2

What is Circulation & Temperature Atmospheric Clouds

Weather Wind & Moisture Stability

Air Masses Fronts Thunderstorms Turbulence Airframe

Icing

Jet Stream

3
 Afectando las
actividades Es el estado de
aereas la atmosfera

Influyendo en
nuestra vida El clima es
diaria complejo

La atmosfera
cambia y se
mueve
constantemen
te

4
 Pilot Aircraft

Personal
Minimums

Environment External Pressures

5
 78% Nitrogen
21% Oxygen
1% Other Gases
260,000’
(not to scale)

A cubic foot of the

atmosphere
contains from 0-4%
water

6
7
 Standard sea-level pressure is 29.92 inches of
mercury, or about 1013 millibars.

Standard sea-level temperature is 59 degrees

Fahrenheit, or 15 degrees Celsius.

Standard rate of change in pressure is about

one inch of mercury per 1,000 foot gain in
altitude in the troposphere.

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 (not to scale)

Thermosphere
260,000’
Mesosphere
Stratosphere
160,000’

Tropopause

Troposphere
36,000’

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 Most aviation weather takes place in troposphere &
stratosphere.

The troposphere ranges from 20,000’ at the North and

South poles to 65,000’ near the equator.

The stratosphere has small temperature changes with

height except for some warming right near the top.

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11
12
 Greater
surface area

Lower surface area

Equator

Greater
surface area
13
 The earth has an
axial tilt of about
23O

Northern hemisphere Orbital path – 365 days Northern hemisphere

winter summer

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 Equator

15
 Equator

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 The angle of the Types of cloud The surface
The seasons:
sun’s rays cover being heated
•The angle •Low, stratified •Land has a •Summer
determines clouds have a greater affect produces
the heat greater effect than water. greater
density per than high Barren areas variation than
square foot cirrus clouds more than winter
forests

17
 Every physical process of weather is accompanied
by, or is the result of, a:
A. Movement of air.
B. Pressure differential.
C. Heat exchange.

Every physical process of weather is accompanied by,

or is a result of, unequal heating of the Earth’s
surface.

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19
 Equator

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 Polar

600N Ferrel

450N Hadley

00

450S

600S

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22
 Surface path

Space path

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 Surface path

Space path

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 Destination A

Destination B

Destination C

Equator

25
 N

600 Lat.

300 Lat.

Equator
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 N

Polar Easterlies
600 Lat.

Prevailing Westerlies
300 Lat.

Trade Winds

Equator
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 Polar

H Ferrel
600N
L
300N
H H Hadley

00 L L L

300S H H

L
600S
H

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 Summer Pressure Patterns

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 Winter Pressure Patterns

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 Pressure force
Low
pressure

1016

1020
Isobars Resultant wind
1024

Coriolis force
1028

High
pressure

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 Pressure force
Low
pressure

1016

1020
1024 Isobars

1028

High
pressure

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 H H

H H
33
 L

34
 L

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 Local weather
Localized
Winds
Global
move
wind
wind patterns
from
patterns
patternsare
high to
are caused
cause
lowmuch by the
pressure,
themore
earth’s very same
modified
important
overall byto
Cold air is replacing warm air in circulation patterns.
the Coriolis
forces effect
that causeweather.
pilots.
and terrain
global friction.
wind patterns.

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 Return flow

L H
Warm Cool

Sea breeze

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 Return flow

H L
Cool Warm

Land breeze

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 Upslope flow
Valley breeze

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 Down slope
flow

Mountain breeze

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 H
-250C

L
0 0C

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 -150C
Very strong winds

200 C
Warm down slope winds

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 Land Breeze Circulation flows out to the sea and
occurs at night.

Valley Breezes occur during the day in the

mountains and are upslope winds.

Katabatic Wind is descending wind caused by

inclines or mountains. They are either cold or warm
and can exceed 100 knots

Sea Breeze Circulation is an onshore flow and

occurs during the day.

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 Convective circulation patterns associated with
sea breezes are caused by:
A. Warm, dense air moving inland over the water.
B. Water absorbing and radiating heat faster
than the land.
C. Cool, dense air moving inland over the water.

Convective circulation patterns associated with sea

breezes are caused by colder, denser air, that moves
inland over the water.

