Positive Psychology and L2 Motivation in ESP

Imelda Katherine Brady

Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED)

Spain

ibrady@flog.uned.es

ABSTRACT

This chapter focuses on psychology in language learning and provides an overview of

the theoretical, empirical work and proposals for further study in the literature on
Positive Psychology in the field of foreign language learning. Positive Psychology
(PosPsy) may be defined as the empirical study of how people thrive and flourish. In
other words, it is the study of the ordinary human strengths and virtues that make life
good (Csikszentmihalyi & Nakamura, 2011; Lopez & Snyder, 2009; Peterson, 2006;
Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000, in MacIntyre & Mercer, 2014). In this sense,
PosPsy is gradually becoming quite a popular focal point for research in the field of
language learning and teaching and, although not a lot of work has centred on ESP
teaching and learning contexts, its potential for the field of ESP is considerable. A
second focus of this chapter is L2 learning motivation in ESP. The evolution of L2
Motivation theories to current day constructs, such as the L2 Motivational Self
System (Dörnyei, 2005, 2009) and related concepts of are detailed and, again, an
overview is provided of empirical studies within ESP contexts and the potential for
deepening understanding about learners’ attitudes and learning behaviour in these
contexts.

Key words: Positive psychology, PosPsy, L2 motivation, ideal L2 self, L2MSS, ESP

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN THE FIELD OF SLA

For the purpose of exploring studies related to the psychological dimension of

learning English for specific purposes (ESP) we are assuming in this chapter a very
broad definition of ‘specific purposes’ and taking in contexts of English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) as well as some instances of English as a Medium of Instruction
within undergraduate courses at third level institutions aimed at vocational or
professional training of adults for specific professions. Although much empirical
research in this field is carried out with learners of ESP within vocational and

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professional courses, in many cases, the choice of sample appears incidental and the
specific nature of their L2 learning is not highlighted as a sampling strategy or a
variable. For instance, in the field of L2 motivation, which has enjoyed a boom in
recent years thanks largely to the work of Zoltan Dörnyei and colleagues (e.g. Csizér
& Dörnyei, 2005a; 2005b, Dörnyei, Csizér & Nemeth, 2006; Dörnyei & Ushioda,
2009), was featured in Boo, Dörnyei and Ryan’s (2015) meta-analysis of motivation
research. They compiled a database of over 400 studies and their conclusion was that:

The data (…) reveal that the largest participant group is made up of
college/university students. This is not surprising because, for many
researchers, they constitute the most easily accessible convenience sample
which is, at the same time, usually linked to the least strict research ethics
requirements. (Boo, Dörnyei and Ryan 2015: 151)

However, an ESP component of these studies was not highlighted at all among the
studies analysed, which would appear to support the view that ESP is not a common
learning context in L2 motivation studies. This is paradoxical given that there is a
tendency within studies that have centred on third level L2 students is to assume that
adult learners are more motivated given the volitional and directed aspect of their
studies and the specificity of a professional or vocational English language
component. For instance, Kormos and Csizér, (2008) reached this conclusion on the
motivated behaviour of their college student cohort yet the claim was not empirically
supported in their data.
Thus, in this chapter as we look at empirical studies on emotional and affective
variables in ESP as well as the emerging trend of studies in Positive Psychology and
Second Language Acquisition (SLA), we believe a broad focus on ESP and EAP
facilitates a better picture of what has been achieved and what remains to be explored.

Positive psychology may be defined as the empirical study of how people

thrive and flourish. In other words, it is the study of the ordinary human strengths and
virtues that make life good (Csikszentmihalyi & Nakamura, 2011; Lopez & Snyder,
2009; Peterson, 2006; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000, in MacIntyre & Mercer,
2014). In this sense, PosPsy is gradually becoming quite a popular focal point for
research in the field of language learning and teaching.

