values. vr sucial behavior and STRUCTURE OF TEACHING: THREE VARIABLES ‘The three variables constituting the structure of teaching as given in Figure 9.1 are: 1, Teacher as an independent variable: Since the teacher does the plannin, organizing, leading and controlling of teaching, students are dependent on ti her. Therefore, teacher plays a role of independent variable and he/she is free to select the learning experiences for his/her students. 2. Student as dependent variable: Teaching activities of the teacher influences the students learning. Students are expected to further in accord with teachers planning and organization. 3. Content and strategy of presentation as intervening variables: These variables interact between teacher and students. The content determines the mode of presentation. Teaching Variables Functions Teacher Independent Diagnosis variable Content and : Teaching method Prescription Intervening variables Student Evaluation Dependent variable Fig. Structure of teachingRIABLES. IONS OF THREE VAI ———— ; Funen : tion: The initial task in bringing about the desirable changes 1, Diagnostic function’ isto have an accurate diagnosis of the existing est s on the behavior of the students i: formed by teacher and student. Teacher identig, ies i jon has to be per! eee aa rrcakness and students also self-evaluate the same: a ese Me ttanetion: tis based on the diagnosis for achieving the goat . Preseripl F ve in this function. Treatment can be implemented baseq eae erable os censfully only if student remains Cooperative, 4. Evaluative function: It is concerned with the a os pene and Prescriptyg functions of teaching. It should be done by teac as an ad : is and is executed, various assessment methods. Teaching strategy should be selected based on the feedback obtained from evaluation. ‘achey OM the PHASES OF TEACHING The phases of teaching are described in the Figure | I. Pre-active phase: The tasks which a teacher should perform well in advance for aclassconstitutes this phase. The tasks include preparing lesson, arranging furniture, getting audio-visual aids, etc. In this phase, the teacher fixes the goal and decides regarding the strategy of teaching based on the content and level of students, IL. Inter-active phase: The teacher actualizes her plan, that is, delivering a class to the students. The teacher implements the strategy towards the set goals. In this phase, a teacher diagnoses the achievement of the student and identifies action and reaction of the students towards the goal achievement. III. Post-active phase: This phase is concerned with evaluation of the students in terms of desirable changes. The teacher analyzes the extent of content understood by the students. This phase is the assessment of the interactive phase and teacher assesses the suitability of objectives determined, appropriateness of teaching devices used and impact of class environment effecting desirable changes among students. Teaching Phase Operations [> Fixing up the Goals Pre-active and Content Phase-| L__, Decision about Strategy ——» Diagnosis of Teaching ince the learner Phase-II L__, Action and Reaction —+ Appropriate Postactive testing devices Phase-Iil "——> Feedback to “teachin; Fig. 9.2: Phases of teaching i,pun ie 2 3. en See CTIONS OF TEACHING Giving information and explanation, Making curricular material. : ‘Arranging for conditions which assist j a ssist in the growth of the learner’s mind and Turning the learner into creative beings. Motivating the learner to learn, : Creating learning situations. Diagnosing learning problems. Utilizing the initiative and environment that facilitates learning. |. Inspiring learner with the nobility of thoughts, feelings and actions. Evaluating, recording and reporting. CONCEPT OF LEARNING CONC Learning according Crow and Crow is acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitude. The process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses is the process of learnin, states Woodworth. Learning is not only getting knowledge of subject matter or cal in art by study, by experience or by being taught, it is also an acquisition of habits, attitudes, perceptions, preferences, interests, social adjustments, values and ideals. Learning is modification of behavior through experience and training. The behavior stated is a combination of perception, purposeful observation, overt activity, thinking, and associated, motivational and emotional reactions. ‘A change in behavior may occur through maturation which implies progressive advancement toward maturity. Learning is a change in performance through conditions of activity, practice and experience. In class room situations the activity or experience which leads to change in performance may be listening or judging, reading or reciting or observing a demonstration of a procedure. Through these activities or experiences an effective teacher can bring out desirable changes in behavior. Desirable changes mean those changes which serve educational purposes, aims, objectives and goals. DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING 1 uw . Any activity can be called Jearning so far as it de . Learning is the process by which b - Learning is the process by which al . Learning is the acquisition ‘velops the individual and makes his behavior and experiences different from ‘what that would otherwise have Ben Moodie chavior is originated or changes through a7) HL and Garry R : aad mn activity originates or is changed throug ‘i ‘tics of the change reacting to an encountered situation, provided that the eee ol ee “i : in activity cannot be explained on the basis of 7 a 5 vity cam jsm.