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 Water
Water
Relative
Water evaporates
vapor
vapor is is
humidity invisible.
into the
expressed
relates toair.
as
the
actual
relative
water
humidity
vaporandthatasisthe
or could
dew
be present inpoint.
the atmosphere.

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 Relative Humidity by definition is “relative”

Relative Humidity relates the actual water

vapor present to that which could be present

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 Low Medium High
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 The Dewpoint is that temperature to which
air must be cooled to become 100%
saturated by water vapor already present
in the air.

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 550F
50% 75% 100%
440F
Dew Point 370F
370F

Actual Water Maximum

Vapor Possible Vapor

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 The temperature-dewpoint spread is important in
anticipating fog.

As the temperature-dewpoint spread decreases,

relative humidity increases.

At 100% humidity fog will form.

Pilots should beware when the temperature-

dewpoint spread is less than 50 C.

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 What is meant by the term dew point?
A. The temperature at which condensation and
evaporation are equal.
B. The temperature at which dew will always
form.
C. The temperature to which air must be cooled
to be saturated.
Dew point is the temperature to which air must be
cooled to be saturated.

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 Water vapor is always present in the
atmosphere.

Water is found in one of in three states as

gas, a liquid, or a solid.

As water changes from one state to another,

an exchange of heat or energy occurs.

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 Energy is contained in latent heat.

A change of state is the process of latent heat

exchange.

Latent heat exchange is a change of state through

vaporization, condensation, sublimation, melting
and freezing.

As water changes from one state to another, an

exchange of heat occurs and energy is gained
and released.
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 Gas Liquid Solid

Condensation Freezing

Evaporation Melting

Heat gained

Heat released

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 Liquid water droplets often persist and exist at
temperatures much colder than 00C.

Super cooled droplets freeze on impact with an

object.

Freezing rain can result and that can cause extreme

aircraft icing.

Cumulus clouds ranging between 0 and -15 0 C

often contain super cooled water droplets.

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 Frost forms in much the same way as dew.

Frost forms when the dew point of the

surrounding air is colder than freezing.

Water vapor sublimates directly as ice crystals or

frost rather than condensing as dew.

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 Clouds and visible moisture are parcels of air which
have reached 100% humidity.

Cooling a parcel of air increases its relative humidity.

A parcel of air has to be cooled to its dew point to

become a cloud.

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 Lifting action Air moving over Air cooled by
cooler surface radiation

Warm air

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 Cloud base = 36 = 8.2 x 1000 =
4.4 8200’

Dry air lapse Air

Warm Dewpoint lapse Temp & dewpoint converge
rate 5.40 rate 10 at about 4.40 F/1000’
F/1000’ F/1000’

Cloud base = Temp (F) - dewpoint (F) Temp=760 F dewpoint = 400 F

4.40 F *1000

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 At approximately what altitude above the surface would
the pilot expect a base of cumuliform clouds if the
surface air temperature is 82 degrees Fahrenheit and the
dew point is 38 degrees Fahrenheit?
A. 9,000 feet AGL.
B. 10,000 feet AGL.
C. 11,000 feet AGL.
Using 4.4, we calculate 10,000’ - (82-38)/4.4 = 10 x 1,000=
10,000 feet

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 Decreasing
atmospheric pressure
causes balloon to
expand

Expanding Air Cools

Anytime air rises it
expands

Average lapse rate is 20

C / 1000’

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 -210 C 16,000’
Air compresses and warms

Air expands and cools

30 C
8,000’

210 C
2,000’

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 As air expands and rises, it cools.

As air descends it compresses and warms.

These changes are adiabatic - no heat is removed

or added.

The adiabatic rate of change of temperature is

virtually fixed in unsaturated or a dry air parcel.

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 The adiabatic rate of change of temperature varies
in saturated air.

Latent heat is released through condensation

which offsets the expansion cooling process.

The saturated adiabatic rate of cooling is lower

than the dry adiabatic rate.

Air full of water vapor is going to cool at a slower

rate than a dry parcel of air will.

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 Stationary

5000’ 5000 5000

160 C 160 C 160 C
130 C 180 C 160 C

Unstable Stable lapse Neutrally stable

lapse rate rate lapse rate

310 C 310 C 310 C

310 C 310 C 310 C

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 An air mass temperature which decreases rapidly
with altitude favors instability.