The tenets of this recent turn in mainstream psychology stem from the
humanistic approach of the 70s, bearing however a strong emphasis on empirical
research to support arguments in favour of a focus on the growth of the individual that
humanistic psychologists lacked. Emotion and cognition, argued to be two sides of
one coin (e.g. Dewaele, 2011; Dörnyei, 2005, Oxford, 2016), along with affect, with
regard to language learning, has long been considered to be of equal importance to
knowledge and competence building in language acquisition (e.g. see Arnold, 1999,
Dewaele, 2008, 2011). Anxiety is one of the most widely examined emotions with
regard to language acquisition and L2 learning and use in formal and informal

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contexts (see Dewaele, 2008 for an overview) and Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope, (1986)
was one of the first SLA related publications on the subject.
Positive psychology, or PosPsy, diverts from a current tendency in mainstream
psychology to centre on negative emotions that bring about actions of avoidance or
destruction and looks to identify and nurture human strengths or virtues which Freder-
ickson (2001, 2003, 2004), in distinguishing the functionality of positive and negative
emotions, claims encourage constructive actions such as broadening the individual’s
attention leading to a tendency to create and build. Negative emotions, such as anxiety
can encourage a person to avoid the source of her apprehension whereas, positive
feelings such as joy and comfort are conducive to growth and expansion. Whereas re-
search has until now attempted to find way to eliminate sources of debilitating anxiety
in the L2 learning contexts, PosPsy is looking to find how a strengths-based approach
might contribute to controlling feelings of L2 use or learning anxiety. For instance,
MacIntyre, Gregerson and Abel, (2015) debate the potential of courage as a shield to
thwart anxiety. Gregersen, MacIntyre, and Meza (2016) analyse the effects of feelings
of gratitude, altruism, music, exercise, pets, and laughter. These authors encourage
empirical research to test their hypotheses.
With regard to identifying the human characteristics are considered strengths and se-
lect those that seem applicable to foreign language learning contexts, MacIntyre and
Mercer, (2014) indicate that there exists a values in action (VIA) inventory (Peterson
& Seligman, 2004) of 24 character strengths, classified into 6 categories, that are
common to all cultures. The categories include values such as creativity, curiosity,
love of learning, kindness, bravery, perseverance, leadership, self-regulation, gratit-
ude and hope (see below for a complete list). From the VIA inventory Seligman’s
(2011) PERMA evolved. PERMA stands for Positive emotions, Engagement, Rela-
tionships, Meaning in life, and Accomplishment. Although PERMA did receive some
attention in the field of language learning (e.g. see Oxford & Cuéllar’s 2014 analysis
of Mexican learners of Chinese), the subsequent work of Oxford (e.g. 2016) is gener-
ally being taken as the go-to-model to in applying PosPsy to L2 learning contexts.

It is precisely from the perceptions gleaned in Oxford and Cuéllar’s 2014 study that of
certain lacunas emerged in the PERMA model. Thus, Rebecca Oxford (2016)
developed what she describes as a non-hierarchical, organic and holistic list of human
strengths known under the acronym of EMPHATICS. These are:

1. E: emotion and empathy. Emotion and cognition are inseparable – a double

sided coin. MacIntyre (2002) believes emotion as a primary energiser for hu-
man behaviour. Emotion accompanies every aspect of learning - from provid-
ing anticipatory feelings of success, helping regulate goal-setting behaviour,
helping us judge our achievements through feelings of pride or disappoint-
ment. Empathy is the ability to perceive the other’s feeling and also implies
compassion, sympathy and caring.

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2. M: meaning and motivation. Meaning implies purpose and goal-directed be-
haviour. Meaning “enables people to interpret and organise their experience”
(Oxford, 2016, p. 18) thus aiding self-regulation of action. Without meaning
we lose our sense of direction. Meaning can be many different things to differ-
ent individuals at different moments in time. These can be achievements; ex-
periences with goodness, truth, beauty or culture; love for others; positive atti-
tudes, among other things. Purpose is a prerequisite to motivated behaviour.
Oxford (2016) sees meaning and motivation as inextricably linked. At a lter
stage of this chapter we revisit the concept of motivation and discuss its role in
general and specific language learning.

