Unit 5 Social Structure and Social Interaction

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:
1. Discuss social structure and explain why one’s location in this structure affects the
person’s perceptions, attitudes, and behavior.
2. Identify the elements of social structure.
3. Apply Durkheim’s concept of mechanical and organic solidarity and Tonnie’s
typologies of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft to explain what holds societies
together.
4. Explain how stereotypes influence and individual’s expectation and behavior.

5.1 Definition of Social Structure

Social Structure refers to the pattern of inter-related statuses and roles found in
a society or other group at a particular time and constituting a relatively stable
set of social relations.
- It is the organized pattern of the inter-related rights and obligations of persons
and groups in a system of interaction as analyzed in terms of statuses, roles, social
norms and social institutions.
- The term social organization is sometimes used synonymously with social
structure. Thus, social structure is the way in which a society is organized into a
predictable relationship. (Dimension of Social Structure and Analyses of Social
Structure).

5.2 Elements of Social Structure

Predictable social relationships can be examined in terms of four elements:

statuses, social roles, groups and social institutions. These elements make up
social structure, just as a foundation, walls and ceilings make up a building’s
structure. The elements of social structure are developed through a lifelong
process.

A. STATUS
- A term used by sociologists to refer to any full range of socially defined
positions.
- Within a large group of society, from the lowest to the highest position.
- Example:
▪ Within our society, a person can occupy the status of the president
of Philippine Republic, construction worker, teacher, resident of
Philippines or a father. Clearly, one person can hold more than one
status simultaneously.

- There are different kinds of status:

1) Ascribed Status
A status that is assigned to a person by a society without regard for the
person’s unique talents or characteristics. Generally, this assignment takes
 place at birth: Thus, a person’s ethnic background, gender and age are all
considered ascribed statuses.
These characteristics are biological by nature but they are significant
primarily because of the social meanings that they have in our culture. It is also
important to note that an ascribed status have different social meanings in
different societies.

2) Achieved Status
A status acquired by an individual through his efforts often through
competition and the use of special abilities, knowledge and skills. One must do
something to acquire an achieved status, go to school, learn a skill, establish a
friendship, or invent new product.

3) Master Status
A status that dominates others and thereby determines a person’s
general position within a society, it cuts across the other statuses that an
individual occupies. Example: Fr. Demi John (not his real name) who allegedly
having contracted with his lover – boyfriend, died of AIDS in 2003, had a
remarkable career as a university professor; and a notable playwright; but at
the end of his life, his statuses as a university professor, prolific writer, and a
political activist.

4) Status Inconsistency
Although, our statuses usually fit together fairly well, sometimes a
contradiction or mismatch between statuses occurs, this is known as status
inconsistency. Example: A forty-year-old married woman on a date with a
nineteen-year-old college sophomore.

Figure 1 illustrates a person with different social statuses. The person in this figure
“ME” occupies many positions in society, each of which involves distinct statuses that
are either ascribed statuses (circles) or achieved statuses (squares).

brother
Filipino
writer
son
teacher
ME
34 years employee
old

male friend
student

Figure 1. Illustration of a person with social statuses.

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 B. SOCIAL ROLES

- A pattern of behavior structured around specific rights and duties and

associated with a particular status position within a group or social situation.
- A person’s role in any situation is defined by the set of expectations for his
behavior by others and by the person himself.
- Ralph Linton (The Study of Man) has referred to roles as the dynamic aspect
of status; a role is the totality of all the cultural patterns associated with a
particular status.

- Other terms associated with social roles:

1. Counterfeit Role
A role that an individual pretends in his own, but that in reality has
only been assumed as a cover to protect him from the penalties associated
with his actual role (Lemert, 1972). (Example: A divorced woman who
pretends to be a widow epileptic who prefers to be known as an alcoholic).

2. Internalized Role
A role or role-set observed by an individual and adopted by him as a
part of his self-conception or self-image. Usually an individual’s personal role
definition stems from roles he has internalized, or adopted from others as his
own.

3. Perceived Role
The role expectations that a person believes others have of him in a
situation. It is the role that a person believes others expect him to play. It may
or may not correspond to the role demands or the actual expectations of
others or his own personal role definition.

4. Prescribed Role
A role as defined by cultural standards, Theodore M. Newcomb uses
the term to refer to a set of behaviors expected for all occupants of a particular
role. The prescribed role sets the limits of the behavior within a particular role.
Newcomb distinguishes this from role behavior which refers to the behavior
of a single individual in a role (Social Psychology, 1988).

5. Representative Role
Siegfried F. Nadel (The Theory of Social Structure) holds that the
concept of representative role is the only way that there is to give meaning to
the idea of interrelationship between groups. It is a role which an individual
plays that conforms to his and his group’s view of the type of behavior that
typifies and represents the standards values of the group.

6. Role Conflict
The incompatibility between two or more roles that an individual is
expected to perform in a given situation. The performance of one role
interferes or is antagonistic to other. The state of conflict may last only a short
time and the conflicting demands may be met without much difficulty or it
may be a persistent problem facing someone all of his life.

