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DEFINING WELL-BEING

Defining Well-Being at Different Stages of the Lifespan

Emma Allison

Department of Behavioral Science, Drury University

PSYC 312: Positive Psychology

Honors Option Contract

Dr. Herrington-Roldan

December 14, 2023

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DEFINING WELL-BEING
Defining Well-Being at Different Stages of the Lifespan

Subjective well-being should be evaluated throughout the lifespan since the aging

population is growing rapidly worldwide (Shukla, 2015). There are general trends that are seen

consistently throughout life development while some things are only observed in specific

periods. Erik Erikson created eight stages of development with each having a crisis to master to

move onto the next stage (Compton & Hoffman, 2012). These struggles may shape or influence

subjective well-being during the lifespan. A different theory suggests that well-being is a set-

point theory. Buecker et al. found that 36-40% of well-being may be heritable (2023). Some

people may be born with a higher set point for well-being than others (Buecker et al., 2023).

Throughout life, there is the same level of association between gratitude and a person’s

subjective well-being (Chopik et al., 2017). Positive and negative affect contribute to someone’s

level of subjective well-being. These are not opposite ends of the same spectrum though (Gana et

al., 2016). Positive affect can act as a protective factor while negative affect can act as a risk

factor. If felt together, they may cancel each other out (Gana et al., 2016). Buecker et al. found

that positive affect declines from childhood for almost the entire lifespan (2023). It also showed

that negative affect varied throughout life. In childhood negative affect decreased but increased

again in adolescence. There was then another decline in young adulthood through middle

adulthood and then an increase again in old age (Buecker et al., 2023). Some older research said

that life satisfaction produced a U-shaped graph with satisfaction being the lowest in the middle

of someone’s life. The data does not show this though. Life satisfaction decreases from

adolescence but then increases until a person is around 70. There is a decrease until the end of a

person’s life (Buecker et al., 2023). A person was found to have a higher life satisfaction if they

have zest, perseverance, hope, curiosity, and love (Martínez-Martí & Ruch, 2014). Resilience
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DEFINING WELL-BEING
and optimism were shown to increase life satisfaction while pessimism and resilience caused a

decrease in life satisfaction (Kumar & Sharma, 2021).

Different personality traits are seen more at different stages of life. Truth grows in

importance as a person gets older, but growth priority and importance decrease with age

(Cornwell et al., 2022). Praying more often was associated with higher well-being and better

mental health (Shukla, 2015). Both positive affect and life satisfaction affect longevity (Gana et

al., 2016). An optimistic person tends to live longer than a person who is a pessimist (Kumar &

Sharma, 2021). In women, there is a 14% reduced risk of dying if they are optimistic. People

who experience more positive events and get more out of them tend to live longer as well

(Kumar & Sharma, 2021). Pleasure and meaningfulness in everyday activities also tend to

increase the longevity of an individual (Gana et al., 2016).

Well-Being in Childhood and Adolescence

Exercise can be a major contributor to well-being at any life stage, but especially for

children growing up. Establishing good habits early can help solidify them and help them last

through the rest of adulthood (Shepard et al., 1995). From ages 5-12 years, schools are the

primary setting for children doing physical activity throughout the day. This helps establish

habits and allows them to form easily. By allotting one hour a day during the school day, students

feel less boredom in class and it helps with their self-image (Shepard et al., 1995). In physical

education classes, schools should provide students with a variety of sports so they can find what

they like the most. However, there are some consequences of starting physical activity so young.

At any age, you have the risk of sudden death due to some undiagnosed cardiovascular disease

(Shephard et al., 1995). Some children might have a bad attitude to participating in physical

education classes and others may be more prone to injury or reinjury due to moving every day.
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DEFINING WELL-BEING
As students age, they start to develop more freedom and independence for themselves.

For those ages 13-19 years, this freedom may lead to more risky behaviors (Shephard et al.,

1995). This can also lead to the formation of bad habits. Some people may start using drugs or

performance-enhancing drugs so they perform better at their sport (Shephard et al., 1995).

