T for True or F for False after each statement.
1. World population is expected to grow to 10.5 billion by 2010. [ ]
2. Northern Europe is expected to contribute the most to the impending

population explosion. [ ]
3. Four Caribbean countries including Cuba have ensured that their annual growth
rates are between 3 and 5 per cent. [ ]
4. The terms Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft were first used Marx to refer to urban and
rural areas of France. [ ]
5. Urbanization occurred first in the Caribbean in the early seventeenth century with the
opening of sugar estates by the English. [ ]
Activity 12.10
Consult the UNDP website to compile a table containing the urban population for the following
15 Caribbean countries (Barbados, The Bahamas, St Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago,
Antigua and Barbuda, Cuba, Belize, Dominica, Saint Lucia, Suriname, Grenada, Jamaica, St
Vincent and the Grenadines, Guyana and Haiti).
From the data in the table that you have constructed, answer the following questions:
1. What are the three territories with the greatest proportion of people living in urban areas?
2. Is there any direct relationship between HDI rank and urbanization in the Caribbean?
Explain your answer.
3. How is urbanization in Saint Lucia different from urbanization in Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines?
Age
The age distribution of the Caribbean has already been examined. From the available data, the
ensuing observations may be made:
• People in the Caribbean are generally living longer, since in most islands the number
of people aged 65 and above is projected to increase by 2015.
• In most of the Caribbean islands, the elderly (aged 65 and over) make up less than
10 per cent of the population (Barbados is probably the only exception). This suggests
that most of the region is not yet in Stage 4 of the Demographic Transition
(European) model.
• As a whole, the youth (people less than 15 years of age) make up a significant percentage
of the population. In fact, this age group comprises more than 20 per cent of the
population in all islands. Barbados is the only country projected to have a population
in which the youth represent significantly less than 20 per cent (of course this is true
only in cases where data are available). One may infer that the region is in a lower stage
of demographic transition, compared to Europe and North America.
Conclusion
The student should appreciate that the different aspects of population are interrelated. Familiarity
with both theoretical and empirical issues in all aspects of population is also expected at
this stage. The student should feel free to locate other sources of information relevant to these
issues. Students’ notes need not be lengthy reproductions, but should rather take the form of
summaries of the main points contained in articles, books, journals and electronic sources.
Activity 12.12
1. a. List at least three factors that have influenced population trends in your country within
the last 10 years.
b. Explain the role of each factor in the population trends of your country.
2. Discuss the social and economic consequences of outward migration in the Caribbean.
Follow the simple plan below.
a. Define outward migration and identify the boundaries of the Caribbean.

(1 paragraph)
b. State the social consequences of outward migration [negative vs. positive].
(2 paragraphs)
c. State the economic consequences of outward migration [negative vs. positive].
(2 paragraphs)
d. Draw a conclusion using the opinion of an accredited source.
(1 paragraph)
Activity 12.13
Use each term/concept once to complete each definition below:
• inverse care law

• urbanization
• urbanism
• gesellschaft
• gemeinschaft
1 . The fast-paced lifestyle pursued by people living in towns and cities: _____________
2 . Relationships characterized by friendliness, community orientation and strong kinship

ties: _____________
3 . The principle by which the wealthiest gain easy access to private curative medical facilities:
_____________
4 . The process by which rural areas become transformed into towns or active commercial
centres: _____________
5 . Relationships between town dwellers that are rational, calculating, anonymous and self-
centred: _____________
CHAPTER 13
POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN

THE CARIBBEAN
OBJECTIVES
1 . understand population issues with specific reference to the Caribbean;
2 . assess the implications of population growth rates;
3 . evaluate population policies in selected Caribbean countries; and
4 . explain the relationship between population and development.
You will learn about the nature of development in the subsequent chapter. Nevertheless, at
this stage, the relationship between population and development will be examined. It is often
argued that because development is a complex process, no one factor can induce development
independently. Development must entail linkages among the economic, cultural and political
sectors. In this chapter, the main population and development issue that will be considered is
fertility control.
Fertility Control
The American feminist Shulamith Firestone examined fertility control in her theory of gender
inequality. She claimed that once women gain control over their bodies, they are more likely
to gain equality with men in the home, school, workplace and, indeed, in all other spheres
of life.
For Firestone, fertility control would take the form of freedom to abort, the free use of contraceptives
and finally, the conception and incubation of babies outside the womb. In this way, women
would be freed of the burden of childcare, and the accompanying emotional and physical
dependence on men.
Though controversial in principle (especially extra-uterine conception), Firestone’s call for

fertility control echoes similar sentiments to Malthusian and some non-racist neo-Malthusian
thinkers. In other words, the idea of fertility control is not new. Malthus was one of the first
to envision the necessity for some kind of moral restraint between the sexes. Unlike Firestone’s
radical proposition, Malthus believed that the entire human race faced the threat of extinction
in the absence of some form of fertility control (or if unfettered lust and passion between the
sexes were permitted).
It may be contended that the Malthusian notion of fertility control was rather vague and simplistic.
However, neo-Malthusians were more successful in concretizing fertility control. They were
more inclined to consider measures such as condom use by men, and contraceptive pills for
women. Later, with the advances in science and technology, vasectomy for men was introduced,
and a wide range of devices and implements were developed for use by women, among them
the coil, intra-uterine devices (IUDs) and the diaphragm.
In the Caribbean, there are many myths and misconceptions about fertility control. You may
be familiar with some of these myths and traditions in your country. It may be worth your while
to ascertain the sociological aspects of these ideas and phenomena. For instance, do people
who hold such beliefs belong to a particular age group, social class or ethnic group? Are they
predominantly rural or urban inhabitants? Or do they belong to any particular religious group?
According to Health Care and Training Inc. (http://www.hcet.org), family planning is ‘the
ability of individuals and couples to anticipate and attain their desired number of children, and
the spacing and timing of their births. This is achieved through the use of contraceptive
methods and the treatment of involuntary infertility and reproductive health care which is: ‘the
constellation of methods, techniques and services that contributes to reproductive health and
well-being by preventing and solving reproductive health problems.’
Some of the most common types of birth control available:
• Birth control pill

• Male condom
• Female condom
• Spermicides
• Diaphragm
• Cervical cap
• Contraceptive sponge
• Injection
Population and Development in the Caribbean | 339
• Vaginal Ring
• Birth control patch
• Intra-uterine Device (IUD)
Source: http://www.onehealthylifestyle.com.
Fertility Control and Development

The association between fertility control and development may be seen from a theoretical
standpoint. Hypothetically speaking, fertility control ensures development as it limits the
quantity of natural, financial and other resources the society has to spend to meet the needs
of the economically inactive groups such as children below the age of 15 years and the elderly
(people 65 years or older).
The concept of ‘optimum population’ must be taken into consideration. Optimum population
implies that for each country there is a maximum number of people that the country’s resources
can sustain. It is this belief that guides demographers into concluding that limitation of population
(especially via fertility control) would induce economic and social progress. Only when a large
number of a country’s population is within the working age and is adequately employed,
will this nexus between population control and development become achievable.
A review of Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Theory will attest to the partial validity
of this association. Population control and development were then mediated by critical changes in
science, medicine, technology and values, among other things. Because of Europe’s shift away
from agriculture towards manufacturing, and the resultant emphasis on achievement criteria for
access to resources and the increased prevalence of the nuclear family, there was a tendency for
people to use artificial methods of preventing unwanted and unnecessary childbirth.
You will therefore recognize that fertility control is not an independent variable in the context of
the development of a society. It must be preceded and accompanied by various economic, cultural
and political changes with which it must be in congruence. Let us now use this understanding
to introduce the challenges facing a t t e m p t s a t population control in the Third World
(including the Caribbean).
Cultural Resistance
Jordan et al. (1994) identify a number of conditions endemic to Third World societies that
militate against the successful implementation of birth and other fertility control measures.
In many parts of sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia, large families, and early and consistent
childbearing are valued. These tendencies inhibit the success of birth control measures.
In many Latin American societies where Roman Catholicism is the dominant form of religion,
fertility and birth rates remain high, in comparison to many European countries where
Protestantism is dominant. Statistics show that countries like Norway, Sweden and the
Netherlands all have low birth rates. It is known, too, that many Eastern religions (for example,
Hinduism and Islam) also dissuade adherents from the use of artificial birth prevention.
Thus, the populations of India and Bangladesh (as well as China) have multiplied rapidly.
Economic Stagnation
In many Third World nations, there is a high level of subsistence production alongside low
amounts of mechanization in agriculture. As such, there is very little use of modern technology
in agriculture. Under such circumstances, people prefer larger families in the belief that many
hands are necessary for economic success.
When combined with high rates of illiteracy, unemployment and limited access to public health
services, there are unplanned pregnancies, low life expectancy, harsh physical living conditions and
high rates of morbidity. The intricate relationship between cultural and economic processes
therefore becomes easily apparent, as the cycle of poverty and hardship continues.
Other Obstacles to Development

At this p o i n t , another proposition concerning obstacles to development will be raised. Even
if the cultural and economic handicaps preventing fertility control in the Third World were
eradicated, other commentators note the inherent difficulty of development in these areas. Teresa
Hayter suggests that the dependency on food and financial aid prevents autonomous growth in
poor countries. Loans must be repaid. You need only to consider the negative consequences
of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in Venezuela, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Jamaica,
Guyana, and Trinidad and Tobago over the last 30 years.
Barnard and Burgess (1996) also include the potential for instability on the political landscape.
One needs only to be reminded of Grenada’s problems in 1979 and 1983, Trinidad and Tobago’s
Black Power Revolution of 1970 and the attempted coup of 1990, and the more recent upheavals
in Guyana, to appreciate this claim.
Resources in the Caribbean

As in the rest of the world, the Caribbean region has two major resources – natural and human.
Significant quantities of natural resources exist in Jamaica and Guyana (bauxite) and Trinidad
and Tobago (oil and gas). Of course, sun, sea and sand are abundant in all islands but are
especially important to The Bahamas, Antigua and Barbuda, St Kitts and Nevis, and Barbados,
for instance. The adult literacy rate and GDP per capita, as important elements of human
resources in the Caribbean also need to be considered. The allocation of human resources in
the Caribbean in agriculture, industry and services has already been discussed.
Table 13.1: Social and Economic Resources in the Caribbean
Island / State Adult Literacy Rate GDP per Capita (US$)

(% age 15 and
above) 2000
Barbados 98.0 15,494

The Bahamas 95.4 17,012
St Kitts & Nevis 97.8 12,510
Trinidad & Tobago 93.8 8,946
Antigua & Barbuda 86.8 10,541
Cuba 96.7 n.a.
Belize 93.2 5,606
Dominica 96.4 5,880
Saint Lucia 90.2 5,703
Suriname 94.0 3,799
Grenada 94.4 7,580
Jamaica 86.9 3,639
St Vincent & the 88.9 5,555
Grenadines
Guyana 98.5 3,963
Haiti 49.8 1,467
Source: UNDP 2002, 149–51. An Extract
Activity 13.1
Based on the data in table 13.1, answer the questions below.
1. Outline the main trends in adult literacy rates in the Caribbean.

2. Comment on the nature of the relationship between island-economy and GDP per
capita (Answer in one paragraph only).
Table 13.2: Consumption Patterns for Selected Goods and Services
Electricity Imports of Cellular %

Consumption goods and mobile Population
per capita services subscribers using
Country (kilowatt – (per 1,000 sanitation
hours) (as% of GDP) people) facilities
1980 to 1999 1990 2000 1990 2000 2000
1 Barbados --- --- 52 56 0 111 100
2 The Bahamas --- --- --- --- .8 104 93
3 St Kitts & Nevis --- --- 83 79 --- 31 96
4 Trinidad & 1,584 3,527 29 52 0 103 86
Tobago
5 Antigua & 87 80 --- 287 96
Barbuda
6 Cuba 823 973 --- 18 0 0 95
7 Belize --- --- 62 64 0 70 42
8 Dominica --- --- 81 64 0 16 ---
9 Saint Lucia --- --- 84 66 --- 16 ---
10 Suriname --- --- 27 17 0 94 83
11 Grenada --- --- 63 75 2 46 97
12 Jamaica 482 2,294 56 55 0 142 84
13 St Vincent & the --- --- 77 70 0 21 96
Grenadines
14 Guyana --- --- 80 111 0 46 87
15 Haiti 41 40 29 27 0 3 28
Source: UNDP Report 2000 (166–68, 186–88, 198–200, 212–14).
Table 13.2 demonstrates consumption patterns in selected Caribbean societies. These include
electricity consumption, imports of goods and services, use of cellular phones and use of sanitary
facilities. The data reveal the following facts during the period under review:
• Trinidad and Tobago nationals consumed more electricity than other Caribbean
nationals (this is true only for the few countries where data were available). It is clear
that Haitians used the least electricity. This is reflective of some level of relative poverty
and underdevelopment (compared to other Caribbean states).
• Of all the countries, Guyana was the most heavily dependent on the import of foreign
goods and services. On the other hand, Haiti imported the least. We can infer that there
were fewer local industries in Guyana than in other Caribbean nations, or that Guyanese
had a great preference for foreign products and services. It appears, too, that Haiti was
not a major trading partner of many other countries, since it does not purchase a large
quantity of goods and services from other countries. Since international trade depends
on some amount of reciprocity, it is evident that Haiti did not sell/export much to other
countries either.
• Antigua and Barbuda led the Caribbean in the use of cellular phones, while Cuba, with
its socialist/communist leanings, has been intolerant of the use of such devices, until
recently. President Raul Castro is slowly lifting these bans.
• Advanced communication technology is relatively new to the Caribbean. Intermediate
technology (the cellular phone) was available to The Bahamas and Grenada only in
1990. Therefore, the region as a whole is still behind the more developed countries in
technology use.
• Barbados provides sanitary facilities for most of its citizens. This implies that among all
Caribbean peoples, Barbadians are most likely to be the healthiest. Haiti lagged behind
the rest of the region in this regard. Its population was and continues to be more likely
to be affected by outbreaks of epidemics caused by the contamination of water and lack
of access to other essential services.
Population Policy Analysis

A population policy can be described as a set of measures and programmes that aims to achieve
a balance between the fulfilment of the human rights, needs and aspirations of every member of
society on the one hand, and sustainable development and preservation of environmental
conditions and natural resources on the other (Hunte 1995, 5). A population policy is a specific
document that captures the unique features of the social and economic life in any society.
From the definition above we may identify the following two key characteristics of a population
policy:
i. It is concerned with long-term, or sustainable, development.

ii. Its aims are individualistic and social.
Some of the key issues any population policy should discuss are:
i. Goals and objectives

ii. Historical analysis of the social, economic and political condition in the society
iii. Conceptual framework for population
iv. Projections and implications
v. Population policy goals (demographic)
vi. Strategies for goal achievement
vii. Institutional arrangements
viii. An examination of the following demographic features:
• population size and structure
• fertility
• mortality
• international migration
• internal migration
• education
• environment and land use
• food security
• the elderly
• the disabled
• children and youth
• gender issues
• the family
The essence of a population policy is its attempt to spell out systematically and succinctly
the past, current and future demographic features of a society. The major objective is to establish
a rationale for future policy directions. The policy should target, as far as possible, all
major stakeholders in population control and sustainable development, given the natural and
human resources a country possesses.
Conclusion
In this section, an attempt has been made to provide a broad framework for understanding the
relationship between population and development, with emphasis on fertility control. The
chapter attempts to illustrate the urgency with which each Caribbean state must approach its
population-control policy.
The urgency arises out of a realization that the ‘optimum’ population for each country is dependent
upon a unique set of economic and social factors specific to it. In this regard, it can only be
hoped that each country examines its demography in an expedient manner so that it may
attempt to attain some measure of sustainable development, that is, development that meets
the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs (WCED Brundtland Report 1987).
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Our Common Future (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1987).
CHAPTER 14
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT:
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter students should be able to:
1. explain the concepts of development;
2. explain the indicators used to measure development; and
3. assess the sociological perspectives of development.
CONTENT
1. Social Development
i. Definition of concepts: development; underdevelopment; modernization;

industrialization
ii. Indicators of development:
a. health
b. education
c. welfare
d. social services
e. ‘quality of life’
2. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
3. Theories of development and underdevelopment: early evolutionary theories;

modernization; dependency theory; world systems theory; globalization.
Social Development: Concepts and Theories | 347
INTRODUCTION
Sociologists have been concerned with the differences in economic fortunes and living conditions
among the societies of the world. As we are aware, standards of living vary significantly from
one country to another. Some are fairly well endowed while others are extremely poor. Are such
differences solely due to the availability of natural resources in these countries? Or are they also
due to the control of resources, the management of the economy, internal political factors or the
country’s relationship with other countries?
The sociology of development tries to define development, explain why it exists, and measure
the extent to which it exists. Several important concepts and theories have been used to explain
development, and various indicators have also been introduced to measure development variables.
Further, development issues have been given international recognition as evidenced by signatory
countries’ commitment to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. In addition,
development issues facing the Caribbean region, such as industrialization, urbanization, tourism,
gender, health and the impact of natural disasters, will a l s o be considered. There are several
new challenges that are emerging and which require the region’s attention.
In a subsequent module, focus is shifted to the differences in economic fortunes within the same
society, focusing on the issue of poverty.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Social development is a critical concern for everyone, since it forms the foundation for sustainable
development and is crucial in the fight to eradicate poverty. The general goal of social development
is to improve and enhance the human social condition and the quality of life for all. Social
development is viewed as the primary responsibility of the state, but individuals and civil
society organizations can contribute to the reduction of inequalities, and narrowing the gap
between the countries of the North and the South.
Definition of Key Concepts

Throughout this module, several key concepts will reappear. These include the following:
• Development — the progressive process of human, cultural, political, economic

and social change, which shapes people’s lives. As development transformation does
not follow a linear progression, it does not have a clear beginning, middle or end, nor
is the outcome clear-cut or predictable.
• Underdevelopment — a term usually associated with the underutilization of the

resources of the ‘Third World’ or countries of the South. Undeveloped societies have
not yet developed , whereas underdeveloped societies have not developed because they
have been prevented from doing so by developed or industrialised countries.
• Modernization — the process of general social change brought about by the transition
from an agrarian/less developed to an industrial/more-developed mode of production.
• Industrialization — the continuous extended uses of sophisticated technology designed
to harness and develop natural resources. This process usually entails urbanization,
greater division of labour, retraining and mechanization.
Theories of Social Change and Development

Introduction
This section explores various theories that have been advanced to account for social change and
development. A summary of the basic tenets for each theory is presented, along with the ideas
of the theorists who have based their own works within these theoretical frameworks.
Table 14.1: Overview of Development Theories
General Framework Specific Theorists

1. Early Evolutionary • Social Darwinism
Theories
• Unilinear and multilinear theories
2. Modernization • Talcott Parsons

• W.W. Rostow
3. Dependency theory • Andre Gunder Frank
• Samir Amin
4. World system theory • Immanuel Wallerstein
5. Globalization
1. Early Evolutionary Theories

Some of the fundamental tenets of these theories are as follows:
• As societies develop, they become more complex and intricate, similar in some ways to
biological evolution. Organisms develop from simple to complex structures by adapting
to their environment.
• The chances of complex organisms surviving in their environment are greater than
those of simpler organisms. Similarly, the more complex a society becomes, the more
its ‘survival value’ will be enhanced.
A. Social Darwinism
• This theory is based on Charles Darwin’s theory of biological evolution.
• Like biological organisms, societies are involved in a struggle for the survival of
the fittest.
• Western societies have succeeded in this struggle and thus represent the highest
stage of social progress.
• This theory was used to justify white supremacy over other groups and, by the
1920s, was completely discredited.
B. Unilinear and Multilinear Evolutionary Theories

• Initially, early evolutionary theories were unilinear, implying that there was
only one path toward development.
• In response to numerous criticisms of unilinear evolution, it appeared more
appropriate to recognize different paths to development; this theory was referred
to as multi-linear evolution.
• The basic idea was that the main catalyst for change was a society’s ability to
adapt to its environment.
Critique of Early Evolutionary Theories
• A concise definition of adaptation is difficult to apply to social evolution.

• Can a scale measuring the levels of complexity of societies be accurately constructed?
• The inherent nature of social and cultural change is more intricate than evolutionary
theories suggest.
2. Modernization
The modernization perspective of social change was the dominant paradigm during the 1950s and
1960s. It contends that all countries have the potential to develop economically, and ultimately
become modern industrial states. It tends to support the laissez-faire approach to management.
Some of its fundamental tenets include the following:
• Social change can only occur if individuals first change their values, norms and belief
systems;
• In order to accelerate the modernization process, traditional societies could be exposed
to modern societies. This process is known as ‘modernization by diffusion’ and would
entail, for example, urbanization, educational growth, development of the mass media,
and heightened private sector activities;
• Different societies are at different stages of their development because they have had
varying degrees of success in introducing the elements listed above.
Two theorists associated with this school of thought, Talcott Parsons and W.W. Rostow, will now
be discussed briefly.
a. Talcott Parsons (Cultural perspective)
• This theorist presented the characteristics of two societies – traditional and modern.
• He argued that, in order to move from a traditional society to a modern one, there
had to be a change in the values, norms and attitudes of the people.
Table 14.2: Comparison of Traditional and Modern Societies (Parson’s Model)
Traditional society Modern society

One’s position in society was ascribed (that is, One’s position was achieved (that is, one’s
your position was dependent upon who you position was earned through hard work)
were in society)
People were superstitious and had a fatalistic People were innovative and forward-looking
attitude
Traditionalism was invaluable People would challenge any tradition that
seemed unnecessary
The interest of the group took precedence Personal interest was paramount
over the individual’s interest
b. W.W. Rostow (Economic perspective)
• This theorist put forward his ideas in his 1960 text The Stages of Economic Growth.
He was interested in describing the entire process through which a society develops,
in different stages.
• Rostow posited that the development process could be divided into five stages:
i. Traditional society
• An ascriptive value system exists.

• Family and kinship are key components in social organization.
• A significant quantity of resources is channelled into agriculture.
ii. Preconditions for takeoff
• A notable increase in the investment rate.

• Emergence of particular sectors of the economy that function as the engines of growth.
• Establishment of political, social and institutional frameworks to harness the potential
in the modern sector.
iii. Takeoff
• Growth is a normal condition.

• The agricultural sector is modernized as farmers adopt new systems of production.
• Expansion of the modern sector occurs, as profits are reinvested.
iv. Drive to maturity
• This occurs some 60 years after take-off.

• There exist the technical and entrepreneurial abilities to produce any commodity
of choice.
v. Age of high mass consumption
• Real income per capita increases.

• The consumer is ‘king.’

• There are more resources available to be diverted to social welfare and security.
Critique of Modernization Theory
• Modernization theory is compatible with the functionalist model of society and, therefore,
is subject to criticisms similar to those directed at functionalism.
• Development based on modernization is deemed to be irreversible.
• It ignores the impact of colonialism and imperialism on the Third World.
• The mutually exclusive existence of ‘modern’ society alongside ‘traditional’ society is
debatable.
• The theory is highly ethnocentric.
3. Neo-Marxist/Dependency Theory
Some of the fundamental tenets of this theory are the following:
• It was initially developed in a Latin American context.

• The world was developed unevenly. The industrialized/Western capitalist countries
became the core, playing a dominant role, with the Third World countries, or periphery,
being dependent upon them.
• Development of the centre necessarily entailed underdevelopment of the periphery, since
economic surplus was transferred from the latter to the former for expansion purposes.
Hence, development and underdevelopment were viewed as two sides of the same coin.
• In order for progress to occur in the underdeveloped countries, the link between
the core and the periphery had to be severed.
Two theorists associated with this school of thought will be discussed briefly.
a. Andre Gunder Frank
• Frank argued that surplus was extracted through trade, and other kinds of exchange of
goods and services. Hence, he referred not only to international trade, but also to internal
trade (that is, trade within the peripheral societies themselves).
• The economic surplus was channelled away from the countries of origin to the affluent
capitalist countries.
• The ‘satellites’ or peripheral countries were developed only to the extent that they served
the interests of the metropole.
• This relationship not only hampered economic development, but often contributed to
the further underdevelopment of already backward countries. Hence, he described this
as the ‘development of underdevelopment’.
Figure 14.l: Gunder Frank’s Dependency Model
Metropole (A)
Local Metropole (B)
Periphery (C)
(C) is a satellite of (B);

and both (B) and(C) are satellites of (A)
He concluded that it would be to the benefit of all Third World countries to break links with
the industrialized countries. Hence, for Frank, the best development strategy was delinking from
the world market.
b. Samir Amin
• Amin was first recognized for his contributions in his texts Accumulation on a World
Scale (1974) and Unequal Development (1977).
• He worked out two ideal-type models for society with a focus on the structure
of production processes. Features of both types of economies are shown in the following
table:
Table 14.3 Amin’s Classification of Economies
Autocentric Centre Economy Dependent Peripheral Economy

Manufacturing of (a) capital goods and (b) There was (a) an ‘over-developed’ export sector
goods for mass consumption. These two and (b) production of luxury goods by another
sectors were interlinked and supported sector.
each other’s growth.
There was a close connection between There was no connection between these two
industry and agriculture. sectors.
The society’s development potential Development was heavily dependent on the

was mainly determined by its internal world market.
production relations.
• Amin contends that centre countries have exploited cheap labour and extracted resources.
Consequently, this has inflicted the over-developed export sector upon the peripheral
countries.
• Rich countries also sell their capital goods and goods for mass consumption to
their peripheral markets. Hence, the former has a vested interest in the latter.
• He surmises that if peripheral countries are to develop, they must break their links
to the centre countries. As an alternative, the less developed nations should now expand
regional cooperation.
Critique of Dependency Theory
• Many critics have argued that dependency does not necessarily lead to underdevelopment.
• South Korea and Taiwan, former Japanese colonies, are good counter-examples
since they have both experienced rapid economic growth.
• These theories concentrated mainly on economic factors at the expense of others such
as political concerns and cultural factors.
• After the underdeveloped countries gain their independence, it is not stated how
they should go about achieving growth and development.
4. World Systems Theory

• This theory was initially developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, who stated that
the expansion of the capitalist world economy was the basis for the development of a
new world system. Countries in this new world system could be categorized into four
economic zones. These economic zones were the core, the semi-periphery, the periphery
and the external arena.
• Core countries were already industrialized, so that there were manufacturing industries,
centralized forms of government and fairly advanced forms of agricultural production.
• Semi-periphery countries were dependent on the core countries for trading activities.
• Periphery countries were those whose main function was to sell cash crops directly
to the core countries.
• The external arena includes countries not commercially connected in any way to
the core countries.
• Unlike dependency theory, there is room for poorer countries to advance within
the context of the world economy, although this rarely happens. The existence of the
middle (the semi-periphery) is critical, because poor countries can hope to advance
at least to this stage. With the possibility of advancement within the world system,
revolutionary tendencies are mitigated.
• Development and underdevelopment result from the competition for scarce resources.
Because of such competition, some societies come to dominate others. The initial small advantage
of those societies is magnified, and inequality is intensified as the relationship matures. As Third
World countries are kept in a state of dependence, the gap between rich and poor nations
grows.
5. Globalization
• Previously, the internationalization of capital meant relocating specific production
processes to other countries. However, globalization is much more extensive in scope,
involving Transnational Corporations (TNCs), whose sales and production are aimed
at worldwide operations.
• These corporations may remit profits to the original home country, but they are
also likely to maximize profits across national borders.
• Two preconditions for globalization have been the growth of international financial
markets, and technological developments.
• The business strategies adopted by the TNCs are not simply based on cheap labour.
• Now there is increased importance attached to issues such as physical proximity between
producers and suppliers, and between producers and their customers. For example,
North America would benefit from locating in low-wage areas such as Mexico, but now
they locate in South America and Asia, which are closer to their new markets.
• Globalization is therefore associated with regionalization. In sum, people everywhere
are connected. Globalization integrates not only economies, but cultures, technologies
and governments.
Activity 14.1
1. One writer has divided the countries of the world into core countries, semi-peripheral
countries and peripheral countries.
a. Name the writer and the theory associated with this classification.
b. Name any two core countries.
c. Name any two peripheral countries.
d. Outline two criteria used to classify countries into core and peripheral.
2. a. According to modernization theory, what are two causes of poverty in underdeveloped

countries?
b. State two recommendations according to modernization theory, to promote economic

development in developing countries.
c. Give one reason why modernization theory is seen as ethnocentric.
3. For centuries, there has been an exploitative relationship between countries of the North
and those of the South. This has led to the underdevelopment of the South.
a. What do you understand by the term ‘underdevelopment’?

b . State three ways in which countries of the North have exploited those of the
South.
c. Describe two measures that Caribbean governments can adopt to reduce their
dependence on countries of the North.
d . Explain one reason why the North will continue to enjoy more favourable trade
relations with the South.
MEASUREMENT OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Introduction
In this section, you will explore the ways in which social development is measured. Economists
and sociologists use these measures to compare standards of living that exist in different countries.
These measures enable development experts either to evaluate a particular country’s progress
over time, or to compare the rates of change and progress of different countries. Such data
are used to determine which countries are in greater need of assistance. This section also
illustrates how quantifiable indicators are used to evaluate particular social conditions, such as
the state of health or education.
Social development is measured using development indicators that may be:

• a direct measure of an economic or social variable – for example, Gross National
Product (GNP) measures the output of goods and services; or
• an indirect measure of some non-quantifiable phenomenon. For example, welfare
may be measured using different indicators of living standards.
Development indicators are usually used for:
• describing trends and diagnosing particular development situations;

• analysing interrelationships; and
• predicting, planning and evaluating progress.
For any variable to be measured, several indicators may be used. These indicators are set out
in the following table.
Table 14.4: Development Indicators
VARIABLE INDICATOR
Health • Health Expenditure – public/private/per capita

• One-year-olds fully immunized against tuberculosis/measles
• Physicians per 100,000 people
• Population with access to essential drugs
• People living with HIV/AIDS – adults/women/children
Education • Pupils per teacher

• Primary teachers with required academic qualifications
• Expenditure on teachers’ compensation
• Expenditure per student – primary/secondary/tertiary
• Adult literacy rate
Technology • Telephone main lines per 1,000 people

• Cellular mobile subscribers
• Internet hosts
• Research and development as a percentage of GNP
Welfare • Public spending on health

• Public spending on education
• Victims of crime – vandalism, sexual assault, assault, robbery, bribery
• Internally displaced people
• Refugees
Social • Percentage of people without access to safe water

Services • Percentage of people without access to health services
Quality of • Ratification of environmental/labour treaties

Life • Carbon dioxide emissions
• Seats in Parliament held by women
• Female professional and technical workers
• Women in government at ministerial level
• Number of people with drug abuse and drug-related problems.
THE UNITED NATIONS MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT

