MALLABHUM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Full Name – RAKESH PAL

Roll no- 15801321052
Reg. No – 211580101320019 OF 2021-22
Department – Civil Engineering.
Paper Name – AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION
AND CONTROL
Paper Code – CE(PE)703A
Semester – 7th CA2
Air Pollution Meteorology

Air pollution meteorology deals with meteorological processes occurring close to the
earth’s surface, including the effects of meteorology on air pollutants and the effects of
pollutants on meteorology. Recent research in this area by Prof. Jon Kahl and students
has included studies of the adequacy of the popular Pasquill classification scheme for
characterizing atmospheric stability, meteorological influences on toxic air pollutants in
Mexico, models for describing the long-range transport of atmospheric contaminants,
methods of measuring atmospheric particulates using satellites, and methods of
characterizing and forecasting wind gusts. One-minute resolution (ASOSm) wind
(green) and gust (blue) observations for one sample hour in Milwaukee, illustrating the
effects of Automated Surface Observing System reporting practices on gusts and gust
factors. The ASOSm gust factor incorporates observations during the entire hour, while
the ASOSh gust factor is derived from observations during a 10-minute period (purple
shading), ignoring the majority of the each hour’s measurements

1 .Lapse rate

Rate of change in temperature observed while moving upward through the Earth’s
atmosphere. The lapse rate is considered positive when the temperature decreases with
elevation, zero when the temperature is constant with elevation, and negative when the
temperature increases with elevation (temperature inversion). The lapse rate of non-
rising air—commonly referred to as the normal, or environmental, lapse rate—is highly
variable, being affected by radiation, convection, and condensation; it averages about
6.5 °C per kilometre (18.8 °F per mile) in the lower atmosphere (troposphere). It differs
from the adiabatic lapse rate, which involves temperature changes due to the rising or
sinking of an air parcel. Adiabatic lapse rates are usually differentiated as dry or moist.

The dry adiabatic lapse rate for air depends only on the specific heat capacity of air at
constant pressure and the acceleration due to gravity. The dry adiabatic lapse rate for
the Earth’s atmosphere equals 9.8 °C per kilometre (28.3 °F per mile); thus, the
temperature of an air parcel that ascends or descends 5 km (3 miles) would fall or rise
49 °C (85 °F), respectively. When an air parcel that is saturated with water vapour rises,
some of the vapour will condense and release latent heat. This process causes the parcel
to cool more slowly than it would if it were not saturated. The moist adiabatic lapse rate
varies considerably because the amount of water vapour in the air is highly variable.
The greater the amount of vapour, the smaller the adiabatic lapse rate. As an air parcel
rises and cools, it may eventually lose its moisture through condensation; its lapse rate
then increases and approaches the dry adiabatic value.
The difference between the normal lapse rate in the atmosphere and the dry and moist
adiabatic lapse rates determines the vertical stability of the atmosphere—that is, the
tendency of an air particle to return to its original position or to accelerate away from its
original position after being given a slight vertical displacement. For this reason, the
lapse rate is of prime importance to meteorologists in forecasting certain types of cloud
formations, the incidence of thunderstorms, and the intensity of atmospheric
turbulence.

2.Atmospheric Stability

Wildfires are greatly affected by atmospheric motion and the properties of the
atmosphere that affect its motion. Most commonly considered in evaluating fire danger
are surface winds with their attendant temperatures and humidity , as experienced in
everyday living. Less obvious, but equally important, are vertical motions that influence
wildfire in many ways. Atmospheric stability may either encourage or suppress vertical
air motion. The heat of fire itself generates vertical motion, at least near the surface, but
the convective circulation thus established is affected directly by the stability of the air.
In turn, the in draft into the fire at low levels is affected, and this has a marked effect on
fire intensity.

