A Weather School Online Course

Pilot’s Guide
to Skew-T’s

Dr. Simon Keeling

1
“Red lines and blue lines,
Skew-T Basics that’s all you need to know”

1
The Blank Skew-T

The skew-T fundamentally shows a vertical profile of

temperature and dewpoint, as well as winds through the
atmosphere for one particular location.

You can choose which locations to view the skew-T for, but
essentially think of it as a vertical 3-D profile of the air above
your head, rather than the more traditional 2-D picture gleaned
from a chart such as Form 214 or 215.

We’ll take a look at what information the skew-T contains.

ii
Height (millibars)

The skew-T is essentially graph paper onto which we drawn

temperature, dewpoint and wind information

Up the left hand side of the skew-T are marked the fixed
heights (in millibars of hectopascals - both scales are the
same).

Across the bottom is marked temperature in degrees Celsius.

From the temperature scale you can read off temperature and

dewpoint.

iii
 The first markings on the skew-T diagram
Isobars are solid
horizontal lines are the isobars.

Don’t think of these as the same as isobars

drawn on a surface chart. All they show is
that the height at this point is, say, 300mb
or that point is 500mb.

Remember that in the lower levels of the

atmosphere 1mb = 30ft (10m)
approximately.

iv
 Next are the isotherms.
Isotherms are
diagonal lines
On these are plotted the temperature and
dewpoint at various heights.

Remember that everything to the right of

the 0C isotherm is above freezing and
everything to the left is below.

This makes it easy to identify the height of

the freezing level when flying.

v
 The path a parcel of dry air would take as it
The dry adiabatic
lapse rate (the cools is marked on the skew-T as the dry
temperature at which adiabatic lapse rate line, or DALR.
the atmosphere
cools in dry air) is 3C
per 1000ft or 10C per These lines are printed so that we can
kilometre.
assess the rate at which the air is cooling
with height on any given day, and after
some practice can help determine the
stability of the air.

Stability can indicate the risk of showers.

vi
 If a parcel of air is saturated (the water
The saturated
adiabatic lapse rate vapour has condensed) it doesn’t cool as
(or the air at which quickly as dry air. The latent heat released
wet air cools) is
about 2C per 1000ft
by condensing slightly warms the air and
or 6C per kilometre. decreases the rate at which temperatures
cool with height.

This is the saturated adiabatic lapse rate,

or SALR. It is marked on the skew-T to the
right of the dry adiabatic lapse rate lines.

vii
 There are other lines marked on the skew-T
The blank skew-T
chart shows many but we don’t need to concern ourselves
lines, but you should with those.
now understand
what the main lines
are. For now just recognise that the blank
skew-T as shown above is just a piece of
graph paper onto which we plot weather
information.

This underlying chart does not change, the

information plotted on it does change.

viii
Actual or Forecast Skew-T’s?

There are two types of skew-T diagram available to the pilot.

One of these gives a statement of what conditions are currently
like (or at least were like when the observation was made). The
other is a forecast of the likely atmospheric state at some point
in the future.

Whilst there is no doubt that the actual skew-T is a useful tool

for knowing the current state of the atmosphere, it is the
forecast skew-T which is of most use to the pilot and so it is
these which will be using in the rest of this book.

A word of caution though. Remember that forecast skew-T’s

are exactly that, a forecast. They are based on exactly the
same model data that you will see on other forecast weather
charts. Because of the availability of the data they are usually
produced from the GFS model and will be subject to the limits
of that model.

Having said the above, they are extremely useful which is why
will be using them throughout this book.

ix
2
“The harder they blow, the
Forecasting winds more we know”

10
Using the skew-T to forecast winds

The skew-T contains many useful features, one of which is the

forecast of winds at many flight levels.

Winds are listed on the right hand side of the skew-T diagram
and are representative of the wind direction and speed for the
time to which the skew-T refers.

