Module 8

BASIC
AERODYNAMICS

Physics of the Atmosphere

Aerodynamics

Theory of Flight

Flight Stability & Dynamics

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 Contents

Atmosphere Page 3

Theory of Flight Page 6

Aerofoils Page 10

Pressure Distribution Page 14

Lift Formula Page 16

Boundary Layer Page 18

Drag Page 21

Lift Augmentation Page 29

Ice and Frost Page 33

Forces on an Aircraft Page 36

Stability Page 43

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The Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the layer of air that envelopes the earth and its approximate
composition as a percentage is:

 Nitrogen 79%

 Oxygen 21%

 Other gases 1%

Principal Zones

The atmosphere is divided into zones defined by their physical properties and are
illustrated in figure 1.

Figure 1 Principal Zones

All conventional aircraft operate within the troposphere and stratosphere.

The Troposphere

About three quarters of the mass of air is concentrated into the troposphere, that is
defined as the lower layer of air where the change in temperature with height is
relatively large (2° Celsius per 1000ft) up to approximately 36000ft.

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The Stratosphere

The layer of air above the troposphere divided into upper and lower regions. The lower
region tropopause extends to approximately 66000ft and the air temperature remains
fairly constant at 216 Kelvin (-57 degrees Celsius). Above 66000ft in the upper
stratosphere the air temperature begins to increase again.

International Standard Atmosphere

Due to the different climatic conditions that exist around the earth, the values of
temperature, pressure and density are not constant for a given height. So that aircraft
performance data can be compared worldwide and that instruments can be calibrated
against some standard, a hypothetical atmosphere based on world average value called
the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) has been compiled. Table 1.

The sea level values of some of the physical properties of the air in the ISA are:

 Temperature 288K (15° Celsius)

 Pressure 101320 N/m2 (14.71bf7in2)

 Density 1.225 Kg/m3

 Speed of Sound 340.3 m/s (760mph)

 Temperature Lapse Rate 2K/1000ft (6.5K/km)

Change in Physical Properties of Air with Increase in Altitude

Temperature

Temperature falls uniformly until a height of about 36000ft. Above this height the
temperature remains constant throughout the stratosphere at 216K.

Pressure

As height increases air pressure decreases, at about 49000ft the pressure is about one
tenth that of sea level.

Density

As height increases density decreases, at about 59000ft the density is approximately

one tenth that of sea level.

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Theory of Flight
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Introduction

An aircraft is an heavier than air machine and must produce an upwards force equal to the
weight to keep it flying and a greater force still to lift it from the ground and climb. It is
the wings that produce this force and it will be seen that it is the movement of the wings
through the air that generates the upward force or Lift.

The Venturi Tube

A circular tube constructed so that from each end its diameter reduces towards the
centre. Consider a stream of air flowing through a venturi tube the mass of air flowing
through the tube (ma) will remain constant at any point in the tube and is the product of
the:

 Cross Sectional Area (A)

 The Air Flow Velocity (V)

 The Density of the Air (ρ)

It is assumed that the density of the air remains constant if the speed of the airflow is less
than the local speed of sound. Therefore:

ma = ρAV

From this it can be seen that a reduction in cross sectional area will result in an
increase in velocity.

Figure 2 Venturi Tube

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Bernoulli's Theorem

Bernoulli discovered that certain properties of fluids in motion could be expressed in

terms of the total energy of a fluid or gas in motion made up of:

 Potential energy due to its height above a fixed datum (ρgh)

 Pressure energy (P) due to its pressure.

 Heat energy due to its temperature.

 Kinetic energy due to its motion (ViρV2)

In streamline flow of an ideal fluid, the sum of these energies remains constant, thus:

Potential Energy + Pressure Energy + Heat Energy + Kinetic Energy = Constant

In low subsonic flow it can be assumed that the changes in potential and heat energy are
small, therefore, practical purposes in streamlined flow:

Pressure Energy + Kinetic Energy = Constant

Or mgh+ (1/2 ρV2) = Constant

When this equation is applied to airflow through a venturi an increase in velocity of the
airflow at the throat results in a decrease in pressure.

Measurement of Airspeed

To measure the airspeed, or true airspeed (TAS) of an aircraft, t is necessary to find

some measurable quantity that varies as the speed varies. The quantity that is used is
the dynamic pressure that is measured using a Pitot Static tube in conjunction with a
pressure difference-measuring instrument called the airspeed indicator (ASI). The ASI has
two separate assemblies:

 The Pitot Static Head

 The Instrument Box

The Pitot Static Head

The Pitot Static Head usually has two tubes, the pilot tube and the static tube. The pitot
has an open end facing directly into the airstream and the static, tube has a series of
holes or slots positioned around its circumference. The tubes may be completely
separate, or as is more usual concentric, with the static tube outside the pitot tube as
shown in figure 3. The complete pitot static head is fitted on the outside of the aircraft with
the tubes being connected to the instrument box. It is common for an electrical heater to
prevent icing to be incorporated in the pitot static head.

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 Figure 3 Pitot Static Head

The Instrument Box

The instrument box is an airtight container into which a small metal capsule is fitted. The
inside of the capsule is connected to the pitot tube and the static tube feeds the whole of
the interior of the box outside the capsule. Connected to the outside of the capsule via
suitable linkage is a pointer that moves over a graduated scale.

Figure 4 Airspeed Indicator Unit

Since the pitot tube is open to the direct airflow the moving airstreams passes into the
capsule where it is brought to rest. The pressure inside the capsule is known as the
stagnation pressure or total pressure (Pt)

Pt = Pa + ½ ρV2

Where: Pa = Static Pressure

The static pressure tube allows air at atmospheric pressure, the static pressure (Pa) to
pass into the instrument box and surround the capsule. The difference in pressure
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across the capsule is:

Pt - Pa = ½ ρV2

But, ½ ρV2 is the dynamic pressure.

Thus the airspeed indicator is a pressure difference-measuring instrument that is

calibrated in speed units.

The reading of the airspeed indicator (ASI) after being corrected for instrument error is
know as the Indicated Airspeed (IAS).