An air mass temperature which changes little

with altitude tends to be stable.

An air mass temperature which increases tends

to be very stable.

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 The lapse rate is the rate of change in the
temperature with a change in altitude

Lapse rate varies from dry air of about 30 C per

1,000’ to moist adiabatic lapse rates of about 1.5 0 C
per 1,000’

Standard lapse rate is 20 C with a 1,000’ altitude gain

An unstable air is an air mass that cools more rapidly

than 20 C. for each 1,000’ altitude gain

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 Standard Temperature
lapse rate inversion

10,000’ 10,000’

5,000’ 5,000’

200C’ 00C 200C’ 00C

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 10,000’
Wind Wind Wind

5,000’ Early Morning Mid Day Evening

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 A temperature inversion would most likely result in which
of these weather conditions?
A. Clouds with extensive vertical development above the
inversion aloft.
B. Good visibility in the lower levels of the atmosphere
and poor visibility above an inversion aloft.
C. An increase in temperature as altitude is increased.
An increase in temperature as altitude is increased.

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 Clouds with
vertical
development

High clouds

Middle clouds

Low clouds

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 Cirrus Cirrocumulus

Cumulonimbus
16,500’ – 45,000’
Altostratus
Altocumulus

6,500’ – 23,000’
Stratocumulus
Stratus

6,500’

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 Cirrostratus
20,000’

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 Cirrocumulus
20,000’

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 Altostratus
6,500’ -20,000’

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 Altocumulus
6,500’ -23,000’

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 Altocumulus - Lenticulars
6,500’ -20,000’

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 Stratocumulus
6,500’

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 Stratus
6,500’

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 Cumulus
6,500’- 20,000’

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 Cumulonimbus
45,000’

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 Towering Cumulus
45,000’

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 Towering
Cumulonimbus
45,000

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 If an unstable air mass is forced upward, what type
clouds can be expected?
A. Stratus clouds with little vertical development.
B. Stratus clouds with considerable associated
turbulence.
C. Clouds with considerable vertical development and
associated turbulence.
When unstable air is forced upward, the disturbance grows.
Any resulting cloudiness shows extensive vertical
development.
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 Fog forms much the same as clouds.

When cloud bases are less than 50’ AGL, they are
officially fog.

Fog that is less than 20’ thick is called ground fog.

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 1. Advection fog
2. Radiation fog
3. Upslope fog
4. Drizzle fog
5. Steam fog

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 1. Aire humedo y tibio
moviendose sobre
superficies frias
2. Requiere briza del mar
3. Comun a lo largo de las
costas

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 1. Se encuentra en areas humedas
bajas durante las noches claras
2. Requiere vientos calmos
3. A menudo se encuentra en los rios
de los valles con aires frescos y
abundante humedad
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 1. Requiere aire humedo y estable
2. Se puede formar en vientos
moderados y fuertes bajo cielos
nublados

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 1. Formado por llovizna o lluvia
relativamente tibia cayendo sobre
aire frio.
2. Ocurre en las proximidades de
una precipitación

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 1. Aire frio y seco que se mueve sobre agua
tibia
2. Al levantarse se asemeja al humo
3. Puede provocar peligrosa turbulencia y
congelamiento a bajo nivel

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 What types of fog depend upon wind in order to
exist?
A. Radiation fog and ice fog.
B. Steam fog and ground fog.
C. Advection fog and upslope fog.

Advection fog and upslope fog.

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93
 Uniform distribution of properties
Takes on the characteristic of source region

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 Continental Polar
(Cold dry)
Marine Polar
(cool dry)
Marine Polar
(cool dry)

Marine Tropical Marine Tropical

(warm moist) (warm moist)

Continental Tropical
(Hot dry)

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UNSTABLE AIR MASS STABLE AIR MASS
Cumuliform clouds Stratiform clouds and fog

Showery precipitation Constant precipitation

Rough and bumpy Air Smooth air

Good visibility Poor visibility haze & smoke

 A stable air mass is most likely to have which
characteristic?
A. Showery precipitation.
B. Turbulent air.
C. Poor surface visibility.

Stable air mass equals smooth air, but poor visibility.

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 Cold front Warm front

Stationary Occluded
front front
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 Fronts are boundaries between air masses with these
characteristics:

Discontinuities is a change in temperature and dew point.