GOALS (MDGS)
In September 2000, 189 countries signed the United Nations Millennium Declaration,
committing them to the eradication of extreme poverty in all its forms by 2015. To help
track progress toward these commitments, a set of time-bound and quantified goals and
targets, called the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), were developed for combating
poverty in its many dimensions, including the reduction of income poverty, hunger, disease,
environmental degradation and gender discrimination.
The Millennium Development Goals include goals, targets and indicators for measuring progress
between 1990 and 2015, when the goals are expected to be met. The goals and targets included
in the MDGs are presented below, along with some quick facts on the progress of countries to
date in achieving these goals:
GOAL TARGETS QUICK FACTS
1. Eradicate • Halve, between • The number of people living

Extreme 1990 and 2015, the under the international poverty
Poverty and proportion of people line of $1.25 a day declined from
Hunger whose income is less 1.8 billion to 1.4 billion between
than $1 a day; 1990 and 2005;
• Achieve full • The proportion of people living
and productive in extreme poverty in developing
employment and regions dropped from 46 per cent
decent work for all, to 27 per cent – on track to meet
including women and the target globally;
young people; • About one in four children under
• Halve, between the age of five is underweight in
1990 and 2015, the the developing world, down from
proportion of people almost one in three in 1990.
who suffer from
hunger.
2. Achieve • Ensure that, by 2015, • Enrolment in primary education

Universal children everywhere, in developing regions reached 89
Primary boys and girls alike, per cent in 2008, up from 83 per
Education will be able to cent in 2000;
complete a full course • The current pace of progress is
of primary schooling. insufficient to meet the target by
2015;
• About 69 million school-age
children are not in school. Almost
half of them (31 million) are in
sub-Saharan Africa and more
than a quarter (18 million) are in
Southern Asia.
3. Promote • Eliminate gender • In 2008, there were 96 girls for

Gender disparity in primary every 100 boys enrolled in primary
Equality and and secondary school, and 95 girls for every
Empower education, preferably 100 boys in secondary school in
Women by 2005, and in all developing regions;
levels of education, no • The share of women employed
later than 2015. outside of agriculture remains as
low as 20 per cent in Southern
Asia, Western Asia and Northern
Africa;
• The global share of women in
Parliament continues to rise slowly
and reached 19 per cent in 2010 –
far short of gender parity.
4. Reduce Child • Reduce by two thirds, • The number of children in

Mortality between 1990 and developing countries who died
2015, the mortality before they reached the age of five
rate of children under dropped from 100 to 72 deaths
five. per 1,000 live births between 1990
and 2008;
• Almost nine million children still
die each year before they reach
their fifth birthday;
• The highest rates of child mortality
continue to be found in sub-
Saharan Africa, where, in 2008,
one in seven children died before
their fifth birthday;
• Of the 67 countries defined as
having high child mortality rates,
only 10 are currently on track to
meet the MDG target.
5. Improve • Reduce by three • More than 350,000 women die

Maternal quarters, between 1990 annually from complications
Health and 2015, the maternal during pregnancy or childbirth,
mortality ratio; almost all of them — 99 per cent
• Achieve, by 2015, — in developing countries;
universal access to • The maternal mortality rate is
reproductive health. declining only slowly, even though
the vast majority of deaths are
avoidable;
• In sub-Saharan Africa, a woman’s
maternal mortality risk is 1 in
30, compared to 1 in 5,600 in
developed regions;
• Every year, more than 1 million
children are left motherless.
Children who have lost their
mothers are up to 10 times more
likely to die prematurely than
those who have not.
6. Combat HIV/ • Halt and begin to • Every day over 7,400 people are
AIDS, Malaria reverse, by 2015, the infected with HIV and 5,500 die
and Other spread of HIV/AIDS; from AIDS-related illnesses. HIV
Diseases • Achieve, by 2010, remains the leading cause of death
universal access to among reproductive-age women
treatment for HIV/ worldwide;
AIDS for all those who • An estimated 33.4 million people
need it; were living with HIV in 2008,
• Halt and begin to two thirds of them in sub-Saharan
reverse, by 2015, the Africa;
incidence of malaria • Access to HIV treatment in low-
and other major and middle-income countries
diseases. increased ten-fold over a span of
just five years;
• Malaria kills a child in the world
every 45 seconds. Close to 90 per
cent of malaria deaths occur in
Africa, where it accounts for a fifth
of childhood mortality;
• 1.8 million people died from
tuberculosis in 2008, about
500,000 of whom were HIV-
positive.
7. Ensure • Integrate the principles • Some 1.7 billion people have

Environmental of sustainable gained access to safe drinking
Sustainability development into water since 1990. Yet 884 million
country policies people worldwide still do not have
and programmes access to safe drinking water and
and reverse the loss 2.6 billion people lack access to
of environmental basic sanitation services, such as
resources; toilets or latrines;
• Reduce biodiversity • The world has missed the
loss, achieving, by 2010 target for biodiversity
2010, a significant conservation. Based on current
reduction in the rate trends, the loss of species will
of loss; continue throughout this century;
• Halve, by 2015, the • Slum improvements are failing
proportion of the to keep pace with the growing
population without number of urban poor. The
sustainable access to absolute number of slum dwellers
safe drinking water and keeps rising, with some 828
basic sanitation; million people living in slums
• Achieve, by 2020, today, even though the share of the
a significant urban population living in slums is
improvement in the declining.
lives of at least 100
million slum dwellers.
8. Develop • Develop further an • Official development assistance

a Global open, rule-based, stands at 0.31 per cent of the
Partnership for predictable, non- combined national income of
Development discriminatory trading developed countries, still far short
and financial system; of the 0.7 per cent UN target.
• Address the special Only five donor countries have
needs of least reached or exceeded the target;
developed countries, • Debt burdens have eased for
landlocked countries developing countries and remain
and small island well below historical levels;
developing states; • Only 1 in 6 people in the
• Deal comprehensively developing world has access to the
with developing Internet.
countries’ debt;
• In cooperation with
pharmaceutical
companies, provide
access to affordable,
essential drugs in
developing countries;
• In cooperation with
the private sector,
make available benefits
of new technologies,
especially ICTs.
Source: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/poverty.shtml.
For information on tracking and monitoring the goals, please visit www.mdgmonitor.org.
Progress to Date
To date, the world has been making encouraging progress toward the MDGs, but progress
has been uneven and too slow. A significant number of developing countries will reach the
MDGs only if they get substantial support – advocacy, expertise and resources – from the more
developed countries. The challenges for the global community are to mobilize financial support
and political will, re-engage governments, re-orient development priorities and policies, build
capacity and reach out to civil society organizations and the private sector.
Latin America and the Caribbean: Progress Toward the MDGs

How have Latin America and the Caribbean progressed thus far? There has been remarkable
progress towards implementing most of the MDGs. According to The Global Monitoring
Report 2012, the region continues to make major inroads towards attaining the MDGs, as
illustrated below:
• The targets on extreme poverty, primary school completion, gender equality and
access to safe water have already been reached. The region is performing better than
the rest of the developing world in relation to child mortality, having achieved more
than 70% of the progress needed to reduce under-five mortality by two-thirds. However,
Latin America and the Caribbean face serious challenges regarding maternal mortality,
as progress in this MDG has been significantly slow;
• Progress toward halving the proportion of people who suffer from hunger is uneven
in Latin America and the Caribbean. Approximately 70% of countries for which
data is available are still off target in achieving the development goal. For most of these
countries, meaningful efforts must be undertaken, if the region is to reach the nutrition
target by 2015;
• Food price spikes and nutrition. Large resource endowments and the lower share of
household expenditures devoted to food, at least compared to Asia and Africa, make
the region as a whole less vulnerable to volatile international food prices. However,
agricultural production has been affected by natural disasters. For example, the January
2011 cold wave in Mexico damaged 1.5 million hectares (or 4 million metric tons) of
white corn and over 80 percent of green vegetable crops for export. And, vulnerability
differs significantly among countries. El Salvador, Grenada, Haiti, Suriname and St
Vincent and the Grenadines are particularly vulnerable because of high fiscal deficits,
large cereal imports, and low-quality social protection programmes, while Argentina,
Brazil, and Uruguay are agricultural powerhouses that benefit from higher international
food prices. As a relatively urbanized region, a large majority of its population, including
its net exporting countries, are consumers who lose from the direct effects of price spikes
and significant pass-through of international to domestic prices.
• Several countries in Latin America and the Caribbean face the double burden of
malnutrition and chronic disease. This is particularly the case in Central America,
where health indicators show an increase in overweight and obesity among adults who
were previously undernourished, as well as high numbers of chronically undernourished
children. In times of high food prices, the double burden increases and obesity and under
nutrition may coexist within the same household and the same person. In this context,
poor families switch away from nutritious food and buy ‘empty calories,’ as is the case
in Honduras and Guatemala.
For more details on the Global Monitoring Report 2012 for Latin America and the Caribbean, visit:
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTSResources/334934-1327948020811/
8401693-1327957211156/8402494-1334239337250/GMR-2012-LAC-Brief.pdf
For the full MDG 2012 Report, visit: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/MDG Report2012.pdf
Priority Areas for Action

Some of the areas where priority action is required to achieve the MDGs for the Caribbean
region in the spheres of social development and poverty reduction include the following:
1. Sustaining Investment in Human Capital
a. Strengthen cohesion in poverty reduction programming.

b. Enable the formal sector.
c. Ensure quality education and skills training are available.
2. Redesigning Social Integration and Inclusion Policies
a. Reduce inequality and promote social justice.

b. Address the causes and consequences of crime and violence.
c. Deepen the thrust for gender equity and equality.
d. Address issues of youth development.
3. Extending Social Protection and Compensation
a. Reduce risks of natural disasters.

b. Reform the public health systems to increase quality, efficiency and availability.
c. Extend coverage of social security to include the self-employed and those in the
informal sector.
4. Ensuring Evidence-based Social Protection and Provisioning
a. Engage in social impact assessments of poverty initiatives.

b. Develop strong, transparent and effective monitoring and evaluation tools for social
protection initiatives.
c. Support policy analysis and research.
5. Strengthening the Enabling Environment
a. Share best practices of Management of Social Development Programming

throughout the region.
b. Review legislation (with a view to regional harmonization) that addresses social
protection, in the light of the free movement of people in the Caribbean Single
Market Economy (CSME).
Activity 14.2
Essays
1. Outline the main features of the Modernization theor y. To what extent can
Modernization theory be seen as biased and ethnocentric? To what extent is it relevant
to the Caribbean today?
2. In what ways has Dependency theory addressed the shortcomings of the

Modernization perspective?
3. With regard to a named Caribbean society, critically assess the progress made
in addressing poverty and social development as outlined in the UN’s Millennium
Development Goals.
CHAPTER 15
ISSUES IN CARIBBEAN DEVELOPMENT
OBJECTIVES
Discuss the main issues in Caribbean development:
• industrialization;
• urbanization;
• bureaucratization;
• tourism; a n d
• gender.
CONTENT
Relationship between Population and Development
a. Industrialization
b. Urbanization
c. Bureaucratization
d. Tourism
e. Gender
INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, the concepts, theories and measures pertaining to development were
considered. The discussion now turns to development issues facing the Caribbean region. These
include issues such as industrialization, urbanization, bureaucratization, tourism, gender and
health. Although these issues may not be as pronounced in one territory as they are in another,
their characteristics are similar throughout the region.
1. Industrialization
Sir Arthur Lewis first advocated industrialization of the British West Indies. In the immediate
post-Second World War period, Lewis noted that the Caribbean economies were dualistic
in nature. At that time, there was a large traditional sector, based primarily on agriculture,
and a small modern sector, based on manufacturing. There was a surplus of labour in the
agricultural sector, which could be ‘transferred’ to the modern sector. However, this process
of industrialization needed heavy capital outlay and technical know-how. Foreign capitalists
were the only ones to provide these two elements and they had to be ‘enticed’ to invest in the
Caribbean. Some incentives he suggested included subsidies and tax holidays.
Lewis argued that the injection of foreign capital would increase national income. He further
suggested that the local people could build up savings and learn the tricks of the trade from
foreigners. Then local enterprises could eventually be established. In sum, he prescribed
industrialization as a basis for economic growth, which would become known as ‘industrialization
by invitation.’
The Caribbean has become a booming industrial centre. This is evidenced by the number of
foreign investors who have established multi-million dollar businesses in the region. Manufactured
goods are exported within the region and also externally to many international markets.
Many governments have catered to investors by granting soft loans and tax holidays, by the
development of industrial parks and by other similar measures.
However, although local entrepreneurs, in conjunction with foreign partners, own some of these
businesses, there are some in which local business people are sole owners. The government may
sometimes be a shareholder in these undertakings.
Activity 15.1
Match the names on the left with the statements on the right.
a. Sir Arthur Lewis i. Dependency Theory
b. Immanuel Wallerstein ii. Industrialization by Invitation
c. Andre Gunder Frank iii. Pattern Variables
d. Talcott Parsons iv. Stages of Economic Growth
e. Walt Rostow v. World Systems Theory

Issues in Caribbean Development | 371
2. Urbanization
Urban economic activity is contributing an increasing share to the GDP of all Caribbean countries,
and the productivity of urban sectors will exert an inordinate amount of influence on economic
growth. Although this productivity is beneficial, there still remain problems associated
with ‘over-urbanization.’
Urbanization may be defined both in demographic and sociological terms. Demographically,

urbanization refers to the shift in a country’s population from rural to urban areas. Sociologically,
urbanization alludes to a system of values, attitudes and behaviours known as ‘urban culture.’
Demarcating rural areas from urban ones is not an easy task, and is relative, depending upon
the historical, geopolitical and socio-economic setting in which they occur. This may be
illustrated by the fact that there is no given population size or density which turns a village
into a town or a town into a city.
Causes of Unplanned Urbanization in the Caribbean

Unplanned urbanization in the Caribbean is due to numerous factors, including the following:
1. Natural increase
This may be calculated by finding the difference between the fertility/birth and mortality/death
rates. There were substantial reductions in the death rate with the advent of the Germ theory of
disease, the introduction of immunization, and the whole revolution in medical care, including
technological innovations. Initial fertility declines in the Caribbean were experienced during
the late 1950s and early 1960s and were due to the fact that more women sought higher
education and entered into professional careers. Fertility rates are higher in the rural areas in
the Caribbean region. A partial explanation is that urban women are generally more formally
educated than rural women, and many urban women are actively engaged in work activities
outside the home.
Table 15.1: Natural Population Increase as a Source of Urban Growth, 1970–75
Country/Region Share of Growth due to Natural Increase (%)

Jamaica 47.4
Trinidad and Tobago 57.9
Caribbean 71.6
Source: Bertrand Renaud, National Urbanization Policy in Developing Countries (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1981).
2. Migration
A large proportion of the migrants are young adults in search of better economic opportunities
in urban areas. These individuals, because of their age, have higher fertility rates than the rest
of the urban population. This would have long-term repercussions as it represents a further
increase in the urban population.
3. Socio-economic Factors
Unplanned urbanization may also be due to:
• employment and income;

• education;
• declining importance of the agricultural sector; and
• other factors such as social services and the status and prestige attached to urban living.
Consequences of Urbanization
As urbanization increased at an unprecedented rate, a host of practical problems began to
emerge, including the following:
• Requirements of the urban labour market: Although there is some shortage in the
professional labour supply because of the brain drain effect, the supply of labour in
urban centres usually outstrips demand. This leads to high rates of unemployment, as
rural migrants add to the excess supply, or as they occupy positions that would previously
have been filled by original residents. The full ramifications of unemployment are
not easy to decipher, but the consequences include poverty, crime and similar negative
consequences.
• Availability of social services:

i. Housing: Since demand is in excess of supply, the cost of accommodation tends
to be very high. As a result, there is a prevalence of squatter settlements, urban
settlements, shantytowns and overcrowding.
ii. Lack of basic services: Urban dwellers suffer from a lack of access to a clean
and regular water supply and proper sanitation.
• Social pathology:
i. Crime and violence: Incidents of crime and violence include those that have
been precipitated by high unemployment rates. Victimless crimes such as
vandalism, pornography and prostitution have also been on the rise.
ii. Race relations: Established communities of minority groups, along with new
arrivals belonging to the same group, frequently form distinct communities.
Hence, there is not necessarily the existence of the traditional ‘melting pot’
situation, as there is a degree of segregation based on race and ethnicity.
Thus, there is the potential for tension and violence among various groups
in recently settled urban communities.
Activity 15.2
Identify three of the most critical implications of urbanization in your country. Outline the
measures you would adopt to address these issues.
3. Bureaucratization
Governments in postcolonial states, like those in the Caribbean, were perceived as being responsible
for social and economic development. This need for an agency of change to implement the
state’s policies and programmes necessitated the growth of a public service. This large organization,
of necessity, became a bureaucracy.
A bureaucracy may be defined as a cadre of professionals organized in a pyramidal hierarchy, all

functioning under the same rules and procedures. Several factors have contributed, both positively
and negatively, to bureaucratization in the Caribbean.
The factors that facilitate the effectiveness of bureaucracies include the following:
• Size: There are numerous advantages due to the sheer size of bureaucracies. These include
the employment of an extremely large workforce, income generation levels, and a wide
range of clients to be serviced.
• Variety of skills and knowledge: These large organizations have human resources at
their disposal with a variety of professional, technical, managerial and administrative
skills. Hence, bureaucracies act as large reservoirs of knowledge and innovative thinking
that may be used to enhance governments’ decision-making ability.
• Communication link: These agencies act as a communication link between political
elites, public servants and the general public.
However, there are also inhibiting factors to the effective functioning of bureaucracies. These
• Changes in demands: These agencies were initially established to deal with such
things as simple systems of tax collection, and law and order maintenance. However, new,
more complex demands are constantly being made as the developmental paradigm
shifts at the local, regional and international levels. These agencies must now find
effective mechanisms that allow for the flexibility and ability to respond in ‘real time’
to these perpetually changing demands.
• Income as opposed to output orientation: Employees of the public service and
other state bureaucracies tend to be more concerned about increases in their income.
• Shifts in bureaucratic power: Public servants are faced with the recurring problems
of dispensing with programmes and policies when governments change. In addition,
senior officials sometimes complain that government ministers ignore their advice or
do not consult the technocrats.
Some Caribbean territories have witnessed a shift in the management of their public service. In
Trinidad and Tobago, for example, public service reform has been an on-going activity for
the past decade. There have been moves towards decentralization (for example, in the health
sector, there are now regional authorities with a large degree of autonomy), the introduction of
human resource departments in ministries, the creation of a ministry of public administration
and the move to hire more labour on contract.
Activity 15.3
Using any large educational institution in the Caribbean as an example, illustrate the advantages
and disadvantages of bureaucratic organizations.
4. Tourism
Tourism the world over is a thriving and steadily expanding industry. According to Auliana
Poon (1993):
[Tourism] is the ultimate immaterial reward after the achievements of work and
other material acquisitions in life. Tourism is also highly sensitive to increases in
income. This means that the higher the income level, the higher the inclination
toward rest, relaxation, recuperation.
She continues by saying,
…there are no substitutes for the tourism experience; looking at movies and at
actors basking in the sun is no substitute for actually being there. This means that
the demand for holidays will grow, rather than be traded off for a substitute.
There have been many arguments against tourism becoming a main sector of development and
growth for Caribbean economies. Some critics view tourism as substituting one type of dependence
for another. For example, it may be viewed as substituting tourism for oil, rice, bauxite or bananas.
Others argue that it is an unpredictable industry, subject to many external factors, such as
natural disasters, security and health issues, just to mention a few examples.
However, the benefits of tourism to the Caribbean cannot be disputed. According to the Caribbean
Tourism Organization Statistical Report, the expenditure of tourists is a significant income
source, as the following graph illustrates:
Figure 15.1: Estimates of Visitor Expenditure (US$ Millions)
Source: Mercedes Silva, 2002.

Table 15.2: Visitor Expenditure as a Percentage of GDP
Anguilla 75%
Cayman Islands 60%
Saint Lucia 55%
Antigua & Barbuda 49%
Aruba 41%
Barbados 36%
St Kitts & Nevis 31%
Grenada 28%
St Vincent & The Grenadines 28%
Jamaica 25%
Source: Mercedes Silva, 2002, Caribbean and Intra-Caribbean Tourism: Current Situation and Perspectives, 8th
Meeting of the Special Committee on Sustainable Tourism of the Association of Caribbean States, Port of Spain,
Trinidad and Tobago, April 4, 2002.
In addition to the foreign exchange earnings by this sector, other significant advantages
• Employment: it is estimated that tourism provides approximately 2.9 million jobs

in the region;
• Government revenue, in the form of taxes such as port and departure taxes, corporation
taxes; and
• Income contribution to the GNP: it is estimated that tourism accounts for approximately
25 per cent of the region’s export earnings.
In 2011, there were an estimated 23.8 million tourists visiting the Caribbean shores; this
represented a 3.3 per cent increase from the previous year. Some of the larger destination included
Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands and the arrivals or main
markets included the United States, Canada, Europe and the United Kingdom.
The cruise ship industry is also a burgeoning segment of this market, as the following figures
indicate.
Table 15.3: Cruise Passenger Arrivals – 2012 and 2011
Destination Period 2012 2011 % change

Antigua & Barbuda Jan–Jun. 371,857 382,322 -2.7
Aruba Jan–Jul. 373,363 382,999 -2.5
The Bahamas Jan–Jul. 2,666,280 2,451,681 8.8
Barbados Jan–Aug. 417,594 426,351 -2.1
Belize Jan–Jun. 368,325 390,932 -5.8
Bermuda Jan–Jun. 364,070 161,711 1.5
British Virgin Islands Jan–Apr. 269,791 329,710 -18.2
Cayman Islands Jan–Jul. 971,255 914,330 6.2
Cozumel (Mexico) Jan–Jul. 1,699,499 1,746,932 -2.7
Curacao Jan–Jun. 281,257 238,812 17.8
Dominica Jan–Jul. 191,752 235,637 -18.6
Dominican Republic Jan–Jun. 241,367 220,841 9.3
Grenada Jan–Apr 170,699 225,238 -24.2
Jamaica Jan–Aug. 937,343 700,137 33.9
Martinique Jan–Jun. 66,335 18,299 262.5
Puerto Rico Jan–Jun. 664,668 668,965 -0.6
Saint Lucia Jan–Jun. 352,771 375,231 -6.0
St Maarten Jan–Aug. 1,228,488 1,107,577 10.9
St Vincent &
Jan–Jun. 48,944 58,693 -16.6
The Grenadines
US Virgin Islands Jan–Aug. 1,305,513 1,368,460 -4.6
(Data supplied by member countries, and available as at September 20, 2012).

Source: http://www.onecaribbean.org/content/files/Sept20Lattab12.pdf
However, if the Caribbean is to maintain a competitive advantage in the international market,

the following are key concerns:
• Application of New Technology: The Caribbean needs to stay au courant of technological

developments and also develop the ability to implement these in the industry. These
developments may include, for example, online ticket purchasing and reservation systems
and teleconferencing facilities.
• Special Tourists’ Needs: Consumers now have more complex and diverse needs
than before. Tourists do not all want the same standardized pre-packaged holiday. For
instance, there is need now to cater for people over 50 years of age who may want land
tours, healthy foods and relaxing activities. Younger adults may require a host of water
sports, exercise facilities and nightly activities.
• Staff Training and Competent Managerial Skills: Despite all the technological
advancements, tourism is inherently people-centred. Hence, training, education, and
skills development of a highly innovative and competent cadre of workers are critical
to the success of this industry.
• Sustainable Tourism: Tourists today are more aware of the environment and the
preservation of local culture. They want to experience nature, a pollution-free
environment, rest, recuperation and recreation. There is now an increased demand
for eco-tourism destinations.
• Regional Integration: As with many other issues, if the Caribbean is to make a significant
impact, it must do so as a united body. This is based on the premise that the sum total
is greater than the individual parts. For instance, the islands might share information
technology, marketing and advertising costs and ultimately improve their bargaining
power. The advantages of integration will accrue to all of the islands. Tourism in
the Caribbean islands will continue to grow, if the region can offer a unique, complete
product, with the aforementioned factors in mind.
5. Gender
The Platform for Action adopted at the Fourth World Conference for Women required all
signatories, which included many Caribbean governments, to incorporate a gender perspective
into the design, implementation and monitoring of all policies and programmes. One route to
achieving this was through the establishment of national machineries specifically aimed at the
promotion and advancement of women.
National machineries for women exist in Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Jamaica, St Kitts and Nevis,
Saint Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. However,
questions have been raised about the regional governments’ commitment to concerns of gender
equity. Many critics have said that these machineries have simply been the political leadership’s
reaction to demands from the international community.
In the Caribbean, state agencies, such as ministries of gender or women’s affairs, are often affected
by:
• inadequate budgetary allocations;

• a lack of staff;
• inadequately trained staff;
• a lack of cooperation from sectoral ministries;
• unclear policies; and
• the unclear status of these agencies.
According to Peggy Antrobus (1988), the following are two examples of issues for gender
in Caribbean development:
i. Industry
• Unfair compensation
• Exploitation of women’s sexuality
• Existence of the ‘glass ceiling’.
ii) Agriculture and Rural Development

• The ‘invisibility’ of women’s work in households and subsistence agriculture
• Sexual division of labour, and women’s multiple roles, and the implications of these for
the design and implementation of agricultural extension programmes.
The Caribbean has made notable progressive steps towards eliminating many forms
of discrimination against women. To a large extent, women have equal access to credit,
education and health. Labour force participation has increased, with more women holding senior
management and parliamentary positions. Laws and other legislation, such as Domestic
Violence Acts, have been enacted to protect women’s rights.
However, there still is a need to overcome ‘symbolic reassurances,’ by ensuring that gender
action plans contain clear performance targets, accompanied by monetary provisions and
developed in collaboration with the agencies and stakeholders that are required to implement
these plans.
6. Other Challenges for the Region

• Economic Vulnerability – the economies in the region are tied to those of developed
countries, which make our islands more susceptible to external shocks. One way in which
the economies of the region are linked to those of the North is through trade agreements.
Hence, the World Trade Organization’s recent change in the trading agreement with
respect to bananas has affected countries such as Saint Lucia, St Vincent and Dominica.
• Economic Diversification – Caribbean countries have historically tended to be focused on
one or two main sectors for income, employment and foreign exchange. For example,
Trinidad and Tobago is known for its oil, Jamaica for its tourism and the smaller islands
for agricultural production such as bananas and cocoa. This concern is even more
pronounced, given the issue above.
• Transportation – the problems associated with regional air and sea transportation continue
to impact on the cost of living of Caribbean nationals. There are increased calls for the
introduction of an inter-island ferry service as a less costly means of transportation.
• Agriculture – for a number of years, the agricultural sector in the region has been declining,
both in terms of the number of persons employed in the sector and its contribution to
GDP. Many Caribbean islands have experienced rising food prices as a primary driver for
inflation because of the high food import bills. In Trinidad and Tobago, for example, the
food import bill was over TT$4 billion for 2011. Governments must now shift focus on
enhancing food security for the region in order for continued development to take place.
• Crime – in recent times, islands such as Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and Guyana have
been witnessing a crime epidemic. There has been a worrying upsurge in gang membership
and gang-related crimes. The impact of crime can be felt in all spheres – social, economic
and political.
Activity 15.4
1 . Identify any three development issues facing the Caribbean region.
2 . State two effects of increased urbanization on the Caribbean.
3. Describe two reasons why increased agricultural production would lead to higher levels of
development in the Caribbean.
4 . State three types of reform, besides health and urbanization, which are necessary for the
further development of the Caribbean.
Activity 15.5
1. To what extent do you consider the Caribbean underdeveloped and dependent?
2. Critically analyse development strategies that have been implemented in any Caribbean
society in the post-Second World War period.
3. For your territory,
• Briefly describe the three most significant challenges affecting your country’s
development. Why do you consider these to be the most significant?
• Discuss one policy measure that could be implemented to alleviate the challenges
caused by each of the three issues you have identified.
Readings:
1 . Bertrand Renaud, National Urbanization Policy in Developing Countries (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1981).
2 . Caribbean Tourism Organization Statistical Report (see www.onecaribbean.org).