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 Figure 2 illustrates an example of role conflict.
YOU

SON FRIEND STUDENT WORKERS

Visit mom Go to Prepare Overtime

at hospital. birthday for exam
party

ROLE CONFLICT

Figure 2. Illustration of role conflict.

7. Role Demands
The expectation of others with reference to a person playing a role in
a situation. The actor may or may not, once aware of the role demands, wish
or be able to fulfill them.

8. Role Discontinuity
A lack of congruity between the expectations associated with social
roles taken on consecutively by an individual. The changes from the courtship
to the marriage role, and the occupational role to the retirement role are
examples of situations involving a degree of role discontinuity.

9. Role Expectations
The entire set of responses or behavior anticipated and desired in
relation to a certain role. By this definition, the role expectations include the
actor’s expectations of himself as well as the expectations of others.

10. Role Model

The role model provides a standard used by the other person in
determining the appropriate attitudes and actions of an occupant of the role.
The role model differs from the reference individual in that the internalization
of the standards of behavior and attitudes of the role model is limited to one
or a very few roles; whereas identification with a reference individual is more
comprehensive, including a wide range of roles.
For example: A person may have a role model for an occupational role
(teacher, nurse, lawyer or the like), but not identify with or emulate that
individual in any other aspect of life. A role model need not be personally
known to the individual, not living, nor necessarily real, and may include public
figures, historical figures and legendary heroes.

11. Role Primacy

Every individual must play a number of roles, and sometimes the
demands of one role conflict with demands of another. In case of role conflict,
an order of precedence must be established. The primacy of a role is

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 determined by the extent to which it is important or essential to the
individual’s self-conception or self-image.
Role primacy, however, is not simply an individual matter. The primacy
of a particular role varies by historical, cultural, and situational factors, and the
structure of the society or a social group is crucial in the determination of role
primacy for its members.
Example: the culture may demand the primacy of certain occupational
roles, such as physicians or priest, over other normal role obligations of persons
who play these important social roles.

12. Role Set

As defined by Robert K. Merton, a set of roles (a role complex) that
centers on a particular social status. Any given social relationships that are
always or usually found to be necessary for persons in that particular status.
For example: the status of a university professor frequently involves the
roles of teacher, research technician, adviser to students, consultant to
industry and government, administrator, clerk, author, specialist in a
professional discipline, and so forth. Thus, various social statuses in a society
may require common associated roles which continually bring functionally
different statuses together.

13. Role Strain

As defined by William J. Goode, a feeling of difficulty or stress in
fulfilling the demands of one’s role obligations. Figure 3 illustrates an example
of role strain.

STUDENT

DO WELL IN NOT MAKE OTHERS

SCHOOL LOOK BAD

ROLE STRAIN

Figure 3. Illustration of role strain.

14. Role Taking
The taking of attitudes or point of view of another person by imagining
oneself as the other person, in order to anticipate his actual behavior. In
essence, it is as if a person said to himself “knowing him and his situation, and
putting myself in his shoes, what would I myself do?”

15. Multiple Role

The roles associated with the various statuses (the status set) held by
an individual at a given time. For example, the roles associated with the
statuses of husband, father, lawyer, church elder, and so forth.

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 16. Reciprocal Role
Social roles that pattern of interaction between two or more related
statuses. Reciprocal roles are related and inseparable. The study of reciprocal
roles is crucial in the study of the structure. Example: The teacher – student,
husband – wife, father – daughter, are reciprocal relationships.

C. GROUPS
In sociological terms, a group is any number of people with similar norms, values
and expectations who regularly and consciously interact. Every sociology is composed
of many groups in which daily social interaction takes place. We seek out groups to
establish friendships, to accomplish certain goals and to fulfill social roles that we have
acquired.
Groups play a vital part in society’s social structure. Much of our social interaction
takes place within groups and is influence by the norms and sanctions established by
groups. The various types of groups in which people will interact will be explored in
detail in a separate chapter titled Social and Societies.

D. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
An interrelated system of social roles and norms organized about the satisfaction
of an important social need or function. Institutions are organized in response to
particular needs. By studying social institutions, sociologist gain insight into the
structure of a society.

5.3 Dimensions of Social Structure

In its commonly accepted definition, a structure denotes a fixed relationship
between the elements or parts which make up whole. A social structure is likewise made
up of elements or components which are related. Robin Williams explain that social
structure as a concept has two important dimensions. The first dimension is social
organization (which have already been discussed) and the second dimension is social
organization (which will be discussed later) but briefly they should be reviewed in the
present context.