3. P: perseverance, including resilience, hope, and optimism. Oxford (2016b:

28) states that “ Perseverance refers to an ongoing effort to accomplish some-
thing valuable despite problems, opposition, difficulties, or failure.” Resilience
is the ability to recover or spring back after traumatic or stressful events. Hope
and optimism are highlighted as inspirational emotions (for some) or ways of
thinking (for others) and are linked to realistic perceptions of ability.

4. A: agency and autonomy. Agency refers to the proactive, volitional act to

produce or affect outcomes. The agentic person is the origin of his or her
actions, has high aspirations and good problem-solving skills, enjoys well-be-
ing,and learns from failures (Oxford, 2016).

5. T: time. Oxford draws on Zimbardo and Boyd’s (1999) 5 factor time model
with a distinction between how we perceive past, present and future time from
in terms of negative and positive memories as well as whether we perceive
present time from hedonistic and fatalistic perspectives. Future Time Perspect-
ive (FTP) means we see our current selves as better than past selves yet not as
developed as future selves might become. Betts (2013) is cited in Oxford
(2016) in indicating that “FTP involves actively looking for future opportunit-
ies, setting goals, considering future consequences of current behavior using
goals as behavior guides, and employing the present period to plan for the fu-
ture.”

6. H: hardiness and habits of mind. Hardiness is a psychosocial construct that

includes cognitive, emotional and behavioural qualities thought to moderate
the impact of hardship and anxiety on mental and physical health (Kobasa el
al, 1981).” (Hiver, 2016: 170). Three subdimensions of hardiness are: commit-
ment, control and challenge. Habits of mind are based on Costa and Kallic’s
(2008) taxonomy of characteristics and attitudes of successful business people.
There are 16 in total including persistence, striving for accuracy, listening with
understanding and empathy and humour.

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 7. I: intelligences. Gardner’s (1992; 2011) multiple intelligences are drawn on
here as well as Srternberg’s (1985) triad of practical, analytical and creative
intelligences, which may concur in one individual. Oxford (20116a) details the
benefits of each type of intelligence for language learning

8. C: character strengths. These are the 24 strengths of the VIA inventory cat-
egorised under 6 virtues (Peterson & Seligman, 2011): In this system there
are six virtues and 24 character strengths related to those virtues:
a. The virtue of wisdom and knowledge: encompass creativity, curiosity,
love of learning, open-mindedness, and perspective.
b. The virtue of courage: authenticity, bravery, persistence, and zest.
c. The virtue of humanity: kindness, love, and social intelligence.
d. In the virtue of justice: fairness, leadership, and teamwork.
e. The virtue of temperance: forgiveness/mercy, modesty/humility,
prudence, and self-regulation
f. The virtue of transcendence: appreciation of beauty and excellence,
gratitude, hope, humour, and religiousness/spirituality.

9. S: self factors (self-efficacy, self-concept, self-esteem, and self-verification).

Self-efficacy is highlighted here as the most prominent self concept with
regard to language learning: Self-efficacy theory, developed by Albert
Bandura (1977) concerns people’s perceptions of their own competence or
capabilities to carry out activities. According to this theory of human
behaviour and motivation, “what people think, believe, and feel affects how
they behave” (Bandura, 1986: 25). The construct is based on capabilities in
terms of performance, how well we believe we will do a task, not on our
psychological make-up or who we are as people and the concept is task-
specific or multidimensional, meaning that our beliefs on how well we will do
on particular tasks is not generalisable over a diverse range of learning
activities. Maddux (2011) believes that self-efficacy is a stronger predictor of
learning success than motivation, intention and degrees of effort and
persistence.