Since density varies with a change in altitude the instrument, at the same true airspeed
(TAS), will give different readings at different altitudes. For example, if altitude increases,
density decreases and the dynamic pressure (½ ρV2) will decrease and the difference
between TAS and IAS will increase. Also, if IAS is to remain constant with an increase in
altitude TAS must increase. As a guide:

 At 40,000ft: IAS is approximately half that of TAS

 At 20,000ft: IAS is approximately three quarters that of TAS

Streamlines

Since air is invisible, some method of enabling us to see it and illustrate its flow around
various shapes is required. This is achieved by introducing smoke into the moving airflow
through a series of jets. The smoke is carried along by the air stream and appears as
parallel lines in undisturbed airflow as illustrated in figure 5. This indicates that the air is
flowing in layers or streamlines. If the smoke layers, though they have been deflected
remain separated and re-unite to their former parallel lines after passing around the
object the object as in figure 5 is said to have a streamlined shape and the airflow to be a
streamline flow.

Figure 5 Streamline Flow

When airflows over a non-streamlined shape such as a flat plate the air swirls into eddies
and the streamlines intermingle and finally disappear and the airflow has now become

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turbulent as show in figure 6. The force required to move the flat plate through the air is
about 20 times greater than that required for a streamlined shape fro the same speed and
frontal area.

Figure 6 Turbulent Flow

Aerofoils

The wings of an aircraft are shaped so that they form what is known as an aerofoil
illustrated in figure 7. If the upper half of the venturi were removed the effect would still
be maintained on the lower half. By bridging the lower plate with a flat plate and some
smoothing off at the leading and trailing edges to reduce drag, the shape of an aerofoil is
developed.

Figure 7 Aerofoil

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Aerofoil Terminology

Chord Line

This the straight line joining the centre of curvature of the leading edge to the trailing
edge.

Chord Length

The distance measured along the chord line between the leading and trailing edges.

Mean Camber Line

The line joining the centre of curvature of the leading edge and the trailing edge that is at
all times equal distance from the upper and lower surfaces.

Free Stream Flow

A point in the airflow that is completely unaffected by the presence of the aerofoil.

Angle of Attack

Is the angle between the chord line and the relative airflow.

Thickness-Chord Ratio

Is the ratio of the thickness at the thickest part of the aerofoil to the length of the chord
line.

Streamline

Is the path traced out by a particle of air in any steady fluid flow.

The diagrammatic flow of streamlines through a venturi tube is illustrated in figure 8. If the
tube walls are moved further apart as show in figure 8b, a similar flow occurs but, in the
central part of the airflow, the streamlines are straight. Moving the walls still further apart
until there is no interaction between them, results in the flow pattern as shown in figure
8c. Here the streamlines close to the surface follow the contour of the surface but at a
short distance away the streamlines are those of the free stream flow.

We have seen that increasing the speed of air through a venturi causes a decrease in
pressure. In figure 8c, the free air stream and the curved surface of the tube effectively
form the venturi. Acceleration of the air over this curved surface causes the pressure to
decrease which, coupled with the normal outside pressure on the tube, results in an
inwards force on the tube (upwards as shown in figure 8c).

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 Figure 8 Development of the Wing

Aircraft wing are shaped so that, in flight, their curved surfaces causes the airflow over
them to accelerate, so reducing the pressure. Due to the angle at which the wings are
set, the airflow impinges on the lower surfaces, resulting in a slightly lower speed and
increase in pressure. Low pressure above the wing and high pressure below the wing
produces the upward force called lift, which will, if the aircraft speed is great enough,
support the aircraft in flight.

Figure 9 Lift

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Total Reaction, Lift and Drag

The total reaction on an aerofoil is the resultant of all the forces exerted by the air on the
aerofoil, which are due to the movement of air over the aerofoil. It is found in practice
that it is a reliable approximation to assume that the total reaction acts at right angles to
the chord line. Since this direction is not very useful in terms of the other forces of lift and
drag, it is split into two components:

 Lift. The component of the total reaction at right angles to the relative airflow.

 Drag. The component of the total reaction parallel to the relative airflow.

Figure 10 Total Reaction

Optimum Angle of Attack

As the angle of attack of an aerofoil increases (up to a maximum of around 15°) so the
total reaction both increases and inclines further back. Thus the lift and drag
components increase, but after a while the drag force component increases more
rapidly than the lift component. The most efficient angle of attack for the aircraft to fly at
is that at which the ratio of lift: Drag is maximum and this is called the optimum angle of
attack. This is the angle of attack at which an aircraft of a given weight can remain in
steady horizontal flight with the least amount of thrust.

Aerofoil Types

Different shaped Aerofoils are used for different functions for example:

 High Lift. To achieve high lift at the expense of drag, an aerofoil with a
considerable amount of camber is used. A thick wing is used and at the thickest
part is about 30% of the chord.

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 Figure 11 High Lift Aerofoil

 High Speed. A high-speed aerofoil requires much less lifting capacity from its
shape obtaining much more of the lift on account of its high speed. But its drag
also goes up disproportionately with its speed and so it is essential to have a low
drag design. Thus an aerofoil with zero camber is used developing lift by changes
in angle of attack only. The leading edge of the aerofoil will be much sharper than
a high lift aerofoil.

Figure 12 High Speed Aerofoil

 General Purpose. Normally a compromise between the high lift and high speed
is required giving rise to a general-purpose aerofoil. It has less camber than the
high lift aerofoil, and a lower thickness: chord ratio, but maintains its thickest point
at about 30% of chord length aft of the leading edge.

Figure 3 General Purpose Aerofoil

Pressure Distribution

If the static pressure is measured with manometers at points over the top and bottom
surfaces of the aerofoil, and these points plotted normal to the surface, the liquid levels
map out a curve that is called a pressure distribution. These are complex shapes that
enclose that enclose regions of both positive and negative static pressure. The shape
depends on many aspects such as aerofoil camber, angle of attack and the speed of the
relative airflow. The following diagrams illustrate the simplified pressure distribution on a
symmetrical aerofoil at various angles of attack.

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0° Angle of Attack. At 0° angle of attack a symmetrical aerofoil will produce no lift at all,
and there will be identical regions of negative pressure above and below the aerofoil as
shown in figure 14.

Figure 14 Pressure Distribution at 0° Angle of Attack

4° Angle of Attack. This is approximately the optimum angle. Note the shape of the
upper surface distribution, and the relatively insignificant area of the lower surface
distribution, also shown is the total reaction that is the resultant or the combined effect of
all the little pressure forces added together vectorially.

Figure 15 Pressure Distribution at 4° Angle of Attack

14° Angle of Attack. The aerofoil has not yet stalled. Notice the increase in the
intensity of the upper surface low-pressure region and the forward movement of its peak.
The total reaction has consequently increased and its point of action has moved forward.
Note also that the lower surface is now established as a region of positive pressure.