Exercise and physical activity may also cause issues with weight and eating habits. The demands

and time commitment of being in high school may cause people to stop incorporating physical

activity into their everyday lives (Shephard et al., 1995).

During this period, people may experience the disruption hypothesis (Buecker et al.,

2023). The disruption hypothesis notes that there is a dip in emotional stability and extraversion

from childhood to adolescence. This decline is seen more in girls than it is in boys (Buecker et

al., 2023). This may be because of the societal demands placed on girls. They tend to have more

stereotypes and idealizations placed upon them from social media or other news outlets. Girls

also tend to have a lower affect in their teens compared to boys (Buecker et al., 2023).

Compton and Hoffman define positive youth development as the child getting and

creating a multitude of different personality traits (2012). The child should be about to have hope

and optimism about life. This should also allow them to reinterpret negative events into a

positive frame (Compton & Hoffman, 2012). Kids growing up should be curious about the

world. These can be summarized into 5 C’s: caring, confidence, character, competence, and

connection (Compton & Hoffman, 2012). If the child can develop these, they are said to have

positive youth development.

Two Erikson stages occur during this period. School-age children experience industry

versus inferiority (Compton & Hoffman, 2012). This has to do with the praise or criticism that a

student might receive from parents or teachers. If the student gets positive feedback and
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DEFINING WELL-BEING
understands what is taught in school, they will feel industry (Mcleod, 2023). On the other hand,

if the student is struggling and consistently receives negative feedback, the student may feel

inferior (Mcleod, 2023). This stage is all about developing competency (Compton & Hoffman,

2012). The next developmental stage that the child goes through is during adolescence. This

stage is ego identity versus role confusion (Compton & Hoffman, 2012). This is the time in life

when teens are trying to figure out their own identity and who they want to be in life. If they are

given the space to do so freely without limitations or standards placed on them by parents or

society, then they achieve ego identity (Mcleod, 2023). If they are not allowed to explore freely,

they may experience role confusion. Who they want to be and who they have to be do not align

(Mcleod, 2023). The person moves onto the next stage if they can achieve fidelity (Compton &

Hampton, 2012).

Well-Being in Young Adulthood

The benefits of exercise as an adult start in this phase of life but continue through middle

adulthood too. The primary benefit of exercise during adulthood is the prevention of premature

death from chronic disease and work loss (Shephard et al., 1995). By exercising regularly, work

performance may increase. Working out also helps increase someone’s mood state and decrease

anxiety (Shephard et al., 1995). By walking 11 to 12 miles a week, adults will start to see the

benefits of their exercise. Regular exercise helps control obesity and lipids which decreases the

person’s risk of developing type II diabetes, some cancers, osteoporosis, and obesity (Shephard

et al., 1995). While vigorous exercise during this period may increase the risk of sudden death,

consistent vigorous exercise will decrease this risk (Shephard et al., 1995).

For younger adults, fluid intelligence and growth importance are some of the biggest

factors that predict life satisfaction during this time frame (Cornwell et al., 2022). These people
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DEFINING WELL-BEING
are just starting to enter the workforce and want to continue to learn and grow in their profession.

These people need to focus on their strengths (Compton & Hoffman, 2012). They also have a

weaker correlation between engagement and the meaning of life (Steger et al., 2009). This is not

a major concern for them during this time. The highest trait that young adults ranked in

importance was hope (Martínez-Martí & Ruch, 2014). Comparatively, this group also ranked

higher in kindness and humor. Their strengths were related to commitment and promotion of

affiliation (Martínez-Martí & Ruch, 2014).

Young adults also experience the maturity principle and the conflicting hypothesis

(Buecker et al., 2023). The maturity principle states that during this time there is an increase in

both positive affect and life satisfaction and a decrease in negative affect. They experience

conflict because there are a lot of tasks and learning that need to be done during this time

(Buecker et al., 2023). This is the first time they are living on their own, paying their bills, and

have a full-time job. Though this can be stressful, there is also a sense of control over their life.