The 2016 volume on Positive Psychology in language learning and teaching contains
a series of theoretical pieces and empirical studies on some of the variables discussed
in the previous section. For instance, Hiver (2016) examined the development of hope
and resilience among 19 novice state school teachers. He investigated “why some
teachers seem to be more successful than others in meeting the rigorous demands of
their first year of teaching” (p, 169). He assessed how hope emerged in these teachers
cognitive processes in dealing with the different moments of stress and disappoint-
ment. We mentioned earlier, Gregersen, MacIntyre and Meza (2016) who explore the
potential of exercises in PosPsy to build social capital for language learners. Czim-
mermann and Piniel (2016) develop a study to examine experiences of flow in Hun-

5
garian learners of English. Dewaela and MacIntyre look at the relationship between
learning enjoyment and classroom anxiety in their sample of language learners reach-
ing the conclusion that both emotions can coexist and are not mutually exclusive. Re-
search on perseverance and intentional pursuit of goals has led to a focus on the
concept of grit as a personality trait, which has been the element of focus in recent
studies with university students. According to Hiver, 2016: 170) grit “foregrounds
long-term determination to achieve higher-order goals.” Teimori, Plonsky and
Tabandeh, (2020, p. ) state:

As asserted by Duckworth et al. (2007), “[g]rit entails working strenuously

toward challenges, maintaining effort and interest over years despite failure,
adversity, and plateaus in progress” (pp. 1087- 1088). The US Department of
Education has recently emphasized grit, tenacity, and perseverance as
significant determiners of students’ success in the 21th century (Shechtman,
DeBarger, Dornsife, Rosier, & Yarnall, 2013).

Significantly for adult ESP learning contexts, studies on personality variables in

which grit was identified as a significant talent were carried out on high-achievers in
diverse professions (Teimori et al, 2020). Other studies worth consulting on grit and
language achievement largely on adult learners in Asian contexts in adult learner are
Kramer, McLean & Shepard Martin, 2017; Robins, 2019; Wei, Gao and Wang, 2019
and Yamashita, 2018).

At a theoretical level, Palanac (2019) studies the role of positive psychology in

what he calls ‘mastery of the academic L2 self”. His study involved looking
theoretically at how EAP learners L2 identities and proficiency evolve from the
perspective of Lave and Wenger’s (1991) communities of practice. Palanac
contemplates how concepts such as learned optimism, playfulness, creativity, positive
vicarious experiences and mindful learning can be used strategically to aid the learner
on his or her journey towards resilience and a strong sense of self -efficacy in the
academic L2 domain. This interesting article offers plenty of scope for future
empirical work to put these hypotheses to the test. Another theoretical piece (Lake,
2013) links PosPsy to current L2 motivation theories (see following section) and
explores the relationships between Global Self concept, motivational variables, such
as intended effort, persistence and self-efficacy, and the L2 ideal-ought self.

Oxford (2016b) urges researchers to carry out empirical research on elements

and diverse combination of the EMPATHICS models. She recommends the Dynamic
Systems Approach (DMS), a strand of complexity theory and emergentism
“specifically developed to describe development in complex dynamic systems that
consist of multiple parts and in which the multiple interferences between the
components own trajectories result in non-linear, emergent changes in the overall
system behaviour” (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011: 89).

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 A dynamic systems theory (DST) post-structuralist approach to language
acquisition argues against the linearity in language learning processes that most
cognitive and socio-linguistic theories to date have followed. The structuralist
approach has led to an excess of dichotomous concepts, whereas DTS is essentially a
mathematical concept that denotes the complexity and unpredictable change over time
in relationships between two simple systems. Applying this concept to an individual
within an intricate network of cognitive and psycholinguistic internal systems, and
social and educational external systems could prove to be the flexible approach that
would enable us to explore attitudes and beliefs in L2 acquisition with the language
learner in her interaction with her complex and dynamic environment. A focus on
individual trajectories in language learning eliminates the neutralisation caused by
attempting to interpret cause-effect patterns among isolated dependent-independent
variables and across large samples, therefore rendering individual variation and
merging of variables at given points in time impossible to detect. Thus, DST
researchers encourage us not to look for simple linear cause-effect relationships
between variables but to devise ways of exploring these intricate networks with a
particular respect for context. In this vein, Oxford (2016b) claims “The theory of
complex systems, which positive psychology seems to ignore, suggests that any
language learning system is deeply contextualized and has many intricately
interacting, evolving components.” MacIntyre, (2014: 9) echoes Oxford, noting that
“PosPsy itself would profit from greater attention to the roles of context and culture in
the psychology of the learner, criticism that has been offered by other authors as
well.” Thus PosPsy studies within the language learning domain and perhaps even
more so in specific vocational and professional learning contexts need to bear in
mind:

The close ties between language and culture suggest that interventions in SLA
that are based on PosPsy must also take cultural similarities and differences
into account, pay close attention to definitions and measurement of concepts
while considering also the cultural dimensions that impact research and
teaching. (MacIntyre, 2016: 16)

For keynote articles of these new paradigms in L2 motivation see De Bot, Lowie and
Verspoor (2007), Dörnyei, (2009b) and Ellis and Larsen-Freeman (2006). A more
recent publication by Dörnyei, MacIntyre and Henry (2015) details empirical research
carried out in DMS and language learning.

L2 MOTIVATION, FLOW AND DIRECTED MOTIVATIONAL CURRENTS

The study of human attitudes and behaviour related to second and foreign language
learning boomed after the advent of Gardner’s (1985) Socio-educational model of L2
motivation developed in bilingual Canada. Possibly the most recognised variables of
his model is the somewhat mislabelled ‘dichotomy’ of integrative and instrumental

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motives and to this day this still comes into play in posing a rationale for language
learning. L2 motivation research in European ESP settings based on Gardner’s Socio-
Cultural model has tended to highlight instrumental orientations over integrative
motives, especially for adult learners (e.g. Gómez-Martínez 2000, 2001; Fuertes-
Olivera y Gómez-Martínez 2004; Lasagabaster 2003).
Thus, early ESP motivation studies tended to point to instrumentality as a
strong motivator in contexts where learners would require the L2 as a tool for a future
profession (e.g. Fuertes-Olivera & Gomez-Martínez, 2004) and in contexts where an
immediate English speaking community is not available to ‘integrate with. This view,
reflected in early work on L2 motivation, was common:

For most students enrolled in English courses outside an English speaking

country, the distinction between ‘integrative’ and ‘instrumental’ seems to be
irrelevant, since they do not experience in their daily lives the difficulties
immigrants face when confronting the dilemma of having to migrate to a
different country.1 (Fuertes-Olivera & GómezMartínez, 2004)

Apple, Fallout and Hill (2012) explored integrative motivation, among other variables
in students of English for Science and Technology (S&T) in Japan to corroborate the
results in Kimura et al (2001), who discovered that S&T students appeared much less
motivated to learn English than undergraduates in different lines of study. These
authors indicate that extrinsic motivation to get good grades and enter university is
strong and a has been proven a predictor of L2 achievement (e.g. Yashima, 2000);
however, once this objective has bene obtained, L2 learning motivation appears to
dwindle. Apple at al (2012) constitutes a good example of cultural variation in L2
motivation studies given that within this context L2 anxiety tends to be high, L2
performance self-efficacy low, and attributed to poor teaching methodologies:

Studies suggest that the longer students remain at school learning a language
the more likely they experience learned helplessness in their L2 classes due to
a cycle of poor performance and foreign language anxiety (Gardner et al,
1992; Sick, 2007) ( Apple et al, 2012:56).