A change in wind speed and direction.

A front lies in a pressure trough and pressure is higher in

the cooler air, and lower in warmer air.

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 Cirrostratus

Cumulonimbus Altocumulus

Warm unstable air

Cumulus

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 Prior to Passage During Passage After Passage
Cirrus, towering Towering cumulus,
Cumulus
Clouds cumulus, cumulonimbus
cumulonimbus
Heavy showers,
Precipitation Showers hail, lightning, Light showers
thunder
Visibility Fair in Haze Poor Good

Wind SSW Variable & gusty NNW

Temperature Warm Suddenly cooler Cooler

Dewpoint High Dropping rapidly Continued drop

Pressure Falling Bottoms out, rising Rising

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 Cirrostratus

Altostratus
Warm unstable air
Nimbostratus
Altostratus

Stratocumulus

Cold dry air

103
 Prior to Passage During Passage After Passage
Cirrus, stratiform,
Stratiform Stratiform, possible
Clouds fog, possible
cumulonimbus
cumulonimbus

Moderate rain, Possible rain or

Precipitation drizzle, sleet, snow
Possible drizzle
showers

Visibility Very poor Poor Fair in haze

Wind SSE Variable SSW

Temperature Cold to cool Rising steadily Remaining warm

Dewpoint Rising steadily Steady Rising then steady

Slight rise then
Pressure Falling Becoming steady
falling

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 Warm Air

Nimbostratus
Stratocumulus

Cumulus

Cold air

105
 Embedded
Warm Air cumulonimbus

Altostratus

Nimbostratus
Stratocumulus

Cumulus
Fog

Cold air

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 Prior to Passage During Passage After Passage
Nimbostratus, Nimbostratus,
Clouds Cirrus, stratiform towering altostratus,
cumulonimbus cumulus

Light to moderate
Precipitation Light to heavy Light to heavy
then clearing

Visibility Poor Poor Improving

Wind SE to S Variable W to NW
Cold Occl: Falling Cold Occl: Colder
Temperature Cold to cool
Warm Occl: Rising Warm Occl: Milder
Dewpoint Steady Slight drop Rising then steady
Cold Occl: Drop
Pressure Falling Becoming steady
Warm Occl: Rise
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 Cold Air

108
 Warm Air

109
 Warm air
aloft

Cold Air

Cold Air

110
 Cold air

Warm air

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112
113
 The boundary between two different air masses is
referred to as a:
A. Frontolysis.
B. Frontogenesis.
C. Front.

The boundary line between two different air masses is a

front.

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 Tops to
60,000’

115
 Extensive vertical development

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 Up to the Cumulus mammatus
base of
thunderstorm
clouds

117
 Cumulus stage Mature stage Dissipating stage

118
 Dissipating stage
Mature stage
Cumulus stage

119
 Mature stage Dissipating stage

Cumulus stage

120
 Anvil

Wind shear Wind shear

turbulence turbulence

Storm movement

Roll cloud

First gust

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 During the life cycle of a thunderstorm, which stage
is characterized predominately by downdrafts?
A. Cumulus.
B. Dissipating.
C. Mature.

Downdrafts characterize the dissipating stage of the

thunderstorm cell and the storm dies rapidly.

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 Strong downdraft

Increasing Increasing
tailwind headwind

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 Where does wind shear occur?
A. Only at higher altitudes.
B. Only at lower altitudes.
C. All altitudes and in all directions.

Wind shear may be associated with either a wind shift or a

wind speed gradient at any level in the atmosphere.

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 Ice can form on any exposed surface during flight
with visible moisture at or below 00 C.

Ice increases drag and weight, reduces thrust, lift

and performance.

As little as ½ inch of ice can reduce aircraft

performance by 50%.

Super cooled water is the most dangerous ice and

can build to 2-3 inches in just 5 minutes exposure.

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127
128
 In which environment is aircraft structural icing most
likely to have the highest accumulation rate?
A. Cumulus clouds with below freezing
temperatures.
B. Freezing drizzles.
C. Freezing rain.

Freezing rain gives you the most likely and the highest
accumulation rate of icing.

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130
131
 Tropical
60,000’
Tropopause

Jet core

40,000’

Polar
Tropopause

20,000’
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 1,000 – 3,000 miles

3,000’-7,000’

100-400
Miles

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