UNIT 2 - MODULE 2
CRIME AND DEVIANCE

CHAPTER 16
INTRODUCTION TO CRIME AND DEVIANCE:

OBJECTIVES
1. discuss the concepts related to ‘deviance’ and ‘crime’;
2. evaluate different perspectives on crime and deviance; and
3. analyse the relevance of criminological theories to the Caribbean.
CONTENT
1. Concepts
a. Social order
b. Social control
c. Deviance
d. Crime
e. Delinquency
f. Recidivism
g. Profiling
2. Perspectives on Crime and Deviance
a. Biological
b. Consensus/Functionalist
c. Conflict/Marxist
d. Interactionist
e. Subcultural
f. Feminist
Introduction
In the next few chapters, the nature of crime and criminality will be examined. This chapter
introduces the student to the basic theories, fundamental facts, and problems associated with
social order and social control, while providing a systematic basis for the study of criminals and
criminal behaviour as it relates to the criminal justice system.
The meaning of basic concepts such as crime and deviance and how they relate to conformity
or deviance, with regard to societal norms and values will be discussed. Various social factors
influencing the development and application of definitions of crime in society will also be explored.
Then the sociological theories of crime will be examined. These include functionalism, conflict
theory, subcultural, feminist and interactionist theories. The assumptions and logical structures
of each perspective, and how each of these defines crime, constructs the criminal factor, builds
a causal logic, and justifies particular criminal justice responses, are then discussed.
In the next chapter, the issue of social control will be considered. The focus will be on both the
formal types of social control and the informal or semi-formal types. There are shifting balances
between formal and informal types of control. Agencies that exercise social control functions,
such as the family, educational institutions, religion and the community are then described.
Particular attention will be paid to theories of crime, and to the political dimensions of
crime control in the Caribbean. Finally, the effectiveness of sentencing and alternatives to
sentencing, corporal and capital punishment will also be discussed.
In the next chapter the different forms of deviance affecting the Caribbean, including drug
abuse, juvenile delinquency, domestic violence, white-collar crime and corporate crime will be
examined. Finally, the relationship between various demographic variables and crime will be
considered.
DEFINING CRIME AND DEVIANCE

In any particular social environment, people may have their own views about appropriate and
inappropriate behaviour. After prolonged interaction, people tend to agree upon certain issues.
People begin to perceive and understand the physical and social world, based on a shared
sense of order (predictability), that is, the meanings attached to people, things, and actions. In
Introduction to Crime and Deviance: Concepts and Theories | 387
every society, some behavioural patterns are viewed as appropriate standards of role performance.
These are known as norms. Once norms are developed, conformity is encouraged and enforced
by agents of social control. Norms set boundaries for acceptable behaviour and at the same time
define behaviour that transgresses these boundaries. Those behaviours that challenge our
assumptions, our taken-for-granted sense of normality and naturalness, are seen as deviant
behaviour. At a basic ‘gut’ level, it questions our basic beliefs and ideas; it threatens us.
At a social level it challenges the social order, the existing web of relationships, values, reality
and meaning.
Defining Deviance
Deviance is problematic, yet essential and intrinsic to any conception of social order. It is
problematic because it disrupts; it is essential because it defines the confines of our shared
reality; and it is intrinsic to a conception of order. Defining what is real and expected, defining
what is acceptable, and defining who we are, are always done in opposition to what is unreal,
unexpected, unacceptable, and who we are not. When we define someone or some group as
deviant, we strengthen our own position and simplify our response to the ‘other.’ We convince
ourselves of our own normality by condemning and controlling those who disagree. Deviance
is a phenomenon situated in power. Deviance, therefore, exists in opposition to those who
attempt to control it, to those who have power. Deviance is a negotiated order. Deviance violates
some groups’ assumptions about reality (social order). It violates expectations. Deviance defines
the threat and allows for containment and control of the threat. The definition of deviance
preserves, protects, and clarifies group interests and, in so doing, maintains a sense of normality.
Characteristics of Deviance
• Social norms are codes of conduct that are considered ‘normal’ by a particular culture.
• Deviance is any behaviour that violates (or is interpreted as violating) the standards
of conduct or expectations of a group or society (norms).
• Deviance is a label, a process used to maintain the power, control, and position
of a dominant group. Deviance, therefore, exists in opposition to those who attempt
to control it.
• Deviance is socially constructed, that is, the idea of what is deviant changes according
to the social group to which you belong. Behaviour that is considered deviant by
one group of people may be considered perfectly normal by another.
• Deviance is culturally relative; that is, different cultures have different ideas about norms.
• Deviance is therefore culturally determined; it changes over time, and varies from
one society to another.
• The concept and definition of deviance change over time. Deviance is relative and
there is no absolute way of defining a deviant act. People become deviant only as others
define them that way. Examples are
i. attitudes to homosexuality;
ii. attitudes to smoking in public places such as eating places or cinemas;
iii. dress codes; and
iv. marriage/family values.
• One cannot always universally differentiate ‘normal’ from ‘deviant’ definitions
and interpretations.
• Deviants are not treated as normal. They are stigmatized.
Functions of Deviance
• Over time, social groups agree upon a spectrum of possible behaviours for members
(ranging from those behaviours that are acceptable to those which are not), and in so
doing define some behaviours as deviant.
• A group defines itself in relation to central norms that the group develops (for example,
the behaviours it will accept), and in reference to the range of possibilities it
makes available.
• The presence of deviance in a group functions to maintain a group’s social control.
• Deviant behaviour helps teach rules, for knowing what is wrong is a step towards
knowing what is right.
• Deviant behaviour functions to help maintain group equilibrium.
• A norm becomes most evident in its occasional violation, so a group maintains its stability
by controlling the balance of rewards for conformity, and punishment for deviance.
• Because deviance may serve a function, a group will maintain the deviant person until
his or her behaviour becomes so pronounced as to endanger group solidarity. This
is because the deviant person increases group conformity and solidarity and reaffirms
the group’s norms.
• Deviants establish and maintain boundaries by violating norms and by the confrontations
this evokes with agents of social control.
• Tolerance of deviant behaviour acts as a safety valve and actually prevents more serious
instances of nonconformity.
• Each community has its own special identity and unique set of normative boundaries.
Therefore, each community also has its own characteristic style of deviance and establishes group
boundaries. Thus, deviance is functional because, by violating group norms, the deviant person
shows the rest of the group what behaviours are not appropriate, thus helping to define group
norms and the range of acceptable group behaviour.
Dysfunctions of Deviance
Every society attempts to restrain deviant behaviour as much as possible. This is because deviance
may have disruptive effects upon social order. The dysfunctions of deviance are as follows:
• It is a threat to the social order because it makes social life difficult and unpredictable.
• It undermines trust, making people unsure of others’ behaviour in society.
• It creates confusion with regard to what is expected, what is right and what is wrong.
• It creates tension between the different segments of society.
• Deviance also leads to wastage of valuable and sometimes limited resources of society.
Defining Crime
A crime is any deviant act that breaks the law of the land. It includes any anti-social conduct
that is prohibited by law, with sanctions that commit offenders into custody. At the heart
of crime is the concept of protecting not only the individual, but society. Punishment of crime
was developed primarily as a means of social control and as a means of protection for
members of society. For a sociologist, the subject of crime is interesting for several reasons.
The sociologist asks:
• Who decides what is criminal?

• Why are some crimes punished in certain ways? For example, 40 years ago, a man
would probably have received a heavier fine for driving without due care and attention
than for beating his wife.
• Are some groups more powerful than others in making decisions about what is considered
criminal?
• Is there a social consensus (that is, a commonly held view) that agrees upon what
should be illegal and what should not?
• Do we accept the views that are presented to us in education and the media, without
stopping to question them?
Characteristics of Crime
What are the social factors that determine whether some things are illegal and others not?
One also needs to consider the process that d e t e r m i n e s which crimes are the most serious.
• Crime is any action that breaks the law of the land and is punishable by formal controls.
• While crime in and of itself, is often regarded as a deviant activity, not all deviant
activities are defined as crime. For example, people who follow a particular religious cult
may be labelled or viewed as ‘deviant,’ but such behaviour in itself is not criminal.
• Some deviant behaviours have ceased to be criminal and gradually may cease to
be deviant. Crime is therefore relative to time and place.
• Crime statistics are sometimes manipulated in order to serve political ends.
• Power structures in society influence the decision as to what is considered criminal.
The Difference between Crime and Deviance

Criminal acts are those that have been defined as such by formal agencies of social control,
whereas deviance is defined as any violation of societal norms.
Crime involves breaking the law and may vary from minor or petty offences such as shoplifting
to very serious crimes such as murder. Decisions about what is criminal or not are made consciously
by people in authority, such as the police, members of the legal profession and the government.
In most cases, such laws become formally enacted and documented.
Deviance involves the breaking of social norms and is determined in a more informal manner.
Deviance is culturally determined; what is normal in one culture may be seen as deviant in
another. Societal norms evolve as a social process, rather than as a decision-making process by
people in authority.
Crime is punishable by law, that is, by formal sanctions. Deviance, on the other hand, is
punishable by informal sanctions such as peer pressure, ridicule and media reporting. All criminal
acts are considered deviant but not all deviant acts may be considered criminal.
While the above is generally correct, to say that crime is deviant implies that some forms of
deviance are punishable by law. As such, non-criminal forms of deviance may be punishable by
informal sanctions.
Activity 16.1
Some sociologists claim that deviance is relative, because its definitions change from time
to time, place-to-place and group-to-group, within the same society.
a. Define ‘deviance.’
b. Describe two ways in which deviance may be beneficial to society.
c. State two examples of non-criminal deviance.
d. Provide two examples of acts that are deviant in one society and acceptable in another.
Activity 16.2
At this stage you should have a clear picture about what behaviour may be considered to be
criminal and which is merely deviant. Try to answer the following questions:
1 . What are the major differences between a criminal act and a deviant act?
2 . What examples can you think of to illustrate
a. a deviant act becoming a criminal act, and

b. a criminal act becoming merely a deviant act?
3 . Who decides what is deviant and what is a crime?
CRIME: THEORETICAL EXPLANATIONS

Introduction
Many theories and explanations have been put forward (to explain) what causes crime in society.
Macro-sociological theories of crime are based on the premise that crime arises from society’s
social structure or organization. Of the many attempts to explain crime and deviance in society,
there are primarily five theoretical orientations: functionalism, conflict theory, subcultural
theory, feminist theory and interactionist theories. The theories featured here all contribute
in one way or another to our understanding of crime. While it is true that they may overlook
certain issues, they nevertheless contribute to this improved understanding.
Functionalist Theory of Crime

One functionalist theory argues that we define certain acts as criminal because they violate the
moral beliefs of society. People deviate from these beliefs through evil influences, inadequate
socialization, or some pathological condition. Criminals are wrong and have somehow failed
to live up to the norms demanded of them. The functionalist view also argues that crime
may be useful for the society in which it takes place. Crime is the violation of certain social
norms. When those violations are punished, the others in the society understand the norms
more thoroughly and are encouraged to respect them. Crime also makes people more aware
of the interests they have in common.
Emile Durkheim
The functionalist explanation of deviance is based mainly on the work of Durkheim, who wrote
around the end of the nineteenth century. He argues that deviant behaviour may be understood
only in relation to the moral code it violates. In highly complex, rapidly changing societies,
some individuals come to feel that moral consensus has weakened. There is therefore a social
reason for crime and deviance.
According to Durkheim, order in society is based on the collective conscience, but this is not
a natural state (normally a state of self-interest and greed exists) and we are socialized
into it. Social order in society is reinforced by law and the collective conscience. Of these two
enforcement agencies, law is the weaker, but in periods of great social strain or change, the
collective conscience is weakened. The weakened collective consciousness develops into a state
of anomie, and society reverts to a state of greed and self-interest, which leads to the collapse
of order and harmony. The emergence of deviant and criminal behaviour is due to this state
of anomie. Durkheim refers to anomie as ‘the condition of normlessness, in which values and
norms have little impact and the culture no longer provides adequate guidelines for behaviour.’
Anomie is thus a harmful and dangerous state.
Durkheim claims that a limited amount of crime is necessary and beneficial to society, so
much so that society could not exist without some form of deviance. He did not simply look
for what was ‘wrong’ with the criminals and deviants. Crime, in his view, was not the result of
a sick individual, nor was it ‘unnatural,’ but rather it is an integral part of society and performed
a crucial function. Too much crime, however, is bad for society, and may help bring about
its collapse. Thus, in any society, the amount of crime that exists determines whether crime is
good or bad for society. This contrasts with the typical view that crime is harmful to society.
Criticism of Durkheim’s View

• He did not offer any real explanation as to why certain people are more likely to commit
crimes than others; he was more interested in the relationship between deviance and
order in society.
• He ignored the concept of power. It is generally accepted that in all societies,
some social groups have more opportunity than the majority of the population to
influence the law-making process.
Merton: Strain Theory

• Strain theories view crime and delinquency as a form of adaptive, problem-solving
behaviour, usually committed in response to problems involving frustrating and
undesirable social environments.
• In the United States in the 1930s, there was an increased desire for material success and
a contradiction between what was wanted, and whether and how one may achieve it.
• Materialism is taken to such an extreme within the framework of value consensus that
it leads to a state of anomie.
• Merton used the concept of anomie, but thought it was too vague in its original form.
• He therefore modified the concept to describe a society where there is incongruence
between means and goals.
• Merton suggested that anomie involves a disjunction between legitimate goals,
which everyone desires, and socially approved means to success, which are not equally
available to all members of society.
• Crime and deviance are alternative means to succes; when individuals feel the strain
of being pressed to succeed in socially approved ways, and when they lack the tools
necessary for such success.
• Strain develops between what people want (goals), what they can realistically achieve,
and how they attain their goals (means).
• This explanation is structural, as Merton locates the cause of deviance in the nature
of society, rather than in any defects originating from the individual. Merton proceeded
to explain why people choose different patterns of deviance.
Mer ton’s Modes of Adaptation

Conformity: People accept legitimate goals set by society and have access to approved
means. They continue to accept goals and means, even though failure is the likely
outcome.
Innovation: The response when a person accepts goals set by society but rejects socially
acceptable means, for example, finding another (legal) way of making money, they therefore
resort to unacceptable means such as crime, for example, fraud, theft, etc.
Ritualism: People conform to society’s means, but a person may lose sight of goals. People
may participate in socially desirable means but lack interest in achieving goals.
Retreatism: A person rejects both the means and the goals, and ‘drops out of the “rat race”’
(for example, alcoholics, drug abusers, the homeless).
Rebellion: Rejection of both means and goals by people who wish to replace socially
approved goals and means with an alternative system (for example, political radicals or
terrorists).
Criticisms of Mer ton

• He does not specify why a particular person chooses one form of deviance over another.
• Merton argues that the different levels of ritualistic and innovative behaviour by a social
class are a reflection of different emphases in socialization between the middle class
and the working class. The working class is deviant because it is socialized less rigidly.
Figure 16.1: Robert K. Merton’s Deviance Typology
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mertons_social_strain_theory.svg
Erikson
• In the mid-1960s, Erikson developed Durkheim’s ideas on the boundary-setting
and maintenance functions of crime.
• He adapted anomie, and thought that Durkheim ignored the concept of power.
• He made one alteration to Durkheim’s original explanation: he suggested that Durkheim
omitted differences in power that exist in society. He showed how crime sets boundaries
for permissible action, but does so in the interests of the powerful.
• In so doing, he bridged the gap between the Marxist and functionalist schools of thought.
• He insisted that people in power create rules to preserve their power.
The Necessity of Crime According to Functionalists

• Some crime is necessary to set boundaries in society.
• When members of society share a common view about a crime, they come together
and share opinions, thus strengthening social bonds among them.
• Boundaries must be made clear to everyone; publicity is required.
• Erikson suggests that a dramatic courtroom setting is a form of this, whereby the
public may view condemnation of behaviour; the media may also aid in this.
• Criminals provide a test of boundaries. Every time a criminal act is committed, members
of the public have their own opinions; and most show shock or horror at the evil
nature of some acts.
• Some may feel sympathy for the criminal. In this case, the law is out of step with
the common feelings of society, and this may bring about the reformation of laws.
Can functionalism help to explain the role of policing and the

police?
According to functionalist theory there should not be the need for social control from a police
force. Control comes from the internalization of values, not from being forced to conform to a
normative value system.
Durkheim in The Division of Labour in Society writes:
Crime, then, is necessary: it is bound up with the fundamental conditions

of all social life, and by that very fact it is useful, because these conditions
of which it is a part are themselves indispensable to the normal evolution of
morality and law.
Crime therefore is functional. Crime makes people aware of the interests and values they have
in common. Acts which offend the moral beliefs of society serve to reinforce those moral beliefs
and tighten the bonds of solidarity amongst community members. Should police therefore aim
to reduce or eliminate crime?
Functionalism assumes value consensus. Where there are differing cultures in a given society, is
there value consensus? If not, which set of values do the police defend? Do the police represent
(and defend) middle-class or upper-class values and culture? How does this affect minorities? A
similar argument (based instead on class) is raised by Marxist thinking.
Does policing apply more to societies characterized by mechanical (rather than organic) solidarity?
Where there is mechanical solidarity there is a more unitary set of cultural values, and deviant
acts which offend the collective conscience may be punished. In societies characterized by
organic solidarity, in contrast, there is a division of labour, social differentiation, and individual
specialization. This seems to reduce the role of the collective conscience and accepts some level
of difference and differentiation. Where there arguably is no singular collective conscience, which
morality should policing defend in such ‘organic’ societies?
The above alludes to the idea of cultural relativism. Is there any standard by which we can judge
wrong and right? Are the values of some cultures better than that of other cultures (including
‘deviant’ subcultures) or are they just different? If the latter, then deviance is relative. What is deviant
in one culture/subculture may be normative in another. What are the implications for policing?
Punishment (used in a broad sense to include the activities of the police against any group of
people), if seen as unjustified may reinforce not reduce deviant behaviour. This increases the
probability that differing value systems may persist in multicultural societies (no assumptions are
made here about whether this is a positive or negative thing. Instead, this highlights the idea that
policing can encourage the continuance of cultural difference and not encourage interculturation
and value consensus).
Functionalism suggests that deviance occurs when socialization is deficient. Policing may thus
affect those with ‘improper’ socialization – primarily minorities and the poor. Is socialization
‘deficient’ or just different for these groups? And does this make policing biased in favour of the
majority culture? Should the solution to deviance focus more on socialization instead of policing?
Values are the bedrock of society and society reinforces and reproduces these values. But can
rules (laws) and their enforcement change values (or do rules and laws derive from the existing
value system). Many things which were at one time viewed as criminal have been decriminalized
(e.g., homosexuality or religious freedom). Is this a case of societal values affecting the response
of the legal system, or is this a case of the legal system instituting changes which eventually
become accepted into the societal value system? Functionalism is not consistent with both of
these perspectives.
Summary of Functionalist Explanations of Deviance and

Crime
• Deviance is necessary to society. It promotes social solidarity by reinforcing concepts
of right and wrong.
• Social cohesiveness is a ‘functional prerequisite’ and society needs it in order to survive.
In this way, deviance has a positive function for society.
• What is considered right or wrong in any society is decided by ‘value consensus.’
• People will always break the rules, and therefore crime and deviance are inevitable.
• Mechanisms and people to keep deviance in control are also necessary. This provides
work for some members of society.
• Criminal law helps to ensure that members of society know the boundaries; it marks
the limits of acceptable behaviour.
• Anomie caused by rapid social change (for example, urbanization) causes instability,
as community life disappears, norms and values disappear, and society reverts to its
original state of self-interest.
• This perspective challenges previous beliefs that crime is caused from within
the individual.
Strengths
• It explains the persistence of deviance and crime in society.
• It explains why deviance and crime are found in all societies.
Weaknesses
• It assumes ‘value consensus’ in society with regard to what is right and what is wrong.
However, it ignores the fact that some groups have more power to define right
and wrong than do others.
• Although some acts of deviance and crime may help to promote social solidarity,
they do not all serve this purpose. Society may benefit as a whole, but some individuals
may suffer in the process.
• It ignores conflict and competing group or class interests.
• It does not ask, ‘Functional for whom?’
• It assumes the objective reality of norms.
Conflict Theory of Crime

Conflict theorists believe that ‘society is an arena in which struggles over scarce commodities
take place.’ They state that every society is made up of different classes or interest groups, and
that no government or regime will be able to take into account all their varying interests and
goals. Each group in society possesses different amounts of power, wealth, or influence. Persons
associated with the most powerful groups in society will tend to have greater representation with
the government. The ‘haves’ will always try to preserve and improve their position while
the ‘have-nots’ will be attempting to survive. Thus, conflict will be present in all areas of
society – social, political and economic.
Conflict theory rejects the functionalist view of crime. It argues that there is no such thing
as a ‘natural’ law or ‘natural’ crime. Laws are made and various acts are defined as criminal as
such because it is in someone’s interest to do so. Within the conflict perspective, deviance is
conceptualized not as abnormal behaviour brought on by faulty socialization or normative

ambiguity, but as a normal, political process brought about by inter-group struggles for
dominance. People with power and wealth make the laws, and obviously they make them
to benefit themselves. Thus in a society run by capitalists, street crime would be regarded
much more seriously than white-collar crime. People in power can impose their ideas by law.
Conflict theorists would agree that crime is useful but only for the group in power. Thus, it
is those in power who define crime.
Karl Marx
• Marxists do not believe that deviance is a working-class phenomenon. Deviance
occurs at every level in society but working-class groups are most often cited as the
main perpetrators.
• The emphasis on competition and wealth under capitalism produces an economic and
social environment in which crime is inevitable. Also, the existing laws are designed
to sustain the capitalist economic system.
• In all capitalist societies, the ruling class gains more in every aspect of social life. Deviance
is due to such unequal power relationships and is a function of class struggle.
• The ruling class is therefore keener to maintain the status quo, that is, the norms
and values of capitalist society (ideology).
• The ‘soft edge’ of social control is ideology – the ‘hard edge’ is the police, the armed
forces, the courts and prisons.
• The best way of resisting the dominant ideology is through political action (the revolution)
rather than criminal activity.
• Since the capitalist system is responsible for creating crime, to eliminate crime, society
must eradicate capitalism.
Evaluation of Marxist Ideas

• They offer some kind of balance – an alternative view to perspectives that focus
on working-class deviance.
• They illustrate how working-class deviance is an unbalanced view – deviance occurs
at every level of society.
• By concentrating on capitalism, they ignore the impact of other systems.
• Any idea that crime and deviance in working- class society is a kind of ‘Robin
Hood’ ideology (based on a reaction to inequality) is unconvincing, as many victims

of crime are from the working class.
• Jock Young who expresses a modern Marxist view is opposed to that of the ideologists
who appear to romanticize working-class crime. Working-class people are the victims
of a great deal of working-class crime and Young recognizes that the social controls
provided by the state can protect working-class people from crime and criminals.
Can Marxism help to explain the role of policing and the

police?
• Is policing practice focused predominantly on the upper or lower classes?
• Does lower class crime result in more loss and harm than upper-class crime (e.g. property
crime vs. white-collar crime)?
• Are laws designed to protect the interests of the upper (and not the lower) class?
• Could policing serve to prevent the lower class from becoming a class for itself? And if
so, can policing prevent social change – i.e., does policing serve to maintain the current
(exploitative) social order?
Summary of Conflict Theory

• In contrast to structural functionalist theories, which stress a broad value consensus
in society, conflict theories focus on the conflict between different sets of group values.
• They examine the role of government and controlling elites in society. Instead of labelling
people as criminals, conflict theorists identify inequality and governments as the real
culprits in the causing of crime.
• ‘Pure’ conflict theorists recognize that friction between the haves and the have-nots
is inevitable in any social system – a view known as conflict criminology.
• Conflict theorists agree that it is the rich and powerful who define the behaviour of
the poor as criminal.
• They demonstrate connections among social class, crime and social control in society.
• They also say that states create laws and rules to maintain power and to preserve
the position of the powerful and the elite. Conflict theory therefore uncovers bias in
the criminal justice system and explains crime within an economic, political and
social context.
Feminist Theory on Deviance

Feminists claim that mainstream theories of crime and deviance have largely addressed males and
as such are limited in explaining crime and deviance among females. According to Smart, 1979,
Our knowledge is still in its infancy, in comparison with the massive

documentation on all aspects of male delinquency and criminality, the amount
of work carried out on the area of women and crime is extremely limited.
The literature on female deviance are discussed under the following main branches:
Liberal feminism
This sub-perspective claims that women’s deviance is largely a response to the gender-based
discrimination experienced by women in society.
Radical feminism
Radical feminists use Patriarchy (i.e., male dominance) as their central theme, claiming that
patriarchal ideology keeps women restricted to subordinate roles. If and when they do not perform
these roles, they are considered deviant.
Socialist feminism
This view claims that women are exploited by capitalism and patriarchy. Since capitalism is
dominated by men and women are victims of unequal treatment, this leads to deviance and law-
breaking by women.
The Interactionist Perspective on Crime

The interactionist perspective takes a micro (small-scale) view of society and social order and
analyses social interactions accordingly. The main idea behind this approach is that the definition
of what is deviant is socially negotiated. Another idea from the interactionist approach is that a
person’s experience may lead to a deviant career; that is, there is a social process that takes certain
people down a path that eventually leads to rejection by society. Social process theories are
concerned with the process by which people become criminals. These theories are interested
in the social institutions, such as families and peer groups, that may cause a person to engage
in criminal activity.
As discussed earlier, deviance differs from one culture to another and also over time. It also
differs according to where and with whom you are at any given moment. In order to understand
the interactionist view, it is a good idea to think about the things that happen to ordinary people
during their lives, that influence how they behave and the choices they make.
Labelling Theory
Labelling theorists investigate why a person’s behaviour is labelled as deviant and the effects of
being so labelled. Labelling theorists began exploring how and why certain acts were defined
as criminal or deviant and why other similar acts were not. They questioned how and why
certain people became defined as criminal or deviant. Such theorists view criminals not as
evil people who engaged in wrong acts but as individuals who had a criminal status placed
upon them by both the criminal justice system and the community at large. From this point
of view, criminal acts are thus not as significant as the social reaction to them. Deviance and its
control, then, involve a process of social definition. This involves the response of society
to an individual’s behaviour and subsequently influences how an individual views himself
or herself.
Labelling a primary deviant as a criminal may lead to secondary deviance. In other words, the
label may stigmatize a person, and the person’s response may be to commit further acts of
deviance, thereby leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Labelling is particularly important for
juvenile offenders. Not all juvenile offenders are labelled as delinquents. Lower-class youth, for
instance, are more likely to be labelled as delinquent. Moreover, they are less likely to know their
legal rights and are usually unable to afford legal counsel.
Howard Becker (1963)

Howard Becker is the most influential theorist in the interactionist school. He claimed that
individuals seek to impose their ‘order’ or their ‘reality’ on others. He developed labelling theory,
which explains the above assertion and shows how labelling effectively changes the course of
people’s lives and may even lead to a deviant career path. He states, ‘Deviance is not a quality
of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules
and sanctions to an offender. The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been
applied; ‘deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label.’
Main Ideas of Labelling Theory

• It focuses on the reaction of other people and on the subsequent effects of those reactions
that create deviance.
• When it becomes known that a person has engaged in deviant acts, he or she is
then segregated from society and thus labelled, ‘whore,’ ‘thief,’ ‘abuser,’ ‘junkie,’
and the like.
• Labelling may bring into play power differentials and have further detrimental
consequences for those that are labelled.
• This process of segregation creates ‘outsiders,’ who are outcasts of society, and who
then begin to associate with other individuals who have also been cast out.
• Labelling may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy as the rule-breaker enters a career
of deviance or becomes what others expect.
• As more and more people begin to think of these individuals as deviants, they respond
to them as such. The deviant then reacts to such a response by continuing to engage
in the behaviour society now expects.
Edwin H. Sutherland (1939): Differential Association

Edwin H. Sutherland posited another social learning theory of crime. He introduced the concept
of differential association in his theory of crime causation. Differential association posits that
criminal behaviour is learned in the same way that any other behaviour is learned. Sutherland’s
theory contains nine principles that explain the process by which a person becomes a criminal.
These are as follows:
1. Criminal behaviour is not innate, it is learned. Thus, criminal behaviour is learned based
on interaction with others and the values received during that interaction. We learn from
others values that either support or oppose criminal behaviour.
2. Criminal behaviour is learned through a process of communication. This process is
active and open-ended.
3. Most learning takes place in close, personal groups such as friends, family, workers,
and sports teams. Sutherland believed that it is these primary groups that allow people
to define themselves. The theory does not emphasize who one’s associates are but rather
focuses upon the definitions provided by those associations. Once techniques are
learned, values (or definitions) supporting the criminal behaviour may be learned from
just about anyone.
4. The learning of criminal behaviour involves the learning of techniques of committing

crime, and the learning of motives and attitudes.
5. People learn motives, and attitudes about the law, that are either positive or negative.
Once again, this process takes place in primary and intimate social groups.
6. People will differentially associate with the attitudes and motives that are favourable
to violating the law. That is, if a person has been provided with excessive definitions
that are favourable to violating the law, he or she will elect to behave criminally.
7. Differential associations depend on specific variables: frequency, duration, priority and

intensity. Frequency refers to how often learning takes place, and duration refers to how long
the learning episodes are. The term ‘priority’ is used to specify the importance of the age of
which criminal learning began. Presumably, if a person is exposed to criminal behaviour
at an early age, the greater will be the impact on long-term behaviour. Sutherland uses
the term intensity to refer to the importance or the prestige of the learning source.
8. Learning criminal behaviour entails the same mechanisms that are involved in any other
type of learning.
9. Criminal behaviour is not necessarily an expression of needs and values. Not all homeless
people, for example, steal in order to eat.
Sutherland also noted that individuals with an excess of criminal definitions will be more
open to new criminal definitions and will be less receptive to anti-criminal definitions.
Criticisms
• Sutherland’s differential association does not specifically explain why everyone in contact
with criminal behaviour patterns does not become criminal. However, the answer is
simple. Sutherland does not tell us explicitly that individuals become criminal by
associating with other criminals, but rather, that a person becomes delinquent because
of an ‘excess of definitions favourable to violation of the law over definitions unfavourable
to violation of the law.’ The key word is ‘definitions.’
• Differential association also fails to tell us how the first criminal became a criminal.
• Despite some criticisms, the theory has had an important impact on the study of crime.
Other social learning theories have been based upon differential association.
Hirschi (1969): Social Control Theory

Travis Hirschi’s social control theory argues that everyone has the potential to be law violating;
however, fear deters most people because they do not want to jeopardize the social bonds that
they have with others. Drifters, for example, have the greatest likelihood of committing crime,
for they have few social bonds at stake.
Hirschi attempts to explain why individuals choose to conform to the norm. He presents four
social bonds that show the relationship between criminal acts, socialization and conformity. The
four social bonds include attachment, commitment, involvement and belief. Hirschi believes
that the stronger that these four bonds are, the less likely one is to commit criminal acts. The
elements of the bonds are as follows:
1. Attachment – a bond that refers to one’s interest in others. Certain attachment bonds are those
to parents, to school and to peers. The parent-child interaction is very important. The strength
of the parent-child relationship includes intimacy between the parent and the child and the
identification that exists between the two. A child’s attachment to school depends on how the
institution is regarded by the child, and the extent to which the child feels accepted by teachers
and peers. Hirschi believes that the strength of each of these bonds may serve as a deterrent to
delinquent behaviour.
2. Commitment – a bond that refers to the mechanism whereby the participation in social activities
attaches an individual to the moral and ethical code of society. This bond involves time, energy
and effort placed in conventional lines of action. Hirschi believes that a lack of commitment to
different things such as life, property, and reputation may cause an individual to participate in
delinquent or criminal acts.
3. Involvement – this bond concerns a preoccupation with activities that promote the conventional
interests of society. Hirschi believes that an individual’s heavy involvement in conventional
activities does not leave time to engage in criminal activities. He also believes that involvement
in school, family and recreation insulates a juvenile from potential delinquent behaviour that
may be a result of idleness.
4. Belief – a bond that refers to the respect for laws and the people and institutions that enforce
such laws. Hirshci argues that people who live in common social settings share similar human
values. If such beliefs are weakened, or absent, one is more likely to engage in criminal acts.
Also, if people believe that laws are unfair, this bond to society weakens, and the likelihood of
committing delinquent behaviour rises.
An adolescent will be less likely to engage in criminal behaviour if he or she is attached to parents,
commits time and effort to conventional lines of behaviour, and believes in community values.
In addition, such an adolescent will probably be involved in school activities, thereby leaving
little time to engage in criminal behaviour. There is some support for this hypothesis. Adolescents
who are strongly attached to their parents have been found to be less likely to engage in criminal
behaviour.
Subcultural Theories
A subculture, a subdivision within a dominant culture, has its own norms, values and belief
system. Subcultures may emerge when individuals in similar circumstances find themselves
virtually isolated or neglected by mainstream society. Thus, they group together for mutual
support. Subcultures exist within the larger society, not apart from it. The members of the
subculture are different from the dominant culture.
Subcultural theories emerged in an attempt to account for relatively higher delinquency rates
among lower-class males who constitute teenage gangs. Subculture theories argue that delinquent
subcultures emerged in response to the special problems faced by members of such groups. The
subculture theories are extensions of strain, social disorganization and differential association
theories. Subculture theories help to explain why subcultures emerge (extension of strain), why
they take a particular shape and why they continue from one generation to another (extension
of differential association). We will explain the subculture theories proposed by Albert Cohen,
(subculture of delinquency), Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (differential opportunity)
and by Walter Miller (lower-class focal concerns).
Albert Cohen (1955): Subculture of Delinquency