We return to Apple et al’s study in later sections of this chapter as an example

of an ESP centred study exploring the more recent motivational construct of the L2
Motivational Self System (Dörnyei, 2009). In a study on attitudes and beliefs of
students of Business English (Trinder, 2013) the claim is that:

The large majority of students choose a degree in this subject not out of
interest or aptitude, but as a means to an end, i.e., as a spring board for any
number of different careers (Hartel & Vittori, 2010). Conversely, this mainly
instrumental motivation itself can be considered an important shared affective
variable that may also mould this population’s rationale for FL learning.
(Trinder 2013: 2)

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Assumptions of this type can be misleading as if students have chosen a degree
without identifying closely or strongly with the competences to be developed for that
profession. Too often practitioners assume a degree of motivation in a third level
student population that may not actually exist. For instance, students in Brady’s
(2019) university sample confessed to opting for a particular degree for their parents’
sake more than personal choice.

Flow
Intrinsic motivation and extreme enjoyment of the learning process and is the
cornerstone of another PosPsy concept of flow (Csíkszentmihályi, 1990, 2013) Again,
in ESP motivation studies, iintrinsic motivation has been proven a stronger predictor
of L2 achievement than its extrinsic counterpart. For instance, Guillen, Perez-Luzardo
y Arnaiz, (2013) studied optimism and intrinsic motivation in their cohort of students
of Translation & Interpretation and students of the Primary Teaching Degree. They
discovered that students with higher marks showed higher levels of intrinsic
enjoyment and optimism whereas, lower marks were associated with pessimism. Flow
is becoming a focus of interest in identifying extreme enjoyment and engagement on a
task: “ A learner’s experience of flow combines complete immersion in a task
accompanied by intrinsic motivation, confidence, and perceived timelessness”
(Csíkszentmihályi, 2008).
MacIntyre, (2016) cites a study by Egbert (2004) as one of the most prominent
on L2 learning and flow, which examined 13 learners of Spanish in a fieldwork study
conducted over several weeks. Participants described similar types of experiences
while in flow, and Egbert argued that elements of language task design contributed
significantly to the likelihood of entering a flow state. Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014)
developed a new multi-item scale to measure both flow (including feeling absorbed,
fulfilled, happy) and anti-flow (including feeling distracted, frustrated, disengaged) in
language learning. In their online survey, they found respondents reporting more in-
stances of flow than anti-flow. Although these sample studies are not ESP based, they
point to the benefits of exploring flow in learners of English for vocational or profes-
sional purposes in order to identify tasks or skills that foster experiences of flow.

Directed Motivational Currents

Another lively, and practical, avenue of research within the Dynamic System
Approach (DST) approach has been taken by Dörnyei (e.g. Dörnyei, Muir and
Ibraham, 2014: Dörnyei, Henry & MacIntyre, 2015 for overviews) in the form of
Directed Motivational Currents (DMC). A DMC can be likened to the idea of an
individual being carried along like as if by tidal wave, impulse at different stages of a
path by a highly desired goal or vision. Dörnyei et al., (2014: 9) describe a DMC as an

9
“intense motivational drive which is capable of stimulating and supporting long-term
behaviour, such as learning a foreign/second language (L2)”. Dörnyei and colleagues
(e.g. Doiz, Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2014) see potential for manipulation of DMCs at
different levels and timescales of learning promoting the ideal of boosting an
individual’s motivation at given points in the learning trajectory. García-Pinar (2020)
is a qualitative ESP case study that draws on the results of interviews and post-
intervention open questionnaires to explore the existence of core characteristics of
DMCs among four engineering undergraduates during the process of preparing their
classroom group presentation as part of their course of Technical English. A
multimodal intervention, designed by the researcher, generated DMC-like
experiences, thereby developing and enhancing the construction of learners’ visions
as competent speakers of the L2 and promoting their perceived linguistic self-
confidence. García-Pinar’s results confirmed that DMCs can function at the group
level, engaging students fully in tasks that are personally, academically and
professionally meaningful to them.
Ibrahim (2016) sought first to understand better the “affective aspects of
experiencing DMCs (…) and second, to investigate the mechanism by which positive
emotionality can impact learning behaviour in the context of a DMC experience.” He
followed what he describes as a ‘phenomenological methodology’ (investigating a
phenomenon as lived and experienced) through narratives and subjective data
obtained from 7 subjects. Having analysed their narratives in detail, he observed that,
although subjects reported varying degrees of enjoyment, it was progress that
emerged as the dominant factor and the participant’s “actively sought affirmative
feedback signalling progress” (Ibrahim, 2016: 271). Also noted as factors of interest
were the participants’ perceptions of effortlessness in their learning and a sense of
change in their perceptions and skills.