Note that this time may be based on real data in the case of an
actual skew-T (where a balloon has been released into the
atmosphere and real-time measurements made), or it may be
based on forecast data for which a time of validity for the
forecast is shown.

The long stick points to the direction from which the wind is
blowing. The wind speed are shown by the ‘feathers’ attached
to the long stick. Half a feather is for 5 knots/mph/kmh and a
whole feather is 10 knots/mph/kmh. A pendant reflects 50
knots/mph/kmh.

11
 Being able to forecast the wind for a
Wind direction and
speed for various specific location and time for your flight is
levels are shown on just one of the many uses a skew-T has.
the right hand side of
the Skew-T
Read the direction and speed from the right
hand scale on the skew-T.

Remember the long stick points in the

direction to which the wind is coming from
at that level, the feathers refer to the speed
of the wind in whatever units are shown.

12
 A useful tool is available from
Grouped skew-T’s
for various times Weatheronline.co.uk and is shown above.
show how winds are The tool enables forecast skew-T’s to be
forecast to change
over time.
shown in a panel format.

The above shows a time progression of

skew-t’s in three hour steps. Winds are
shown down the right hand side of each.

There is a further discussion of where to

find skew-T’s later in this book.

13
3
Forecasting Cloud Bases & Tops

14
Using the skew-T to forecast cloud bases &
tops

The skew-T really comes into it’s own for pilots when we want
to make a prediction of what cloud bases and tops may be.

By using the temperature and dew-point lines, and making an

assessment as to how close together they are at any point, we
can estimate the heights of cloud as well as how much cloud
there may be.

Meteorologists use many rules of thumb when forecasting

cloud from skew-T diagrams, after all, we are dealing with
forecast diagrams so they will not be perfect. However, they
will give a reasonable indication of what conditions pilots may
encounter.

A word of caution here. Models are not good at forecasting

very low cloud so do keep this in mind. You should of course
have an idea as to whether an airmass is very wet or not and
so it is usually the case that you will b able to spot when the
skew-T is, or could be in error.

15
 You can determine cloud bases by looking
Look for where
dewpoint (blue line) for where dewpoint and temperature
and temperature (red become close.
line) come together
to ascertain cloud
base In the above example temperature and
dewpoint get closer together as air lifts from
the surface. The sharp point of there they
become closest being cloud base. The base
is at 900mb. Surface pressure is around
1020mb and so cloud base is around
1020-900 = 120mbx30ft = 3600ft approx.

16
 Cloud tops can be estimated by looking at
Where dewpoint and
temperature lines where dewpoint and temperature lines part.
part indicates cloud In the above example this point is a around
tops
850mb.

Given a surface pressure of approximately

1020mb, this allows us to calculate
1020-850= 170mbx30ft =5100ft approx.

We have now calculated cloud bases and

tops.

17
4
Forecasting Cloud Amounts

18
Using the skew-T to forecast cloud amount

As well as using the skew-T to forecast cloud bases, tops and

depth, we can also predict how much cloud there is likely to
be.

By getting used to quickly viewing the skew-T and the gap

between temperature and dewpoint, the pilot can create a
vision in the minds-eye as to how much of each cloud there will
be at differing levels.

I’d recommend the panel charts on Page 12 once again as

looking at these encourages a quick overview of te skew-T’s
and helps to asses quickly how much cloud is likely to occur.
They also help with showing how cloud amounts will evolve
over time.

19
 It is the difference between dewpoint and
The difference
between dewpoint temperature at any level which tells us how
and temperature tells much cloud there is likely to be.
us how much cloud
there will be
In the above example temperature at
950mb the temperature is 8C and the
dewpoint is 4C. This gives a difference of
4C.