Figure 16 Pressure Distribution at 14° Angle of Attack

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-4° Angle of Attack. The case is the same as for 4°, but the diagram is inverted and the
lift is now downwards.

Figure 17 Pressure Distribution at -4° Angle of Attack

Centre of Pressure

The centre of pressure is the point on the chord line through which the total reaction
acts. As the angle of attack increases the position of the centre of pressure moves
forward and at about the stalling angle its position reaches a forward limit and after
stalling it moves rearwards.

Lift Formula

The lift produced by the wing of an aircraft is found to depend on the following factors:

 The shape of the aerofoil, including camber and leading and trailing edge
shape.

 The angle of attack

 The density of the air surrounding the aerofoil, (ρ)

 The square of the airspeed. (V2)

 A representative area of the wing, taken as the plan area. (S)

The aerofoil shape and the angle of attack can be brought together to determine the
lifting capacity of the wing and represented by a single number referred to as the
coefficient of lift (CL). CL has no units and is called a dimensionless constant.

Lift α CLρV 2 S

Lift = k CLρV2S Where k is a constant.

Since CL is also a constant whose value is purely representative the formula can be
juggled so that k =1 and will disappear to give:

Lift = CLpV2S

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However, the ρV2 is very similar to the formula for dynamic pressure, we can therefore
make CL twice as big to give a final formula for lift:

Lift = CL ½ ρV2S

Provided the representative area S is always the plan area of the wing, CL is now a
number that may be used to compare directly the lifting ability of different wings.

Variation of Lift with TAS, Altitude and Temperature

The following conclusions can be drawn directly from the lift formula:
 TAS. Lift is proportional to the square of TAS. For example, if TAS is halved
lift is quartered, and if TAS is increased by a factor of 3 the lift is multiplied
by 9 providing all the other factors are unchanged.
 Altitude. As altitude increases, air density decreases, therefore, lift decreases.
 Temperature. As the air temperature decrease, are density increases,
therefore, lift increases.
Variation of Coefficient of Lift with Angle of Attack

Apart from the use of high lift devices, the only way to vary the lifting effect CL) of a wing
is to alter its angle of attack. The following graph, figure 18, and shows the way that CL
varies with changes in angle of attack.

Figure 18 Variation of Coefficient of Lift with Angle of Attack

Note that:

 CL is 0 at a negative angle of attack, and positive at a 0° angle of

attack.

 CL peaks at about the stalling angle, and drops away after stalling.

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 The line is approximately straight in the normal operating region.

Boundary Layer

To obtain a better understanding of drag, lift augmentation, stalling and the problems of
aircraft control, it is essential to understand the nature of a boundary layer. Consider
air flowing along a surface even if the surface is very smooth the molecules of air
adjacent to the surface will be brought completely to rest. At a certain distance away from
the surface, the air will be flowing at free stream velocity. Between this point and the
surface there exists a velocity gradient and in this region the molecules of air have to
slide across each other. The thickness of this layer is called the boundary layer and
depends on other things such as the viscosity or stickiness of the air. The variation of
velocity in the boundary layer is illustrated in figure 19.

Figure 19 Variation of Velocity in the Boundary Layer

Laminar Boundary Layer

Figure 20 shows airflow meeting a flat horizontal plate. At the leading edge of the surface
the boundary layer is found to be very thin and full free stream velocity is achieved very
near to the surface about 1mm from the surface. If the flow in this region could be
magnified, the boundary layer would consist of smooth layers of air sliding over each
other. For this reason, this is called a laminar boundary layer. As the laminar boundary
layer moves rearwards on the surface, the boundary layer gets thicker as the effects of
the surface on the air become more established.

Figure20 Boundary Layer

Transition Point and Turbulent Boundary Layer

Eventually, through a combination of distance along the surface, the viscosity of the air
and the velocity of the air the smooth laminar flow becomes unstable and the boundary
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layer very abruptly changes to a new form, called turbulent. The turbulent boundary layer
is much thicker and magnification would reveal an erratic movement of the air within it.
The boundary layer is more stable but creates more drag on the surface since the
molecules are given more energy. The point at which the boundary layer changes from
laminar to turbulent is called the transition point. Note, the boundary layer does not
separate from the surface at the transition point and do not confuse a turbulent boundary
layer or turbulent flow with a region of turbulence.

The concept of a transition point is often difficult to understand, however, the following
every day examples might help:

 Turn on a tap to give a smooth flow of water into the sink with the plug out.
Where the water strikes the sink it spreads out in a very thin fast moving layer.
Then at a certain radius the water forms an abrupt circular step up, and the
flow ceases to be smooth and is much thicker and slower. The circular step up
is the transition point beyond which the laminar flow cannot remain stable and
so the flow becomes turbulent.

 Place a cigarette in an ashtray in a room where the air has been undisturbed for
some time. The plume of smoke will rise with laminar flow up to a certain
point, the transition point above which it will be turbulent. The difference in
the two types of flow is very easily observed.

Boundary Layer Separation

When air flows over a curved surface such as the upper surface of an aerofoil,
transition from laminar flow to turbulent boundary layer conditions normally occurs at
about the thickest point. This point is also the point of maximum speed of the air, and
minimum pressure. Behind this point, in the turbulent boundary layer region, the airflow is
flowing against an adverse pressure gradient and this conflict sooner or later will cause
the boundary layer to separate from the surface of the aerofoil. Figure21 shows the
velocity profiles at various points along the upper surface of the aerofoil.

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 Figure21 Velocity Profiles
a. A thin laminar boundary layer.
b. Thickest point:
(i)Transition Point
(ii) Point of maximum speed of airflow, the point of lowest pressure and behind
this point the pressure gradually increases back up to the ambient pressure at the
trailing edge.
c. Established turbulent boundary layer.
d. Boundary layer thickening and becoming distorted backwards near the surface.
This is caused by the adverse pressure gradient opposing the airflow and is having
most effect where the velocity in the direction of flow is low, near the surface.
e. The boundary layer continues to thicken. At the base, the continuing adverse
pressure gradient has now overcome the low velocity near the surface, and has
caused a small region of actual reversed flow. The boundary layer has now become
separated from the surface and the bottom of the boundary layer is identified by the
dotted line.