—BL Hilgard. i organism- ‘ 7 maturation or temporary states of chavior ‘or strengthening or weakening of o! : jence HP Smith. old behavior as the result of oi nism sg satisfying its motivation, adopts ji ich an ees ne is the det norBitcome obstacles oF Barer ‘Hunter adjusts its bel avi and Hilgard. practice and training-— 6. Learning is an episode in which a motivated individual a behavior to succeed in a situation which he perceives ag attain a goal—Pressey, Robinson and Horrocks, 7. Learning can be defined as changing one’s potential for se doing through experiences partly perceptual, partly intellectual and partly motor—WC Morse and GM Wingo. . Learning is a process that results in the modification of behav; 9. Learning is acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes, It involves of doing things and it operates in an individual’s attempt to overcome or to readjust to new situations, It represents progressive change in be| enables him to satisfy interests to attain goals—Crow and Crow, 10. Leaming may be considered as a change in insights, behavior, motivation or a combination of these —ML Bigge. tempts to ape Tequiring tion e cing, feelin, ig, 1, partly, emetony ~ HOC~—JP Travers Tew yay Obstacles havior i Perception, THEORIES OF LEARNING There are many theories of how individuals learn. Burns (1995) conceives of | learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior activity and internal processes such as thinking, attitudes and emotions. Sensory stimulation theory: Traditional sensory stimulation theory has as its basic Premise that effective learning occurs when the senses are stimulated (Larid, 1985). Larid has quoted in his research findings that the majority (75%) of knowledge held by adults is learned through seeing. Hearing is next effective (13%) and other senses such as taste, smell and taste accounted for 129 of knowledge. This theory states that if multi-senses are stimulated, greater learning takes place. Reinforcement theory: BF Skinner developed this theory by the behaviorist school of psychology. Skinner believed that behavior is a function of its consequences. The Jearner will repeat the desired behavior if positive reinforcement follows the behavior. Positive reinforcement can include verbal praise, good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction, Negative reinforcement also strengthens a behavior and refers to a situation when a negative condition is stopped or avoided as @ Consequence of the behavior such as giving punishment. Cognitive-Gestalt approaches: of experience, problem-solving developed the concept that indivi times and that they have subjecti Facilitation theory: this theory is that le establishing an atmos; The emphasis of this approach is on the impocns and the development of insights. This theory . iduals have different needs and concerns at differ ive interpretations in different contexts. * ise of Carl Rogers have developed this theory, the basic premise ‘arning will occur by the educator acting as a facts here in which leamers feel comfortable to consider ne jude: and are not threatened by external factors. Other characteristics of this theory ine a 4 belief that human beings have a natural eagerness to learn: there is Some resist ‘o and unpleasant consequences of giving up what is currently held to be most significant learning involves changing one’s concept of oneself.Teaching and Learning Process | 235 {ction learning: This is the approach that links the world of learnitig with the world ‘action through a reflective process within small cooperative learning sroups know $s"action learning sets’. The ‘sts’ meet regularly to work on individual members"teal, fifeissues withaim of learning withand fromeach other. Reg Revans,the father of action jeaming sid that there can be no learning without action and noaetion without learning, ‘Adult learning (andragogy): Malcolm Knowles (1990) is the theorist who stated that adulthood has arrived when people behave in adult ways and believe themselves tobe adults. = Experiential learning: Kolb proposed a four-stage learning process with a model that if often referred as experiential learning. (This is explained in detail along with reaming styles in this chapter). 