Also, in many indirect ways, atmospheric stability will affect fire behaviour. For
example, winds tend to be turbulent and gusty when the atmosphere is unstable, and
this type of airflow causes fires to behave erratically. Thunderstorms with strong
updrafts and downdrafts develop when the atmosphere is unstable and contains
sufficient moisture. Their lightning may set wildfires, and their distinctive winds can
have adverse effects on fire behaviour.

Subsidence occurs in larger scale vertical circulation as air from high-pressure areas
replaces that carried aloft in adjacent low-pressure systems. This often brings very dry
air from high altitudes to low levels. If this reaches the surface, going wildfires tend to
burn briskly, often as briskly at night as during the day.

From these few examples, we can see that atmospheric stability is closely related to fire
behavior, and that a general understanding of stability and its effects is necessary to the
successful interpretation of fire-behaviour phenomena. Sections Stability
Determinations

Layer Stability
Lifting Processes

Diurnal and Seasonal Variations in Stability

Subsidence

Local Indicators of Stability

Summary

Atmospheric stability was defined in chapter 1 as the resistance of the atmosphere to

vertical motion. This definition and its explanation were based on the parcel method of
analysis appropriate to a vertical temperature and moisture sounding through the
troposphere.

This method employs some assumptions: (1) The sounding applies to an atmosphere at
rest; (2) a small parcel of air in the sampled atmosphere, if caused to rise, does not
exchange mass or heat across its boundary; and (3) rise of the parcel does not set its
environment in motion. We learned that lifting under these conditions is adiabatic
lifting.

Three characteristics of the sounding then determine the stability of the atmospheric
layer in which the parcel of air is embedded. These are: (1) The temperature lapse rate
through the layer; (2) temperature of the parcel at its initial level; and (3) initial dew
point of the parcel.

Adiabatically lifted air expands in the lower pressures encountered as it moves upward.
This is a cooling process, and the rate of cooling with increase in altitude depends on
whether or not the temperature reaches the dew point and consequent saturation. As
long as the air remains unsaturated, it cools at the constant dry-adiabatic lapse rate of
5.5°F. per 1,000 feet of rise. Rising saturated air cools at a lesser rate, called the moist-
adiabatic rate. This rate averages about 3°F. per 1,000 feet, but, as we will see later, it
varies considerably. The degree of stability or instability of an atmospheric layer is
determined by comparing its temperature lapse rate, as shown by a sounding, with the
appropriate adiabatic rate. A temperature lapse rate less than the dry adiabatic rate of
5.5°F. per 1,000 feet for an unsaturated parcel is considered stable, because vertical
motion is damped. A lapse rate greater than dry-adiabatic favours vertical motion and
is unstable. In the absence of saturation, an atmospheric layer is neutrally stable if its
lapse rate is the same as the dry-adiabatic rate. Under this particular condition, any
existing vertical motion is neither damped nor accelerated.

In the case of a saturated parcel, the same stability terms apply. In this case, however,
the comparison of atmospheric lapse rate is made with the moist-adiabatic rate
appropriate to the temperature encountered.

Layers of different lapse rates of temperature may occur in a single sounding, varying
from superadiabatic (unstable), usually found over heated surfaces, to dry-adiabatic
(neutral), and on through inversions of temperature (very stable). In a saturated layer
with considerable convective motion, the lapse rate tends to become moist-adiabatic.

The adiabatic process Is reversible. Just as air expands and cools when it is lifted, so is it
equally compressed and warmed as it is lowered. Hence, adiabatic processes and
stability determinations for either upward or downward moving air parcels make use
of the appropriate dry- or moist-adiabatic lapse rates. The temperature structure of the
atmosphere is always complex. As mentioned above, the moist-adiabatic lapse rate is
variable-not constant as is the dry-adiabatic rate To facilitate making stability
determinations, therefore, meteorologists analyzing upper-air observations use a
thermodynamic diagram called an adiabatic chart as a convenient tool for making
stability estimates. The basic portion of the chart is a set of grid lines of temperature and
pressure (or height) on which the measured temperature and moisture structure of the
atmosphere can be plotted. The moisture is plotted as dew-point temperature. Also
printed on the chart is a set of dry-adiabatic and a set of moist-adiabatic lines. By
referring to these adiabats, the lapse rates of the various layers or portions of the
atmosphere can be compared to the dry-adiabatic rate and the moist-adiabatic rate. In
later chapters we will consider other ways in which the adiabatic chart is used.