Wing Design on Stall

A desirable stall pattern can be accomplished by:

 Designing the wing with twist so that the tip has a lower angle of incidence
(washout) and therefore, a lower angle of attack when the root of the wing
approaches the critical angle of attack figure22.

 Designing slots near the leading edge of the wing to allow air to flow
smoothly over that part of the wing at higher angles of attack, therefore
stalling the root of the wing first figure23.

 Attaching stall strips on the leading edge near the wing root figure23. The stall
strip is a triangular strip mounted on the leading edge of the wing at the
inboard end. At high angles of attack where stalling would likely to occur, the strip
causes the inboard portion of the wing to stall before the outer portion. This
enables the pilot to maintain control of the aircraft with the ailerons.

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 Figure22 Wing Twist

Figure23 Stall Strips

Drag

The total drag on an aircraft is defined as the component of the total reaction parallel to
the relative airflow. The sources of drag are illustrated in figure24.

Figure24 Sources of Total Drag

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Zero-Lift Drag
Any object that moves through the air produces drag. This is completely independent of
whether lift is being produced and is called Zero Lift Drag. It is always present even
when the aircraft is producing lift and can be sub divided into surface friction drag, form
drag and interference drag each of which is explained further in subsequent paragraphs.

Lift Dependant Drag

When an aircraft is producing lift, drag over and above Zero Lift Drag is produced. This
extra drag is called lift dependant drag and consists of induced drag and small
increments of the three components of Zero Lift Drag. Compared with induced drag the
increments of the component of Zero Lift Drag are small and are commonly disregarded.
Induced drag is explained further under the heading Induced Drag.

Surface Friction Drag

This is the drag produced by the shearing force between the layers of air in the
boundary layer and shows itself as energy being given to the air in the boundary layer.
Surface friction drag relates closely to the thickness of the boundary layer, therefore it is
least in a laminar boundary layer. The thickening of the boundary layer can be kept low
by maintaining a smooth surface. Surface friction drag is thus dependant on the
smoothness of the surface and the surface area.

Form Drag
This is more fully known as boundary layer normal pressure drag. Consider air flowing
a cylinder's axis and examine the distribution of pressure Figure25. At the front there is
a small stagnation region, where there is a local increase in pressure causing a
rearward drag force. However most of the airflow spreads out smoothly without being
slowed down or stopped, so that this stagnation pressure is only a very small proportion
of the total form drag and we have to look elsewhere for the main cause of form drag. At
the sides of the cylinder the pressure is below ambient, due to the venturi effect, and at
the rear it should have reverted back to ambient if normal venturi flow were to be
maintained. Thus, ignoring the stagnation point the pressure on the front and rear would
be equal, causing no resultant pressure force to the rear. However, the adverse pressure
gradient over the rear of the cylinder causes boundary layer separation, causing a
turbulent wake at the rear. The pressure has failed to return from the low pressure at the
sides to ambient pressure at the rear, and the pressure in the turbulent wake is
considerably lower than the pressure in front. Thus the front and backpressure difference
causes a rearward resultant force that is called form drag.

Reduction of Form Drag

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If a flat plate is placed normal to the airflow as illustrated in Figure26. The drag is purely
form drag and separation occurs at the corners leaving a large turbulent wake.
Improvements can be made by altering the front and rear shapes, but most of the
improvement is achieved by streamlining the rear that delays boundary layer
separation by reducing the severity of the adverse pressure gradient. The sequence of
diagrams illustrated in figure26 shows how the great reduction in drag can be
achieved by streamlining. However if streamlining the trailing edge is taken too far the
increase in surface area will cause an increase in surface friction drag so a
compromise must be achieved. The ratio of the length (a) to the breadth (b) is called the
finness ratio and for best results it should be about 4: 1, but really depends on the
airspeed, the higher the airspeed, the greater the finness ratio.

Figure26 Reduction in Form Drag

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Interference Drag
If all the parts of the aircraft were tested for drag and then the assembled aircraft tested
for drag, the drag of the assembled aircraft would be greater than the sum of the individual
drag components. The additional drag is the result of flow interference at wing/fuselarge,
wing/nacelle and other junctions. This component of total drag can be reduced by the
addition of fairings at the junctions.

Induced Drag
Often known as Vortex Drag. Figure 27 shows the front view of an aircraft and the
pressure distribution over one wing. The pressure difference above and below the wing-
tip causes air to spill upwards around the wing tip imparting a circular motion to the air and
a strong vortex is tailed from the wing tip. The pressure difference also causes outward
airflow on the lower surface and inward airflow on the upper surface that results in small
vortices being trailed from the trailing edge reinforcing the wing tip vortex.

Figure27 Vortex Drag

Aspect Ratio
Various methods are used to reduce the spillage of air over the wing tips to reduce
vortex formation and induced drag. An effective traditional method is to give the wing a
high ratio of span : to mean chord reducing the size of the wing tip for a given area. The
ratio is called the aspect ratio of the aircraft. To save working out the mean chord in the
case of a non rectangular wing plan an alternative definition is obtained by multiplying
top and bottom of the ratio by the span to give:

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 Figure28 Aspect Ratio

Sailplanes have high aspect ratios to give low drag at low speeds, whereas fighters are
less concerned with low speed performance, and use a lower aspect ratio facilitating a
stronger airframe.

Wing Loading

Wing loading is defined as the total lift divided by the wing area.

Wing Loading = Total Lift

Wing Area

Load Factor

Load factor is the ratio of lift to all up weight.

Load Factor = Lift__

Weight

Zero Lift Drag Formula

Lift dependant and zero lift drag can both be analysed in terms of a formula, but here we
concentrate on the zero lift drag formula since the other is far more complicated. It can be
shown experimentally that the drag on of an object depends on the following factors:

 Its shape and design together with the way in which that shape is presented to
the airflow. In the case of an aerofoil this covers such things as surface finish,
camber, thickness chord ratio and the angle of attack. These factors are
represented by the coefficient of drag. (CD)

 The density of the air. (ρ)

 The square of the velocity. (V2)

 A representative area of the object. (S)

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 Drag α CDρV2S

Drag = KCDρV2S where K is a constant.

Since CD is also a constant we can adjust CD so that K = 1 and disappears to give:

Drag = CDρV2S

However as with the Lift formula it is more convenient to make CD twice as big to

give:

Drag = CD½ρV2S

This is the zero lift drag formula.