2 STEPS IN LEARNING. Leaming is a product of the environment which is both physical and social. The primary modifying factors of learning is intelligence of learner, hereditary, motivation, hisfher development or maturation, The secondary factors include present stage of learning, previously ingrained habits, nature of what is to be learned, adjustment or maladjustment of learner, emotional condition and health. Whatever the form or type of learning, there are certain steps which one can perceive in the process. According to Woodruff, steps of learning are the following: 1. Motivation within the learner: This stimulus arouses interest and sustains activity in the learner, All purposeful behavior and learning is the result of motivation. How much and how well a learner learns depend on the inner motivation. 2. A goal becomes related to motivation: Things that satisfy the motives of the Iearner becomes goal. These goals are contributory to hishher motives and the goal chosen by the learner is not attainable easily. Barriers like lack of knowledge, skill, low intelligence, emotional blocking of the lamer, poor teaching techniques, etc, towards accomplishment. 3. Tension arises: Once the goal becomes definite and clear and the barriers are perceived energy is released within the learner and is prepared to act. But the barrier prevents an appropriate discharge of energy and created tension. Mild tension is helpful because it helps in organizing one’s energies and faculties and enables the learner to make efficient and vigorous attack on the problem. Strong and excessive tension may discourage and disrupt the learner. 4, Learner seeks appropriate line of action to reach his goal: There are various courses of action for achievement of goal, Effective learning means the choice of Tension is relieved in proportionate a course of action as a result of deliberation. to the satisfaction of the motive. Selection having been made, action toward goal is attempted. Realistic goals will mean more activity, more motivation, ess discou- ragementand disturbance, lessindifference and ess tension on the part ofthe learner. Inappropriate behaviors are dropped: Learners drop inappropriate behavior because they do not yield satisfaction. Since the learner is goal-oriented and been driven by his/her motives these inappropriate behaviors do not envelope them at all, Learner should be positively adapted to the correct line of action that is towards the goal and negatively adapted to inappropriate behavior, responses or reactions. n> ven in ay ; Follo ponds as ‘whole person’ in a unifgg yo™ is unitary: P ' ee ae or total pattern. jon ee Sa ertgn f physically and spiritually and these ae ae eee a she reaet ly, ‘hole earning situation rather than to : ee ae less inert ‘occurs, his/her total reaction—intellectua F ’ n wien Me a social ang Spiritus is coordinated and integrating toward i ie" nica ve 202s. Lean ~ responses are diverse and are made simultaneo sy 2 | an one actor Jearning situation. There may be a negative as well as a positive reaction, Leami le ‘ional learning such as genera] att” es, i \d emoti includes complex intellectual an n and i uracy or the reverse, attitudes toward work a re ‘The characteristics of learning 4 7 ‘The learner res] and ideals, neatness, acct study classmates, likes and dislikes and so on- ; Leaming is Characteristics Learning is organizing of self-active experience Learning = 28 38 a2 se zw Fig. 9.3: Characteristics of learning 2. Learning is indivi vidual ial: pone «oy indivi and social: Learning is in a sense an entirely indivi no matter. Eacl z i a limited rae his/her own activity, others can learn for him/her # in response to the envirenmna larger sense all learning is social, for it takes we physical things. Learning rn it Which there are other individuals *8 wel to the social environme: een because it takes place as some type of 1 an individual matter is p ee the individual. The fact that learning is and ™ has to do his/her own ee fectly obvious, for the simple reason that each es leaming, irrespective of their individual differen®a O capacities and level of intelligence, Factors i ee eee et he important are hereditary, home training, religious PI tity, health, nourishment, work experience and environmental factors of one kind or another. Good teaching must consider th variations among learners and provide for them in some manner nea fear i ee . the - Principle of learning is universal ee arming wire there has been no self-activity. This principle of vity may be stated simply, a student learns through his/her own activities. Leaming is a personal process. Each person must develop his/her own habits of learning. The teacher can display his/her habits of learning and in this way set a pattern for the student to imitate. However, it is the student who must accept and perform these activities and thereby learn, Aristotle expressed the idea of self-activity in his writings, ‘the intellect is perfected not by knowledge but by activity’. St-Thomas, in his treatise De Magistro further expressed the principle of self-activity: Learning is a passage from potentiality to actuality, brought about in man by his own activity. It is process of self-activity, self-direction and self-realization of man’s highest potentialities. Extrinsic agents—teachers, textbooks and whole range of social tradition are merely the conditions of its development. They are the aids; the process is one of the self-development. Butler says, ‘everything about learning is not known but the law that pupils lean by self-activity will be everlasting.’ |. Learning is purposive: Learning is not only active but active in a specific direction. All living beings show in their life processes a directiveness or trend toward a goal or end of their activity. The goal may be vague or undefined, the learner may not be aware of it; nevertheless, a goal is present. Goals are determined directly by motives and indirectly by incentives. Motives are conditions, physical and psychological within the person that disposes him/her to act in certain ways. Motives take a variety of forms and are designated by many terms such as needs, desires, tensions, set attitudes, interests and so on. Incentives are not motives but are objects or situations which, when attained, will have the possibility of satisfying motivating conditions. ‘The more definite and explicit the goal is, the more important and worthwhile it is to the learner; the greater the acceptance of the goal by the learner, the more ing wi i ingful and i ive the learning will be. Learning cannot be meaning! se shiceereneety ‘ oseful effort. Learning experiences efficacious without persistent, selective and purp 1 are meaningful aie they are related to the individual's interests, when they e involved in his/her living, when they not only contribute to his/her Purposes 3 ne time but enable him/her to make more intelligent adjustments in fanure, w eo involve discovery and problem solving. eee formal drill or mere memoriza and when they result in satisfying relationships. — anis the . Learning is creative: Human learning is both selective and creative, Man te only creature on the face of the earth who is not merely a ee aa well. Conway explain power of man as “acquisition of know! 7 ie oe potency to act, in which the one learning already has acertain polwEY ST for knowledge, including intellectual light, which potency ™ SN own initiative in acquiring the material of knowledge an influencing individual differences area a the assistance of others, learning is a process of personal choice-making iti » tis activity in which the learner through his/her own experience and out of jy motivations decides for himself/herself what he/she is to believe and whay i: is to do with his/her life’. 6. Learning is transferable: Transfer means whatever is learned is one con situation will apply or affect another situation or context. True learning transf but the amount of transfer varies. The intellectual ability and the backeron experience of the leamer, the explicitness and definiteness of the goals i. relationship between the activities of the learner and the goals. ie wholeheartedness of the learner’s approach and the attack on the problems a influence the amount and the permanency of learning. Transfer of learning selq takes pace automatically, It must be planned for and worked at continuously, Rote Jeamning, routine and blind rule-of-thumb procedures and empty verbalism seldon transfer. Transfer depends on understanding and understanding depends oy, recovery of essential relationships which have been generalized by the leamer and applied deliberately to the solution of practical problems. Organization of knowledge in the form of generalizations and the comprehension of principles and relationships are transferable patterns of experience. Learning also affects conduct of the individual, True learning takes place only when the individual acquires a type of knowledge or a skill or changes his/her attitudes and appreciations in response to a real need and modifies his/her conduct in accordance with new learning and therefore is changed. 7. Learning is organizing experience: The process of learning is not mere acquisition of facts and skills through drill and repetition. It involves organization and evaluation of learning materials. The learner reorganizes his/her experience and behavior. He/she endows the learning materials. with several meanings and interpretation. Learning as reorganization of experience and leaming # modification do not contradict each other. The modification brought about by Jearning is more than addition of a new experience because each new experience becomes associated with similar experiences of the past. The new experience is given meaning only by interpreting it in the light of the past experience and thisis organized in relation to new situation. | 