The first proposition is that delinquent behaviour is most common among the lower class, and
gang delinquency is its most common form. Albert Cohen’s ‘lower-class boy and middle-class
measuring rod’ theory posits that the delinquent behaviour of lower-class boys may be
caused by their inability to achieve middle-class goals.
This theory postulates that the lower-class boy is judged by a ‘middle-class measuring rod,’
or by the standards of middle-class society. In this society, all are expected to strive for
accomplishments, and belief in meritocracy is pervasive. The lower-class boy accepts the goals
of the middle class; however, neither has he been adequately socialized to achieve these goals,
nor does he have available the traditional means of attaining status. In response to this frustration,
lower-class boys develop a subculture that inverts middle-class values and allows them to seek
status in other ways.
Cohen then proposes that when juveniles with the same frustration band together, they
form a subculture (gang). Thus, delinquency is a reaction to middle-class values where
lower-class juveniles, unable to live up to middle-class values and judgements, seek self-esteem
and recognition by rejecting these values.
The young people feel a strain from not being able to live up to middle-class judgements, so
they (1) change their frame of reference to achievable values and (2) flout middle-class (mainstream)
values by not adhering to them. Cohen proposes that, when gang behaviour is exhibited, it
is non-utilitarian (it has no good purpose, even for the betterment of the gang); it is generally
malicious (evil is the only reason for the behaviour); and it is negativistic (it is done to
‘tear down’ rather than for any good motive even for the good of the gang).
Cohen’s final proposition deals with the appeal of delinquent subcultures. He argues that
there are four benefits to being a member of a delinquent subculture (gang).
i. It overcomes the status problems experienced in school.

ii. It removes goal ambiguity by moving norms and values to the attainable goals of the
subculture.
iii. It legitimizes aggression against the source of frustration.
iv. It allows group sharing of values and norms in such a way that people are supported by
the subculture.
Strengths
The greatest strength of this theory is that it is practically the only theory that has attempted to
explain how a delinquent subculture gang may be formed.
Criticisms
The greatest criticism is that it assumes that while lower-class juveniles look up to middle-class
values, no lower-class juveniles can obtain them. Even though there is a widening gap between
the lower class and other classes, it is not to be assumed that lower-class juveniles cannot measure
up to the ‘middle-class measuring rod,’ or that they would care to do so, for that matter. This
theory has also been criticized for underplaying rational and ‘for-profit’ crimes that are typical
of many of the organized and mature gangs.
Cloward and Ohlin (1960): Differential Opportunity Theory

Cloward and Ohlin’s differential opportunity theory, another subcultural strain theory, argues
that in order to become a criminal, one must have access to illegitimate means of attaining
material goals. Additionally, a person must be denied access to legitimate opportunities for
attaining material goals.
Cloward and Ohlin argue that most of Merton’s theory was correct, but that there are two goals/
means structures. In addition to the one legitimate structure discussed by Merton, there also
exists an illegitimate goals/means structure.
The illegitimate opportunity structures are just as well-defined, and access is just as limited, as
those in the legitimate structure. Merton assumed that, if a person had limited access to legitimate
opportunity structure, he or she could always move to the illegitimate opportunity structure.
Cloward and Ohlin argue that this is not true. They argue that the illegitimate opportunity
structure is as well-defined as the legitimate ones and also has the ability to block people’s access
from it. This means that a person does not necessarily become involved in crime merely because
he or she wants to. For example, people do not begin selling drugs if they have no knowledge of
where to purchase drugs on a large scale, how to market them or how to find buyers.
Cloward and Ohlin maintain that three subcultures may arise as a result of differential access
to illegitimate and legitimate opportunities: criminal, conflict and retreatist.
• In a criminal subculture, a hierarchy of criminal opportunity exists. The criminal

subculture is organized, material goals are important, and adolescents learn criminal
behaviour from adults.
• In contrast, criminal behaviour in the conflict subculture is disorganized, and the social
bonds between adolescents and adults are weak. Furthermore, the material goal of wealth
is rejected by this subculture; instead, status is achieved by negativity and violence.
• Lastly, in the retreatist subculture, all success goals are abandoned. This subculture
is characterized by members’ use of drugs and alcohol, as a means to ‘retreat’ from the
success goals of society.
Strengths
The strength of this theory is in its ability to integrate the best of several theories.
Criticisms
• It ignores middle- and upper-class crime. Like many others in this perspective, it
addresses only lower-class and group delinquent behaviour.
• It is doubtful that there are only three delinquent subcultural gangs. There are
different types and hybrids of these gangs that certainly exist in communities.
• The theory ignores cases of people shifting from one type of gang to another.
Miller (1962): Lower-class Focal Concerns

• Walter Miller disagreed with the strain hypothesis and proposed instead that lower-
class delinquency represents a process of learning and expressing values of the lower-class.
• The thesis of this theory is that the lower class is a separate culture in conflict
with middle-class values.
• The commission of crimes by members of adolescent street-corner groups is motivated
primarily by the attempt to achieve ends, states, or conditions that are valued, and to
avoid those that are devalued.
• Delinquency is a result of the enforcement of middle-class values on these behaviours.
• Miller proposed that middle-class values are less important to gang delinquency
than Cohen and others thought. He argued, instead, that expression of lower-class values
is more the purpose of gang behaviour.
The propositions of Miller’s theory surround a number of focal concerns that he puts forth
as indicative of lower-class delinquency.
1. The first focal concern is trouble. This focal concern addresses whether a person is
law-abiding or law-violating. Miller proposed that, often, the gauge of lower-class youth
was based on their potential to be criminal, instead of their achievement potential. Miller
argued that this focal concern involves ‘getting into and staying out of trouble’ and often
includes drinking, fighting, or sexual adventures.
2. The second focal concern is toughness. This focal concern contrasts masculinity, fearlessness,
bravery and daring, with weakness, effeminacy, timidity and cowardice. Toughness in
this focal concern is evidenced by strength, endurance and athletic skill.
3. The next focal concern is smartness. This is the ability to outsmart or ‘con’ someone. In this
focal concern, it is contrasted with earning income through hard work, dull-wittedness and
gullibility. Desirable behaviour here means gaining wealth or social status through maximum
use of street smartness and minimum physical effort. This focal concern contrasts smartness
with knowledge. Here, formal education is looked down on as effeminate.
4. The fourth is excitement. This focal concern contrasts thrill, risk, danger and change,
with boredom, safeness and sameness. Miller proposed that lower-class youths’ time is
often spent in moments of excitement surrounded by hours of ‘hanging out.’ This leads to
the search for thrills, often involving alcohol, drugs, gambling, night-clubbing and sexual
promiscuity. Unique to this focal concern, excitement often leads to ‘trouble’ in terms of
fighting or crime.
5. The fifth is fate. This contrasts being lucky with being unlucky or jinxed. Miller argued
that lower-class youth often feel that forces over which they have very little power (a sense
of destiny), control them.
6. The sixth focal concern is autonomy. Autonomy represents freedom from external constraint
or authority, that is, independence. This is contrasted with dependency or being cared
for.
7. The final proposition Miller put forward was that the absence of a father in the home,
and dominance by the mother, lead to the need for a male youth to show masculinity
outside the home. The gang provides this opportunity. The gang is a reflection of what
the youth may think to be the appropriate lower-class male values, in exemplifying the
proper male role and in gaining status.
Strengths
The strength of this theory is that it fits in well with the people who are decrying the downfall
of the nuclear family and problems of single-parent (especially female) families.
Criticisms
• The primary criticism is that the theory rests heavily on the existence of a distinctive
lower-class culture, which has values distinct from, and in conflict with middle-class
values.
• Another, often overlooked criticism is that it does not really explain criminality. It
does explain (or purport to explain) lower- class culture; but it does not necessarily
explain any delinquency or crime within the theory.
• Finally, there are serious problems in operationalization of the focal concerns. Although
Miller does explain what he means by the focal concerns, he does not say how they
may be accurately measured.
The Main Ideas of Subculture Theories

• The subcultural view states that particular groups in society operate as subcultures.
• The thesis of the subculture perspective is that there is more than one culture in society.
• When an individual is a part of a subculture, he or she is often placed in conflict
with the norms or values of mainstream culture.
• Delinquency is an expression of subcultural standards. This means that a person has

bought into the subculture, has assimilated the subcultural standards and is at
the point of expressing those standards, even if they are against mainstream norms.
• Delinquency is conformity to subcultural norms at the expense of mainstream norms.
• Here, the person who is expressing his or her subcultural standards understands that
the mainstream society considers those acts to be deviant, delinquent or criminal;
yet the person expresses them anyway. The person is, in effect, willing to sacrifice his
or her good standing in the mainstream society for the ability to express subcultural
behaviour.
• These theories posit that criminal subcultures develop their own socially approved
norms and practices. These subcultures sanction criminal and deviant behaviour, and
often use it as a status requirement.
• The value system of some subcultures not only demands but expects violence in certain
social situations. It is this norm, which affects daily behaviour, that is in conflict with
the conventional society. Frustration drives delinquents to pursue values that disrupt
the world w i t h w h i c h they cannot cope. Deviance in this case is non-conformity.
Strengths
The first strength of the subculture perspective is that it is consistent with commonsense
observations of cultural diversity. We know that American society is very diverse, and that groups
are often in conflict with each other. The group that is defined as mainstream generally makes
the laws and, often, subcultural behaviour is defined as criminal. The subculture perspective
can address all this.
Also, subcultural theories can address gang-related crime. Many of the criminological theories
cannot address gang behaviour very well, and rely instead on addressing the individual behaviour
of those in a gang. The subculture perspective deals directly with gang behaviour, either explicitly
or implicitly.
Criticisms
The first criticism of the subculture perspective is its ambiguity in defining ‘subculture.’ We all
belong to different groups, some of which exert more influence on our lives than others. They
do not all represent a subculture, however, and they certainly do not all represent a deviant,
delinquent or criminal subculture. Defining and operationalizing the concept of a subculture is
often a difficult task, and may not be accurately completed by many of the subculture theories.
The second criticism of the subculture perspective is that it does not account for middle- or
upper-class delinquency. Almost everything you read in the subculture perspective deals with
lower-class youth, and it is quite possible that subculture theory can only deal with this group
because of the nature of the environment and the issue of subcultures apart from the mainstream.
This may be viewed as a weakness of the perspective, however, when middle- and upper-class
people commit a portion of all crime.
The final criticism of the subculture perspective is that most people in subcultures have
the same norms and perceive the same acts as acceptable or deviant. Most of the subculture
theories imply that people in a subculture are fundamentally different from the mainstream.
In most instances this is not true.
Activity 16.3
Place a tick in the box following the selected option:
1. According to Merton’s Strain Theory, which term refers to the situation in which someone
seeks the goals of society but rejects the conventional means to do so?
a. innovation [ ]
b. rebellion [ ]
c. retreatism [ ]
d. ritualism [ ]
2. According to Merton’s Strain Theory, which term refers to the situation in which
someone ‘drops out’ of society and rejects both the goals and the means to achieve them?
a. innovation [ ]
b. rebellion [ ]
c. retreatism [ ]
d. ritualism [ ]
someone protests against the system and thereby rejects both the goals and the means
to achieve them, in favour of some alternative system?
a. innovation [ ]
b. rebellion [ ]
c. retreatism [ ]
d. ritualism [ ]
someone survives in a routine job at the lower end of the socio-economic spectrum, but
nevertheless continues to be law-abiding and conforms to the traditional ways of performing
his/her role in society:
a. innovation [ ]
b. rebellion [ ]
c. retreatism [ ]
d. ritualism [ ]
5. According to Albert Cohen and Walter Miller, most crime is committed among
a. high-income youth [ ]
b. low-income youth [ ]
c. middle-class men [ ]
d. middle-class women [ ]
6. According to Hirschi’s Control Theory, deviant behaviour is likely to occur among
a. high-income youth who are disenchanted with their lives. []

b. youth with unstable family structures and weak social attachments. []
c. middle-class college students. [ ]
d. youth with strong attachments to social institutions. []
7. According to Durkheim, deviance
a. is defined according to the social context in which the act is performed. []

b. performs several useful functions for society. []
c. is defined by the powerful groups in society. []
d. is always a crime. [ ]
8. According to Labelling theory, deviance

b . performs several useful functions for society. []
d. is always a crime. [ ]
9. According to the Conflict theory, deviance

b. performs several useful functions for society. []
d. develops through prolonged association with significant others, thereby
becoming influenced by them. []
10. According to Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory, deviance is determined
a. according to the social context in which the act is performed. []

b. according to its functions for society. []
c. by the elite groups in society. [ ]
d. through prolonged association with significant others, thereby becoming
influenced by them. [ ]
Activity 16.4
Essay Questions
1. Outline the major assumptions of the interactionist perspective on deviance.
2. Discuss the arguments in favour of a Caribbean criminology. (Though not discussed in

the chapter, this is a good topic for a class discussion).
3. Explain why some social groups (e.g., those differentiated on the basis of racial, ethnic,
class or gender factors) tend to contain a greater proportion of criminal offenders than
other groups.
4. Critically discuss any TWO of the following theories of crime. Assess their relevance to
the study of crime in the Caribbean today.
a. Labelling Theory
b. Differential Association Theory
c. Merton’s Strain Theory
5. ‘Deviance is a beneficial part of all healthy societies.’ Discuss.
6. Outline some of the challenges in developing a Caribbean theory of crime.

CHAPTER 17
INSTITUTIONS OF SOCIAL CONTROL
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter students should be able to:
1. discuss formal and informal mechanisms of social control and their effectiveness;
2. describe the practice of law enforcement in the Caribbean;
3. analyse issues surrounding crime and punishment in the Caribbean, including capital
and corporal punishment, and incarceration; and
4. discuss alternatives to custodial sentencing.
CONTENT
Institutions of social control
a. Family
b. Education
c. Religion
d. Media
e. Political system
f. Legal System
INTRODUCTION
How do societies promote conformity, and control deviant behaviour? What are the most effective
ways to promote conformity? Order is maintained in large part by the existence of positions,
roles and norms in society. Norms may be seen as sets of rules that provide the members
of society with guidelines as to how they should behave in specific situations. Norms make
Institutions of Social Control | 417
social life possible by making behaviour predictable. Without norms, social chaos would exist.
Thus, some form of social control is necessary to help maintain order in society.
Social control refers to the mechanisms societies use to get people to follow established
norms. The focus is not only on formal types of control through courts, police and other state
agencies, but also on informal types. Informal control includes the interpersonal actions that
indicate to others that their behaviour is either acceptable or unacceptable. Such actions may
include frowning, smiling, criticizing, praising, shunning or simply being warm. Informal
social control is also exercised at the level of the community, by agencies such as religious groups,
families and schools.
Thus, social control is the formal and informal means of enforcing the norms of society.
To functionalists, norms result from balancing tensions between individuals and groups
within society in order to reach equilibrium. To conflict theorists, the purpose of social
control is to maintain power for an elite group who work behind the scenes to control power.
Social control is achieved in two ways:
Internal Social Control: This is the process of internalizing the norms of society and accepting
them as valid. It operates through the process of socialization. Institutions such as the family,
religion, peer groups and education achieve socialization.
External Social Control: A second form of social control occurs through attempts to bring those
who have violated the societal norms back into line. It is made up of a system of sanctions
that are used to induce others to conform to norms. Thus, a positive sanction is a reward
and a negative sanction is a punishment. These sanctions are implemented through the legal
and political institutions of society.
Internal Control
Internal control relies on the strong influence of peer groups, families, friends, co-workers
or other reference groups that exert a strong pressure on people. The mechanism here is the
fear of rejection, shame, or loss of esteem in the eyes of the people one cares about. If a society
fails to build a strong conscience in some of its members, the power of the informal controls
can still prevent people from engaging in deviant behaviour, provided that the other members
of society help to reinforce society’s norms.
The Family
• The family is the primary agent of socialization; it is here that the child first learns
the rules of society. A stable family would result in the norms and values of society being
adhered to more readily, since it provides a stable environment for the socialization of
children.
• One of the theories that attempt to explain why some young people become delinquent
focuses on the role of family structure. This theory suggests that children brought up
in homes where one or both of their biological parents is/are missing are significantly
more likely to become involved in delinquency than children who are raised in families
where both biological parents are present.
• The family helps in transmitting the norms and values of society to its members. It
aids in developing the conscience of individuals, which acts as an internal policeman.
• Each individual has been carefully taught by his or her parents, and others, to understand
and to obey rules. People have been provided with a conscience that makes them feel
guilty whenever rules are violated.
• It is this internal ‘policeman’ that keeps people from driving through a red light very
early in the morning when there is no policeman anywhere to be seen. As a result of the
conscience, people conform to the norms, rules and expectations of the community.
• Most deviance occurs among those in their late teens and twenties. Such persons
have fewer attachments and hence less controls. The family provides the bonding
and attachment that allow individuals to have the support that prevents them from
deviating from societal norms.
Education
• Education provides a custodial function for children and thereby serves as an agent
of social control.
• One of the first socialization tasks of the school is to teach children that they will
be evaluated on the basis of achievement; in this way, students can share in this basic
consensus. Only then can one ensure that the classroom itself will be stable and well-
integrated.
• The process of education helps to provide an important link between the individual
and society. According to Durkheim, education is ‘the methodical socialization of the
young generation.’ In order for society to survive, there must be homogeneity in values.
This is achieved by education, which instills the values of society into the young.
• Education rewards conformity and punishes deviance; this helps to strengthen the
norms and values of society.
• The education system also helps in creating a skilled labour force by reacting to the
economic needs of society. As societies become more complex and modernized, education
prepares individuals to undertake specialized occupations and to learn modern values.
• In an effort to keep young people in school, emphasis is placed on extracurricular activities.
In this way, students develop attachments to people in the various activities and to the
institution itself. The more of these activities, and the more attachments, the less
likely the student is to drop out.
• When the young person has little in the way of activities or reputation to risk, he or she
may become more adventurous; this may include actions that are illegal or deviant.
Religion
• Essentially, believers understand that obedience to religious rules, and conformity
to norms, lead to various types of religious rewards in this life, and even after death.
The burdens of relative deprivation, disappointed desires, and death can be offset by
long-term benefits. Most faiths teach the value of sacrifice and suffering for the good
of others and society.
• Religion draws people together; there is a collective conscience, in that people
share common beliefs. This increases the sense of community.
• Religion is necessary because it gives rules of conduct that prescribe how people
should carry themselves in society.
• Religion may motivate people to appreciate life better, and become more conscientious.
Community
• Neighbourhoods often function as face-to-face communities. The social relationships
in these communities provide social control mechanisms.
• Neighbourhood associations, including clubs and societies, although exercising control
functions, often work according to consensual concepts such as brotherhood, friendship
and harmony, rather than hierarchy and authority.
• Communal types of control are often complementary to family discipline.
External Control
Formal control systems are organizations that use sanctions (rewards and punishments)
through the decisions of officials in positions of power or by the structure of the system
itself. This system is less effective than the previously discussed systems, but it often becomes
necessary for controlling human behaviour.
The Legal and Political System

• The legal code consists of the formal rules, called laws, adopted by a society’s political
authority.
• Laws are formal sanctions against actions believed to be contrary to the interests of
the society or the state.
• Laws are passed to give the state the power of enforcement.
• Laws become a formal system of social control, which is exercised when other informal
forms of control are ineffective.
• Laws are passed to promote conformity to those rules of conduct that the state believes
are necessary for society to function, and that would not always be adhered to if left
solely to the internal controls.
• Laws act as a means of prevention and deterrence against criminal behaviour in society.
This is achieved by the criminal justice system, including the police, courts and prisons.
• These become very powerful deterrents to those who might otherwise consider
challenging authority.
• The state monopolizes the legitimate use of force to control the population. Such
force works, so long as it is seen to be legitimate and not excessive. However, as soon as
groups begin to see the application of force as illegal or excessive, then the effectiveness
of these controls is greatly lessened and conflict and violence may ensue.
Rewards and Punishments

1. Rewards
Psychologists who study learning tell us that rewards are more effective than punishments in
modifying behaviour. Rewards usually result in generating positive feelings, rather than hostility
and anger, towards the people who administer them.
2. Punishments
Punishments are less effective than rewards, but they can also modify behaviour. However,
especially with adults, they often result in hostility and anger towards the officials, institutions,
and society that administer them, and this may lead to attitudes that bring about further deviant
behaviour. Punishment has three dimensions:
a. Certainty
The first attribute of punishment is how likely it is for punishment to be received with each
deviant act. The more certain, the better, and punishments need not be harsh if they are certain.
b. Severity
The weakest form of control is severe punishment. Yet this often seems to be the response of
society to deviant behaviour. A higher sentence may be passed for some forms of deviance,
and this is viewed as ‘being strong on the crime issue.’ This approach has been notoriously
ineffective and costly in trying to control drug trafficking. Prison sentences for drug sales have
been increased tremendously, yet the likelihood of being caught is fairly low. Even when people
are caught and put in prison, others always seem ready to take their place on the street corner
to continue to sell drugs, because internal controls are absent.
c. Swiftness of Punishment
Swiftness of punishment may also influence its effectiveness.
Summary
• Internal and external controls are some of the forces that help to prevent people
from deviating from societal norms and values. People are often held under control
by the threat of punishment. Most members of society do not deviate seriously, but
rather conform at most times. Conformity is attributed to social control, both formal
and informal.
• The difficulty faced by social control today is that children receive so many mixed
messages about what is right and wrong. Traditionally, society was characterized by
more homogeneity and value consensus. Societies today show greater complexity in
values and cultural traits. A child’s peer group may sometimes contain individuals who
possess markedly different values, some of whom are also attempting to establish their
own identities.
• In addition to that, there is a huge commercial and media industry that caters to
the desires of young people. TV and movies portray almost every kind of deviance
imaginable, often modelling and encouraging antisocial behaviour.
• Thus, informal social control is being challenged, and what we see are formal
social controls being more widely used to promote conformity in society.
Activity 17.1
State whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.
a. The media, church, community and school are agents of primary socialization.
b. The family is an agent of secondary socialization.
c. Socialization assists in internal social control.
d. The family, church, community and school are mechanisms of external social control.
e. The police, courts and prisons are formal mechanisms of social control.
f. The police, courts and prisons are informal mechanisms of social control.
g. Formal control systems use sanctions (rewards and punishments) to control behaviour.
h. Laws are formal sanctions against actions believed to be contrary to the interests of the
society.
The Criminal Justice System

Most societies have some type of criminal justice system to deal with violations of the law. The
criminal justice system is the formal mechanism in society to ensure social order and control. It
involves the police, the courts, and various forms of punishment.
Sentencing
The imposition of a sentence on a criminal offender is the sole province of the judges
in the courts of law. The sentence usually follows the conviction of the offender. In most
instances, sentencing involves the imprisonment of those found guilty. The purposes of crime
control are to get the criminal off the street and to protect the innocent. However, the ‘tough
on crime’ mentality that came to dominate both public policy and public opinion for many
years has begun to fade in favour of alternative approaches. This section examines the arguments
surrounding this issue as well as the proposed alternatives to custody.
Aims of Custodial Sentencing

• Crime and delinquency are destroying the fabric of society. Incarceration is necessary
to protect society from offenders.
• Incarceration is necessary for the punishment of criminal behaviour. Prison is an unpleasant
place in which to spend time. Prisoners are deprived of normal means of social and
emotional expression but most importantly, they are deprived of freedom. Thus
imprisonment is a severe means of punishment.
• Incarceration is necessary to deter future criminal behaviour. Many individuals would
not commit crimes because of a fear of punishment (imprisonment).
• The separation of criminals from the rest of society is necessary. It protects society
from individuals who express destructive tendencies and who pose a threat to others.
• Incarceration assists in the rehabilitation of criminals. It helps in the re-socialization
of prisoners to conform to society’s norms and values.
Arguments against Imprisonment

• Increasingly, sociologists are not convinced that prisons reform prisoners. Studies reveal
that more than half of the people released from prisons are arrested again for criminal
behaviour within three years.
• Sutherland’s theory (Sutherland 1939) points to the fact that inside prisons, inmates
have a culture of their own, and in this culture, obeying the law is not highly valued.
• Prisoners, upon release, are not usually accepted into the society at large, and continue
to be labelled deviants. Being so stigmatized, they are unable to find legitimate forms
of employment. Thus, many have no alternative but to go back to a life of crime.
• Rising crime figures indicate that prisons have failed to achieve the goal of deterring
criminal behaviour. Incarceration is not correcting the problem of crime.
• Prisons are overcrowded and there is a demand for more prisons to be built. This is
very challenging with the limited state budget of many societies.
• Increasingly, people are beginning to realize that the only thing prisons are good for
is incapacitating certain people who would put society at risk if they were outside the
prison walls.
Alternatives to Custodial Sentencing

There are many alternatives to custody for those offenders who do not pose an unreasonable risk
to the safety of the community. Innovative programmes have focused on education and counselling.
The main goal is to transform ‘dead time’ into productive time, provide an opportunity for
the restructuring of personal priorities and goals, and maintain the integrity of essential family
ties, while promoting deterrence through fostering respect for the criminal justice system. In
most cases, intensive instruction and counselling are combined with community service work
performed in the surrounding area.
• Programmes emphasizing alternatives to sentencing include treatment and

rehabilitation.
• Laws might be changed to reduce the incarceration of non-violent offenders; rehabilitation
should be the main purpose of the justice system.
• Criminal behaviour is often symptomatic of other problems: racism, poverty and a
lack of education all correlate with the tendency for incarceration; accordingly, until
such issues are addressed, the crime problem will not be solved.
• The goal of the justice system should be restitution to the victim, reformation of
the offender, restoration of the community and, to the extent possible, reconciliation
between the victim and the offender. The goal of the justice system should be to use
a restorative justice approach to create safer and more progressive communities.
• Alternatives include sentencing non-violent offenders to probation and drug treatment,
rather than prison, and developing alternative, intensive sanctions for parole violators,
instead of automatically returning them to prison.
• If effective guidelines cannot be developed for judges, then mandatory sentencing
laws should be eliminated.
• These measures would reduce prison populations in ways that save money, assure
public safety and return some balance to the justice system.
Summary
• Changes in public opinion have led to changes in political rhetoric and public
policy. Despite these changes, the most important goal of the criminal justice system
has remained the same, preventing crime. Of course, public safety is as important in
the criminal justice system as is the prevention of crime.
• There are many individuals in prisons who could be of greater service to their communities
were they not incarcerated. There are too many people in confinement who are not
a danger to the community, and alternatives to incarceration should be explored for

such people.
• The courts and prisons are inadequate to solve this problem. The courts are only
one aspect of the issue. The wider community must be part of the solution.
• Punishment is not the goal of the justice system. Public safety is, and must remain,
the first priority of the justice system; alternatives to incarceration should only be
considered if those alternatives include strategies for dealing with underlying issues (for
example, mental illness, anger management) and only if those alternatives include an
appropriate level of supervision and monitoring.
• In some cases, reconciliation is only possible if the offender is prepared to accept
responsibility for the offence, and if the victim is prepared to forgive the offender.
Sometimes justice will require life without parole. However, for those crimes and
delinquent acts where restoration is reasonably possible, alternatives to incarceration
should be considered.
• Many of the people currently in prisons were never a danger to society and should
have received an in-community alternative to incarceration.
• People should not always blame drug or alcohol abuse or similar factors for crimes;
offenders must be held accountable for their actions and, if they are a danger to society,
they should not be released, regardless of the cost.
• Society needs a balanced, multifaceted solution to criminal justice that includes
rehabilitation and prevention; an effort that requires the input of the entire community.
Activity 17.2
Match each of the following terms with the definitions below: hate crime, white-collar
crime, the ‘medicalization’ of deviance, labelling, deviance, recidivism, crime, informal
social control, criminal justice system, corporate crime.
a. The violation of a society’s cultural norms _____________
b. The violation of a society’s formally enacted laws ____________
c. Attempts by the family to regulate members’ thoughts and behaviour

________________
d. The mechanism used by police, courts, and prison officials to deal with alleged
violations of the law _______________
e. The assertion that deviance and conformity may be due largely to how others respond
to people’s actions ______________
f. The transformation of moral and legal deviance into a medical condition

______________
g. Crime committed by people of high social position in the course of their

occupations ________________
h. The illegal actions of a corporation, or of people acting on its behalf
i. A criminal act against a person or person’s property by an offender motivated by racial

or other similar bias ________________
j. The tendency of people previously convicted of crimes to commit subsequent

offences ______________
Activity 17.3
Briefly explain (in about three lines each) the following terms pertaining to punishment and
social control:
a. Retribution
b. Rehabilitation
c. Deterrence
d. Societal Protection
e. Restorative Justice.
Corporal and Capital Punishment

Capital Punishment
• Capital punishment is imposed on offenders convicted of murder.
• Although capital punishment has been abolished in many Commonwealth countries,
the Caribbean still retains this penalty as the ultimate and most severe punishment.
• The use of capital punishment is now being debated and some Caribbean territories
have not had an execution since 1975. However, they await a final decision on whether
or not to abolish capital punishment.
Arguments for Capital Punishment

• The argument in favour of capital punishment is based on justice. A civilized society
requires that each person should respect the rights of others. Those who commit violent
crimes, like murder, destroy the basis on which the society rests and forfeit their right
to life itself.
• The death penalty is the only punishment for violent crime and murder if justice is
to be administered.
• The message of the death penalty is: If you do violence to, or murder, a human
being, you show disrespect for life, and the state responds to such disrespect by the
death penalty.
• The death penalty defends human dignity in the strongest way.
• The death penalty expresses society’s compassion towards the affected victims of crime.
• The death penalty gives peace of mind to the relatives of victims and brings closure
after the crime.
• The death penalty prevents the perpetrator from committing more crimes.
• The death penalty creates a somewhat safer society. It deters some people from committing
heinous crimes and human lives are thereby saved.
• The death penalty demonstrates the seriousness with which the state views violent
crimes including murder.
Arguments against Capital Punishment

• Capital punishment is a brutal, antiquated practice that must be abolished in any
civilized society. A humane culture cannot condone the death of human beings in the
name of justice.
• The death penalty exercises only the most primal instincts to kill and exact revenge in
an organized fashion. Therefore, the death penalty must be abolished entirely, to allow
society to function in a civilized manner, whereby every person has the right to live.
• Several research studies have shown that the death penalty does not act as a deterrent
to violent crime. In the US for example, death penalty states have higher murder rates
than non-death penalty states, and the disparity in the rates have been increasing over
the last 20 years.
• Capital punishment is cruel and inhumane. The very idea of killing another for
killing is inherently hypocritical.
• By enforcing capital punishment, the government is telling the public that it is acceptable
to kill as long as you have more power than the person you are killing.
• The problem with such a hypocritical notion as ‘an eye for an eye’ is its fundamental
inconsistency. In order to practise what they preach, the courts would have to find a
way to steal from thieves, betray traitors and rape rapists. This is obviously ludicrous.
• Besides the central hypocrisies and inconsistencies of the punishment itself, the selection
of those subjected to it is also unfair and prejudiced. Race, social status, economic
status, level of education, and location of crime are key elements in the selection of
those to be executed. The fate of one man’s life often depends on the whims and pre-
judgements of the jury he is granted.
• It is fitting that the guilty should be sentenced to life in prison, which is not a pleasant
experience by any measure. This should suffice as a punishment that does not violate
the very fabric of modern society. The execution, once arrived at after years of waiting
in fear, is brutal and primitive.
• Killing someone is not quite as simple as switching on a light. It requires violent trauma
that eventually stops the brain from functioning one way or another. The process
is never as clean and efficient as a humane death should be and occasionally, things
go wrong. Most of the time, those executed are fitted with a hood to spare spectators
the gruesome contortions of pain the face undergoes, and allows them to view the
person more as an object. This brutality cannot be tolerated.
• Apart from the nature of the act itself, another disadvantage is its cost. It has
been documented that a capital trial, combined with the jail term and execution, is
more expensive than supporting the prisoner for the remaining half of his life in jail.
Corporal Punishment
• In cases involving violence, such as robbery, rape and wounding with intent, the
judges are given the option to impose corporal punishment.
• Corporal punishment, like capital punishment, is a symbolic gesture to indicate society’s
disapproval of the crime committed.
• Some countries have retained flogging or whipping as a punishment long after others
have declared it a violation of human rights. On the other hand, in many countries
where such beatings are outlawed, a perceived lack of success in crime reduction has
resulted in significant support for their reintroduction.
Arguments for Corporal Punishment

• Criminals must be punished, and any form of punishment recognizes the fact that,
on committing criminal acts, they surrender some of their rights as human beings.
Why, logically, is corporal punishment any more of an infringement of these rights than
imprisonment? Corporal punishment is an easy, strong, visible and therefore effective
deterrent, as well as a proportionate punishment for certain crimes.
• Like all forms of punishment, flogging and whipping can and should be subject
to regulation. In Singapore, for example, caning is confined generally to males between
16 and 50, with a maximum number of 24 strokes, which must be administered
all at once.
• Corporal punishment is a useful deterrent against prisoners breaking prison rules.
Since their freedom is already gone and their date of release may seem distant (or non-
existent), there is very little else with which to maintain order.
Arguments against Corporal Punishment

• Punishing with pain is an archaic and barbaric practice. The mark of a civilized
society is that it behaves better than its criminals. Prison is necessary as a method of
punishment, prevention and rehabilitation, but it does not (or at least should not) stoop
to cruelty; which is why the UN Declaration of Human Rights forbids ‘torture or…
cruel, inhumane or degrading treatment or punishment.’
• Any such regulation tends to be arbitrary and may thus lead to abuse. Singapore’s list
of crimes for which caning may be sentenced includes the transport of fireworks or a
third road traffic offence. In 1995, a 48-year-old Frenchman was caned five times for
overstaying his visa.
• There are always alternative punishments that can be used in prison: solitary confinement,
the removal of privileges, extension of sentence, and so on. Mistreatment of prisoners is
particularly open to excessive abuse from prison supervisors who seek to maintain order
through a climate of fear.
Activity 17.4
1. What is meant by social order?
a. Briefly explain the role of the family in maintaining social order.

b. Briefly explain the role of the school in maintaining social order.
2. To what extent are law enforcement officials necessary for maintaining social control? Give
at least two examples from your society.
3. What are the arguments FOR and AGAINST corporal punishment?
4. What are the arguments FOR and AGAINST capital punishment?
5. How does crime in the Caribbean compare with crime in the industrialized countries?
6. Describe and discuss the main reasons for punishing criminals in society.
7. What are the arguments supporting a Caribbean theory of crime?