Total Drag Curve

Figure29 shows the graphs of zero lift drag, lift dependant drag and total drag against
indicated airspeed (IAS). The zero lift drag curve starts at the origin and becomes more
and more steep as IAS increases. The lift dependant drag curve is high at low speeds
because of high angles of attack and gradually reduces with increasing IAS. The total
drag curve is the sum of both and takes on a characteristic U shape. The velocity at the
lowest point of the total drag curve is called minimum drag IAS, VTMD.

Drag Polar Curve Figure29 Total Drag Curve

The drag polar curve is made up of two components, drag due to skin friction and
pressure drag due to separation. The quadratic variation of CD with CL when plotted on
a graph leads to a curve as show in figure 30. Such a plot of CD against CL is

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called a drag polar curve. Much of the basic aerodynamics of an aircraft is reflected in the
drag polar and such curves are essential to the design of the aircraft.

Figure30 Drag Polar Curve

Profile Drag

The drag of a two-dimensional aerofoil is called profile drag; it is the sum of form drag (or
pressure drag) and skin friction (cause by viscous stresses). For a well-designed aerofoil at
low incidence the wake is thin, and the form drag is very much smaller than the skin friction.
As the incidence approaches the stalling value, the separation point moves forwards,
causing the wake to thicken. The form drag therefore increases fairly rapidly, and at the stall
is greater than the skin friction, which does not vary much with incidence.

Thus, over a range of small incidences, the profile drag coefficient, denoted by C do increases
only very slowly, and is often assumed to be constant. Over a bigger range of incidence well
below the stall, the increment in Cdo is approximately proportional to the square of the lift
coefficient, and it is possible to write
2
Cdo = Cdz + b’ . CL

Where b’ is a small positive constant (about 0.01 say), and Cdz is the drag coefficient at zero
lift.

An important parameter, because it is in one sense a measure of the efficiency of the

27
aerofoil, is the lift—drag ratio. This may be written as
2
L = CL . ½ p V S
D Cd .1/2pV2 S

If we consider only the profile drag, the ratio CL/ Cd increases with incidence very rapidly at
first, since CL increases linearly with incidence while Cd remains approximately constant.
Eventually, Cd begins to increase more and more rapidly, while as the stall is approached CL
increases more slowly. Thus, at a certain incidence below the stall the ratio C L/ Cd reaches a
maximum value and subsequently falls.

For a two-dimensional aerofoil, the maximum lift—drag ratio may be of the order of 60—70,
or even higher, and the incidence at which it occurs about 8—10°. The diagram below shows
the variation with incidence of Cd and CL/ Cd

Note that a three- dimensional wing incurs additional drag, which reduces the maximum lift-
drag ratio to a very: much smaller value, usually achieved at a much smaller incidence.

Another way of representing the drag variation is by means of a polar diagram in which C L is
plotted against Cd. An example is given below. This curve shows how CL increases initially
much more rapidly than Cd but that ultimately Cd increases rapidly even after CL has begun
to decrease, i.e., beyond the stall. The condition for maximum lift-drag ratio may be found
from the drag polar by drawing the tangent to the curve from the origin.

Lift Augmentation

28
From the lift formula if the speed range is from 100kt to 600kt because of the V2 term the
lift value at 600 Kt is 36 times that of 100kt. But since in straight and level flight lift must
be equal to weight it is necessary to be able to adjust other lift factors sufficiently to
provide this large range of variation. In normal flight this achieved by altering the angle of
attack and this CL. However, in order to bring landing speeds down to a safe value using
a not excessive long runway, it is necessary to augment other factors in the lift formula.

Since Vi is a coefficient, and p is not controllable, the only factors that can be varied are
the plan area of the wins (S) and the lift coefficient (CL). To increase the maximum
value of CL available, we can increase either the angle of attack up to the stalling angle
or we can alter the lifting characteristics of the aerofoil, such as the camber.

Increasing the Stalling Angle. Stalling of the aerofoil is caused by the separation of
the boundary layer just behind the leading edge, resulting in a falling off of the lift,
combined with a sudden increase in drag. It normally occurs at an angle of attack
around 16°, but if separation could be delayed, the stalling angle, and thus the
maximum available CL, could be increased further. This can be achieved by the
following means:

 Slot or Slat. Separation usually occurs where the pressure gradient is greatest.
On an aerofoil at its stalling angle of attack this will be just behind the leading
edge. To prevent this happening, a small auxiliary aerofoil slat of highly
cambered section is fixed to the leading edge of the wing forming a slot between
the two. The air just behind the leading edge is given extra energy to overcome the
adverse pressure gradient and is directed around the comer. The stalling angle is
increased by some 10°, and the maximum value of CL by

29
about 70%. Slats may be fixed, of automatically or manually retractable to reduce drag
when not required.

Figure 31 Operation of Slats

 Boundary Layer Control by Blowing. When air is ejected at high speed in

the same direction as the boundary layer at a suitable point close to the wing
surface the result is to re-energise the boundary layer. This enables it to
penetrate further into the adverse pressure gradient before separating, again
allowing a larger angle of attack to be used.

 Boundary Layer Control by Sucking. Suction is applied to a series of slots

or a porous area on the upper aerofoil surface reattaching the boundary layer
allowing large angles of attack to be used.

Increasing CL by achieving high angles of attack before separation occurs has a

disadvantage in that the aircraft is in an inconvenient configuration for landing from the
point of view of visibility and undercarriage configuration. Therefore, the above three
methods are not usually used in isolation, but are used in conjunction with one or more
of the methods described below.

Increase in Camber

High lift Aerofoils has a curved mean camber line, the greater the camber the greater the
lifting capacity of the wing. Highs peed Aerofoils, however, may have a mean camber
line that is straight. If either the leading or trailing edges can be hinged downwards the
effect will be to increase the camber of the wing section with a resultant increase in the
lift coefficient The table of diagrams figure32 shows the main types of flap in use.

Increase in Wing Area

The Fowler Flap is designed to protrude from the trailing edge rather than hinge
downwards. Its primary function depends on an increase in wing area, although at

30
same time Fowler Flaps usually increase the camber as well as wing area illustrated in
figure 32.

Use of Flaps for Takeoff

The use of flaps is desirable for take off as well as for landing, to shorten the take off run.
However, flaps increase the drag coefficient, which is a disadvantage on take off. So less
than full flap usually about half is used on take off, the aim being to give the greatest
possible lift: drag ratio and the greatest rate of climb.