8. Learning is growth: One of the most important characteristics of human beings is their capacity to learn. The personality of an individual which encompasses habits, skills, knowledge, attitudes, interests and character is result of earning Different schools of psychology have tried to define and interpret the process : | learning in their own ways. All theorists agree that learning is 2 oT of modification. It implies cumulative improvement which is arrived at as@ oe of various changes which take place while learning is in progress. In the Wr, Harriman, it is the improvement in efficiency of adjustment as a result practs insight, observation, imitation, conditioning. a They he text o, PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING 1. Effective learning results from teacher guidance in the form of useful OU. modes of attack on a problem though the leamer may utilize self dise"” invention or may generalize from past experience.to be eliminated. 4, The learner must have suitable abiliti experience, self sufficient mental maturi 4, Toacquire more effective pattems of beh ies and an appropriate back, round of ty and readiness to learn, of better patterns of behavior. _ One leans more rapidly when new is >: The desire to leam facilitates the reir —— 1. The leamer should be motivated to learn, for motivation arouses, sustains, determines the intensity of learning effort. Motivation is a aor an behavior is aroused or accelerated. Motivation is stimulation of activity (ce - goal when previously there was little or no such behavior. ae §, The learner should have provision for transfer—opportunities to organize, generalize, apply and extend solutions to problems raised by environment, 9, The learner should have no anxiety or mental ill health because such conditions impair learning efficiency. TEN PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING The Joint Task Force on Student Learning created by the American Association of Higher Education are the ten principles of learning given belo\ I. Learning is fundamentally about making and maintaining connections: biologically through neural networks; mentally among concepts, ideas, and meanings; and experientially through interaction between the mind and the environment, self and other, generality and context, deliberation and action. 2. Learning is enhanced by taking place in the context of a compelling situation that balances challenge and opportunity, stimulating and using the brain’s ability to conceptualize quickly and its capacity and need for contemplation and reflection upon experiences. ' 3. Learning is an active search for meaning by the learner-constructing knowledge rather than passively receiving it, shaping as well as being shaped by experiences. 4. Leaming is developmental, a cumulative process involving the whole person, relating past and present, integrating the new with the old, starting from but transcending personal concerns and interests. 2 5. Leaming is done by individuals who are intrinsically tied to others as socal beings, interacting as competitors or collaborators, constraining or supporting he learning process and able to enhance learning through cooperation and sharing, . 6. Learning is strongly affected by the ‘educational climate in which it takes place: the settings and surroundings, the influences of a and the values accord to the li i to learning achievements. _ Leaning requ ae Feedback if its to be sustained practice ifitis to be Nourished, and opportunities to use what eae ibe fond explicit teachin Much leaming takes place informally and net ed ortheclasstoom, incontacts with faculty and staff, peers, aie and community involvement, and unplanned but interesting complex situations.. ences, requirin; oo ded in particular contexts and individual experiences, reduiring . Learning is groun: effort to transfer specific knowledge and skills to other circumstances or to more general understanding. 10. Learning involves the understand how knowl based on discerning their cap: own ways of knowing in approac! framework. f indivi itor their own learning, to ‘ability of individuals to monitor their © , ie is acquired to develop strategies for learning cities and limitations, and to be aware of their hing new bodies of knowledge and disciplinary FORMS OF LEARNING Description . | Forms of leaming Kills which become automat y ‘Sensorimotor skills are those sl ’ e Sensory motor learning | other learned activities may be pursued with no interference, i Perceptual motor skills depend on perception and association, age el lied Perception is mental apprehension of that which is physically seen, heard or felt. Conceptual leaming Concepts are mental images of a thing or class of things formed by generalization from particulars. \tis formed by providing variety of experiences. Associative leaming Associative learning is related to learning vocabulary. Certain sequence of letters is so associated with an object or a