They also may struggle with assimilative versus accommodative processes (Compton &

Hoffman, 2012). Assimilative processes make sure that the original goal stays the same and

keeps moving forward while accommodative processes adjust the goal by changing it or

decreasing the importance of it (Compton & Hoffman, 2012). The Erikson stage that is

experienced during young adulthood is intimacy versus isolation (Compton & Hoffman, 2012).

Intimacy revolves around wanting to form deep and meaningful connections with other people

(Mcleod, 2023). They may experience isolation though, if they are unable to form these types of

connections and bonds. This can lead to isolation and loneliness (Mcleod, 2023). The main

aspect of this stage is love (Compton & Hoffman, 2012).

Well-Being in Middle Adulthood

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DEFINING WELL-BEING
The benefits from young adulthood exercise continue through middle adulthood

(Shephard et al., 1995). During middle adulthood, the traits that seem to be most important to

them are love and religiousness (Martínez-Martí & Ruch, 2014). They also have a higher

capacity for relationships and love (Martínez-Martí & Ruch, 2014). Specifically, those aged 37-

46 have a higher correlation between forgiveness and positive affect. This age range also focuses

their strengths on the maintenance of the world (Martínez-Martí & Ruch, 2014). Those aged 47-

57 have a high correlation between creativity and positive affect. Their strengths tend to focus on

involvement with the environment and integration (Martínez-Martí & Ruch, 2014). Buecker et

al. suggest that there is an increase in subjective well-being during middle adulthood (2023).

Health problems associated with aging though may hurt their subjective well-being (Compton &

Hoffman, 2012). Those who experienced higher subjective well-being during this time tended to

have a higher level of education (Compton & Hoffman, 2012). While working, middle-aged

adults tend to be motivated by intrinsic job features rather than extrinsic features (Cornwell et al.,

2022). The Erikson stage during middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation (Compton &

Hoffman, 2012). To experience generativity, adults want to feel like they are leaving their mark

on the world in some capacity (Mcleod, 2023). They can feel this by raising children or giving

back to society in some way. If the adult does not feel like they are leaving their mark or are not

being productive, they experience stagnation (Mcleod, 2023). The main trait in this stage is care

(Compton & Hoffman, 2012).

Well-Being in Late Adulthood

Exercise in late adulthood focuses on improving quality of life and conserving function

(Shephard et al., 1995). “Normal” exercise has to be modified to help preserve the functioning

that they have left. By exercising in late adulthood, a person can prevent 8-10 years of partial
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DEFINING WELL-BEING
disability. They can also prevent a year of dependency on another person (Shephard et al., 1995).

Regular physical activity can also prevent chronic disease as it has in the previous ranges as well.

Group exercise may be a good solution for these individuals. Some people may not have a big

support system so their group workouts could give them people to interact with (Shephard et al.,

1995). However, exercise does not change the life expectancy for middle-old or very old

individuals (Shephard et al., 1995).

Older adults tend to focus on citizenship, hope, and loving relationships (Martínez-Martí

& Ruch, 2014). Chopik et al. also found that older adults were more likely to use the word

“grateful” on Facebook than any other age range (2017). Some aspects that relate to gratitude in

older adults are attachment security, forgiveness, and optimism. There may be a plateau of

gratefulness at the very end of life though (Chopik, 2017). Throughout the entire lifespan, the

higher their perceived meaning of life, the higher they reported their well-being (Steger et al.,

2009). This is especially true and holds more meaning at the end of life (Steger et al., 2009).

Lastly, those who are more religious have better well-being as older adults than those who are

not (Shukla, 2015). This may be because spiritual practices may help form a social support

network for these individuals to cope and understand life (Shukla, 2015).

