Adiabatic temperature change of air occurs without the addition or removal of energy.

That is, there is no exchange of heat with the surrounding environment to cause the cooling

or heating of the air. The temperature change is due to work done on a parcel of air by the

external environment, or work done by a parcel of air on the air that surrounds it. What kind

of work can be done? The work that is done is the expansion or compression of air.

Imagine an isolated parcel of air that is moving vertically through the troposphere. We know

that air pressure decreases with increasing elevation. As the parcel of air moves upward the

pressure exerted on the parcel decreases and the parcel expands in volume as a result. In

order to expand (i.e.. do work), the parcel must use its internal energy to do so. As the air

expands, the molecules spread out and ultimately collide less with one another. The work of

expansion causes the air's temperature to decrease. You might have had personal

experience with this kind of cooling if you've let the air out of an automobile or bicycle tire.

Air inside the tire is under a great deal of pressure, and as it rushes outside it moves into a

lower pressure environment. In so doing, the parcel quickly expands against the outside

environment air. By placing your hand in front of the valve stem, you can feel the air cool as

it expands. This is called adiabatic cooling.

As air descends through the troposphere it experiences increasing atmospheric pressure.

This causes the parcel volume to decrease in size, squeezing the air molecules closer

together. In this case, work is being done on the parcel. As the volume shrinks, air molecules

bounce off one another more often ricocheting with greater speed. The increase in

molecular movement causes an increase in the temperature of the parcel. This process is

referred to as adiabatic warming.

QFF is an aeronautical code Q code. It is the MSL pressure derived from
local meteorological station conditions in accordance with meteorological
practice. This is the altimeter setting that is intended to produce correct
altitude indication (i.e., no error) on an altimeter at the actual sea level
elevation, while QNH is intended to have no error at the station elevation (or,
especially when applied within a region with a relatively small range of surface
elevations, at the altitudes close to the surface elevation within the region).
Meteorological practice of calculating QFF differs between meteorological
organizations around the world. Some examples: * The Australian Bureau of
Meteorology method:QFF is derived from the barometric pressure at the
station location by calculating the weight of an imaginary air column,
extending from the location to sea level, assuming the temperature and
relative humidity at the location are the long term monthly mean, the
temperature lapse rate is according to ISA and the relative humidity lapse rate
is zero.QFF is the location value plotted on surface synoptic chart and is closer
to reality than QNH, though it is only indirectly used in aviation. * Another
method:The derivation assumes that an isothermal layer at the station
temperature extends to the sea level. This is the barometric pressure at the
surface reduced to MSL using the observed temperature at the surface (which
assumes an isothermal layer from MSL to that surface). QFF accounts for the
effect that temperature has on the pressure lapse rate and therefore the
resultant calculated pressure.The range of QFF so far recorded, low pressure to
high pressure, is from 856 to 1083 hPa. (en)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wTfM0-ysCsk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eWLegV9sZfQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8mPKl3GR0U

In the below diagram QFE is 995 hPa. QFE is the aerodrome level pressure. Aircraft A and

Aircraft B have their altimeters set to QFE i.e. 995 hPa. This means that the vertical distance

will be measured while taking 995 hPa as the reference. The aircraft on the ground (Aircraft

A) will read Zero on its altimeter. The aircraft in the sky (Aircraft B) will read a value which is

referred to as Height. The word height is used by us in the English language all the time, but
in altimetry, Height is the vertical distance displayed on an Aircrafts altimeter when it is in

the sky and has QFE set on its subscale.

In the diagram above, QNH is 1008 hPa. QNH is the aerodrome level pressure brought down

to Mean Sea Level while taking International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) conditions into

consideration. QFF on the other hand is aerodrome level pressure brought down to Mean

Sea Level while taking the actual prevailing meteorological conditions. So QFF is technically

more accurate than QNH. In spite of that QNH is used in the aviation world, this is because

the altimeter accounts for ISA conditions! Aircraft C and D have their altimeters set to QNH

i.e. they are taking the 1008 hPa isobar as a reference in the given image. The Aircraft on

the ground (Aircraft C) will display a value which is the elevation of the aerodrome/runway.

Elevation is the vertical distance of a fixed point/obstacle from the mean sea level. If you

have traveled by trains in India, you might have noticed the elevation of that particular

town/city mentioned at the bottom of the yellow station board (Look out for it the next

time you are at a railway station). The Aircraft in the sky (Aircraft D) will display Altitude on

its altimeter. Altitude is the vertical distance of a point/aircraft from the mean sea level i.e.

the sub-scale of the altimeter is set to QNH.

Pressure Altitude

Pressure altitude can be defined as the vertical distance from the 1013.25 hPa pressure

level.

When the term 'altitude' appears in Operating Data Manuals (ODMs) and performance

charts, it refers strictly to pressure altitude. Therefore, when the sea level pressure is other

than 1013.25 hPa, aerodrome and obstacle elevations must be converted to pressure

altitude before use in performance calculations.