Such a difference equates to about 4/8ths

(or oktas) of the sky being covered by
cloud, termed ‘broken’ or ‘BKN’ in the
METAR and TAF. 20
Forecasting cloud amounts

Here are what the difference between temperature and

dewpoint tell us about likely cloud amounts:

Temp/Dew Spread Amount Code

0 to 1C 8/8 Overcast
1 to 2C 6-7/8 Broken
2 to 3C 5-6/8 Broken
3 to 4C 4-5/8 Broken
4 to 5C 3-4/8 Scattered
5 to 6C Less 3/8 Few to Scattered

Once the temperature difference is greater than 7C this implies

either that there is either no cloud or very little.

Be aware that surface dewpoint and temperatures can be the

same, especially early in the morning ot late at night. If this is
the case then this can indicate fog.

21
5
Forecasting Cloud Type

22
Using the skew-T to forecast cloud type

It’s almost as if the skew-T has no limits when it comes to

being useful to pilots.

The shape that the temperature and dewpoint traces make on

the skew-T reveals what sort of cloud can be expected at that
location and for that time.

I have found that pilots really struggle with cloud names and
types so my Pocket Weather Forecaster book is available with
plenty of pictures and explanations of the cloud types you
really need to know.

By identifying the type of cloud you will be able to build an

excellent picture of how your flight will look from inside the
cockpit.

The chart opposite shows the main types of cloud. Y0u can
download it within the course under ‘Forecasting Cloud Types
from the Skew-T’

23
 Cloud Types Identifier

Cirrus - High, wispy cloud Altostratus - Medium cloud

Nimbostratus - Rain Stratus or Fog

Cumulus - Showers Cumulonimbus - Thunder

24
6
Forecasting Hazards

25
Using the skew-T to spot weather hazards

Certain skew-T shapes can be used to spot the risk of severe

weather.

As a pilot you should of course have made reference to Forms

214/215 if you are planning to fly today, and also be aware of
the TAF for the area you will be flying in.

You should always take notice of the official forecast as this is

the forecast which makes you legal to fly.

However. if you know, for instance, that thunderstorms are

possible, then it is nice to be able to predict the chances of
them and increase your understanding of the PROB statements
used in the TAFs.

Likewise, fog formation is a feature which can be spoteed from

the skew-T. The following pages show the hazards of
thunderstorms, fog and icing. Of course there are more.

26
 FOG

The example above shows an actual

Look for the
inversion in the skew-T diagram for Nottingham on a spring
lowest 10’s of morning, following a warm day.
millibars. If the air
above is dry, it can
indicate shallow fog Notice the inversion at the bottom of the
and mist.
skew-T. This is the classic signal for fog
formation.

As the air is dry, shallow fog or mist is likely,

if it were more moist then classic fog would
occur.

27
 THUNDERSTORMS

This forecast skew-T diagram highlights the

A skew-T which risk of heavy showers and thunderstorms
‘leans back’ is
breaking out.
indicative of a risk of
thunderstorms. The
grey line to the right Notice the familiar shape of a
of the temperature
shows unstable air.
cumulonimbus (thunder) cloud. The grey
line to the right of the temperature line
shows the forecast path a parcel of air will
take if it rises.

When right of the temperature line it shows

that at that point the atmosphere is
unstable.
28
 ICING

The above example occurred ahead of a

There are many
forms of icing, but warm front.
the above can lead to
freezing rain. Note
the inversion below
The warm air front at the warm front can be
warm air ahead of a seen as a ‘nose’ around 850mb. The air
warm front
below this level is much colder and is close
to 0C below 900mb.

This implies that any rain falling from the

frontal cloud would be freezing in the low
layers causing extensive icing.

29
7
Where to find Skew-T’s

30
Finding skew-T’s online

There are four main sites where you can find forecast skew-T
information:

www.Weatheronline.co.uk
Good for rapid access to skew-T’s for fixed locations in the UK
and Europe.

www.Wetterzentrale.de
Less easy to navigate but again good for fixed location based
skew-T’s across the UK and Europe.

www.Wxcharts.eu
Excellent for accessing forecast skew-T’s for any location
worldwide, just click on the map.

http://rasp.stratus.org.uk/app/soundings/
A little trickier to use but excellent for high quality skew-T’s for
locations in the UK.