CHAPTER 18
CRIME AND SOCIETY
OBJECTIVES
1. describe the main types of crime;
2. analyse available crime statistics;
3. discuss the social distribution of crime: gender, ethnicity and class;
4. discuss selected issues of crime and deviance: drug abuse, juvenile delinquency, domestic
violence; and
5. discuss the effects of crime and deviance on Caribbean society.
CONTENT
1. Main types of crime
2. Crime statistics
3. Issues related to Crime and Deviance
a. Drug use and trafficking

b. Juvenile delinquency
c. Domestic violence
d. Corporate Crime
4. Effects of Crime and Deviance
a. Economic: cost of security, budget allocation, money laundering

b. Social: migration, well-being, quality of life
c. Political: legislation, regional response
The student should refer to the 2012 UNDP Human Development Report on Citizen Security
in the Caribbean. This is one of the most recent and comprehensive assessments of the crime
situation in the Caribbean, and focuses on seven Caribbean countries. It has a wealth of information
related to crime in the Caribbean and is downloadable at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/regional/
latinamericathecaribbean/name,24269,en.html
CLASSIFICATIONS OF CRIMES
Crimes are usually classified as one or more of the following:
1. Index crimes
Violent and serious crimes such as murder, manslaughter, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault,
as well as property crimes such as burglary, larceny and theft.
2. Personal crimes
Violent or nonviolent crimes directed against people, e.g., murder, aggravated assault, rape
and robbery.
3. Property crimes
Theft or change of property, without threat of bodily harm, e.g. burglary, larceny, auto theft
and arson.
4. Victimless crimes
The willing exchange of illegal goods and services. Though victimless crimes violate the laws
they are not normally considered serious, since they do not have a victim or complainant as
such. They include activities such as ‘illegal’ gambling (not sanctioned by the authorities),
illegal drug use, pornography and prostitution (where these are illegal). Whereas some people
have recommended decriminalization of such offences, others believe that the offenders need
some deterrent from committing these acts, thus, they should not be legalized.
5. Hate crimes
Assaults and other malicious acts (including crimes against property) motivated by various
forms of bias, including but not limited to those based on race, religion, sexual orientation,
ethnic or national origin, or disability.
Crime and Society | 433
6. White-Collar or Elite Crime
Crime carried out by people of high social standing. According to Sutherland (1960), it refers
to ‘crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of
his occupation.’ Examples include embezzlement, insider trading, tax frauds, or unacceptable
financial practices. In terms of dollars, white-collar crime is much more consequential for
society than street crimes.
7. Corporate Crime
The illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf. Not all crimes are committed
by individuals.
8. Organized Crime
Activity that appears, on the surface, to be acceptable, but is illegal, involving criminal groups
that are well organized, and provide illegal goods and services. Organized crime may include
activities such as drug trafficking, gambling and prostitution. Such undertakings are organized
like legitimate businesses. Organized crime today is often facilitated by information technology.
White-Collar Crime
White-collar crime continues to be accorded less priority relative to conventional crime in society.
Although there has been some debate as to what is considered a white-collar crime, the term
today generally encompasses a variety of non-violent crimes, usually committed in commercial
situations for financial gain. Many white-collar crimes are especially difficult to prosecute, because
the perpetrators are sophisticated and influential persons who have attempted to conceal their
activities through a series of complex transactions.
Characteristics of White-collar Crime

• White-collar crime tends to be made up of complex, sophisticated, and relatively
technical actions.
• When legitimate or conventional avenues make the attainment of a goal difficult
or impossible, some persons, whether as individual or as corporate actors, will resort
to illegitimate or deviant avenues.
• White-collar crime tends to be intermingled with legitimate behaviour.
• Victimization tends to be diffused. Harm is not always conceptualized or identifiable
as such, because it is usually spread out over a substantial number of victims.
• The monetary sums involved tend to be quite large in most cases.
Why is white-collar crime so much more lucrative than ordinary burglaries, robberies and larcenies?
• White-collar criminals steal by fraudulent and clandestine methods without being

easily discovered.
• White-collar crime is not a ‘one-shot deal.’ It is made up of a number of interrelated
actions that extend over a period of time – months, years, even decades.
• With respect to prosecution, evidence indicating that such crimes have taken place
is not as clear-cut as with street crime.
• Relative to their incidence, arrests are rarely made. The Federal US Sentencing Commission
found that for white-collar crimes prosecuted by federal courts between 1984 and 1987,
sentences against convicted corporations tended to be extremely light. Nearly half entailed
a fine of $5,000 or less, 80 per cent were fined $25,000 or less, and even probation
against executives was imposed less than one-fifth of the time. Jail or prison time
tends to be almost non-existent.
• White-collar crime does not fit our stereotype of ‘real’ crime; it is rarely condemned
to the same degree that street crime is, and there is very little public stigma attached
to white-collar crime.
• The more conservative media tend not to cover white-collar crime in as complete or
detailed a fashion as they do with street crime, because it may make less sensational
news. In some countries, white-collar crimes are sensational, often politicized, and do
make headlines or front-page stories.
• As a result of its lack of stigma, perpetrators, even after being convicted, rarely think
of themselves as ‘real criminals.’ They insist that, even though they engaged in the
action of which they were accused, what they did was not a crime.
Some examples are:
• Environmental damage, causing danger to life and loss of employment

• Unsafe or unhealthy workplaces
• Tax evasion
• Defective and dangerous merchandise
• Corporate fraud
• Price fixing
• Government bribery
• Embezzlement
The Conflict Perspective

• Crime is a function of class conflict between the wealthy and powerful, and those
who lack wealth and power.
• Norms and laws, along with the enforcement of these laws, reflect the interests of
the rich and powerful. Thus, the rich and powerful are less likely to commit or be
accused of committing a crime.
• Even if the behaviour of the rich and powerful is questioned, they have the means
to resist the criminal label (that is, to avoid punishment).
• Conflict theorists give only one reason that enforcement against white-collar crime
is less stringent than it is for street crimes: the complex nature of white-collar crimes.
White-collar and Corporate Crime in the Caribbean

Various forms of white-collar crime may be identified in the Caribbean. These include fraud,
embezzlement, money laundering, tax evasion, bribery, and violation of safety regulations by
various industries. In observing Caribbean criminology, one needs to address governmental crime
and its importance in shaping and influencing the environment within which conventional
crime occurs. White-collar and corporate crimes pose a serious social problem to Caribbean
nations, although such crimes often remain unnoticed.
Activity 18.1
Define white-collar crime. Give three examples of white-collar crime. Explain why white-
collar crime is so much more lucrative than ordinary robberies.
The Social Distribution of Crime

Gender and Crime
Both official statistics and several research studies indicate that males commit more crimes than
females and are arrested more often than females. These gender differences are quite pronounced
for property crimes and violent crimes. The reasons for such trends include the following:
• Men, partly because of more aggressive socialization experiences, are more likely to
commit violent crime. However, women’s participation in crime has been increasing.
• Society places more constraints on females’ behaviour.
• Law enforcement officers tend to be more lenient toward females.
Age and Crime

Criminal activity is more prevalent among younger people than among older people in most
societies. In the United States, people between the ages of 15 and 24 represent 39.1 per cent
of all arrests for violent crimes, and 46.8 per cent of arrests for rape, robbery and arson
(FBI 2001).
The reasons for such trends include the following:
• Young people are more likely to be unemployed or employed in low-wage jobs.

• Young people are more likely to be unattached to the traditional or established institutions
of society.
• Young people tend to be more adventurous and willing to take chances.
Ethnicity and Crime

• In several industrialized countries, the figures show that there is a very high incidence
of crime in the poorest areas, which house large numbers of people from different ethnic
minorities.
• Are ethnic minorities driven to crime because of poverty? Or are they socialized into
a life of crime as a means of survival?
• Ethnic minorities sometimes create an ethnic ghetto, which is often characterized by
high crime, unemployment, weak family structures and low educational qualifications.
The people in the centre of the ethnic ghetto normally live in the worst types of housing
accommodation, lacking many amenities. Such conditions may predispose them to crime.
• There is a much higher chance (five times higher) of an Afro-Caribbean person
being stopped and searched than a person from any other ethnic group in the UK.
This shows that they are subjected to the stereotypes of society and have an increased
likelihood of being arrested. A similar trend is also found in the United States, where
both race and ethnicity are correlated to crime rates. African Americans, who constitute
only 12.3 per cent of the population, represent 31 per cent of arrests for property
crimes and 37.8 per cent of arrests for violent crimes (FBI 2001).
• As the members of an ethnic group are labelled as criminals, they will do what
they think is expected of them. Also, as they are already in high crime areas, the
young people will do what they see as the norm, which may be to commit crime.
• It may be that when people from an ethnic minority are unemployed they have
little choice, because of stereotypes, but to turn to crime. This may be why there
is such a high crime rate among ethnic minorities. Also, discrimination results in
fewer opportunities, which creates poverty and increased crime. This in turn fuels the
stereotypes which are responsible for the discrimination in the first place.
• This reinforces people’s stereotypes and, in turn, is also responsible for the high crime
figures. Stereotyping is one of the biggest reasons why there is such a disproportional
number of ethnic minorities in prison.
• The police reflect the perceptions of the society by viewing specific ethnic groups
in negative terms. Thus, in the UK, where the police force is mainly white, they may
stop more Afro-Caribbean and Asian people, thereby making members of such groups
more likely to be arrested.
Class and Crime

Several studies have shown a strong correlation between socio-economic status and street crimes.
• In most societies, the lower classes, including ethnic minorities, usually demonstrate
the lowest levels of performance in the education system. Having the lowest qualifications
and the least prospects for employment, as well as feelings of marginalization and
hopelessness, members of such groups may turn to crime. When arrested, members of
minority groups tend to receive higher bail, longer sentences, and more guilty verdicts.
They are also unable to afford better quality legal counsel, and thus are less successful
in their negotiations with the legal system.
• Class also plays a major role in the crime figures, as most criminals are members of
the working class. The working class may have its distinctive beliefs, values, and norms.
For some, education is not important; being tough and strong is preferred, and crime
is acceptable.
• Members of the working class normally have the least opportunities; this means that
if they are unable to find productive pursuits, they may turn to crime. Also, the poor
are more likely to be arrested for crime.
Activity 18.2
Arrest data show a clear pattern of differential arrest along the lines of race, gender and class
in the US and in the UK. Do the police in the Caribbean display such bias is dealing with crime
issues?
Issues of Crime and Deviance

Drug Abuse
The abuse of various substances is a global problem and is influenced by a wide range of factors
that span social, economic, political and psychosocial arenas. The multiplicity of factors associated
with drug abuse and their interrelatedness make the problem a complex one. The escalation
of drug abuse over the last three to four decades, particularly among adolescents and young
adults, has created major public health and socio-economic challenges. The development
and delivery of effective and appropriate interventions in countries experiencing drug-abuse
problems are very much dependent on an understanding of patterns of drug use and their
relationship to health and social problems.
• Young people are being increasingly imprisoned for drug use, drug trafficking and
drug-related crimes. In the Caribbean, there are very harsh laws for possession of drugs,
resulting in some cases in three-year imprisonment terms.
• In Guyana there is a three-year jail sentence for smoking or even being in possession
of one stick of marijuana, a crime for which many other countries are increasingly
applying less stringent measures. Some countries prefer to use their resources to reduce
the demand for illicit substances, while reserving imprisonment for more serious
offences, in the light of overcrowding in prisons.
Juvenile Delinquency
Juvenile delinquency may be defined as criminal behaviour committed by minors. Minors are
individuals who fall under a statutory age limit. Individuals in this category are tried differently
from adults in a court of law. However, the statutory age limit varies from country to country
and, for more serious offences, the law may submit a waiver to transmit juveniles to the
adult court for prosecution.
• Young people who have spent time in juvenile detention centres are likely to end up
in prison as adults, confirming the notion that prison establishments are ‘universities
of crime.’ According to Home Office figures in the UK, 70–80 per cent of juvenile
offenders commit further offences within two years of being released from custody and,
sometimes, these further offences are of a more serious nature than the earlier ones.
• In the Caribbean, there are many examples of high recidivism rates among prison
populations. According to a report of the National Task Force for Crime Prevention,
in Barbados 56.3 per cent of the young offenders interviewed at the main prison had
committed offences more than once within a two-year span. Of the group interviewed,
37.5 per cent had juvenile convictions for which they could not be legally imprisoned
before age 16. Two-thirds of those who had been convicted as juveniles had been previously
confined at the Government Industrial School as a result of their offences.
• There is more than enough evidence to show that there is need to review the sentencing
policy in the region.
• Institutionalization does not act as a deterrent, since re-offending rates remain high
for those who receive custodial sentences. Many juveniles do not give much thought to
the consequences of being caught when committing a crime. Some commit offences
merely to prove their toughness among their peers.
• Custodial punishment is socially damaging since it disrupts family and community
ties and education. Disrupted education leads to fewer chances of employment and
an increased likelihood of further offending.
• Custody is costly. The 1995 UNICEF-funded survey ‘Crime and Violence in Trinidad
and Tobago’ estimated the cost of a single offender spending six months in prison,
including the cost of arrest by police, five court appearances and loss of income, at
TT$42,216.64 or US$7,179.70. In 1996 in Barbados, it cost BD$28.30 per day to
maintain a prisoner, BD$77.42 to maintain a juvenile at the Government Industrial
School and BD$2.65 for a probation order, a non-custodial order (US$1.00=BD$2.00).
In Guyana, whereas GY$106 million was allocated to prisons in 1992, GY$247 million
had to be allocated in 1997 (US$1.00=GY$190).
• Juvenile courts have the legal and moral responsibility to do more than simply
punish delinquent youth. There are, however, very few options available to the
courts other than punishment. Their ability to care for children is seriously hampered
by overcrowding of facilities, inadequate funding and overworked staff.
• Studies done in Trinidad and Tobago by Deosaran and Chadee (1997) revealed that
delinquent youth came largely from working class backgrounds, from relatively large
families, and had low educational attainment.
• Because of increased juvenile delinquency, more and more countries are leaning towards
adopting harsher legislation to deter young people from committing crimes. Over
the past few years, a considerable amount of attention has been given to young people
responsible for acts of crime. In Barbados, the National Children’s Home, together with
the Ministry of Justice and Public Safety, was instrumental in conducting a juvenile
justice study in 1993, entitled ‘Juvenile Justice in Barbados: A View to the Future,’ that
helped to provide a fairly comprehensive picture of juvenile crime in Barbados.
This study concluded that young people commit much of the crime. This experience
is not confined to Barbados.
• More recent research evidence shows that, faced with stark socio-economic conditions,
unemployment, and the reality of the devastating effects of the use of illegal drugs, more
young people have turned to crime. Having identified this problem, it is now necessary
to tackle the root causes and introduce preventative measures.
• Institutionalization does not tackle the causes of crime. These problems cannot be
sorted out in closed institutions, which have no connection with the juvenile’s daily
life. Caribbean governments must use poverty eradication, employment opportunities
and youth programmes to help curb delinquency among the youth.
• The family has a large role to play in assisting with the rehabilitation of the
juvenile, and professional help should therefore be provided to counsel families
and to address any problems they may be experiencing. If this is not done, children
will simply be returned to chaotic homes and will soon find themselves once more in
conflict with the law.
Domestic Violence
1. Physical abuse
The legal definition of domestic violence includes causing physical harm (for example, hitting,
kicking, slapping, throwing things) or threatening physical harm (with or without a weapon);
coercing someone to do or refrain from doing something by threats or use of force; harassing
someone (causing emotional distress by lingering at a person’s home, peering in at windows,
following someone); forcing or attempting to force a person to engage in any sexual act; or
holding someone against his or her will.
2. Emotional abuse
Domestic violence also includes placing someone in fear of imminent serious bodily harm by
threat of force. This includes threats of violence or other conduct that would cause a reasonable
person to suffer substantial emotional distress, such as: ‘I will hit you,’ ‘If you leave, I will hurt
you,’ or ‘If you tell anyone, I will kill you.’
3. Child abuse
The law provides for protection against violence toward children as well. Child abuse is any
physical injury, sexual abuse or emotional harm inflicted on a child, other than by accidental
means, by an adult household member. This includes the sexual abuse of children, such
as fondling or rape. The abused children need not be the children of the abuser in order for
someone to file a child abuse petition. The law does, however, exempt discipline administered
in a reasonable manner.
Conclusion
Crime remains an important concern in most Caribbean societies today. Experts try to understand
and explain sudden and explosive growth in force, fraud, and coercion. Crime is complex, to
be sure, because it involves factors beyond law enforcement, such as the strength of the family,
neighbourhoods, schools and churches.
The origins of crime lie deep in society, in families where parents do not control their children,
in schools where discipline is poor and in the wider world where violence is glamorized and
traditional values are under attack. Government alone cannot tackle such deep-rooted problems
easily or quickly. The approach must be a multifaceted one.
Activity 18.3
1. Which of the following are not examples of victimless crimes?

Manslaughter, hate crimes, pornography, domestic violence, prostitution, drug abuse,
aggravated assault, murder, gambling, and fraud.
Give one reason for each of your answers.
2. a. Define the following terms: white-collar crime, organized crime, corporate crime, index
crime, victimless crime.
b. Provide one example of each of the five types of crime defined above.
Activity 18.4
Essay Questions:
1. Explain why crime rates in most countries are usually lower among women than among
men.
2. To what extent can traditional/mainstream theories of crime and deviance be applied to

the study of criminality in the Caribbean?
3. ‘Official statistics show that males are more likely to commit crimes than females.’
Discuss this statement in the light of the changing role of women in the Caribbean.
4. Explain the impact of globalization on crime in the Caribbean.

UNIT 2 – MODULE 3
CARIBBEAN SOCIAL ISSUES: POVERTY,

HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT
CHAPTER 19
POVERTY
OBJECTIVES
1. discuss the key concepts related to poverty;
2. apply the main sociological perspectives to the study of poverty;
3. explain the problems involved in defining and measuring poverty;
4. explain the trends in poverty in the Caribbean;
5. discuss the vulnerability of various categories of the poor in Caribbean societies; and
6. evaluate measures used to address poverty in the Caribbean.
CONTENT
i. Problems in defining poverty:
a. absolute or subsistence poverty

b. relative poverty
c. subjective poverty
ii. Problems of measuring poverty: the use of the Poverty Line Model
iii. Theoretical perspectives on the causes and persistence of poverty:

a. ‘culture of poverty’
b. Marxist perspectives
c. conservative approach
iv. Categories of poor:

a. people with special needs
b. the elderly, women, children and youth
c. the unemployed
d. single-parent families
e. indigenous people
v. Contribution of sociology to the analysis of poverty:
a. Social aspects
b. Poverty alleviation policies (‘needs’- and ‘rights’-based perspectives)
c. Poverty alleviation strategies
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the world, even in the more affluent countries, many people are unable to
satisfy their basic needs, such as food, shelter and clothing, and are thereby considered poor.
As expected, the wants and needs of people vary from one society to another. Since poverty is
sometimes a perception of oneself in relation to others, many prefer to define poverty in relation
to the norms and values of a particular society.
Sociologists and other social scientists have been interested in the study of poverty, thereby
advancing many reasons for its root causes. In this first section, some of the terms pertaining to
the study of poverty will be defined. These include: absolute/subsistence poverty, critical poverty,
relative poverty, subjective poverty, chronic poverty, cyclical poverty and seasonal poverty.
The issue of poverty eradication has been on the international agenda for several decades. However,
it was only towards the end of the 1980s that a global concern for poverty resurfaced. This was
due mainly to pressures from international organizations such as the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). In addition, there were
numerous studies documenting the detrimental economic and social consequences of most
structural adjustment programmes (SAPs).
The 1995 World Summit for Social Development held in Copenhagen, Denmark, and the
declaration of 1997 as the International Year of Poverty Eradication by the United Nations,
emphasized the global concern and commitment towards addressing the issue of poverty
eradication. This allowed attention to be shifted away from economic growth to the distribution
of this growth, and to focus on issues such as health, education and other social issues.
Poverty | 447
Definitions
Before proceeding further, it is necessary to define the types of poverty. The number of definitions
existing in the literature may seem infinite, but the following are some of the most commonly used.
Absolute/subsistence poverty refers to the poor who are unable to attain food (in sufficient
quantities to satisfy their basic nutritional requirements) and non-food items (such as clothing
and shelter) necessary for survival.
Critical poverty refers to people who are unable to obtain food necessary for survival.
Relative poverty refers to those who are poor compared to or ‘relative to’ other members of the
same society. For example, if the majority of people in a country have access to cellular telephones
and cars, then the minority who do not have the financial means to acquire these items are
said to be the ‘relatively’ poor.
Subjective poverty is a somewhat new concept in the field of poverty research. Definitions
are based on surveys that use the households’ own assessments of the minimum or ‘just
enough’ levels of income or consumption needed by people like them.
Chronic poverty is a type of poverty that is characterized by its permanence or duration.
It therefore describes people who remain in poverty for most or all of their lives.
Cyclical poverty describes poverty experienced only during stages of an individual’s life
cycle, such as during childhood or old age.
Seasonal poverty refers to people whose income falls below the poverty line only during certain
months of the year. Their employment and sources of income may be seasonal. This category
is also inclusive of the ‘temporarily poor’ who suffer an income shortfall for a brief period of
time, as a result of an exogenous natural disaster such as an earthquake or flood. Finally,
the term ‘newly poor’ refers to those who have recently become poor after certain measures such
as structural adjustment.
Voluntary poverty refers to poverty that is viewed as being desirable or necessary. This may be the case
in some religions for example. Many people equate this to simplifying their lifestyles or adhering to the
‘less is more’ concept.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON POVERTY

Introduction
Social scientists do not agree on the causes and effects of poverty. Some see it as inevitable, some
see it as useful, and others see it as detrimental and unjust. This section will present three
theoretical perspectives on the causes and persistence of poverty: Culture of Poverty, Marxist
Perspectives and the Conservative/Functionalist Approach.
1. Culture of Poverty
The underlying idea is that the lifestyle of the poor differs in many respects from that of
the non-poor in society. Similarities have been found in this poverty lifestyle even across different
societies. This leads to the development of a subculture, with its own norms and values, that
is transmitted from one generation to the next.
Oscar Lewis, an American anthropologist, developed the culture of poverty concept out of his
fieldwork in Mexico and Puerto Rico in the late 1950s. According to Lewis, the culture of
poverty has the following three levels:
i. At the individual level, the poor tend to experience:
• feelings of marginalization, helplessness and inferiority;

• a sense of resignation and fatalism; and
• the desire for immediate gratification; that is, the poor tend to be unable to
delay gratification.
ii. At the family level, there exist:
• free unions or consensual marriages;

• high divorce rates; and
• a notable number of female-headed households.
iii. At the community level, the poor usually demonstrate the following:
• People normally become fatalistic, leading to minimal effective participation

and integration in the major institutions.
• There is non-membership in trade unions and other similar organizations.
• Little use is made of banks, museums, hospitals and other such institutions.
Lewis concludes that the culture of poverty ‘encourages’ poverty since these aforementioned
characteristics act as vehicles to ensure the perpetuation of poverty.
Poverty | 449
Critique of the Culture of Poverty

Some researchers have reservations about the existence of a culture of poverty. Research conducted
in many different countries has indicated that the poor have found ways of improving their life
situations, for example, by participating in community groups and politics, and maintaining
strong family units. Other researchers have also contended that the behaviour of the poor is not
culturally ingrained, but rather, is due to ‘situational constraints’ such as unemployment,
underemployment, low income and other related factors.
Activity 19.1
i. Distinguish between absolute and relative poverty.
ii. With reference to any Caribbean society, evaluate the arguments for the existence of a
‘culture of poverty.’
iii. Provide three examples of seasonal poverty in the Caribbean.
2. Marxist Perspectives
Conflict theorists posit that poverty results from the failure of the state to allocate resources
equitably. They view poverty from several different angles, three of which are discussed below:
a. Labour market
• In industrialized societies where many of the production processes have been automated,
there exists an increasing demand for skilled workers.
• The unemployed and underemployed tend not to meet these requirements and are
unable to command high wages on the labour market. Hence, they remain in poverty.
• An alternative perspective is that there is a dual labour market:
i. a primary labour market (found in large, profitable companies) with job
security, high wages and training opportunities; and
ii. a secondary labour market (found in smaller companies) with little job
security, low wages and few training opportunities.
• Women and ethnic minorities, who are concentrated in the secondary labour market,
take the low-paid jobs.
b. Stratification System
• This system relates poverty to class. The ‘underclass’, which consists of retired elderly
people, the physically challenged and single-parent families, for example, lacks prestige
and wealth. Their low position is a result of their low status.
• It is because of their low status that opportunities for better-paid employment are limited.
c. Capitalism
• It is to the advantage of the owners of production to ensure that poverty exists, as
it allows them to maintain the capitalist system and maximize profits.
• Members of the working class own only their labour, which is sold for a wage.
For members of society whose labour is not in demand, wages are low.
• Competition among workers ensures that wage levels remain in check.
• The state will act in favour of the ruling class and, therefore, governments will do
little to alleviate poverty.
Critique of the Marxist Perspective

• The Marxist perspective has failed to explicitly state what causes particular groups in
society to become poor.
• The perspective does not clearly delineate the poor from other members of the working
class, and therefore fails to offer an explanation for their poverty.
• The perspective is not sensitive to the income variations existing within the working class.
3. The Conservative/Functionalist Approach

• In his text More Equity (1973), Herbert J. Gans argues that poverty persists because
it is beneficial to certain non-poor and affluent groups in society.
• These people do not view poverty as a social problem and, as such, Gans argues
that there are certain functions of poverty:
i. In every society there are menial, dirty, hazardous jobs, and poverty ensures
Poverty | 451
that there is a pool of low-wage labour with no choice but to accept these
types of jobs.
ii. Poverty ensures that there are continuous employment opportunities for
those who serve the poor, such as doctors, welfare workers, police, probation
officers and the like.
iii. The poor provide a yardstick against which the ‘success’ of the non-poor may
be measured.
• In sum, Gans claims that the poor are unable to alter their situation, and poverty
exists to benefit certain non-poor members of society.
Activity 19.2
With reference to any Caribbean society, state the extent to which poverty is functional
to society.
Measures of Poverty
Absolute poverty has customarily been estimated by employing the use of a poverty line. A
poverty line may be defined as the monetary value placed on a hypothetical ‘basket’ of food
and non-food items that are deemed necessary for existence. People whose income levels fall
below this line are categorized as ‘poor’. This approach is commonly referred to as the
headcount index.
However, there are several shortcomings associated with the use of this measure:
• It is subjective in nature. For example, how does one decide what items should go
into the ‘basket’? Also, it is difficult to define nutritional requirements accurately,
since this will vary with age, work activities and other related variables.
• It is insensitive to:
i. the intensity of poverty, which is the difference between the income or
consumption of the poor and the poverty line; and
ii. the severity of poverty, which refers to the distribution of those below the
poverty line. In other words, it may fail to measure the proportion of the
poor who are very poor relative to those who are not as poor.
In order to overcome the shortcomings of the above approach, several other poverty measurement
levels or indices have been developed. These include following:
• The poverty gap index