L2 Motivational Self System

Dörnyei, (2009) L2 Motivational Self System is a tripartite model composed of the

Ideal L2 self, the Ought-to L2 self and The L2 Learning experience. The ideal L2 self
encapsulates the ideas or visions one may have of oneself using the foreign language
in the future. The ideal L2 self construct further facilitates the incorporation of
positive instrumental motives that the learner has internalised – getting a good job,
becoming a more knowledgeable person and so on — that as we mentioned before,
had mistakenly become dichotomous and not fully compatible with the integrative
motive.
The L2 ought-to self, on the other hand, represents extrinsic influences on the
self and incorporates social pressures and obligations or duties related to knowledge
of the L2 imposed by external social groups or entities — for instance, the L2 ideals
that parents, teachers and significant others have for their loved ones. Another facet of
the L2 ought self comes from the fear of what one may become in life without L2

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competence. Dörnyei here draws a parallel between the ought self and negative
instrumental motivation – the preventative focus of avoidance of negative outcomes,
e.g. failing to live up to expectations or getting low exam marks. In this regard, Apple
et al. (2012) analyse students’ lack of commitment to L2 learning in science students
in Japan and their proposal is to work on these students’ conceptions of real world
professional need for English by bringing working professionals to the classroom and
thus enhancing learners’ conception of the need for English in the future work and
their sense of self-efficacy and bringing self-regulatory learning measures into play.
Apple et al.’s (2012) proposal could help towards the development of a responsible
ought L2 self. In his words:
If technical college students find the pursuit of an Ought-to L2 Self
compelling, learning about real-life experiences of Japanese S&E specialists
who use English in the workplace could potentially increase motivation.
Reflecting upon this new knowledge through active discussion might help
reinforce awareness and kindled interests, (Apple et al., 2012:5).

Many studies have found difficulties in identifying an ought L2 self in their samples,
especially in Western cultures (e.g. Kormos and Csizér, 2008, Brady, 2019, XXX)

The L2 learning experience involves “situation specific motives related to the

immediate learning environment and experience” (Dörnyei, 2005: 106). This third
cornerstone of Dörnyei’s L2 Self System is conceptualised “at a different level from
the two self guides” (2009: 29) and is specific to foreign language learning contexts.
The experiential angle of L2 learning presents a dimension with no precedent in
mainstream psychology research on the self – and this has caused issues in its
interpretation in empirical work (Dörnyei, 2019). It was originally part of the L2MSS
as a vague umbrella term to cover the learning experience, past and present, which
involves all formal learning aspects from the teacher to the learner group;
methodology and materials; and even, the experience of success, which in itself is a
complex psychological construct.
More recently, Dörnyei (2019) has addressed conceptual lacunas in the L2
Learning Experience dimension of the L2MSS. He points to the lack of direct
theoretical connection with L2 ideal and ought-self concepts and no solid theoretical
basis for the idea of ‘experience’. He suggests that the experiential dimension of the
L2MSS concept be conceptualised as engagement, a term that has emerged from
PosPsy:
Engagement in educational psychology is understood as active participation
and involvement in certain behaviors (cf. Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris,
2004), and student engagement – which refers to engagement in school-related
activities and academic tasks – has recently been hailed as “the holy grail of
learning” and “one of the hottest research topics in the field of educational
psychology, (Sinatra, Heddy, & Lombardi, 2015: 1)”. (In Dörnyei, 2019: 24)

11
Thus, engagement implies meaningful learning and active involvement in learning,
which, within foreign language learning is deemed essential for acquisition.