concept or a situation that the sequence of letters tends to recall the ‘object or concept or situation. Problem solvingis the highest type of learning because responses do not depend on simply past associations and conditions but they depend on thinking, reasoning and perceiving small differences, Problem solving LAWS OF LEARNING formed through experience. The formation of thes? ficliewer aac intensity and vividness of the experience, capacity involvement of leamer is howeves bong tine satisfaction or reinforcement ing as formulated by Thomdike ares M4 iMPOMant. The primary laws of MME 1. Law of exercise 2. Law of readiness 3. Law of effect And minor laws of learning are: Law of maturation ' Law of Purpose Law of. selection Law of association Law of recency Law of multiple learningA primary laws are described below: aw of exercise: It states more frequently a modifiable connection b fimulus and response is made, the stronger that connection will be. Whe wena fea activity is repeated it becomes prompt, easy and definite, Repetition and ‘hil te facts and activities to be learned. An activity that is not used, repeated or Seeael fe or along time tends to be forgotten. We often learn and retain by use and forget b di a arets known a8 Ta of disuse, Use and disuse ae two aspects of law ofeierise. paucational implications of the law of exer of educational implications. They are: Leamers should be given as many opportunities as possible to use what they know. Review provides an opportunity for repetition. Review has to be done with an express objective of attaching new meanings to what has been once learnt. Drill is also necessary for strengthening the bonds. Practice, drill or repetition is necessary for consolidating the knowledge that has been acquired. 4. Discussion is equally important because it involves active participation and encourages intellectual freedom. Application, use, cross-use and interpretation of facts and principles will make learning better instead of mere memorization. : The law of exercise has a number a b. 2, Law of readiness: It means if the learner is ready to act or to learn, he/she will Jeam more quickly and effectively. Readiness or preparedness for a task is half the battle and if learner’s mind is set on a lesson he/she is disposed to work at it and master it. If the learner is not ready to act, it is annoying for him/her to act. Readiness is a factor of maturation as well as experience. Mental set involves disposition, 2 desire to learn at a given time. Educational implications of the law of readiness: educational implications. In order to obtain success in either of the following: a. Wait for readiness. b. Accept the present level of readin ¢. Provide experiences that will increase readiness. feelings. Activities which are accompanied by a feeling of pleasure or satisfaction are more readily and effectively learned than activities which are pleasant or annoying. Feelings play an appreciable role in the learning process. This law means that of the many and varied responses made t9 2 stimulus situation whichever response is rewarded or reinforced will automatically be strengthened, Each enforcement of a stimulus-response connection adds an Merement of strength to it and raises probability that it rather than some other response, Will be elicited when the same stimulus recur. Satisfaction strengthens the bond. lowever, annoyance does not weaken rather a learner may be reinforced by the Tecopnition if § gnition if inappropriate acts. Ray : . " cational implications of the law of effect: oo it that a learner should have the following * Satisfaction: The law of readiness has great teaching a teacher should follow ‘ess and be satisfied with the slow rate of learning. 3. Law of effect: This law is based on The classroom implications of the onditions for getting reinforcement—— Bn a. Learner should have a teacher who enjoys his/her work and who has good ment health, b. Class work and activities should be interesting and capable © needs and hence meaningful. c. Class work and activities should give ff meeting his/her of success. th and progress. couragement that bring him/her degree praise and em ec. Learner should get proper guidance, g right. satisfaction of knowing that he/she is goin, FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING _ Goals set before the learner * Motivation * Maturation + Physical and mental development + Teaching methods + Academic ability of the teacher + Meaningfulness of subject matter + Boredom and fatigue + Interest and attention Aptitude and attitude Emotional factors Guidance Individual differences Reasoning and thinking ability Personality and character + Mental health + Achievement tests * Retention and recall + Home conditions and learning environment SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF GOOD PRACTICE IN EDUCATION — ‘The seven principles of good practice are: 1. Encourages contact between students and faculty: Frequent student-faculty contact in and out of class is the ‘most important factor in student motivation an involvement. 