• Foster, Greer, Thorbecke or FGT Measure
• Sen Poverty index
• Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI): The PQLI measures the quality of life in a country
by combining the average of three statistics - basic literacy rate, infant mortality, and
life expectancy at age one
• Human Poverty Index:
• HPI -1 (developing countries) - People not expected to survive to 40,
illiteracy, access to safe water, access to health services, underweight children
• HPI – 2 (developed countries) - People not expected to survive to
60, functional illiteracy, population below mean income, long term
unemployment
• Human development index (HDI) which is calculated by the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) and includes three basic components:
i. longevity or life expectancy;
ii. knowledge; and
iii. standard of living
• Gender-related development index (GDI), which is the HDI adjusted downwards
based on gender inequity
• Gender empowerment measure (GEM), which focuses on the ability of women
to participate and make decisions in economic and political life.
Activity 19.3
1 . Review any literature you can find, such as World Development Reports, and determine
which of the poverty measurement indices, if any, were calculated for your country.
2 . Compare these measurements over time.
3 . Can you offer possible explanations for any differences you found?
4 . State one reason why sociologists find it difficult to measure poverty.
Poverty | 453
CATEGORIES OF THE POOR

Introduction
The poor are a very diverse group, but some groups in society have an increased possibility
of being poor. These include women, the physically challenged, indigenous groups, children,
the elderly, small-scale farmers and the unemployed. These groups will be considered in this
section.
• Women: In some countries, such as Trinidad and Tobago, and Saint Lucia, poverty levels
among female-headed households are high, especially in urban areas. Some reasons
advanced for this ‘feminization of poverty’ include wage discrimination, high
unemployment, and time restrictions due to child-rearing activities.
Poor women are also faced with other social problems such as teenage pregnancy, domestic
violence and high fertility rates. Poor women residing in rural areas are further faced with gender
bias in terms of the allocation of services such as credit or loans, and resources such as land
allocation.
• The physically challenged: These individuals with special needs are at an even greater
disadvantage, since there is limited access to jobs, education and long-term health care.
Despite the fact that there may be existing safety nets, these are frequently inadequate.
• Indigenous groups: This is another vulnerable group, especially in countries such
as Guyana and Suriname where the prevalence of poverty, malnutrition and illness is
high. This is due in large part to their lack of basic social services such as education and
health care.
• Children: Children experiencing poverty suffer from a lack of proper nutrition, a
low quality of education, and limited parental care and supervision. These barriers
have negative repercussions for the child later in life, making it even more difficult
for the child to break the poverty cycle.
• The elderly: With the rising rates of inflation, the value of lifetime savings and pension
benefits is depleted. Further, some elderly parents are left with no family support, since
their children have migrated. If they qualify for social assistance, in many cases this
is still insufficient to meet their needs adequately.
• Small-scale farmers: Many of the rural poor are engaged in agriculture. Many of
these farmers face problems of limited access to land tenure and to markets.
• Unemployed youth: Many unskilled youth face increased barriers to entering the labour
market. These youth, who now have much free time, may find themselves involved
in drug use, criminal activity, teenage pregnancy and other related social problems.
Activity 19.4
1. Using the poverty measurement indices outlined earlier, compare the existence of poverty
in:
a. any two Caribbean territories;

b. a Caribbean country and a developed country.
Poverty and Youth in the Caribbean

According to the World Development Report 2007, there are approximately 1.5 billion
people worldwide between the ages of 12 and 24 years. Of these, 1.3 billion are in developing
countries – the largest number ever recorded in history. Based on current trends, the number
of 12- to 24-year-olds will reach a maximum of 1.5 billion by the year 2035.
CARICOM commissioned a Youth Development Report in 2010, which led to the ‘Declaration
of Paramaribo on the Future of Youth in the Caribbean Community.’ According to the Report, the
main issues affecting youth development were crime, unemployment, participation in decision-
making processes and education.
Addressing the poverty issues faced by young people is important for several reasons, including
the following:
• The capacity to learn, for younger people, is much greater than for older people.
Missed opportunities to take advantage of education and skills development, develop
positive health practices and make a meaningful contribution to society can be very
costly to rectify.
• The development of young people also affects the development of their children. Research
has shown that educated parents are more willing to invest in their children’s education
and health.
In general, the youth have been identified in many Caribbean countries as being a vulnerable
group. In particular, ‘young men at risk’ leave school with few skills, experience difficulties
finding employment, and are faced with peer pressure to engage in criminal activities. These
situations only perpetuate the cycle of poverty.
One major concern in this area is the young people’s lack of access to the labour market,
to youth training and employment. For those who are employed, there is the possibility of
facing exploitation in terms of being continuously employed in ‘training’ programmes.
They receive only a basic stipend, while performing the same jobs as co-workers who are
adequately remunerated.
Poverty | 455
According to a 1993 Commission on Youth in Barbados, there were two categories of explanations
advanced for youth unemployment:
i. Factors related to the youth themselves such as inadequate education, lack of appropriate
training, inappropriate attitudes, lack of work experience and exceedingly high
occupational and wage aspirations.
ii. A failure of the economy to produce enough jobs; especially in the preferred areas.
Rural and Urban Poverty

Though rural and urban differences are becoming reduced in the Caribbean, the characteristics
and dynamics of poverty are still different in rural and urban social settings, As such,
it is necessary to examine rural and urban poverty separately. The differences have to be
identified and understood so that appropriate interventions may be designed for the respective
contexts. These varied characteristics include the following:
1. Demographics
Rural Area: The population is scattered in small clusters.
Urban Area: The population is concentrated and increasing.
2. Economic Activity
Rural Area: There is mainly primary production, based on land (agriculture) or some
other natural resource.
Urban Area: There is a concentration of economic activity that is skewed towards manufacturing,
trade and services.
3. Environmental Risks
Rural Area – related to the deterioration of natural resources because of the production processes.
Urban Area – related to production processes (for example, wastes from industrial pollution)
and population density (for example, air and noise pollution from cars).
4. Physical Access
Rural Area – low quality transportation infrastructure and services such as health care
and education.
Urban Area – developed transportation network and ready access to social services.
There are several areas of challenges facing the poor in both rural and urban regions. These are
summarized in the following table:
Table 19.1: Challenges Facing the Poor in Rural and Urban Regions
CHALLENGE RURAL URBAN

Institutions/ For the most part, formal Limited access to political power.
Governance structures of power are
remote, but traditional Social and community networks are
structures have a significant important.
local role.
Housing and Land Land tenure may be Choices are limited. The urban poor
insecure. may be forced onto illegal lands
which are often in hazardous or
ecologically unsuitable areas. This
leads to problems of illegal squatting
and the development of shantytowns
and ghettoes. Overcrowding may also
add to the existing problems of the
poor.
Physical and Social Facilities are remote and High quality services are expensive
may lack basic supplies, and restricted to individuals with more
Infrastructure equipment and adequately money.
trained staff.
Livelihood The rural poor need to There is a greater dependence on cash
diversify their income and the urban poor face issues arising
Opportunities sources (that is, their non- out of semi-permanent wage labour,
farm income). the informal sector, and petty trading.
Food Security Adverse climatic conditions Food supply is heavily dependent on
may lead to food shortages cash availability.
and hunger.
Environmental Bad weather conditions Poor urban planning worsens the
have a direct impact on the effects of natural disasters.
Vulnerability livelihood of the rural poor.
Poverty | 457
In sum, the key aspects to reducing poverty in rural areas are:
• To increase production levels by improving the productivity of existing activities and

by developing new ones; and
• To improve accessibility to better basic ser vices, especially health, education
and infrastructure.
In urban areas, attention should be paid to reducing barriers to employment opportunities,
infrastructure and services.
Poverty Alleviation Policies

Introduction
Non-governmental organizations, state agencies and international bodies have made many
attempts to alleviate poverty. The following are two approaches used in the development
of poverty-alleviation policies and programmes.
1. Basic Needs Approach

• This approach was first formulated by the International Labour Organization (ILO)
in the mid-1970s.
• In addition to ‘how much’ is produced, it also focuses on ‘what’ is produced, ‘in
what ways’ and ‘with what impact’.
• Basic needs include:
i. the need for food, shelter, clothes and other necessities of daily life;
ii. access to public services such as sanitation, health care and education; and
iii. access to participate in and exert influence on decision making in the
community and in national politics.
2. Rights Approach
• This approach converts people from being beneficiaries of poverty programmes to
citizens with rights.
• The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms that everyone has the right
to ‘a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and his family,
including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services....
Everyone has the right…to education…to work…[and] to social security.’
• Additional international human-rights instruments have reaffirmed people-centred
development as a universal right – identifying as additional dimensions the right to
security, participation, freedom of association, inclusion in the development process,
and freedom from discrimination.
• There is also a concern for equity, which is most often applied to wealth or income.
However, human development emphasizes equity in basic capabilities and opportunities for all
– equity in access to education, in health, and in political rights.
Cost-Effective Interventions
Several countries in the region have tried different intervention strategies to reduce poverty and
inequity. Among these interventions are:
• Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) Programmes – these programmes have gained increasing
recognition because they assist with current and long-term poverty reduction. They
provide cash transfers to households to fund current consumption, ‘conditional’ on
certain criteria to develop human capital. For example, recipients may be required to
enrol their children in primary school, pregnant mothers may be expected to attend
health clinics, or mothers may be mandated to ensure that infants are fully immunized.
• Education – the region recognizes that education can be viewed as a means of
social mobility, as evidenced by the percentage of countries’ annual budgets that is
devoted to the education sector. There has been increased focus on the development
of a seamless education system, from early-childhood care to the tertiary level.
• Early Childhood Development (ECD) Projects – these interventions are aimed at
improving the intellectual, social and physical development of children, usually between
the ages of 0 and 6 years old. The interventions are wide-ranging and include day-care
services or pre-school activities for the children, and parental training and education.
• Rural Infrastructure – the development of infrastructure – roads, electrification,
information and communication technology (ICT) and water and sanitation – is
important, as transaction costs are decreased while productivity is increased, as the factors
of production have easier access to markets.
• Micro Credit and Insurance Initiatives – these initiatives have been very successful
because they facilitate investments, have high rates of return, and reduce the effects
Poverty | 459
of shocks experienced by the poor. These microfinance institutions target the poor,
and rely on peer selection and monitoring to reduce the need for collateral and ensure
that debts are repaid.
Conclusion
The causes of poverty and its attendant consequences are not simple issues requiring single-
pronged approaches to develop policies. Rather, these issues are complex, and require inputs
from all sectors, especially from the grass-roots level, since these are the people most affected and
who also stand to gain the most.
Is a world without poverty possible? Perhaps, but it will require unwavering commitment
from all the stakeholders, non-politicization of the issues, a collaborative effort from countries
of both the North and the South, and possibly some debt forgiveness.
Activity 19.5
1. Is there any relationship between population and development in the Caribbean?
2. ‘Economic factors are the main contributors to the causes and persistence of poverty in
the Caribbean.’ Discuss.
3. What are some of the poverty alleviation or eradication strategies and programmes
that have been implemented in your country? In your opinion, have these policies and
programmes been effective in assisting the targeted groups? What changes would you make
in order to further improve these programmes? Make sure that you have covered all the
vulnerable groups in your country.
CHAPTER 20
CARIBBEAN SOCIAL ISSUES:

HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT
OBJECTIVES
• discuss the key concepts related selected social issues: health and the environment;
• apply the main sociological perspectives to understand selected social issues in the
Caribbean;
• analyse selected social issues in the Caribbean;
• explain the trends in selected social issues in the Caribbean; and
• evaluate the measures employed to address selected social issues in the Caribbean.
CONTENT
(a) Health
i. Definitions of health (positive and negative) and health related issues, for example,
disability, institutionalization, morbidity and mortality.
ii. Indicators of health (death rate, infant mortality rate, morbidity rate).
iii. Main health problems, prevention and control in Caribbean society, for example, HIV/
AIDS; non-communicable diseases (diabetes, substance abuse, obesity, hypertension
and mental health).
iv. Relationship to poverty and the environment.
v. Availability of resources, for example, anti-retroviral drugs; health personnel.
Caribbean Social Issues: Health and the Environment | 461
(b) Environment
i. Climate change – sustainable livelihoods, sustainable development, food security,
disaster preparedness.
ii. Pollution – air, water, noise, land.
iii. Deforestation and forest degradation, for example, Haiti.
iv. Relationship to poverty and health.
Key concepts
Health
According to the World Health Organization (1948), ‘Health is a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.’ Though this
definition is comprehensive and views health as positive and not merely the absence of disease,
some writers have expressed reservations over its implications. The use of the word ‘complete’
somehow implies that most people will be sick most of the time.
Illness
Illness or feeling ill is the subjective experience of disease or ill health. It is therefore a social
condition or role.
Disease can be defined using two main models:
1. The pathological model: This focuses on biological (physical) symptoms and abnormal
functioning in an organism and refers to any pathological (unhealthy) condition, in body
or mind.
2. The statistical model which defines health or illness with reference to the average in the
population (Hess et al. 1991).
Morbidity
Morbidity refers to the state of being diseased or unhealthy. It also refers to the incidence of ill
health in a population.
Morbidity rate: The number of existing or new cases of a particular disease or condition per 1000
people (Achengrau and Seage 2003).
Mortality
Mortality refers to the incidence of death or the number of deaths in a population diagnosed
with a condition with distinctive, recognized symptoms.
Mortality rate: The total number of deaths per 1,000 people (Achengrau and Seage 2003).
Some authors claim that mortality measures do not give an adequate picture of a population’s
health status. In such instances, the indicators of morbidity such as the prevalence of chronic
diseases and disabilities become more important (Achengrau and Seage 2003).
Incidence
Incidence is the frequency with which a disease occurs. In medical terms, this
usually refers to the statistical occurrence of a disease within the general population,
measured by how many cases there are per thousand of the population generally.
Incidence is the frequency with which an event occurs within a given time period (such as one
year). For example, it could be said that for a particular country, the incidence of new HIV/AIDS
cases in 2011 revealed 10,000 new cases.
Prevalence
Prevalence refers to how many people currently have a particular condition this year. In the HIV/
AIDS example, prevalence would include those diagnosed and living from earlier years combined
with those diagnosed this year.
Disabilities include ‘impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. An

impairment is a problem in body function or structure; an activity limitation is a difficulty
encountered by an individual in executing a task or action; while a participation restriction is a
problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situations’ (World Health Organisation
[WHO] 1948).
Thus disability is a complex phenomenon, reflecting an interaction between features of a person’s
body and features of the society in which he or she lives.
Institutionalization refers to the commitment of a patient to a health care facility for treatment.
Very often, patients who are hospitalized for a long period become dependent on the institution
and its routines.
Theoretical Perspectives
Parsons’ Sick Role
In the early 1950s Parsons introduced the concept of the sick role. Parsons saw illness as a form of
deviance, in a similar manner that crime is considered a deviation from society’s norms and values.
This is because the norm is for members of society to be healthy; it is necessary for individuals to
be healthy in order to perform their functions and contribute to society. Someone who is ‘sick’
cannot perform their duties to their best ability, and may put a strain on others to perform those
tasks. For instance, if a teacher has the flu he/she may not explain the material as much as the
students need and as a result, the students suffer from their teacher’s sickness. Therefore, sickness
is a deviation from the norm of health. As such, according to Parsons, members of society should
make all attempts to get better when they are sick, as they are aware of the importance of their
health to the society.
The sick role is therefore ‘a temporary, medically sanctioned form of deviant behaviour’ (Maguire
2002). It is important to note that what Parsons was describing is what society expects of a person
when they are termed ‘sick,’ that is, how a ‘sick person’ is supposed to behave; however, it is not
always possible for the person to behave in keeping with this expectation. There are four (4)
elements of the sick role:
1. The individual’s incapacity is a form of deviance from social norms, but because it is not
deliberate, the individual is not held responsible.
2. The sickness is legitimate grounds for being exempted from normal obligations, such as
work or school attendance.
3. The legitimacy of this exemption, is based on the sick person’s intent to get well.
4. The attempt to get well implies also seeking and cooperating with competent help to treat
the illness (Parsons 1951 cited in Freund, McGuire and Podhurst 2003).
Additionally, the person’s sickness must be sanctioned by those who are qualified to do so; in
most cases, this is a medical professional.
5. Moreover, the sick role is a temporary condition; upon recovery the person is expected to
resume their daily activities in order to function normally in society.
Parsons incorporated ideas from Freud’s psychoanalytic theories as well as from functionalism and
Weber’s work on authority in order to illustrate the social forces involved in illness (Maguire 2002).
Several writers have identified weaknesses in the model, especially conflict theorists who
emphasize the importance of power imbalances in defining health and illness (Turner 1987).
Also, Freidson (1970) has noted that people often rely on lay opinions and advice as to whether
or not a professional consultation is appropriate. Notwithstanding its perceived shortcomings,
the concept of the sick role has generated a lot of useful research.
The Conflict Perspective

In stark contrast to the Functionalist perspective which believes society is based on consensus,
Marxists see society as conflict-driven and based on inequality between classes. This inequality
is also found in the health care system of modern capitalist societies. The basic assumption of
Marxists, which has also been accepted by non-Marxists, is that problems of the health system
reflect the problems of the wider society and cannot be separated from them.
This perspective focuses on the social, political and economic forces influencing health and health
care delivery. Issues of concern include inequalities in health care, power relations between doctors
and other health care personnel, and power relations between doctor and patient. It also addresses
the exploitation of the subordinate groups in society. According to this perspective, ‘the health
system reflects the society’s class structure through control over health institutions, stratification
of health professionals and the limited occupational mobility into health professions’ (Waitzkin
1978).
The greatest strength of Marxist theory can be seen in its ability to recognize that illness is not
caused by any one specific factor, but is the result of a combination of causes. This can be seen
as early as the nineteenth century in one of the the first major works on public health, Friedrich
Engels’ Conditions of the Working Class in England (1845), which traced the origin of diseases
among the working poor such as tuberculosis, typhus and typhoid to malnutrition, overcrowding,
inadequate housing and contaminated water. Engels made the link between social conditions
created by class inequality, and health conditions.
Disparities do exist between public and private health care for the poor and rich respectively.
This phenomenon is also found in the Caribbean where poor people simply cannot afford private
health care.
As noted by Waitzkin, changes in the health care system must coincide with fundamental
economic, political and social changes. However, these changes rely on wealth and power which
is concentrated in the hands of the ruling class and are therefore resisted (Waitzkin 1978).
Inequalities in health care related to race, class and gender will be addressed later in this chapter.
The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

This perspective examines the manner in which social actors give meanings to their health
condition. They see ‘health’ or ‘illness’ as being socially constructed.
Many try to explain the causes of their illness on others, for example, a person may contract an
infection from contact with another person, diet, exposure to chemicals in the atmosphere or
stress on the job. It therefore looks at how sick people define their illness in relation to the social
context. This perspective is also interested in how doctors treat patient in health care settings.
Erving Goffman (1960) and Eliot Friedson (1970) did a great deal of work on health from the
micro-perspective. They focus on the individual’s place in society and highlight how the social
construction of health and illness affect the individual, particularly those afflicted with some
disease or handicap. Thus, these theories give insight on the experience of living with a disease or
handicap. As a result, these theories are beneficial in understanding the psychological impact of
disease. They also highlight specific conditions, many of which are applicable to the Caribbean
setting.
A key area of focus for Symbolic Interactionists is stigma. Stigma refers to ‘a powerful discrediting
and tainting social label that radically changes the way an individual is viewed as a person’ (Goffman
1963, 2–5). According to Goffman, stigma plays a major role in determining how individuals feel
about their health and whether or not they access health care. Thus, this perspective goes beyond
the macro-perspective mentioned above, which focuses on external forces which affect health.
As a result of the stigma attached to certain diseases individuals may be reluctant to seek medical
attention. This stands in direct contrast to Parsons’ concept of the sick role where members are
expected to seek medical care in order to get better. Using this explanation of the impact of stigma
and stereotypes, it may be to a person’s disadvantage if they seek medical attention for these
stigmatized diseases, as they may be discriminated against. An example of this would be persons
who are diagnosed with HIV may not seek treatment due to the stigma associated with the virus.
Goffman also noted that there is what he termed ‘courtesy stigma’ where those associated with
the individual who has the disease are also treated negatively, for example, an entire family may
be shunned by their community if a family member contracts H1N1(swine flu), as recently took
place in some Caribbean countries.
Friedson (1970) shows through his own observations that there are times when the afflicted
person is blamed for contracting a disease and receives negative treatment from those around
them. According to Parsons’ sick role, because getting sick is not seen as voluntary, that is, the
person has no control over whether or not they get sick, they are treated with sympathy and
understanding. However, according to Friedson, this is not always so and in some cases, people
are held responsible for the disease they contract. These include sexually transmitted diseases and
also, lifestyle diseases such as diabetes. In the case of lifestyle diseases, some blame may be given
as people have some degree of control over their eating, exercise and sleeping patterns which may
affect whether or not they develop these conditions.
These theories highlight how labelling and stigmatizing of diseases and by extension, the individual
interferes with the treatment process since they may be unwilling to disclose their condition and
seek treatment for it.
The Social Construction of Health

Who defines health? Health does not mean the same thing to everyone, and its construction may
differ according to the society or culture. For instance, in the United States of America a ‘slim’
woman is regarded as healthy whereas an ‘obese’ woman would be seen as unhealthy. However,
in Mauritania, the opposite is found and girls are fed large amounts of food, even more than
boys, in order to make them ‘fat’ as this is considered healthy and beautiful. Thus, health is a
construction of the values and beliefs of a group or society.
This brings two terms into focus: Medicalization: The term medicalization refers to the process
whereby non-medical problems become treated and defined as illnesses or disorders, e.g., deviance
has been medicalized (Kendall 2007). An example of this is pregnancy, which was once just a
normal part of a woman’s life. She did not require specialized medical care and the only attention
which was given was from older females, usually in her family or village. However, as time
progressed, and medical advancements were made, pregnancy increasingly came to be seen as a
medical ‘condition.’ It is now expected that a woman who is pregnant should seek professional
medical advice (usually a medical doctor, not a midwife) who recommends special vitamins,
exercises and monthly check-ups. In fact, a woman is only deemed to be pregnant after she has
taken a pregnancy test and it is medically confirmed; a ‘gut feeling’ or ‘intuition’ is no longer
enough and pregnancy as a whole has come under the control of medical professionals who
specialize in what was once a normal life occurrence.
Demedicalization refers to the process whereby a problem ceases to be defined as an illness or

disorder (Kendall 2007). A prominent example of this is the case of homosexuality, which was
once viewed by medical professionals as a psychiatric disorder. This classification stemmed from
societal values towards homosexuality. However, as values changed, so too did the perception and
definition of various conditions. Homosexuality is no longer considered a disorder and individuals
are no longer expected to take ‘treatment’ through means like electro-shock therapy.
Health in the Caribbean

Health is an extremely significant factor in Caribbean development, because of its impact on the
social stability and economic viability of the region. A healthy population leads to many short
and long-term advantages, including sustained productivity levels, reduced expenditure for the
treatment of avoidable illnesses, and continued employability of people.
The issues facing the Caribbean will be discussed under the following headings:
i. childhood and early adulthood, and
ii. later adulthood and the ageing population.
Childhood and Early Adulthood

For children, infections as a cause of death have decreased, due primarily to improvements in
sanitation, waste disposal, water supply and vaccinations. However, at the same time, there has
been an increase in nutritional deficiencies, particularly in the poorest nations of the region. Haiti
is the most saddening example of this, where children suffer and die from deficiency diseases
such as kwashiorkor and marasmus. Malnutrition in early childhood often leads to cognitive
underdevelopment and contributes to higher mortality rates. It is a well-known fact that there
are direct links between nutrition and productivity.
However, this is not to say that all countries are suffering from malnutrition or under-nutrition.
In fact, some are experiencing overnutrition. Non-communicable chronic diseases (NCDs) are
becoming more prevalent across the world, and the Caribbean is no exception. More alarming is
that these diseases are now being found in children and teenagers. With regard to obesity, Xeureb
et al. (2001) observe that across the Caribbean, 7 per cent to 20 per cent of males and 22 per cent
to 48 per cent of females over the age of 15 years could be defined as obese by medical standards
(Xeureb et al. 2001, 120). In Jamaica, 52 per cent of persons between the ages of 15 and 74
years, and 64.7 per cent of women are overweight or obese (PAHO 2009). More importantly, the
Caribbean is experiencing an increase in the incidence of obesity among pre-school aged children
and adolescents. In Guyana, among 15 to 19 year olds, obesity rose from 6.7 per cent in 1996
to 12.9 per cent in 2000 (Xeureb et al. 2001, 122).
For young people, there has been a rise in deaths caused by diabetes, suicide, homicide, HIV/
AIDS, injuries and violence. Homicide, injury and violence are associated with the gun and
gang culture which is becoming an intricate part of the Caribbean existence. This is leading to a
steady reduction in the male population between the ages of 16 and 25 years. There is also the
increasing prevalence of road rage, which is the cause of several vehicular accidents. Risk-taking
and adventure-seeking behaviour such as fast driving, illegal drag racing, texting while driving,
driving under the influence of alcohol, as well as without a seatbelt, are further reasons for this
trend in mortality.
Mortality from communicable diseases was on the decline until the 1980s; then there was an
alarming increase related to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. According to UNAIDS, every day an
estimated 2,500 people, who are between the ages 15–24, are infected with HIV. This accounts for
more than 40 per cent of new infections of all people aged 15 and over. The situation is especially
stark for girls and young women who make up 60 per cent of the five million young people living
with HIV worldwide; this figure reaches more than 70 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa. According
to one source, ‘in many poor countries, especially those in sub-Saharan Africa, 14.8 million
children in the region have already lost one or more parents to the disease. In South Africa alone,
1.9 million children have been orphaned due to AIDS…’ (http://www.one.org).
The Caribbean is now second to sub-Saharan Africa with regard to the prevalence and incidence
of HIV/AIDS cases. There is a strong negative stigma attached to people with HIV/AIDS and
it is estimated that a significant number of cases are unreported. It is therefore safe to say
that the number of HIV/AIDS cases in current statistics is underestimated. According to the
Caribbean Epidemiology Centre (CAREC), if efforts to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS in the
next two decades are not intensified, approximately three to five per cent of the gross national
product (GNP) could be spent on caring for AIDS patients.
All the aforementioned trends have implications for:
• an increased demand for day-care and early childhood facilities and services;
• an increase in the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), unwanted
pregnancies and increased abortion rates;
• increasing numbers of children orphaned by HIV/AIDS and abandoned by relatives;
and
• pregnant HIV women, and the risk posed to newborns.
Later Adulthood and Ageing Population

Caribbean countries are experiencing a demographic transition. Both men and women are living
longer. The population above 60 years of age has increased because of improved health conditions,
the migration of younger people and an increase in the number of returning retirees.
CAREC estimates that, in later adulthood, one in every four people will be hypertensive, and
one in every six people aged 45 and over will be diabetic. This translates into more than 550,000
diabetics and 550,000 hypertensive people living and seeking treatment in the Caribbean.
Chronic non-communicable diseases such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes, cancer and injuries
are the leading causes of death for the elderly. However, these problems could be alleviated
to some extent through proper nutrition and increased levels of physical activity.
In the Caribbean, it has also been noted that women are outliving men so that there will be a larger
proportion of women than men over the age of 60 years by 2050. This has further implications
for the region in terms of policy and the society as a whole. Older women are at greater risk of
being victims of crime, especially where they live alone. There is also the growing issue of elder
abuse, both at the hands of family members and caregivers in ‘homes for the aged.’
An ageing population has implications for
• pension payments for more people;

• employment opportunities for an increased workforce over 60 years of age;
• increased demand for services and facilities to care for the elderly; and
• an increase in the rates of non-communicable diseases.
Behaviour is a major determinant of health and, hence, many of the health problems faced by
the Caribbean today are largely preventable. Preventative measures can be twofold. Firstly, there
is need to practise health-seeking or health protective behaviour involving vaccinations, cervical
cancer smears, hypertension checks and other similar routine examinations. The other important
aspect of preventative care is education in the form of public health campaigns, starting from the
primary school level, which will lead to a heightened awareness and sensitivity among members
of the population.
Nutrition and Health

Nutrition refers to the process of providing or obtaining food necessary for health and growth.
Significant improvements have been made in reducing deficiency diseases or those associated
with malnutrition. According to the UNDP (2002), since 1990, 800 million people have gained
access to improved water supplies, and 750 million to improved sanitation. Fifty-seven countries,
with half of the world’s population, have decreased hunger by half, or are on track to do so by
2015. Despite these measures, however, malnutrition still exists in the world, and in developing
countries in particular, it is still a major cause of global concern.
UNICEF indicates that deficiency diseases caused by a lack of iron, vitamin A, folic acid and
iodine are prevalent in many regions of the developing world. Marasmus and kwashiorkor, both
diseases linked to deficiencies in protein, claim the lives of thousands of children in Africa each
year. Despite the work of government and non-governmental organizations, there exists ‘widespread
nutrition deficiency and at least 250 million people in India suffer from varying degrees of
malnutrition: out of 100 deaths in rural India, 58 are children and seven million children are
affected by blindness because of nutritional deficiency’ (Basu, Kulkarni and Ray 2006).
Many children and adults in poor countries (for example, in Latin America, and sub-Saharan
Africa) still do not receive the required number of calories daily. Nutrition (or malnutrition)
significantly impacts upon levels of productivity. While nutrition is inextricably connected
to health, one should not take for granted other aspects of health, such as disease. One of the
diseases, with which Caribbean governments are engaged in constant battle is HIV and AIDS.
The UNDP (2002) claims that by the end of 2000, approximately 22 million people died from
AIDS. It states that 13 million children had lost their mothers or both parents to AIDS and
more than 40 million people were living with HIV. The vast majority of these were living in
developing countries (mostly in sub-Saharan Africa).
There are some interesting sociological findings pertaining to the relationship between
health and variables like social class, gender and ethnicity. It goes without saying that health
and poverty are intertwined (in an indirect relationship). That is, high levels of poverty
and poor health are associated with each other, whilst low levels of poverty are identified with
good health.
Health and Social Class