Linking elements of PosPsy to the L2 Motivational self system we have, for

instance, Lake (2013) who examines the concept of self more in detail and attempts to
establish a “hierarchical model that could be used to relate positive self constructs and
motivation for the L2 field.” (p.230). He employed the concepts of interest, curiosity,
passion and mastery goal orientation as future orientated motivators and satisfaction
and enjoyment as past based motivators at different levels in his construct: at a global,
positive self concept level; a L2 specific self level and a positive L2
self-efficacy/proficiency level. Falout (2016) takes a very indepth look at the role of
past selves in from a PosPsy lens. He claims:
It is useful to think of antecedent conditions as the emotional baggage of
learning. Every time learners walk into the classroom they are already carrying
a set of predispositions toward potentially motivating and demotivating
experiences.
Falout’s (2016) explains how past selves help form beliefs about language learning.
He explains that as we narrate our experiences to ourselves and others we are
constantly assembling and reaasembling our realities. Based on to what extent we
blame ourselves for failures or attribute blame to external elements such as time or
lack of resources we will form subjective and quite long lasting impressions about our
abilities. Falout details ways in which teachers can work with students past selves and
help modify any misplaced blame that might hinder one’s capacity to engage fully in
L2 learning.
Altalib (2019) addressed a concern expressed earlier in the Chapter about
assumptions that ESP students are assumed to be more motivated than students of
English for General Purposes (EGP given that their L2 needs are targeted in the
course design. This last point is arguable because, even courses for professional
communication can be badly designed and not cater for individual differences.
However, Altalib provides empirical evidence that the over 2,000 ESP students in his
sample showed more developed ideal L2 selves than the 2,000 EGP students he
contrasted findings with. Moreover, significant statistical differences were found in
the comparisons between the medicine, applied medicine, and health care majors and
the engineering majors namely that the medicine, applied medicine, and health care
majors had higher and statistically significant levels of the ideal L2 selves than the
engineering majors did. Differences were not found in the ought L2 selves of his ESP
versus EGB sample.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE LINES OF RESEARCH

12
Positive Psychology, a view on the potential of human strengths and virtues to help
the individual grow and flourish, is emerging as a very strong new wave in the
exploration of psychological aspects of SLA. This chapter has presented the origins of
its application to language learning contexts, summarised the theoretical work of
Oxford (2016) and colleagues, such as MacIntyre, Gregersen and Mercer (2014) and
echoed the requests for empirical research to explore the roles and dynamics of the
quite extensive range of strengths and virtues within L2 learning attitudes and
behaviours. The PosPsy approach could prove very promising for research in
contextualised learning of ESP - an area that has been dealt with rather randomly as
regards the psychological aspects of foreign language learning. The particular focus of
ESP and its (supposed) adaptation to the needs of the learner makes the field very
suitable for examining learner variables, such as those detailed here. Even if the
course being taken is compulsory for whatever reason, at some stage of the
individual’s trajectory, a choice was made to aim for a particular profession and this
can give the researcher greater insight than a learner of general English.

Altalib’s (2019: 4) question can be the perfect challenge for future empirical work on
generating L2 selves within a professional context:
As mentioned above, creating an environment where learners can envision
their desired future selves is crucial to generating an ideal L2 self. In other
words, can an ESP course be an environment that plays a fundamental role in
generating learners’ ideal L2 selves? ESP courses are based and designed on
learners’ future professional selves, hopes, aspirations and majors. This, in
turn, may indicate that ESP learners are likely to exhibit a stronger capacity for
imagery as the nature of the course relates to what they would like to become.

We have seen that Directed Motivational Currents (DMCs) are an interesting concept
for analysis of fluctuations in a learner’s L2 learning path and levels of engagement.
Likewise, Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) concept of flow has been discussed as a way of
understanding truly motivated behaviour. In terms of approaches to explorations of
L2, a non-linear, non-static Dynamic Systems is being hailed as a much more flexible,
holistic way to explore more effectively the wealth of variables encompassed under
the parasol of positive psychology.

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