ODMs normally contain a conversion graph. Pressure altitude can be obtained by setting

the sub-scale of an ICAO calibrated altimeter to 1013.25 hPa and reading altitude directly

from the instrument. Alternatively, the approximate pressure altitude can be calculated.

Pressure altitude ≏ Elevation + 30p, where p is 1013 minus the sea level pressure (QNH) at

that point.

Example 1: To determine the pressure altitude of an airfield, elevation 1,700 ft, if sea level

pressure (QNH) is 1003 hPa:

p = 1013 – 1003 = 10 hPa

∴ airfield pressure altitude ≏ 1,700 + (30 × 10) ft ≏ 2,000 ft

Example 2: To determine the pressure altitude of an airfield, elevation 1,700 ft, if sea level

pressure (QNH) is 1026 hPa :

p = 1013 – 1026 = -13 hPa

∴ airfield pressure altitude ≏ 1,700 + (30 × (-13)) ft

∴ airfield pressure altitude ≏ 1,700 + (-390) ft ≏ 1310 ft

When 1013 is greater than the QNH, pressure altitude is greater than the airfield elevation.

When 1013 is less than the QNH, pressure altitude is less than the airfield elevation.

Density Altitude

Aircraft and engine performance depend upon air density. For aircraft operations, air

density is usually expressed as a density altitude.

Density altitude is the pressure altitude adjusted to take into consideration the actual

temperature of the air. For ISA conditions of temperature and pressure, density altitude is

the same as pressure altitude. Density altitude can be determined by the formula:

density altitude = pressure altitude + 120t

where t is the actual air temperature minus the standard (ISA) temperature for that

pressure altitude.

Continuing the Example 1 pressure altitude calculation above, if the actual air

temperature at the airfield elevation is +13 ºC (ISA temp for 2,000 ft is +11 ºC), then the

density altitude will be:

2,000 ft + 120 (13º C – 11 ºC)

2,000 ft + (120 × 2) = 2,240 ft

Continuing the Example 2 pressure altitude calculation above, if the actual air temperature
at the airfield elevation is +5 ºC (ISA temp for 1,700 ft is approximately +11.5 ºC), then the

density altitude will be:

1,700 ft + 120 (+5º C – 11.5 ºC)

1,700 ft + (120 × (-6.5)) = 920 ft

It is evident from Example 1 that a pressure altitude exceeding the airfield altitude,

combined with a higher temperature than ISA can result in a significant increase in density

altitude and hence a decrease in aircraft performance. Example 2 shows that the

converse is true.

Density

Air density is important to aircraft operations because:

a. Lift is generated by the flow of air around the wing and if the air is denser the lift force

can be generated at a lower airspeed.

b. Engine power is generated by burning fuel with air (oxygen) and greater engine power is

available due to the greater mass of air passing through the engine.

Effects of Pressure on Density.

When air is compressed, a greater amount can occupy a given volume; i.e. the mass, and

therefore the density, has increased.

Conversely, when air is expanded less mass occupies the original volume and the density

decreases. From the formula in the previous paragraph it can be seen that, provided the

temperature remains constant, density is directly proportional to pressure, i.e. if the

pressure is halved, so is the density, and vice versa.

Effect of Temperature on Density.

When air is heated it expands so that a smaller mass will occupy a given volume, therefore

the density will have decreased, assuming that the pressure remains constant.
The converse will also apply. Thus, the density of the air will vary inversely as the absolute

temperature .

In the atmosphere, the fairly rapid drop in pressure as altitude is increased has the

dominating effect on density, as against the effect of the fall in temperature which tends to

increase the density.

Effect of Humidity on Density.

The preceding paragraphs have assumed that the air is perfectly dry. In the atmosphere

some water vapour is invariably present; this may be almost negligible in certain conditions,

but in others the humidity may become an important factor in the performance of an

aircraft.

Therefore, air is least dense when it contains a maximum amount of water vapour and

most dense when it is perfectly dry.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IezIuEVjS88

Relative Humidity

Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere at a given time.

Relative humidity is the actual amount of moisture in the air compared to the total amount

of moisture the air could hold at that temperature expressed as a percentage. For example,

if the current relative humidity is 65%, the air is holding 65% of the total amount of

moisture that it is capable of holding at that temperature and pressure.

Temperature and Dew Point

The dew point, given in degrees, is the temperature at which a sample of air becomes

saturated if cooled at a constant pressure. When the temperature of the air is reduced to

the dew point moisture begins to condense in the form of fog, dew, frost, clouds, rain, hail,

or snow.

There are four methods by which air can reach the saturation point.

a. When warm air moves over a cold surface, the air temperature drops and reaches the
saturation point.

b. The saturation point may be reached when cold air and warm air mix.

c. When air cools at night through contact with cooler ground, air reaches its saturation

point.

d. When air is lifted or is forced upward in the atmosphere.