As older adults, they may experience the terminal decline hypothesis (Buecker et al.,

2023). This states that a person’s subjective well-being decreases in later life. Specifically, there

is a sharp decline in life satisfaction in the last four years of a person’s life. Buecker et al., also

reported that due to the socioemotional selectivity theory, a person may experience an increase in

subjective well-being because they know and understand their emotions better (2023). Older

people in late adulthood may experience a decrease in both negative and positive affect. This is

because they have a decrease in emotional intensity (Buecker et al., 2023). In the United States,
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DEFINING WELL-BEING
there is an increase in positive emotion intensity as people get older (Kitayama et al., 2020).

Older individuals may also experience a decrease in well-being because they do not feel that they

have any more goals they are trying to reach (Steger et al., 2009). At this point in life, they have

hopefully achieved most of what they wanted to do or it is too late to achieve them. Health-

related issues are also a major component of life satisfaction at this age (Cornwell et al., 2022).

Physicians typically only see most patients once a year, but they see their older patients more

frequently (Shephard et al., 1995).

The biggest aspect of life during this period is aging. As people get older, they become

more aware that their time is limited (Chopik et al., 2017). Psychological resilience was

positively associated with successful aging (Kumar & Sharma, 2021). Other aspects that

contribute to successful aging are intimacy, integrity, and identity (Compton & Hoffman, 2012).

The aging process is also successful if the person feels as if they have wisdom or meaning and

feel complete with their life (Compton & Hoffman, 2012). Positive aging also emphasizes well-

being in many forms: intellectual, spiritual, physical, and emotional (Shukla, 2015). A person is

more likely to live longer if they have higher education levels, are a woman, and report having a

higher positive affect (Gana et al., 2016). The final stage of Erikson’s developmental stages is

ego integrity versus despair (Compton & Hoffman, 2012). If, at the end of life, the person feels

that they have accomplished everything they have wanted and lived a fulfilling life, they will

experience ego integrity (Mcleod, 2023). If people feel that they have made big mistakes and

have big regrets, they may experience despair instead. These people wish they would have done

more with their life (Mcleod, 2023). The virtue of this stage is wisdom (Compton & Hoffman,

2012).

The Aging Process Culturally

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DEFINING WELL-BEING
The aging process can be culturally defined and what may seem normal to one culture is

not the same for the other culture. In Western countries, specifically the United States, there are

fewer positive views on aging (Kitayama et al., 2020). They tend to want to keep themselves

healthy and live an active lifestyle. This is not congruent with the physical aging process and

may cause some people to feel alienation. The United States is an individualistic society.

Because of this, people may not feel comfortable talking about their aging process and thus feel

more alone (Kitayama et al., 2020). Americans also tend to feel a high bias toward extreme

positive and negative emotions with aging (Kitayama et al., 2020). This may lead to a decline in

positive personality traits, specifically extraversion and conscientiousness. The median age in the

United States has increased from 30.2 years in 1955, there was not much progress made in 60

years. In 2015, the median age was 37.5 (Kitayama et al., 2020).

In Japan, however, their median age was lower in 1955 but was higher in 2015. The ages

were 23.6 and 46.7 respectively (Kitayama et al., 2020). This may indicate that their process of

aging may be beneficial. In China, as people got older, they were more likely to list positive

aspects of aging. This was not seen in the United States. There are two ideas on why aging is

seen as a necessary thing in Eastern countries. One could be their way of thought following

Buddhism or Confucianism (Kitayama et al., 2020). It could also be because the social roles of

older adults' match what they are physically capable of doing. Their sense of achievement in late

life helps them to not feel the disconnect that may be felt in the United States. Most countries in

East Asia are collectivistic cultures and focus on the group more than the self. This group view

may also help people feel connected while aging (Kitayama et al., 2020). These countries also

maintain their personality traits throughout life which helps individuals feel a sense of purpose or

meaning of life throughout their lifespan (Kitayama et al., 2020).

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DEFINING WELL-BEING
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