Julian Tudor-Hart (1971) has found evidence of ‘an inverse case law.’ This law asserts that
those who need health care the most, are the least likely to get it. In all countries, it is the
poor who get much less health care than they need. For example, world estimates show
that every year more than half a million women (chiefly poor women in poor countries) die of
complications related to pregnancy and childbirth.
Zola (1981) suggests that the lower class get less health care partly due to their generally
low levels of health education. Because they know less about disease and nutrition, they have
less bargaining power with doctors over the appropriate diagnosis and treatment of illness.
Leslie Doyal (1991) says that members of the lower class are usually more careless with their
diets than are their middle-class counterparts, and a r e more likely to pursue dangerous
leisure activities such as the abuse of alcohol and smoking.
According to Navarro (1975) the corporate and upper middle classes have control over health
institutions. These classes dominate the boards of private health care institutions and influence
government policy in their favour. Additionally, those of the higher groups hold a certain degree
of political clout which the lower class does not have; policies related to health and control over
health institutions reflects the class dominance of the wider society.
Health and Gender

According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), women experience a
longer life expectancy than men in almost every country in the world (Giddens 2008, 276).
However, women experience more sickness and medical conditions than men due primarily
to their reproductive role and behaviour. Men, on the other hand, have lower numbers of
morbidity but ‘suffer from higher rates of death from accidents and violence and are also more
prone to drug and alcohol dependency’ (Giddens 2008, 276). In some countries, particularly
those which are termed ‘developing,’ the situation is reversed and girls and women experience
a higher disease burden than boys and men (Disease Control Priorities Project 2008, 2).
These two situations can be accounted for through consideration of the social determinants
of health, that is, factors in our social world that affect our health. Gender, the social roles
and behaviours that define being a ‘man’ or ‘woman’ is one of these determinants.
It is argued that men are more likely than women to participate in dangerous occupations and
leisure activities (for example, electricians and alcoholism and smoking, respectively). Men are
also less likely to take their health seriously, and are less motivated to visit doctors regularly.
This is because culturally, men have been perceived as physically stronger and more agile than
women; they are expected to be able to ‘take pain’ and recover from injuries. Men in the Caribbean
are expected to engage in risky behaviour as a way of proving their ‘manhood.’ Men are also not
supposed to complain excessively about pain they are experiencing, except if it is to their partner
or close family members. For this reason, they are less likely than women to visit doctors or to
pay attention to pain they are experiencing.
Women, on the other hand, are deemed to be more susceptible to medical conditions given
their biological make up. Biology also accounts, in part, for why women have been given more
medical attention than men; due to their reproductive functions, they are seen as needing medical
intervention more frequently than men. In fact, this function makes women more ‘in tune’ with
their bodies than men, so that they are more likely to recognize a problem. Additionally, women
have been socialized to seek medical care, unlike men so that they more regularly visit the doctor
and get necessary tests such as pap smears and mammograms.
With regard to disease, both men and women suffer from a wide range of ailments including
hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and cancer.. In Trinidad and Tobago, for instance, the rate
of diabetes is quite alarming. Lifestyle often contributes to the incidence of such diseases. People
who are careful with their diets, and obtain adequate exercise and rest are generally more likely
to live longer.
Health and Ethnicity

Social class mediates ethnicity and health, for the most part. Minorities and disadvantaged
groups usually belong to the lower class, are more susceptible to poor health and have less
access to proper health care. Health and ethnicity are connected via lifestyle or culture. The
fact is that some cultures may be more susceptible to some types of disease than others, or may
be more willing to admit to their occurrence. A classic case of the latter was noted in Bruce
Dohrenwend’s study of the link between ethnicity and mental illness. He discovered that,
compared to Jews, the Irish and blacks, Puerto Ricans (in America) reported more cases of
mental illness, primarily because mental illness was regarded as less undesirable by this ethnic
group. In the Caribbean, this ethnic diversity can be seen in the type of diseases that various
ethnic groups suffer from. Among East Indians, the incidence of diabetes is significantly higher
than among African descendants. One reason given for this is the sedentary lifestyle and the
high carbohydrate diet, among this ethnic group. Afro-Caribbean persons have been seen to
have a higher incidence of hypertension. This may be linked to diet, stress or lifestyle generally.
The linking of ethnicity to mental illness has been subjected to criticism on the grounds of factors
such as limited sample size and racism. At different points in time in the United States of
America, breast cancer was found to be more prevalent in both white and black women. At the
same time, prostate cancer is noted to occur more in black men than in men of other races.
Table 20.1: The Incidence of Under-Nourishment and Disease in Selected Caribbean

Countries
Tuberculosis
Undernourished People Living People Living
Cases (1999)
People with HIV/AIDS with HIV/
(Per
(as % of Total) (in 2001) Adults AIDS (in 2001)
100,000
Population (15–24) Children (0–14)
People)
1. Barbados - 1.20 - 1
2. The Bahamas - 3.50 < 100 25

3. St Kitts and
Nevis
- - - 8
Tuberculosis
Undernourished People Living People Living
Cases (1999)
People with HIV/AIDS with HIV/
(Per
(as % of Total) (in 2001) Adults AIDS (in 2001)
100,000
Population (15–24) Children (0–14)
People)
4. Trinidad and
Tobago
13 2.50 300 12
5. Antigua and
Barbuda - - - 44
6. Cuba 17 < 0.10 < 100 10

7. Belize - 2.00 180 40
8. Dominica - - - 7
9. Saint Lucia - - - 10
10. Suriname 11 1.20 190 22
11. Grenada - 0.06 - 2
12. Jamaica 8 1.22 800 4
13. St Vincent
and the - - - 4
Grenadines
14. Guyana 14 2.70 800 37

15. Haiti 56 6.10 12,000 113
Source: UNDP Report 2002, 170–73.
Activity 20.1
Study the data in table 20.1 and answer the questions below:
1. What reasons would you suggest for the low rate of HIV/AIDS infection among adults
in Cuba?
2. Explain the main causes of malnutrition and disease in Haiti.

3. State the main initiatives against the spread of HIV/AIDS undertaken by government
and NGOs in your country? How successful would you say these efforts have been?
(Newspapers and magazines may be an excellent source of recent information).
The Environment
Some sociologists are also interested in studying the social factors that cause environmental
problems, the implications of those problems, and attempts to address these problems.
Environmental sociology emerged as a subfield of sociology after the environmental movement

of the 1960s and early 1970s. It still exists as an interdisciplinary field, closely associated with
the field known as Human Ecology. Human Ecology is defined by Anderson and Taylor (2007)
as ‘the scientific study of the interactions between humans and our physical environment.’ These
authors also define a human ecosystem as ‘any system of interdependent parts that involves human
beings in interaction with one another and the physical environment.’
Some sociologists even distinguish between ‘sociology of environment’ (the study of environmental
issues through the lens of traditional sociology) and ‘environmental sociology,’ concerned with
societal-environmental relations (Dunlap and Catton 1994).
A diversity of paradigms have characterized environmental sociology. Despite this diversity, some
major themes have emerged through empirical research and theorizing. The ecosystem has been
viewed as consisting of interdependent parts and a disturbance in one part affects the whole system.
The Impact of Natural Disasters on the Region

Natural disasters can be classified into two categories:
• geophysical events – such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis; and

• hydro-meteorological events – such as floods, droughts and storms.
Different Caribbean islands are vulnerable to different natural disasters. For example, the Eastern
islands are susceptible to hurricanes and others to volcanic activity.
The poor tend to be affected more than other groups in society by the effects of natural disasters.
The poor tend to be more vulnerable, due to their occupation (such as farming or fishing), housing
location (overcrowded slums, or on steep slopes) and lack of access to credit and insurance facilities.
Climate Change
Climate Change is another threat facing the region. The Caribbean is experiencing higher
temperatures, rises in sea-levels and increased frequency and intensity of storms and hurricanes.
These are driven by factors both within and outside the region. The emission of greenhouse gases
and industrial wastes affect both the air and water in the region. In addition, rises in sea levels
may threaten some low-lying islands.
According to the Trinidad Guardian of June 3, 2012 ‘Trinidad and Tobago, as a small island
development state (SIDS), is particularly vulnerable to the consequences of climate change, such
as the rise in sea levels, increased flooding, the increased frequency and intensity of hurricanes,
hillside erosion and the loss of coastal habitats.’
Quoting form a document entitled ‘Working for Sustainable Development in Trinidad and
Tobago,’ it identified the country’s main sectors that are likely to be impacted:
1. Agriculture
• Projected increase in air temperature is likely to increase the aridity of soils, thus
decreasing crop yields.
• Increase in sea level is likely to result in inundation of coastal areas and salination of soil.
• Increased temperatures can result in the increased proliferation of new and existing pests
and diseases and increase the demand for water for irrigation purposes.
2. Human Health
• The projected increases in ambient air temperature are likely to increase the spread of
vector diseases, since higher temperature and humidity favour the spread of vector-borne
insects.
• Projected increases in sea level and precipitation intensity are likely to result in increases
in the incidence of waterborne diseases.
3. Human Settlements
• Projected increases in precipitation can result in increased flooding, which will have
adverse effects on human settlements, commerce, transport and towns and villages. This
can add pressure to existing urban and rural infrastructure.
• Increased frequency and intensity of storms and its associated flooding and storm surges
can disrupt and destroy several coastal settlements, increasing the incidence of poverty.
4. Coastal Zones
• Sea level rise will result in increased inundation, increased erosion and loss of coastline,
loss of natural resources such as wetlands and loss of important ecosystems, goods and
services.
• Temperature increases would lead to loss of the country’s vital coral reefs’ ecosystems
and fisheries resource. It would also increase coastal erosion.
5. Water Resources
• As temperature increases, there is also expected to be loss of available surface water as
increased evapotranspiration would take place.
• Decreased precipitation would reduce percolation and recharge of groundwater reserves
in aquifers and the loss of coastal habitats.
Source: Ministry of Planning ‘Working for Sustainable Development in Trinidad and Tobago’ 2012, 8.
Sustainable Development
No discussion on development would be complete without some mention of the idea of sustainable
development. For decades, the search for development has led different countries to pursue
several paradigms – modernization, redistribution with growth, the ‘basic needs’ approach,
structural adjustment, and adjustment with a ‘human face.’ However, it was realized that
the proposed benefits of these models did not materialize. Instead, problems still persisted – for
example, growth in poverty, increase in gender and economic inequalities, and environmental
degradation.
Also the availability of resources need to be considered. Many resources once believed to be
available in infinite quantities are now seen as threatened by depletion. Some resources, such as
certain fossil fuels, are simply non-renewable and will be eventually depleted.
It was recognized that economic development and the environment were inextricably linked.
It was further realized that if countries continued along this path, the development process would
eventually destroy the very resources used to attain development. In other words, the present
generation would be sowing the seeds of its own destruction.
The environmental problems coming to the fore are increasingly severe – chemical and radioactive
contamination of soils, air and water, decreasing biodiversity, alarming rates of depletion of
natural resources, deforestation and desertification, which have not only local effects, but
supranational and global impacts, and which threaten the survival of life on earth.
Other critical issues include the transfer of environmentally sound technology; enhancing research
and development capacities through the dissemination of information; and the provision of
adequate funding. Hence, the new developmental paradigm of sustainable development has
been born.
Historical Evolution of Sustainable Development

The genesis of the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED),
or ‘Earth Summit,’ can be traced back to Sweden, 1972. UNCED marked the twentieth
anniversary of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm.
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment

The Stockholm Conference heralded the beginning of international environmental awareness
and established a course for action. Stockholm’s most impressive achievement was the creation
of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). However, Stockholm failed to
foresee and prevent a second generation of environmental problems such as ozone depletion
and climate change.
World Commission on Environment and Development

In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) issued its report,
Our Common Future, which developed and elaborated the theme of sustainable development.
Based on the WCED report, the dire need to organize another conference was recognized.
United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development

The United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED) took
place in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro. Delegates from 178 countries, heads of state of more than
100 countries and representatives of more than 1,000 NGOs attended the conference.
The participating world leaders signed five major agreements or instruments:
• The Rio Declaration: A brief statement of principles on sustainable development.

• Agenda 21: A broad, 40-chapter statement of goals and potential programmes related
to sustainable development, which includes the creation of a new Commission for
Sustainable Development.
• The Biodiversity Treaty: A binding international agreement aimed at strengthening
national control and preservation of biological resources.
• The Statement of Forest Principles: A non-binding agreement on development,
preservation and management of the Earth’s remaining forests.
• The Framework Convention on Climate Change: A binding international agreement
that seeks to limit or reduce emissions of gases, mainly carbon dioxide and methane,
associated with the potential for global warming.
Pollution
Air Pollution
• Air pollution is a major phenomenon that affects the health of the human and natural
environment since harmful airborne chemicals threaten the health and stability of human,
plant and animal life. According to the World Health Organization, air pollution is
the cause of two million premature deaths worldwide annually and is a major cause of
numerous respiratory infections.
• The United Nations Environment Programme defines air pollution as ‘an atmospheric
condition in which various substances are present at concentrations high enough
above their normal ambient levels to produce a measurable effect on people, animals,
vegetation, or materials.’ These substances are the result of either man-made activity or
natural processes. Man-made pollutants include emissions from industrial activity or
vehicle exhaust while carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide from volcanic eruptions
are examples of natural air pollutants.
Causes of Air Pollution

Sources of air pollution are divided into two categories: anthropogenic (man-made) and natural
sources.
One of the major anthropogenic causes of air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels such as coal,
gas and oil which are used for the generation of electricity, fuel and for the manufacturing of
various products. On the other hand, air pollution can be caused by natural sources. For instance,
carbon monoxide emissions from wildfires, sulphur and ash particles from volcanic activity and
organic carbon compounds from vegetation.
Effects of Air Pollution

Chemicals released from industrial plants result in the production of acid rain or acid precipitation.
The high acidic content of this form of precipitation negatively affects plants, animals and marine
life.
One of the pertinent impacts of air pollution is the myriad of human health complications that
mainly affect the respiratory system resulting in diseases like lung cancer. The following table
outlines the sources of air pollutants and the accompanying health effects.
Table 20.2 Sources and Effects of Air Pollutants
Pollutant Description Sources Health Effects Welfare Effects
Carbon Colorless, Motor vehicle Headaches, Contribute to

Monoxide odorless gas exhaust, indoor reduced mental the formation of
(CO) sources include alertness, smog.
kerosene or wood heart attack,
burning stoves. cardiovascular
diseases,
impaired fetal
development,
death.
Sulphur Colorless gas Coal-fired power Eye irritation, Contribute to

Dioxide (SO2) that dissolves in plants, petroleum wheezing, the formation
water vapor to refineries, chest tightness, of acid rain,
form acid, and manufacture of shortness of visibility
interact with sulphuric acid and breath, lung impairment,
other gases and smelting of ores damage. plant and
particles in the containing sulphur. water damage,
air. aesthetic
damage.
Pollutant Description Sources Health Effects Welfare Effects

Nitrogen Reddish brown, Motor vehicles, Susceptibility Contribute to
Dioxide (NO2) highly reactive electric utilities, to respiratory the formation of
gas. and other infections, smog, acid rain,
industrial, irritation of water quality
commercial, and the lung and deterioration,
residential sources respiratory global warming,
that burn fuels. symptoms (e.g., and visibility
cough, chest impairment.
pain, difficulty
breathing).
Ozone (O3) Gaseous Vehicle exhaust Eye and throat Plant and
pollutant when it and certain other irritation, ecosystem
is formed in the fumes. Formed coughing, damage.
troposphere. from other air respiratory
pollutants in tract problems,
the presence of asthma, lung
sunlight. damage.
Lead (Pb) Metallic element Metal refineries, Anemia, high Affects animals
lead smelters, blood pressure, and plants,
battery brain and affects aquatic
manufacturers, kidney damage, ecosystems.
iron and steel neurological
producers. disorders, cancer,
lowered IQ.
Particulate Very small Diesel engines, Eye irritation, Visibility

Matter (PM) particles of soot, power plants, asthma, impairment,
dust, or other industries, bronchitis, atmospheric
matter, including windblown dust, lung damage, deposition,
tiny droplets of wood stoves. cancer, heavy aesthetic
liquids. metal poisoning, damage.
cardiovascular
effects.
Source: Environmental Protection Agency. ‘Effects of Air Pollutants – Health Effects.’ http://www.epa.gov/
apti/course422/ap7a.html
Caribbean Responses to Air Pollution

As part of its sustainable development initiative, in 2005, the Government of the Republic of
Trinidad and Tobago sought to revise the Environmental Protection Act, 2000. The focus of this
amendment was to ensure that economic development does not hamper environmental protection.
One measure outlined was the move to adopt quality air standards that were consistent with the
requirements of the World Health Organization by controlling air pollution by issuing permits
and developing regulation strategies to encourage compliance with air pollution regulations.
Water Pollution
The contamination of the bodies of water such as lakes, oceans and rivers presents a major
problem for the earth’s ecosystem. This contamination is known as water pollution and is defined
by Sharma (2005) as the ‘addition of excess undesirable substances to water that make it harmful
to man, animal or aquatic life, or otherwise causes.’
Water may become polluted by natural or human activities. Contaminated water is unsafe for
drinking, recreational and agricultural purposes and also poses a threat to wildlife and marine life.
Causes of Water Pollution

Agricultural activity increases the problem of water contamination. Excess fertilizer and insecticides,
improper dumping of animal waste and plant residue can make their way into water bodies as
agricultural run-off. Harmful substances are deposited and the waterways become polluted.
Oil spills can be deemed as the most destructive form of water pollution and can result from
spillage during transportation or delivery and even loss from storage facilities.
The careless dumping of garbage, old appliances, plastics and other waste material is of major
concern and is another common source of water pollution.
Effects of Water Pollution

Polluted water is unsafe for drinking, swimming and other forms of domestic use. The destruction
of wildlife and natural ecosystems is another consequence of water contamination. Water pollution
– in the form of the dumping of waste material and garbage – also increases the potential for
flooding as this debris causes rivers to overflow their banks and spill onto nearby areas affecting
agricultural land and property.
Caribbean Responses to Water Pollution

Jamaica’s National Oil Spill plan aims at emphasizing the need for mitigation measures to be
put in place should an oil spill occur. The plan outlines that the government will take timely
responsive action in dealing with the onslaught of this form of pollution and work in collaboration
with other environmental bodies to reduce the impact of pollution on marine and human life.
Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is the term used to describe the occurrence of unwanted or disturbing sounds
that affect the overall quality of life. Noise pollution disrupts everyday activities such as sleeping
or reading and refers to a state of constant disturbing sound.
According to Kumar (2004) noise can be categorized as noise pollution due to the:
1. inherent unpleasantness of the sound

2. the persistence and recurrence of the noise; and
3. whether the sound interferes with the listener’s activities
Causes of Noise Pollution

Noise pollution may be brought about by industrial activity. Noise emanating from factories such
as textile mills and other manufacturing industries are disturbances to neighbouring communities.
Moreover, the mechanization of agricultural activities provides another source of noise pollution
in the form of tractors and even lawn mowers. Bulldozing and additional forms of construction
activity are also considered noise pollution.
Road traffic and the various modes of transportation – such as trucks, trains, airplanes and
motorcycles add to the problem of noise pollution. This form of noise pollution depends upon
the speed of the vehicle as well as the intensity of the traffic.
Another source of noise pollution derives from festivities, entertainment and other social gatherings.
Loud music from speakers, public address systems and even fireworks create disturbances to those
nearby who are not involved in the festivities.
Effects of Noise Pollution

Kumar (2004) has categorized the effects of noise pollution as it relates to hearing and general
health of individuals.
Noise pollution may result in temporary hearing loss or in extreme cases, prolonged high intensity
noises can lead to permanent hearing loss.
Persistent exposure to loud noises can lead to increased levels of anxiety and stress and an
increase in heart rate that can affect various bodily functions. Kumar (2004) also outlined that
the development of the nervous systems in unborn babies or young children may be affected
by noise pollution. Animals such as dogs are also impacted upon by loud noises as they become
frightened and may suffer brain and heart damage as a result.
Caribbean Response to Noise Pollution

As part of its environmental management schematic, the government of Trinidad and Tobago has
outlined regulations to control noise pollution. One clause of the Noise Pollution Control Rules
states that persons seeking to hold events that will produce sound levels above the prescribed level
must apply for a variation permit before such activity can be carried out. Also, the legislation
outlines that in areas of public entertainment where sound levels exceed 100 decibels, a public
notice should be posted to warn patrons that the sound levels pose a threat to their health. In
this way, awareness is raised.
Land Pollution
Even though there are designated areas for the dumping of rubbish and other waste or unwanted
material, the problem of land pollution still persists. This type of pollution can result from simple
actions such as throwing an empty bottle out the window of a moving vehicle or from the disposal
of larger items like furniture on empty lots. Land pollution is unsightly and may cause threats
to public health and safety.
However, land pollution does not only affect the surface of the earth. Harmful liquids are released
when garbage decomposes and these liquids seep into the earth’s soil. This soil then becomes
contaminated and may lead to water pollution as the harmful liquids make their way to the
waterways via run off.
Taking the aforementioned aspects into consideration, land pollution may be classified as the
dumping of sold or liquid waste materials on land or underground, which can lead to the pollution
of the soil and ground water.
Causes of Land Pollution

A main contributor to land pollution is littering. When material such as clothes, aluminum cans,
plastic bottles, various forms of packaging and other non-biodegradable material are disposed,
they tend to accumulate on the land.
Agricultural practices also lead to land pollution. Farmers utilize fertilizers and pesticides and
most times, the overuse of these chemicals contaminate the soil thereby polluting the land.
Another significant source of land pollution comes from construction. Large waste products from
this industry such as concrete blocks, iron and other metals occupy a lot of space in the landfills
and create unsightly accumulations. Additionally, when wastes such as paint, oil and other liquids
are improperly disposed of, they leak harmful chemicals into the earth and pollute the soil.
Effects of Land Pollution

The improper dumping of chemicals or the overuse of chemical fertilizers for agricultural
production is leached into the soil and enters the waterways. This affects soil flora and fauna
Also, the harmful chemicals in the waterways affects fish and make the water unsafe for drinking
and other uses.
Even though some of the material that is inappropriately disposed of may not be toxic to the
environment, they amass and create breeding grounds for mosquitoes, rats and other vermin that
pose threats to public health and safety. Examples of these materials can be old furniture, plastics
and packaging. Also, since these substances do not decompose, they create unsightly masses and
detract from the cleanliness of the landscape.
Caribbean Responses to Land Pollution

In September 2012, the National Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA) of Trinidad
and Tobago issued tickets to more than 1,600 persons who were in breach of the anti-litter act.
Additionally, the Authority has embarked upon a cleanup drive around the country in an effort
to further curtail the littering among the population. In like manner, Litter Wardens have been
sanctioned in Antigua and Barbuda under The Litter Act to monitor and issue sanctions to
persons who breach this legislation.
Deforestation
The Caribbean, once covered with tropical rainforest, now suffers from deforestation.
Deforestation is the removal of trees without planting others in their place.
Trees have been removed for agriculture, including crops and livestock, for firewood, for industrial
development, for housing and sometimes for lumber.
Deforestation has the following consequences:
• Soil Erosion
Deforestation makes soil prone to erosion by agents such as wind and water. The roots
of trees hold the particles of soil together thus, preventing the fertile top soil from being
carried away. Soil erosion leads to loss of productivity of the land due to loss of mineral
nutrients and soil microorganisms
• Destruction of animal habitats
Apart from domesticated animals and marine and freshwater animals, all other animals
need forests as their habitats. These forests do not only provide a place for the animals
to roam but also provide their food and act as a source of protection from predators
through camouflage. Destruction of the animals’ habitats literally kills the animals.
• Medicinal Plants
Some trees are used as herbs. Trees such as the Cinchona have been used as treatment
against Malaria since time immemorial. Destruction of these forests leads to destruction
of medicinal plants that could be used as treatment for various ailments.
• Trees act as windbreakers
Absence of trees allows strong winds and storms to do great damage.
• Greenhouse effect and global warming
Nature balances the flow of energy and nutrients. Forests play a very vital role in these
cycles, e.g., the carbon cycle where deforestation causes carbon dioxide to remain in the
atmosphere. Accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere acts as a blanket that
traps long wave radiation of heat and prevents it from escaping the surface of the earth
back into the atmosphere. This phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect. The
trapped radiation is converted into heat. This heat causes global warming. Destruction
of forests also causes modification of climate of an area mostly leading to desertification
and aridity.
Deforestation in Haiti
Haiti is the poorest country in the western hemisphere, with four out of five of its people living
in abject poverty. One reason is that its forests have been cut down, and not replanted, and so
its soil has eroded away. Forests used to cover over nine tenths of Haiti: now only 1–2 per cent
remains densely forested.
About 85 per cent of the country is mountainous and the soil hard to hold in place once the trees
are gone. The heavy daily rains of the five-month-long wet season form brown muddy torrents that
carry massive amounts of topsoil out to sea. Many slopes have been losing over three centimetres
of topsoil a year for decades, leaving near-barren bedrock or poor soil behind. The people find
it hard to grow crops.
The erosion also wreaks havoc downstream. Sediment fills streams, rivers and lakes, decimating
fish stocks, and clogging irrigation systems in the productive coastal plains. It pours into the
ocean, damaging marine life and the Haitian fishing industry. And the water runs much faster
off the bare slopes into the sediment-filled rivers and streams causing ever-worsening floods (see
www.caribzones.com).
People are being taught to understand how deforestation leads to environmental and economic
hardships.
The Way Forward

The world has come to the realization that present developmental trends cannot continue without
irreparable harm to the environment. Many complex issues must be addressed in the drive toward
sustainability – financial aid, environmentally sound technology, gender issues, and the like. Also,
since it is recognized that all nations have a responsibility for the health of the world, questions
of sovereignty and the right to decide how a nation’s resources will be utilized are raised.
As in any developmental effort, people occupy a central position. For sustainable development
to become a reality, people must become subjects and not objects of their development.
Other Challenges for the Region

Economic Vulnerability – the economies in the region are tied to those of developed countries,
which make our islands more susceptible to external shocks. One way in which the economies
of the region are linked to those of the North is through trade agreements. Hence, the World
Trade Organization’s recent change in the trading agreement with respect to bananas has affected
countries such as Saint Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, and Dominica.
Economic Diversification – Caribbean countries have historically tended to be focused on one or two
main sectors for income, employment and foreign exchange. For example, Trinidad and Tobago
is known for its oil, Jamaica for its tourism and the smaller islands for agricultural production
such as bananas and cocoa. This concern is even more pronounced, given the issue above.
Transportation – the problems associated with regional air and sea transportation continue to
impact on the cost of living of Caribbean nationals. There are increased calls for the introduction
of an inter-island ferry service as a less costly means of transportation.
Agriculture – for a number of years, the agricultural sector in the region has been declining, both
in terms of the number of persons employed in the sector and its contribution to GDP. Many
Caribbean islands have experienced rising food prices as a primary driver for inflation because of
the high food import bills. In Trinidad and Tobago, for example, the food import bill was over
TT$4 billion for 2011. Governments must now shift focus on enhancing food security for the
region in order for continued development to take place.
Crime – in recent times, islands such as Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and Guyana have been
witnessing a crime epidemic. There has been a worrying upsurge in gang membership and gang-
related crimes. The impact of crime can be felt in all spheres – social, economic and political.
Activity 20.2
1. Identify any three environmental problems issues facing the Caribbean region.
2. State two effects of increased natural disasters a named Caribbean society.
3. Describe two reasons why improved health care would lead to increased development in
the Caribbean.
4. State three types of reform, besides health and urbanization, which are necessary for the
further development of the Caribbean.
Readings:
1 . D. Reid, Sustainable Development: An Introductory Guide (London: Earthscan
Publications, 1995).
2 . J. Elliot, An Introduction to Sustainable Development (London: Routledge, 1994).
3 . Commonwealth Secretariat, Sustainable Development and an Imperative for

Environmental Protection (London: Commonwealth Secretariat Publications, 1997).
Electronic sources:
http:// www.un.org/millenniumgoals
http://www.onecaribbean.org
http://www.un.org/dpcsd/earthsummit
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index.asp
http://www.nando.net/prof/caribe/caribbean.religions.html http://www.hist.unt.edu/09w-blk4.htm http://
www.yorku.ca/research/cerlac/crp/welcome.htm http://schoolsite.edex.net.uk/49/Afro-caribbean.html
http://www.stthomas.edu/www/juspce_http/rasta10.htm http://www.kheper.auz.com/topics/religion/
Rastafarianism.htm http:/ http://medalia.net/Links.html http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/vodou/
http://www.iac.net/~moonweb/NOSVT/VoodooResources.html
http://encarta.msn.com/index/conciseindex/05/0051A000.htm
http://family.jrank.org/pages/203/Caribbean-Families-Family-Structure.html http://sta.uwi.edu/ACHEA/
downloads/ACHEA 2004/Horace William
http://www.worldbank.org/
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals http://www.developmentgoals.org http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/
LUC/Papers/gkh1/chap1.htm http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/pdf/hdr04_table_5.pdf
http:www//carec.org
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http//:www.worldbank.org http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/index_indicators.cfm http://www.eclac.
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http://www.medgraphics.cam.ac.uk/shield/2002
MULTIPLE CHOICE ANSWERS
Activity 1.1
1. a) social facts d) collective conscience

b) positivism e) prerequisite
c) function
2. a) T b) T c) T d) F e) F
3. a) latency b) adaptation c) integration d) goal attainment
Activity 1.3
1. d 4. c
2. a 5. c
3. b
Activity 1.4
1. equilibrium
function
institutions
consensus
interdependence
2. a
3. a. T b. T c. T d. T e. T
Activity 1.6
1. i) Weber ii) Mills iii) Durkheim iv) Mead

2. a. F b. F c. F d. T
3. b
4. d
5. a
6. c
7. a
8. a
Activity 2.3
3. (iv)
Activity 2.4
1. d 2. c 3. b 4. c 5. d
Activity 2.7
1. d 2. c 3. c 4. c 5. a
Activity 2.8
1. b 2. b 3. b 4. d 5. b
Activity 2.11
1. c 2. c 3. a 4.b 5. b
Activity 2.12
1. d 2. a 3.c 4. a 5. a
Activity 2.14
1.b 2.c 3.c 4.c 5.c
Activity 3.3
1 a) T b) F c) F d) T e) T
Activity 4.1
a) J.S. Furnivall
b) M.G. Smith
c) E.K.Braithwaite
d) George Beckford
e) Toussaint L’Ouverture
f) Paul Bogle
Activity 4.2
a) T b) T c) F d) F e) F f)T g) T
Activity 5.2
1. b 2. a 3. c 4. d 5. b
Activity 5.5
1 a) F b) T c) F d) F e) F
Activity 6.1
2. a) T b) F c) F d) F e) T
Activity 7.2
1. a 2. c 3. c 4. c 5. b
Activity 7.4
1. c 2. d 3.b 4. c 5. d
Activity 7.5
1.c 2. c 3. d 4. a 5. c
Activity 7.10
Schooling in Capitalist America