Figure 32 Typical High lift Devices

31
Figure 32 Continued

32
Ice and Frost

Effects of Ice and Frost

Ice and frost deposits on the surface of the aircraft will invariably have a detrimental effect
upon the performance of the aeroplane. In either case the aerodynamic shape will be
changed and the boundary layer performance will altered such that turbulence and
separation occur more rapidly than on a clean aircraft. Since the wing is responsible
for the vast majority of the lift generated, the formation of ice or frost on its surface may
cause significant changes to the aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft.

Ice at the Stagnation Point

There are essentially two main effects of large ice formation on the leading edge of the
wing. In the first place the contour of the aerofoil section may be considerably changed
as illustrated in figure32.

Figure 32 Effects of Ice on the Leading Edge

This will almost certainly cause local pressure gradients locally reducing the velocity of
the air in the boundary layer and possibly causing leading edge separation, with
subsequent loss of lift. Second, some forms of ice have great surface roughness that will
significantly increase surface friction. This reduces the energy in the boundary layer and
increases drag. The net effect being to reduce the maximum lift coefficient and increase
drag.

The practical effect in terms of the aircraft is that more power is required to maintain a
given airspeed, the stalling speed will be higher and the stalling angle of attack will be
lower.

Leading edge ice formation is most likely to happen during flight in condition that
promote the build up of ice and should be prevented by the use of the correct anti-icing
procedures. The effect is most noticeable at low flight speeds associated with approach
and landing, where the high stalling speed will require a high landing speed.

Surface Ice and Frost

A thin layer of ice or frost on the upper surface of the wing may not significantly change
the aerodynamic shape of the aerofoil section. However, the surface roughness,
especially of hard frost can cause an increase in surface friction and reduce boundary
layer energy sufficiently to promote a loss of lift by as much as 25%. There will also be an
increase in drag due to the increased skin friction. Figure33 shows the effect of ice and
frost formation on the wing on the CL a curve.

33
 Figure 33 Effects of Ice and Frost on CL and Angle of Attack α

The loss of boundary layer energy will lead to separation and a reduction in the stalling
angle of attack. The maximum lift coefficient will be reduced and the stalling speed
increased.

Surface coating of frost can occur in flight, but are more likely to be associated with
ground formation. De-icing procedures in conditions where ice or frost may form on the
upper surface of the wing of parked aircraft are essential prior to flight. If not, the loss of
lift and the increase in drag due to the formation of these coatings will seriously reduce
the take off performance, to an extent that the aircraft may have difficulty becoming
airborne and even if it does, its rate of climb and manoeuvring will be significantly
affected.

In addition to the points already covered, there is always the weight penalty associated
with the build up ice on the aircraft. The added weight means that airspeed must be
higher or the angle of attack must be increased to produce the extra lift required. The last
choice is dangerous bearing in mind that the formation of ice will almost certainly have
reduced the stalling angle. It should also be borne in mind that leading edge icing will
probably have rendered the angle of attack indicated inoperative and that the stall
warning system does not compensate for reduced critical angle.

Ice and the Stall

34
Ice formation on the wings of an aircraft can have a dramatic effect on the*airflow around
the wing, its lift producing capability, and its stalling angle of attack. The effects are
illustrated at figure34.

Figure34 Effects of Ice on the Lift Curve

Formation of ice on the leading edge of the wing can cause significant changes to the
local aerofoil section, resulting in large changes in the local airflow and pressure
gradients. Some forms of ice have extremely rough surfaces that cause high surface
friction and marked reduction in boundary layer energy. The sum of these effects is a
large increase in drag and significant reduction in the maximum lifting coefficient. These,
plus the increase in weight mean that greater power is required for a given speed and
that the stalling speed is higher for a given weight.

The effect of a layer of frost on the upper surface of the wing is to significantly increase
roughness of the wing increasing drag due to skin friction and reducing boundary layer
energy. Therefore, CLmax is reduced, although not usually to the same extent as with
ice formation.

35
Forces on an Aircraft

The four forces acting on an aircraft are Lift, Weight, Thrust and Drag. If we assume
that the aircraft is in cruise the flight forces can be related to figure35 and analysed as
follows.

Figure35 Flight Forces Moment Couples

Lift and Weight. Since the aircraft is not accelerating upwards or downwards, the
weight must balanced by an equal and opposite lift force in accordance with Newton's First
law of motion. However the aircraft may be designed so that weight and lift are not
collinear resulting in a nose up or nose down pitching moment.

Trust and Drag

Providing the aircraft is flying at a constant speed, it is in a state of equilibrium in the fore
and aft directions and the thrust of forward force produced by the aircraft engines must be
equal and opposite to the drag. However, if there is a pitching moment produced by the
lift drag couple this will be balanced by placing the line of action of the thrust above or
below the line of action of the drag. Thus thrust and drag are equal and opposite but not
necessarily collinear. The moment produced by the thrust-drag couple is equal and
opposite to that produced by the lift-weight couple.

Variations in Pitching Moment

The moments produced by the Lift-Weight and the Thrust-Drag couples will vary due to
operational changes in magnitude and position of all of the forces. Consequently it is
necessary to have a means for making small adjustments to eliminate out of balance
pitching moments. This is achieved by varying the aerodynamic forces acting on the tail
plane.

36
Flight Conditions

We have considered the forces acting on an aircraft in cruising flight, these forces will
now be related to the other conditions of flight that include:

 Steady Horizontal Flight

 Gliding (Zero Thrust)

 Diving

 Climbing

 Level Turn

Steady Horizontal Flight

Figure36 shows the flight forces acting on an aircraft in straight and level flight. As the
aircraft speed is constant, a state of equilibrium exists:

DRAG = THRUST LIFT = WEIGHT

Fuel consumption depends chiefly on thrust that equals drag. Clearly for economy,
transport aircraft should have a low drag cruise speed.

Figure36 Flight Forces on an Aircraft in Steady Horizontal Flight

Figure36 is an over-simplification of the arrangement of the flight forces and as

previously described the forces are not collinear and are arranged to give moments of a
couple. Figures? shows two arrangements of the Lift-Weight couple and how a delicate
37
balance of the force that acts on the tailplane maintains equilibrium.

Figure36 Arrangements of Lift-Weight Couple

Gliding
An aircraft with zero thrust cannot maintain height indefinitely. For example a glider or an
aircraft with total engine failure will descend in a shallow flight path at a steady speed as
illustrated in figure37

Figure37 Gliding

38
Diving

If an aircraft has less thrust than drag possibly due to partial engine failure it can only
maintain constant speed by diving figure38.