Stability determinations from soundings in the atmosphere are made to estimate the
subsequent motion of an air parcel that has been raised or lowered by an external force.
In a stable atmosphere, the parcel will return to its original position when the force is
removed; in an unstable atmosphere, the parcel will accelerate in the direction of its
forced motion; and in a neutrally stable atmosphere, it will remain at its new position.

Inversion –
3.inversion
Ground Inversion-

When the air near cold earth’s surface cools faster than the air above, a ground
inversion occurs. This is common on a clear and quiet night when heat radiates away
from the earth and swiftly cools. Fog can form near the ground. Occasionally remaining
until the earth warms up again during the day.

Frontal inversion-

A frontal inversion happens when a mass of cold air collides with warm air and
undercuts it. As warm air is forced upwards it then cools down and condenses into
horizontal layers of mist or vapor. These form clouds. When these cloud layers are thick
enough, they give drizzle, rain or snow.

Subsidence inversion-

A subsidence inversion happens when a high-pressure area causes a layer of air to sink
or subside. As it falls, the air compresses and dries out, allowing it to warm up. In some
cases, such as land masses in winter, the air near the earth’s surface remains colder. The
resulting inversion can cause shallow layers of cloud to trap haze and hinder visibility.

4.Plume pattern

Fanning Plume

A fanning plume occurs when the wind blows across the path of the plume. The wind
causes the plume to spread out horizontally, resembling a fan shape. Fanning plumes
are influenced by wind direction and speed and are commonly observed in open areas
or near bodies of water.

Fumigating Plume

A fumigating plume refers to a behaviour where the plume descends and spreads close
to the ground, resulting in the widespread dispersal of the emitted substance. This type
of plume behaviour is often observed in pesticide or insecticide spraying activities,
where the goal is to distribute the substance across a large area for fumigation purposes.

Looping Plume
A looping plume occurs when the emitted substance undergoes cyclical or oscillatory
motion. This behaviour is typically observed when there are variations in wind speed or
direction at different altitudes. The plume may rise, descend, and change direction in a
looping or meandering pattern.

Coning Plume

A coning plume refers to a behaviour where the plume narrows or converges as it rises,
resembling a cone shape. This can occur when the emitted substance has a higher
velocity at the source and then spreads out as it rises and disperses. Coning plumes are
commonly observed in chimney emissions or exhaust from jet engines.

Trapping Plume

A trapping plume occurs when the emitted substance is confined or trapped within a
specific area due to local atmospheric conditions or topographic features. This can
happen when there is a stable layer of air above the plume that prevents it from
dispersing vertically or horizontally. Trapping plumes are commonly observed in
valleys or areas with strong temperature inversions.

Neutral Plume

A neutral plume refers to a type of plume that has minimal buoyancy effects and
remains relatively stable as it disperses in the atmosphere. Neutral plumes commonly
occur when the temperature of the emitted substances, such as gases or particles, is
similar to the surrounding ambient temperature. As a result, the plume rises vertically
without significant upward or downward displacement due to buoyancy forces.

Lofting Plume

A lofting plume refers to a type of plume that exhibits significant buoyancy effects and
rises rapidly in the atmosphere. This type of plume is characterized by a strong upward
displacement due to the temperature difference between the emitted substance and the
surrounding air. Lofting plumes are typically associated with sources that release
heated gases or particles, such as wildfires, volcanic eruptions, or industrial processes
involving high-temperature emissions.