Role Allocation
Typing
Education and Inequality
Human Capital
Activity 7.11
1. Streaming 4. Labelling
2. Distance Learning 5. Tracking
3. Role Allocation
Activity 10.1
1.d 2.c 3.a 4.d 5.d 6.c 7.a 8.a 9.c

10. b 11.b 12.c 13.c 14.d
Activity 10.2
1.d 2. b 3. c 4. a 5.c
Activity 10.3
1.b 2.d 3.c 4.c
Activity 11.1
3. a) T b) F c) F d) F e)T
Activity 12.5
1. b 2. d 3. a 4. c 5. a
Activity 12.9
1. F 2.F 3.T 4. F 5.F
Activity 12.13
1. urbanism 2. gemeinschaft 3. inverse care law
4. urbanization 5. gesellschaft
Activity 15.1
a) ii b) v c) i d) iii e) iv
Activity 16.3
1. a 2. c 3. b 4. d 5.b 6.b 7.b 8.a 9.c 10.d

Activity 17.1
a) F b) F c) T d) F e) T f) F g) T h) T
Activity 17.2
a) deviance
b) crime
c) informal social control
d) criminal justice system
e) labelling
f) the ‘medicalization’ of deviance
g) white-collar crime
h) corporate crime
i) hate crime
j) recidivism
Index
Absolute poverty: definition of, 451 Best, Lloyd: and Caribbean urbanization, 311,
Academic achievement: and gender, 248 and the plural society theory, 102
Acculturation: in the Caribbean, 112; Birth Control League: and planned parenthood, 274
definition of, 105, 112 Biodiversity Treaty, 478
Achieved status: definition of, 216 Bourgeoisie: definition of, 229
Adversity: the researcher and, 81 Bowles and Gintis: on education, 186–87
African-Caribbean: family structure, 134–35; Brathwaite, Kamau: and creolization, 243
resistance culture, 107–108, 109–10 Braithwaite, Lloyd: and social stratification in T&T,
African religions: in the Caribbean, 161–62 239–40
African retentions: and the Caribbean family, 135 Bureaucratization: description of, 373–74
Africans: in the Caribbean, 116–17, 106, 108;
eighteenth century trade in enslaved, 301 Calypso: and Caribbean resistance culture, 114–17
Age: and crime, 375; Capital, 14
distribution in the Caribbean, 312 Capital punishment:
Ageing: and family structure, 141; arguments for and against, 386;
and health, 412 description and use of, 386
Agenda 21, 478 Capitalism: and competition for scarce positions,
AIDS: and family structure, 151; 289;
teenagers and, 156 and poverty, 450
American Birth Control League: and planned Caribbean: age distribution in the, 312;
parenthood, 294 ageing in the, 412;
Amin, Samir: classification of economics, 353–54 bureaucratization in the, 404–405; consumption
Animism: definition of, 162 patterns, 324–25;
Anomie: concept of, 392 and the creole society theory, 111–13;
ANSA-McAL Psychological Research Centre: and cricket in the, 115; culture, 99–117; development
attitude surveys, 44; issues, 401–14;
and structured interviews, 48 education in the, 175–80;
Antrobus, Peggy: and interpretivism, 42 globalization and the, 116;
Ascribed meanings: definition of, 32 identity, 107;
Ascribed status: definition of, 216 Islam: in the, 163–64;
Attachment: definition of, 405 juvenile delinquency in the, 378–79;
Attitude surveys: description of, 48 language and culture in the, 106, 109–10;
Autocentric centre economy: description of the, 354 literature, 121;
and the MDGs, 398–400;
Barbados: juvenile delinquency in, 440 migration trends, 307–308;
Basic needs approach: to poverty alleviation, 457 natural disasters in the, 412;
Becker, Howard: and crime and deviance, 402 occupations in the contemporary, 298–300;
Beckford, George: and the plantation society theory, popular culture, 111–12;
109 population growth in the, 304–306, 412;
Belief: definition of, 405; population statistics, 258–60;
and religion, 161 poverty in the, 425–26; religions, 160–66;
resources, 323; Commitment: definition of, 405

social stratification in the, 222–33; Common-law unions: description of, 145–46
sociology, 17–19; Communication: definition of, 32
tertiary education in the, 194–95; Communist Manifesto, The, 14
tourism, 374; Community: and internal social control, 417
under-nourishment in the, 315; Commuting: definition of, 264
urbanization in the, 371–73; Companionship: the family and, 133–34
and white-collar crime, 433–35 Competition for scarce positions: and population
Caribbean Community (CARICOM): population growth, 289
growth in, 329; Comte, Auguste: and positivism, 41; sociology
population statistics, 280 pioneer, 7, 10
Caribbean kinship: ethnic diversity and, 143–47 Conditional cash transfer (CCT) programmes: and
Carnival: Caribbean culture and, 114, 119 poverty alleviation, 458
Case studies: description of, 63 Conflict theory: of crime, 386, 398–400; definition
Caste system: and stratification, 223–24 of, 13–14, 30; and education, 171–72; and
Censuses: description of, 271 religion, 157–59; and social stratification, 214
Central tendency: measurement of, 43–44 Conformity: definition of, 189, 394
Centre for Ethnic Studies (UWI): and population, Consent: the participant and informed, 81
317 Consumption patterns: in the Caribbean, 342
Child abuse: changes in family structure and, Convergent cultural evolution: definition of, 105
152–55; description of, 441 Corporal punishment: arguments for and against,
Child and Youth Health: Action, Research and 429; description of, 429
Advocacy, 154 Corporate crime: in the Caribbean, 435; definition
Child rearing: in the Caribbean, 146–47 of, 433
Chinese: in the Caribbean, 108 Craig, Susan: and M.G. Smith’s thesis, 111
Christianity: in the Caribbean, 162 Creolization: Caribbean, 111
Chronic poverty: definition of, 447 Creole society theory: description of the, 112–13
Clarke, Edith: and Caribbean family structure, 144; Cricket: in the Caribbean, 122
and Caribbean sociology, 19 Crime: characteristics of, 390; classification
Class system: and crime, 376; description of, 217 of, 371–74; concepts and theories, 331–56;
Classism: examples of, 6 conflict perspective on, 398–99; definition of,
Classroom organization: education and, 203 334–35; and development, 413; and deviance,
Climate Change: description of, 475; 377; differences between deviance and, 390;
and Agriculture, 475; differential association and, 403–404, 349–50;
and Coastal zones, 476; Durkheim and, 392–93; elite, 372; Erikson and,
and Human health, 475, 395; ethnicity and, 375–76; gender and, 375;
and Human settlements, 475–76; index, 45; lower-class delinquency and, 350–52;
and Water resources, 476 Marx and 399, personal, 371; property, 371; and
Closed stratification: definition of, 223 society, 371–80; definition of, 389; theories on,
Cloward, R: and the differential opportunity theory, 391–412; and urbanization, 404
407–408 ‘Crime and Violence in T&T ’: UNICEF-funded
Club of Rome: and the neo-Malthusian population study, 337
theory, 289–90 Criminal justice system: and social control, 362–65
Cohen, Albert: and the subculture of delinquency, Critical poverty: definition of, 419
406–407 Cross-sectional studies: description of, 71–72
Colonialism: and culture, 105–107 Crude birth rate: description of, 241
Index | 511
Crude death rate: description and calculation of the, Descriptive surveys: description of, 48
243 Deviance: characteristics of, 387; concepts and
Counterculture: definition of, 87–88, 89, 97 theories, 331–56; crime and, 377; definition of,
Cult: definition of, 153–54 387; dysfunctions of, 389; functions of, 388–89;
Cultural assimilation: description of, 94 typology, 339
Cultural anthropology: description of, 16 Development: definition of, 386; obstacles to, 340
Cultural change: causes of, 100 Development indicators: description of, 357–58
Cultural evolution: description of, 96 Differential association: and crime, 403–404, 406
Cultural lag: description of, 99 Discipline of sociology: development of the, 10–11
Cultural diffusion: description of, 100–101 Distance learning: and education, 205–207
Cultural relativism: description of, 86–87, 97 Documents: in qualitative research, 64–65
Cultural resistance: description of, 340–41 Domestic migration: definition of, 245
Cultural universals: definition of, 82–83, 97 Domestic violence: definition of, 440–41; family
Cultural variations: description of, 91–97 structure and, 151–52
Culture: Caribbean, 99–117; and change, 93–96; Dominant culture: description of, 91
characteristics of, 81–82; and colonialism, Dominican Republic: marital status of women
105–107; definition of, 79–80, 96; functions of, (1991, 1996), 141
82; and globalization, 123; and identity, 79–89, Douglas, J.W.B.: longitudinal study, 70
107; levels of, 96–97; perspectives on, 95–96; Dramaturgy, 14; description of, 33–34
plantation society and, 106 Drug abuse: crime and, 438
Culture change: definition of, 97 Durkheim, Emile: and crime, 392–93; and the
Culture shock, 84–85 functions of education, 182; and the functions of
Custodial sentencing: aims of, 363; alternatives to, religion, 165; sociology pioneer, 7, 8, 10
364; juvenile delinquency and, 378
Cumulative: definition of, 21 Early childhood development (ECD) projects: and
poverty alleviation, 458
Dahrendorf, Ralf: and Marxism, 14; and sociology, East Indians: in the Caribbean, 108–109, 145–46;
24 culture of, 118
Data gathering tools, 46–47 Economic stagnation: description of, 340
Davis, Kingsley: and education, 183: and social Economics: description of, 18; and development,
stratification, 225–28 413
Deforestation: consequences of, 485; definition of, Education, 180–207; in the Caribbean, 191–95;
484; in Haiti, 485–86 definition, 180–82; and equality, 204–205,
Delinquency: subculture of, 406–407 217; and gender, 200–203; and globalization,
Demographic transition theory: Caribbean 206–207; and internal social control, 359; and
perspective of the, 299–303; criticisms of the, mobility, 183–84, 217; and poverty alleviation,
303–304; description of the, 295–98; evaluation 429; and social stratification, 217–18; and
of the, 298–99; and population control, 321; technology, 203–204; theoretical perspectives of,
stages of, 300–303 182–90
Denomination: definition of, 163 Elite: crime, 433; definition of, 220
Dependency ratio: definition and calculation of, Empirical: definition of, 22
265–66 Emigration rate: calculation of the, 263
Dependency theory: neo-Marxist, 352–54 Emotional abuse: description of, 440
Dependent peripheral economy: description of the, Endogamy: definition of, 134
354 Environment: definition of, 474
Equality: and education, 197 Gans, Herbert J.: and poverty, 450
Equilibrium: description of, 28–29 Garfinkel, Harold: and ethnomethodology, 32; and
Erikson: and crime, 395 interpretivism, 37
Estate system: definition of, 225 Garvey, Marcus: and the Rastafarian movement,
Ethics: and research, 80–82 114–16; 177
Ethnic diversity: and Caribbean kinship, 143–47 Gender: and crime, 375; development, 478–79; and
Ethnicity: and crime, 436–37; definition of, 207; education, 200–202, 231–32; and health, 471;
and population, 312–13, 317–18; race and, and occupation, 318; and stratification, 222; and
220–22 sex, 222
Ethnocentrism: definition of, 93–94, 104 Gender roles: family and, 132, 138–40
Ethnomethodology, 15; description of, 32–33 Gender stratification: description of, 247–48,
Eugenicist Movement: population theory, 293–94 230–31
Evolutionary theories: early, 349 German Ideology, The, 14
Explanatory surveys: description of, 49 Global population: growth trends in the, 323–26
Extended families: description of, 130 Globalization: and the Caribbean, 123; and culture,
External control: description of, 420–22 98–99; definition of, 101, 105, 355–56; and
education, 203–204
Family, 121–47; companionship and the, 133–34; Goffman, Erving: and dramaturgy, 32; and
definition of, 128, 140; and gender, 147–49; and the interactionist perspectives, 14, 31; and
internal social control, 358–59; patterns, 136– interpretivism, 41
38; and rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents, Gunder Frank, Andre: dependency theory, 352–53
379; theoretical perspectives on, 132; types,
129–32 Haiti: marital status of women in (1994, 2000),
Family Land: and Caribbean sociology, 19 130; voodoo in, 115, 164–65
Family planning: definition of, 326–28 Health: and Caribbean development, 410–12;
Family structure: ageing and, 150; changes in, definition of, 461; ethnicity and, 472; gender
149–50 and, 471; nutrition and, 469–70; social class and,
Father: Caribbean family and the role of the, 144–45 470–71; theoretical perspectives, 463–66
Feminism: Branches of Feminism: Liberal; Marxist; Hinduism: in the Caribbean, 174
Radical, 38; definition of, 37; feminist perspective Hirschi, Travis: and the social control theory,
in Sociology, 37 404–405
Feminist theories: and deviance, 401; and family, HIV: and family structure, 141; teenagers and, 146
137–38; and gender, 208; and religion, 157 History: description of, 17
Feminization: of the teaching profession, 249 Homogenous societies: definition of, 103
Fertility control: description of, 337–39; and Horowitz, M: and the plantation society theory, 109
development, 339 Housing: and urbanization, 372
Fertility rate: description and calculation of the, Hudman: and the demographic transition theory,
259–61 295–305
Firestone, Shulamith: and fertility control, 337–39 Human Capital Theory (HCT): definition, 193
Framework Convention on Climate Change, 478 Human Development (HD): definition of, 193
Functional perquisites: four, 11 Human Development Index (HDI): description of
Functionalism, 14, 26–27: and crime, 337, 340–41; the, 273–74
and education, 169–71; and the family, 133; and
religion, 155–56; and social stratification, 211–14 Ideal culture: definition of, 91, 104
Functions: description of, 26 Identity: culture and, 86–105, 118
Index | 513
Ideology: and social change, 102 Labelling theory: and crime, 402–403; and
Illness: definition of, 461 education, 173–74
Immigration rate: calculation of the, 263 Land use: changes in, 291
Imprisonment: arguments against, 423 Language: Caribbean culture and, 112
Incidence: definition of, 462 Law of diminishing marginal returns: and
Independence: and Caribbean education, 193–95 population growth, 284–85
Independent invention: definition of, 105 Law of necessity: and population growth, 284–85
Index crimes: definition of, 432 Legal system: and external social control, 420
Indigenous people: Caribbean, 107–109 Lewis, Oscar: and the culture of poverty, 448–49
Industrialization: definition of, 370, 348 Life expectancy: description and calculation of the,
Infant mortality rate: description and calculation of 262, 273
the, 262 Limits to growth theory, 289–90
Innovation: definition of, 101, 394 Literature: Caribbean, 121
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs): description of, Longitudinal studies: description of, 70
82 Lower-class delinquency: crime and, 409–10
Interaction: concept of, 32
Interactionist perspective, 14–15, 31–34; on crime, Malinowski: theory of religion, 166–67
401; on education, 187–90 Malthus, Thomas: and fertility control, 338;
Interculturation: definition of, 101 population theory, 283–86
Interdependence: definition of, 28 Marital status: of women in the Dominican
Internal control: definition of, 417–19 Republic (1991, 1996), 141; in Haiti (1994,
International culture: definition of, 104 2000), 140; in Jamaica (1993, 2000), 140; in
Interpretation: definition of, 32 Mexico (1991, 1996), 141
Interpretive sociology: concept of, 14 Marriage: in East Indian families, 145; rates in the
Interpretivism: definition of, 41 Caribbean, 171
Involvement: definition of, 405 Maroons: and resistance culture, 115
Islam: in the Caribbean, 173 Marx, Karl: conflict theory, 13, 30; population
theory, 266–69; and poverty, 420–21; and
Jackson: and the demographic transition theory, religion, 157; and social class, 217, 203, 214–17;
295–96 sociology pioneer, 9
Jamaica: demographic transition in, 299–301; Marxism, 13, 14
Kumina in, 165; marital status of women Material culture: definition of, 87, 104
in (1993, 2000), 140; migration from, Matrifocal family: the Caribbean, 146
309; population growth rate in, 304–305; Mead, George Herbert: and the interactionist
Rastafarianism in, 177–79; teenage pregnancy in, perspectives, 14, 31
155–56 Men: family and the role of, 148–49
Juvenile delinquency: and crime, 377–79; definition Meritocracy: neo-Marxist perspective on, 198
of, 377 Merton, Robert: criticisms of, 394; deviance
‘Juvenile Justice in Barbados: A View to the Future’, typology, 395; sociology pioneer, 12; strain
379 theory, 393–94
Mexico: marital status of women in (1994, 2000),
Kibbutzim: family type, 125 141
Kumina: in Jamaica, 174 Micro credit and insurance initiatives: and poverty
alleviation, 458
Labour market: and urbanization, 372 Middle-ground adaptation: definition of, 189
Middle range studies, 70–72 Objectivity: definition of, 46

Migration: and family structure, 149; definition Observational studies: description of, 60
of, 262–64; and population change, 330–34; Occupations: in the contemporary Caribbean,
trends, 307–309; and urbanization, 403. See 320–22; and ethnicity, 317–18; and gender, 318;
also Emigration and Immigration. population and, 294–95; and race, 317–18
Miller, Walter: and lower-class delinquency, 409–10 Official statistics: description of, 51–52
Mobility: and education, 197–98; and social Ogburn, William: and cultural lag, 99–100
stratification, 218–19. See also Social mobility Ohlin, L: and the differential opportunity theory,
and vertical mobility 349–50
Modern family: description of the, 135 Open stratification, 223
Modern thinking: the change from traditional to, Optimum population: definition of, 339
7–8, 389–90 Organized crime: definition of, 433
Modernization: definition of, 348, 350–52; theory, Orisha: in T&T, 176
390
Mohammed, Patricia: and interpretivism, 58 Parsons, Talcott: and the role of the school, 183; and
Moore, Wilbert: and social stratification, 225–28 social change, 348; sociology pioneer, 11; and
Multiculturalism: description of, 98 status, 216; theory of religion, 156
Multilinear evolutionary theories, 349 Participant observation: description of, 60–62
Multistage sampling: description of, 75 Pattern variables, 11
Murdock, G.P.: cross-sectional study, 72; and the Personal crimes: definition of, 432
family, 128, 130–31 Phenomenology, 14; description of, 33
Music: Caribbean, 119–20; and culture, 108 Physical abuse: description of, 440
My Mother Who Fathered Me: and Caribbean family Planned Parenthood (PP): and population growth,
structure, 135; and Caribbean sociology, 18 294
Plantation society: and Caribbean family structure,
National Task Force for Crime Prevention 146; and culture, 106; and social stratification,
(Barbados): and juvenile delinquency, 439 245; theory, 109
Natural disasters: description of, 316–66; impact of, Plural society: thesis, 109, 110, 245
474 Pocomania. See Kumina
Nayar: family type, 131 Policy considerations: changes in family structure
Neo-Malthusian theory: on population, 289–95 and, 151
Neo-Marxist: and meritocracy, 198; Political science: description of, 17
perspective on education, 185 Pollution: air 478–81; land, 483–84; noise, 482–83;
Non-conformity: among pupils, 189 water, 481–82
Non-direct observation: description of, 62–63 Poor: categories of the, 453
Non-material culture: definition of, 87, 99 Popular culture: Caribbean, 118–19
Non-probability sampling: definition of, 76 Population: age, 308–10, 334; and change,
Non-representative sampling: description of, 78 329–35; definition of, 68; and development in
North American Caribbean Teachers’ Association the Caribbean, 320–27; and ethnicity, 312–13;
(NACTA): and attitude surveys, 48 occupation, 316–17; pyramids, 308–309; and
Nuclear families: description of, 129, 149 religion, 314–16; and sex composition, 311–12
Nutrition: and health, 467 Population growth: adverse effects of, 291; definition
and calculation of, 264–65; in Jamaica, 304–305;
Oakley: and the feminist perspective on family, 132 planned parenthood and, 294–95; rates and
Objective: definition of, 23 trends, 323–35, 301–303; and urbanization, 403
Index | 515
Population policy: analysis, 343–45 Relative poverty: definition of, 447

Population pyramid: description of, 308 Reliability: definition of, 46
Population statistics: description of, 270–73; for the Religion, 159–69; in the Caribbean, 171–77;
English-speaking Caribbean, 278–81 conflict perspective on, 157–58; definition of,
Population studies, 257–81; basic concepts in, 159–60; features of, 160–61; forms of, 163–64;
258–62 and internal social control, 359–60; sociological
Population theories, 283–304 explanations of, 165–69; types of, 161–62
Positivism: definition of, 36 Reproductive functions: and the family, 134
Post-emancipation: education in the Caribbean, 178 Research: ethical issues in, 80
Poverty: definitions of, 418; measurement of, Reserve army of labour: and population growth, 287
422–23; rural, 426, 427; theoretical perspectives Resistance culture: African-Caribbean, 114, 116–17
on, 419–23; urban, 426, 427; and youth, 425 Resources: Caribbean, 340
Poverty eradication: global, 440; policies, 446 Retreatism: definition of, 394
Practicality: definition of, 46 Rewards: and social control, 420
Prayer: and religion, 150 Reddock, Rhoda: and Caribbean sociology, 19–20
Prevalence: definition of, 462 Ritual: religion and, 160
Primary occupations: description of, 320 Ritualism: definition of, 394
Privacy rights: participants’, 81 Rights approach: to poverty alleviation, 457
Probability sampling: definition of, 68, 69–70 Rio Declaration, 478
Proletariat: definition of, 217 Roberts, George: and demographic transition in
Property crimes: definition of, 432 Jamaica, 299–305
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, The, 10 Rostow, W.W.: growth theory, 304; and social
Pryce, Ken: use of case studies, 61 change, 351
Psychology: description of, 17 Rural poverty, 455–57
Punishment: and social control, 421 Rubenstein, Hymie: and Caribbean sociology, 19
Pupil-adaptation: in schools, 189 Rules of Sociological Method, The, 9
Ryan, Selwyn: and social stratification in T&T, 240
Qualitative research methods: description of, 56
Quantitative data: description of, 42–44 Safety: of the researcher and participant, 80
Quantitative research: planning for, 45–52 Same-sex marriages: family types and, 131
Quaternary occupations: description of, 321 Sampling: description of, 74
Questionnaires, 49–51 Schutz, Alfred: and phenomenology, 33
Quinary occupations: description of, 321–22 Science: definition of, 22–24
Quota sampling: description of, 76–77 Seasonal poverty: definition of, 447
Sect: definition of, 163–64
Race: definition of, 220; and ethnicity, 220–22, 295; Secondary occupations: description of, 320–21
and occupation, 295–96; and social stratification, Secularization: and sociology, 8; definition of, 170
222–23 Self: concept of, 32, 200
Rastafarian movement: and reggae, 120–21; and Sentencing: and social control, 422–23
resistance culture, 114–15; in Jamaica, 177 Service: right to, 82
Real culture: definition of, 92, 96 Sex: composition in population studies, 289–90; and
Rebellion: definition of, 394 gender, 208
Reconstituted families: description of, 130 Sexual abuse: description of, 153, 441
Reggae: and Rastafarianism, 120–21 Sexual gratification: the family and, 133–34
Regional migration: definition of, 264 Shangoism: in T&T, 176
Simple random sampling: description of, 75 Status: definition of, 216

Simulated example: definition of, 75 Stone, Carl: and M.G. Smith’s thesis, 111
Single-parent households: description of, 131 Steel pan: and Caribbean resistance culture, 115
Skegg, Beverly: longitudinal study, 70 Strain theory, 393
Slavery: description of, 107–108, 223 Stratified random sampling: description of, 76
Smith, M.G.: and Caribbean sociology, 18; and Streaming: in education, 188
the plural society thesis, 110, 239, 245; and race Structural functional analysis: description of, 102
stratification, 238–39 Structural universals: description of, 90
Smith, R.T.: and Caribbean kinship systems, 302; Structured interviews: description of, 55–56
and Caribbean sociology, 19 Subculture: definition of, 104, 113, 347–48;
Snowballing: description of, 76 theories, 406–12
Social action theory: and the interactionist Subjective poverty, 447
perspective, 13 Subsistence poverty, 447
Social change: and development, 348; ideology and, Supernaturalism: definition of, 161
102; and modernization, 388–89 Surveys: description of, 258–60
Social class: description of, 217–18; health and, Sustainable development, 476–77
313–14; measuring, 218 Sutherland, Edwin H.: and the differential theory on
Social conflict analysis: description of, 102 crime, 403
Social control: and crime, 346–47; definition of, Symbol: concept of, 32
357; institutions of, 357–80 Symbolic interactionism, 14, 32
Social Darwinism: description of, 388 Systematic random sampling: description of, 75
Social development: concepts and theories, 346–56; Teaching: feminization of, 249
measurement of, 357–68 Technology: education and, 203–204
Social mobility: description of, 218–19; education Teenage pregnancy, 145–46
and, 231–32 Tertiary education: in the Caribbean, 248
Social pathology: description of, 139–41 Tertiary occupations: description of, 321
Social stratification, 214–19; in the Caribbean, Theism: definition, 162
237–49; consequences of, 233–34; definition of, Theoretical: definition of, 22
200–201; theories of, 225–31; types of, 223–25 Tourism: and Caribbean development, 374–78
Social surveys: types of, 48–49 Trade in enslaved Africans: eighteenth century, 115
Socialization: definition of, 25–26; and the family, Traditional thinking: the change to modern from, 8,
128; secondary, 25 389–90
Society: and crime, 381; definition of, 24 Transhumance: definition of, 264
Socio-biology: description of, 103 Transportation: and development, 380
Sociological imagination: concept of the, 7 Trinidad & Tobago (T&T): carnival in, 112;
Sociological perspectives: main, 24, 25 custody costs in, 439; education in, 180–18;
Sociological research, 40 juvenile delinquency in, 378; migration from,
Sociology: branches of, 15; in the Caribbean, 18–20; 309; orisha in, 164; social stratification in,
definitions of, 6–7; development of, 7–11; and 223–24, 230
social sciences, 17–18 Tumin, Melvin: criticism of Davis and Moore, 227
Sociology of Housework, The, 132
Spencer, Herber t: evolutionar y theor y of European Underdevelopment: definition of, 348: Gunder
society, 298; sociology pioneer, 8 Frank and, 353
Statement of Forest Principles, 478 UNICEF: and child abuse, 154
Index | 517
Unilinear evolutionary theories: description of, 349 Victimless crimes: definition of, 373
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF): and Visiting unions: description of, 143
poverty eradication, 418 Vodoo: Haitian, 176
United Nations Conference on the Environment
and Development (UNCED), 414, 415 Weber, Max: and the interactionist perspective, 13,
United Nations Conference on the Human 29; and interpretivism, 37; on Protestantism and
Environment, 414 capitalism, 168; and social class, 203, 216–17;
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): sociology pioneer, 7, 9, 22; and status, 202
and the HDI, 254–55; and poverty eradication, West Indian Royal Commission (1937): and the
418 Caribbean family, 139
United Nations Millennium Development Goals White collar crimes: characteristics of; definition of,
(MDGs), 359–68 433
University of the West Indies Distance Education Willis, Paul: use of case studies, 63
Centre (UWIDEC): and distance learning, Women: and Caribbean development, 409–10;
205–206 family and the role of, 138–40; marital status of,
Unstructured interviews: advantages of, 57–58; 130–31; occupations and, 296
disadvantages of, 59 Working class: definition of, 215
Urbanization: in the Caribbean, 333; definition of, World Commission on Environment and
264, Development, 414
World systems theory: description of the, 355
Validity: definition of, 46
Value-free: definition of, 23 Youth: poverty and, 454
Vertical mobility, 219

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Sociology

© 2013 Nasser Mustapha

Bibliography : p. – Includes index

1. Sociology – Textbooks 2. Social sciences – Textbooks

Cover and Book Design by Ian Randle Publishers

UNIT 1: THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Module 1: Sociological Concepts, Perspectives and Methods

Chapter 1: Sociology as a Discipline | 5

Chapter 2: Sociological Research | 40

Chapter 3: Culture and Identity | 86

Chapter 4: Culture in the Caribbean | 106

Module 2: Social Institutions: Family, Religion and Education

Chapter 5: The Family | 127

Chapter 6: Religion | 159

Chapter 7: Education | 180

Module 3: Social Stratification and Social Mobility

Chapter 8: Social Stratification: Concepts and Theories | 213

Chapter 9: Stratification in the Caribbean | 237

Module 1: Population and Development

Chapter 10: Introduction to Population Studies | 257

Chapter 11: Population Theories | 283

Chapter 12: Population Growth Rates and Trends | 307

Chapter 13: Population and Development in the Caribbean | 337

Chapter 14: Social Development: Concepts and Theories | 346

Chapter 15: Issues in Caribbean Development | 369

Module 2: Crime and Deviance

Chapter 17: Institutions of Social Control | 416

Chapter 18: Crime and Society | 431

Module 3: Caribbean Social Issues: Poverty, Health

Chapter 19: Poverty | 445

Multiple Choice Answers | 503

1.1 The Main Sociological Perspectives | 25

5.1 Marital Status of Women 15–49 years in Haiti (1994–95; 2000)

I am also indebted to Mr Anand Rampersad, Ms Karima Pragg, Ms Fareena Alladin, Ms Leistra

3. Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

Sociology: Some Definitions

The Sociological Imagination

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

The Three Major Founding Fathers of Sociology

Emile Durkheim (1858–1917)

He also founded the first school of sociology in France in 1887.

Karl Marx (1818–1883)

Max Weber (1864–1920)

The Development of Sociology as a Discipline

Auguste Comte (1798–1857)

Talcott Parsons (1902–1979)

Parsons’ Pattern Variables

Pattern Variables A Pattern Variables B

You will explore this topic later in this text.

Robert Merton (1910–2003)

a) Laws, beliefs and practices that constrain human behaviour. __________________

c) The part an institution plays in the maintenance of society. _________________

d) A state of common thinking attained by consensus of members of society.

e) A need of society for it to remain in existence.

2. Circle T for True or F for False after each statement.

a) Manifest functions are those intended outcomes of human conduct. T/F

b) Latent functions are the unintended outcomes of human conduct. T/F

GOAL ATTAINMENT LATENCY INTEGRATION ADAPTATION

The Conflict Theory

The Interactionist Perspective

THE BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY

1. Gerontology – the study of ageing in society.

7. Environmental Sociology – focuses on social factors influencing behaviour towards the