31
 Weatheronline.co.uk provide skew-T
skew-t
Navigate from the
Weatheronline.co.uk forecast for several locations worldwide.
homepage to Expert
Charts then look for
‘GFS” under the
They also group the skew-t’s together in
‘Sounds’ tab time-steps so that a panel of charts is
viewable which enables the pilot to see how
the skew-t’s change over time.

The skew-t’s are updated four times each

day and are produced from the GFS model.

Actual skew-t’s are available too.

32
 WxCharts.eu is a relatively new site which
WxCharts.eu is an enables the pilot to display a forecast
easy display which
skew-T, up-to 7-days ahead for any location
shows the forecast
for your location worldwide.
when the map is
clicked
The charts not only show temperature and
dewpoint, but also wind direction and seeds
for many levels.

The skew-T’s are updated four times each

day and are produced from the GFS model,
although shorter term NAM and ARPEGE
model forecasts are also available.
33
 One of the ‘old guard’, Wetterzentrale is a
Mauris pretium
aliquet, lectus eget reliable, robust website.
tincidunt. Porttitor
mollis et imperdiet
libero senectus
Find skew-T’s by going to the home page,
pulvinar. Etiam clicking on ‘Diagrams’ and then selct
molestie mauris.
‘Skew-T Diagrams’ from the drop down
menu.

Skew-T’s are available for a few UK

locations up to 7-days ahead. These are
updated four times daily.

34
8
What you’ve learned

35
Look how far you’ve come ...

When you started this book you probably knew very little, if
anything about the skew-T diagram.

Now you know that they are a graph of temperature, dewpoint

and wind against height.

Forecast skew-T’s are most useful and can be accessed over

the internet from several sites out to 7-days ahead.

The difference between temperature and dewpoint tells us how

much cloud there is and at what height the base and tops are.
Where the lines touch the cloud is most solid.

Freezing levels can also be measured from the skew-T, and by

watching the skew-T change over time the pilot can forecast
confidently the conditions they will be flying in.

I hope you’ve enjoyed this book and look forward to welcoming

you to Weather School. Keep the sun shining!

36
ARPEGE

French high resolution short term model

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here

Index Find Term

Dry adiabatic lapse rate line

The dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) is the rate at which dry air cools (o
at is ascends (or descends). This rate is 3C per 1000ft of 10C per kilom

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here
Forms 214/215

Charts of forecast wind and weather, issued regularly by the UK Meteo

Office. All pilots should access these before flying.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here
Freezing level

The level at which temperatures fall below freezing, 0C.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here
GFS

A forecast model from the USA national weather service. The Global F
System (GFS) model is freely available and so is the data most commo
by websites.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here
Inversion

An area in the troposphere where temperature increasing with height.

familiar inversions occur on cool evenings and mornings, especially af
day. They can highlight the risk of mist, fog and perhaps stronger wind
the inversion top.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here
Isobars

A line of equal pressure. On a skew-T diagram isobars are the horizon

usually marked with a height up the left or right hand axis.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here
Isotherms

A line of equal temperature. On a skew-T isotherms are shown as diag

The temperature of the surrounding airmass is marked on them and th
temperature read by following the diagonal line down until it reaches t
the chart. From here the temperature at that level can be assessed.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here
METAR

A report of actual weather conditions made at an airport.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here
NAM

North American Mesoscale Forecast System model

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here
PROB

Used in TAF forecasts probability refers to the likelyhood of a set of co

occurrring.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here
Saturated adiabatic lapse rate

The saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) is the rate at which a wet pa
will cool with height. This rate is typically between 1.8 and 2.2C per th
feet, but think of it as 2C per thousand feet or 6C per kilometre.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here
TAF

Terminal Aerodrome Forecast’s are produced for various airfields. They

coded so that forecast can be understood whatever a pilots first langu

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here