Figure38 Diving

Climbing

In a constant speed climb the thrust must be greater than the drag because a
component of the lift must be balanced

Figure39 Climbing

39
Aircraft in Level Turn

Before considering the forces acting on an aircraft in level turn, we will discuss the
forces acting on an object moving in at a steady speed in a circular path. For this
purpose, we will imagine a smooth heavy object sliding on a friction free surface such
as a bed of ice on the end of a long string whose end is attached to a friction free ring
over a post set in the ice. Air resistance is assumed to be zero, so once the object has
been set in motion in its circular it will need no forward force to maintain this motion.
The diagram figure40 shows the plan view of the situation.

Figure40

The only force on the object is the tension in the string pulling the object to the centre of
the circle. This is known as the centripetal force. There is no opposite outwards force
acting on the object for the following reasons:

 A force is a push or a pull. There is no agent outside to pull outwards and the
string cannot push.

 If such a force was present and was equal to the centripetal force, it would
cancel out the centripetal force and there would be no resultant force on the
object. It would then be in equilibrium and by Newton's first law it would
travel at a constant speed in a straight line. However since it does go round in
a circular path, some out of balance force is need to continuously deflect the
object leftwards from its tangential path and this is the centripetal force. It
does in fact cause the object to accelerate towards the centre of the circle even
though its speed towards the centre is zero and its tangential speed is constant.

For an aircraft to turn, there must be an inwards force towards the centre of rotation
(centripetal force) as well as an upward force to balance the weight. Both of these
forces are provided by the lift generated on the aircraft wings that is split into two
components as shown in figure41 and clearly shows why an aircraft must bank to turn.

40
 Figure41 Aircraft in Turn

Using the lettering from the diagram figure41.

Load Factor = Total Lift__ = g

All-up Weight

Load Factor = OB
OD

= OB
OA
= 1__
OA/OB
= 1_
cosθ
This shows that the load factor or "g" force is directly related to the angle of bank and is
independent of mass, speed and radius of turn. For example, at θ = 60° angle of bank,
we have: cos 60 = ½

Therefore 1/cos 60 = 2

Therefore the load factor = 2

Therefore the crew of an aircraft properly executing a level turn at 60° of bank are
experiencing 2g.
41
If it is required to turn at a higher forward speed or in a tighter turn, the centripetal force
must be greater but the vertical component must remain the same since the weight has
not changed. The only way to achieve this is to fly at a higher angle of bank and
generate more total lift. In theory therefore it is not possible to reach an angle of bank of
90°, since at this angle there would be no vertical component to balance the weight, and
so the aircraft would loose height.

Aircraft Stability

Aircraft Axes

The three axis of rotation of an aircraft need to be defined before looking at the subject
of aircraft stability. These axes are mutually perpendicular to each other.

 Longitudinal. Runs fore and aft through the C of G. Rotation about this axis
is termed “Rolling” and stability about this axis is known as lateral stability. It is
maintained by the mainplanes and controlled by the ailerons

 Lateral. Runs parallel to a line joining wing tips through the C of G. Rotation
about this axis is termed “Pitching” and is known as Longitudinal stability.
Stability about this axis is provided by the tail plane and controlled by the
elevators

 Normal. Runs perpendicular to the other two axes through the C of G.

Rotation about this axis is termed “Yawing”. Stability about this axis is known as
directional stability which is maintained by the Keel surface and fin and controlled
by the rudder

Figure42 Axes of Rotation

Definition of Stability

A body is said to be stable, if after the disturbing force has been removed it returns or
tends to return to its equilibrium position. If the body tends to diverge from its equilibrium

42
position then it is said to be unstable, if it neither returns to, or diverges from the
equilibrium position, but adopts some intermediate position is said to be neutrally stable.

Static Stability

If after a disturbance is removed from a body, the body tends immediately to return
towards the equilibrium position it is said to be statically stable. For example, a cone
resting on its base figure43a is statically stable, since if displaced it will return to its
starting position by the action of its centre of gravity. When balanced on its point
figure43b if disturbed it will move further away from its starring position by the action of
its centre of gravity and is statically unstable. If the cone lies on its side figure43c and is
rolled to a new position, it will have no tendency to roll further away or back to the starting
position and so demonstrates neutral static stability.

Figure43 Static Stability

Dynamic Stability

If after a disturbance is removed from a body the body eventually returns to its
equilibrium position the body is dynamically stable. The dynamic stability of the object
refers to the behaviour of the oscillations and as with static stability there are three cases
to consider:

 Dynamically Stable. An object is dynamically stable if it returns to the

undisturbed position after a decreasing number of oscillations as shown in
figure44.

43
 Figure44 Dynamically Stable

 Dynamically Unstable. If an increasing oscillation occurs then the object is said

to be dynamically unstable and is a very dangerous situation. An example of
dynamic instability is from wheel wobble on a car when the wheels are badly
balanced, although when the oscillations get to a certain magnitude the wobble
usually becomes dynamically neutral.

Figure45 Dynamically Unstable

Dynamically Neutral. In this case the oscillations continue without increasing or

decreasing. An example is the hairspring on a watch.

Figure46 Dynamically Neutral

44
All of these three explanations can be extended to aircraft stability about its three major
axes.

Lateral Static Stability (Stick Fixed)

When an aircraft is disturbed in such a way that it starts to roll, two problems have to be
overcome:

 The roll must be stopped.

 The aircraft must be returned to an even keel.

Stopping the Roll

As the aircraft rolls one wing has a downward movement and the other moves
upwards. Figure47 is the vector diagrams to show the resultant velocity.

Figure47 Resultant Velocities

This means that the direction at which the freestream airflow approaches the wing is
changed and the angle of attack on the down going wing is increased and the angle of
attack on the up going wing is decreased figure48.

45
 Figure48 Change in Angle of Attack

This causes a larger CL and a larger lift force on the down going wing and a smaller lift
force on the up going wing. The roll is stopped, but then the lift forces equalise and
there is no restoring effect.

Returning to the Equilibrium Position

Unfortunately, once the rolling motion stops the restoring moment stops so there is no
tendency to restore the aircraft to an even keel. Something more is required to achieve
the necessary lateral stability. The measures adopted usually depend on the fact that the
force system acting on the aircraft becomes unbalanced and causes the aircraft to
sideslip and induce a relative sideslip airflow (Figure49).