FUNCTIONS AND SITUATION

FUNCTIONAL
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
PREREQUISITE
1. Replacing Family
personnel Government (Immigration)
2. Teaching New Family (Basic skills)
Recruits Economy (Occupants)
Education (Schools)
Religion (Sacred Teaching)
3. Producing and Family (Food preparation)
distributing goods Economy
and services Government (Regulations regarding commerce) Health Care System

4. Preserving Order Family (Child rearing, regulation of sexuality) Government

(Implementation of peace and order)
Religion (Morals)

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5. Providing and Government (Patriotism)
maintaining a Religion (Faithful servant)
sense of purpose

5.4 The Analysis of Social Structure

There are four basic structural concepts used in the analysis of social structures.
First is NORM. It is the smallest unit in this conceptual framework; norm is a learned
behavior expectation, held in common by the members of social system. Second
conceptual unit is ROLE. In an operational or concrete sense, a role is seen as a part of a
status position which is made up of subset norms. This subset norm is distinguishable
from other sets of norms included in the status position.
The third structural concept is STATUS POSITION. To illustrate a father’s role of
provider is made up of several norms relate not only to what he should provide, but
what quality he should provide-type of house, kind of food, educational opportunities
for example. But his role of provider is only one of the roles which make up his status
position as a father. He must also play such role as disciplinarian, teacher, husband, each
of which also includes many norms.
Lastly, the concept of SITUS is used to locate or place an actor in more complex
social structures. These include more than one social group. According to Bates, there
are constellations of positions which are customarily occupied by a single actor or type
of actor. The type of actor engaged in by the actors may vary widely and include work
routines, family, life, religious activity and political actions.

5.5 Changes in Social Structure

Changes in social structure occur as a result of changes in culture, globalization,

shifts in social classes and ethnic groups and so forth. If society contains many different
groups and undergoes extensive social change, how does it manage to stay together?
What holds society together? The answer is social cohesion. This is the degree to which
members of a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds. There are two
possible explanations for this proposed by Emile Durkheim and Ferdinand Tonnies.
Emile Durkheim used mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity to explain what
holds society together. Mechanical solidarity is a collective consciousness that people
experiences as a result of performing the same or similar task. While organic solidarity
is a collective consciousness based on the interdependence brought about by the
division of labor (i.e. how people divide up tasks)
Ferdinand Tonnies analyzed how intimate community (Gemeinschaft) was being
replaced by impersonal associations (Gesellschaft). Gemeinschaft is a type of society in
which life is intimate. A community in which everyone knows everyone else and people
share a sense of togetherness. While gesellschaft is a type of society dominated by the
impersonal relationships, individual accomplishments, and self-interest. Table 1 shows
the difference between the two.

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 Table 1. Comparisons of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft by Ferdinand Tonnies.

GEMEINSCHAFT
Rural life typifies this form
People share a feeling of community which
results from their similar backgrounds and
life experiences.
Social interactions, including negotiations,
are intimate and familiar.
There is a spirit of cooperation and unity of
will.
Tasks and personal relationships cannot be
separated.
There is little emphasis on individual
privacy.
Informal social control predominates.
There is less tolerance of deviance.
Emphasis is on ascribed status.
Social change is relatively limited.
GESELLSCHAFT
Urban life typifies this form
People perceive little sense of
commonality. Their differences in
background appear more striking than their
similarities.
Social interactions, including negotiations,
are more likely to be task-specific.
Self-interest dominates.
The task being performed is paramount;
relationships are subordinate.
Privacy is valued.
Formal social control is evident.
There is greater tolerance of deviance.
There is more emphasis on achieved status.
Social change is very evident.

5.6 Definition of Social Interaction

The basic social processes represented in communication and a mutual

relationship between two or more individuals (or groups). Interaction between two
persons is social behavior. Through language, symbols, and gestures people exchange
meanings and have reciprocal effect upon each other’s behavior, expectations, and
thought.

5.7 Social Interaction in Everyday Life

The micro sociological approach places its emphasis on face-to-face social

interaction, or what people do when they are in the presence of one another.
This includes:
a) Stereotypes in everyday life
▪ First impressions are shaped by the assumptions one person makes about
another person’s sex, race, age and physical appearance.
▪ Such assumptions affect one’s ideas about the person and how one acts
toward that person.
▪ Stereotypes tend to bring out every kind of behavior that fit the
stereotype.

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Figure 7. A flow chart of self-fulfilling stereotypes.

We see features of the Because of the person’s features or what we hear

person, or hear about the about him/her, we form ideas about him/her based
person. on the stereotypes we develop.

We behave toward the person according to the

ideas we have formed.
The behavior of the person
changes to match our
expectations.
The person gets ideas of how we perceive him or
her.

b) Personal space and how people use it to define their own boundaries:
- The amount of personal space people prefer varies from one culture to
another.
- Anthropologist Edward Hall distinguishes 4 different distance zones.
▪ Intimate distance – about 18 inches from the body-for lovemaking,
wrestling, comforting and protecting.
▪ Personal distance – from 18 inches-4 feet-for friend’s acquaintances
and ordinary conversations.
▪ Social distance – from 4 feet-12 feet- for impersonal or formal
relationships such as job interviews.
▪ Public distance – beyond 12 feet- for even more formal relationships
such as separating dignitaries and public speakers from the general
public.

5.8 Social Construction of Reality

Social construction of reality refers to what people desire as real because of their
background assumptions and life experience. Symbolic interactionist believes that people
define their own reality and then live within those definitions. Our definitions are so
important that what we define as real is for us, real. As sociologist W.I. Thomas said, in
what has become known as Thomas Theorem, “If people define situations as real, then,
they are real in their consequences.

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