Figure49 Sideslip

There are four main methods of obtaining lateral static stability:

 Pendulum Effect (High wing, low CofG)

 High Fin (Beware of yawing effect)

 Sweepback

 Dihedral

46
Pendulum Stability
In the case of a high wing aircraft that has the centre of gravity well below the centre of lift
as shown in figure50. The weight force provides a righting moment that assists the
aerodynamic forces.

Figure50 Pendulum Stability

This may mean that high wing aircraft often require a smaller dihedral angle than a low
wing aircraft.

Stability due to a large Fin

If an aircraft with a large fin that is set well above the centre of gravity sideslips, the
sideways airflow will act on the fin to provide a restoring moment figures 1. Note another
effect is to swing the fin around the normal axis causing yawing at the same time, which
tends to stop the sideslip.

Figure 51 Effect of a large Fin

47
Lateral Stability due to Sweepback

Most high-speed aircraft are given swept-back wings to improve high aerodynamics, but
sweeping the wing back can also improve lateral stability. In some cases lateral stability
may be too much, particularly at high angle of attack and may have to be counteracted by
the use of an anhedral wing.

When a swept wing aircraft flies straight and level, the freestream airflow over the wings
has two components of velocity:

 Perpendicular to the leading edge

 Parallel to the leading edge

The velocity conditions on each wing are the same as shown in figure52 and there is no
sideslip.

Figure52 Velocity Conditions Straight and Level

In a sideslip the relative sideslip wind velocity increase this normal component on the
leading wing whilst decreasing that on the other. The effect is to produce a distorted
span-wise lift distribution that restores the aircraft to an even keel figure52.

48
 Figure52 Velocity Conditions during Sideslip
Lateral Dihedral

When the wings of an aircraft are angled upwards from the root in relation to the lateral
axis it is said to have lateral dihedral and the angle of inclination is called the lateral
dihedral angle. In a sideslip, for an aircraft with lateral dihedral, the wing leading into
the sideslip has a greater angle of attack relative to the sideslip wind than the other. The
result is a distorted span-wise lift distribution that restores the aircraft to an even keel.

Figure53 Effect of Lateral Dihedral

49
Longitudinal Static Stability (Stick Fixed)

In order that an aircraft may be stable when it is displaced in pitch, forces must be
brought into play that restore the aircraft to an even keel. In the case of an up-gust the
aircraft will, because of inertia carry on along the same flight path at a slightly higher
angle of attack and any resulting changes to the forces acting on the aircraft must act so
as to bring the nose of the aircraft back down to restore the original angle of attack. The
factors that influence the Longitudinal Static Stability of an aircraft are:

 Mainplane cp Movement. The slight increase in angle of attack due to a nose

up pitch causes the centre of pressure (cp) to move forward. This increases the
turning effect of the wing lift in a nose up direction and therefore destabilising.

 Fuselage cp Movement. The influence of the fuselage is similar to that of the

wing and is generally destabilising.

 Tailplane. An increase in angle of attack on the tailplane due to the upward

gust produces an increase in tailplane lift. The moment of this increased lift
about the c of g tends to pitch the nose down. Thus the tailplane is the
stabilising influence on the aircraft. The size of the tailplane depends upon the
moments required and the distance from the c of g.

 Aircraft Centre of Gravity Position. Since the magnitude of the various

moments about the c of g determines the degree of stability of an aircraft. The
position of the c of g itself must therefore have a bearing on the degree of
stability. For example a rearward movement of the c of g reduces the tail
moment and the aircraft becomes less stable until at a given c of g position,
the neutral point, the stabilising and destabilising moments exactly balance
and the aircraft is neutrally stable. This position is called the aft c of g limit
and is the furthest aft position of the c of g consistent with stability. The
further forward the c of g the more stable the aircraft becomes, but there is a
limit to its furthest forward position that is imposed by trim considerations. At
high angles of attack required at low speeds forward c of g movement must
be balanced by up elevator and the forward c of g limit is fixed by the
maximum possible upwards movement of the elevator.

Great care must be exercised when aircraft are loaded, modified, or equipped for a variety
of roles to ensure that the final c of g position is between the forward and aft limits,
otherwise the aircraft will either be unstable or uncontrollable at low speeds.

Directional Static Stability (Stick Fixed)

When an aircraft suffers a disturbance in yaw, aerodynamic forces must arise that will
return the aircraft to its original directional attitude. After a small disturbance, the c of g
will continue along the original flight path, with the aircraft presenting its side surface to
the oncoming airflow, and so experiencing forces that have a yawing moment about the
c of g.

Those forces acting forward of the c of g will tend to increase the yaw, but those acting
aft of the c of g will be stabilising and for directional stability these must be dominant.
50
This is achieved by arranging that the fin be of an appropriate area and situated at
suitable distance aft of the c of g. In general, for a given aircraft, a short fuselage will
require a large fin area and a long fuselage a small fin area figure55.

Figure54 Position of Centre of Gravity

Figure55 Fin Area in Respect to Length of Fuselage

51
Dynamic Stability

There are various ways that static and dynamic stability or instability about the three
different axes of an aircraft may affect each other that can cause complete oscillations
and strange behaviour. Two in particular are examined below:

 Dutch Roll. Dutch roll is a dynamically neutral oscillation in which the nose of the
aircraft as viewed by the pilot moves in a horizontal figure of eight as illustrated in
figure56.

Figure 56 Dutch Roll

This is caused as follows:

(a) A disturbance in roll.

(b) The aircraft sideslips

(c) Lateral stability rolls the aircraft back towards the neutral position and side
wind on the fin causes yaw in the direction of the sideslip.

(d) As the aircraft rolls back to level, directional stability yaws the aircraft back
to straight. Both overshoot and the process is repeated.

Dutch roll sometimes known as “porpoising” will result provided the lateral stability is
sufficient to dominate the directional stability and recover the roll. Otherwise a spiral dive
will occur.

Spiral Dive. The same events occur as in a, b, and c except for the lateral stability
rolling the aircraft back level. The yawing causes the outer wing to travel faster through
the air than the inner lower wing giving it more lift thus rolling the aircraft further away
from the undisturbed position. The effect is directly opposing the lateral stability of the
aircraft and it wins and the resulting disturbance will become unstable. Both yawing and
rolling will intensify and the aircraft will enter a spiral dive.

52