2. Develops reciprocity and cooperation among students: Learning is enhanced when it resembles a team effort rather than a solo race. . talk ae mal ilies learning: Learning is not a spectator sport. Students mus ae ts faa ee write about it, relate it to past experienc?*, i a 4. Gives prompt fe es ives. They must make what they learn part of themselv?* Students ae ack: Knowing what you do and do not know focuses lea 5. Emphasizes time on tasks" Feedback on performance to benefit OM OF ye for time on task. mn task: Time plus energy equals learning. There is N° %* st 6 C icates hi ' . ‘ommunicates high expectations: If teachers expect more they will Bet notgg rourteen General Research Based Principles 1 6 angelo hat i general research-b 1 2. BY a . Learning requires focused attention and awar . To be remembered, new information must be mea . Unlearning what is already known is often more difficult thai for them. rT Improving Learning ‘ based principles for improving higher naa Pore list OF ourteen Active leaming is more effective than passive na nine a siven below: Learning is more effective and efficient when lace positive goals, and when their goals fit well win nee High expectations encourage high achievement £02: Motivation to learn is alterable; it can be positing task, the environment, the teacher, ai rticulated for and administrators rave explicit, reasonable, Positively or negat nd the learner. YY fected by the to be learned. eness of the importance of what is : ningful ‘ knowledge, and it must first be remembered in order to eee 2 information. in learning new . Information that is organized in personally meaningful ways is more likely to be remembered, learned, and used. . To be most effective, teachers need to balance levels of intellectual challenge and instructional support. |. Mastering a complex skill or body of knowledge takes great amount of time and effort. . Learning to transfer, to apply previous knowledge and skills to new contexts, requires a great deal of directed practice. . The ways in which learners are assessed and evaluated powerfully affect the ways they study and learn. . Interaction between teachers and learners is one of the most powerful factors in promoting learning; interaction among learners is another. . Learners need feedback on their learning, early and often, to learn well; to become independent learners, they need to become self-assessing and self-correcting. TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES Accelerated Learning Techniques: Ac teaching the whole person. They a Cteative methods and techniques base i eam best. Research shows that accelerated learnin| and performance and that students who use More effective learners. Accelerated learning Settings including traditional classrooms, homes, and corpo! of subjects, Action Research: Action Research gives Problems specific to their classrooms an ‘celerated learning programs are geared toward ‘e multifaceted, encompassing a wide variety of ‘don current theories and research of how people techniques can enhance retention accelerated learning methods become thas been applied in a wide variety of rations, to teach a range led to work on achers the skills need baa actual research d their colleges. By using aneee eee ae rrere crac ‘own teaching challenges. They jg, collect relevant data, use an ang ods that yield validity and retiap; ‘9 their individual situations, procedure, researching teachers can resolve theii i ine terms, how to ask a focusing question, defi process that rules out bias, and includes meth The findings become immediately applicable ¢ a strategy where fearning takes place oe application of knowledge rather providing me ae icile a . renee ‘ith a category of students who exce! T curricular activites ony oe é curricular activities. Applied ales - very beneficial especially to those students as they gain better a s a ig ee concepts ang realize the relationships between the concepts too. In : ar a le cat be frequently brought in picture as students can learn by Hae fate serve the care of patients which improves their Tevel of understanding rather by theory classes alone Thus, applied learning leads to the pal demic success and further successes hway of aca throughout life. Arts in Education: Always among ysis ility, the highest expression of every culture, the arts teach us much about every historical period through its literature, visual arts, music, dance, and drama. Today it is recognized that to be truly well educated, one must not only lea to appreciate the arts but must have rich opportunities to actively participate jn creative work. The arts are languages that most people speak, cutting through individual differences in culture, educational background, and ability. They can bring every subject to life and turn abstractions into concrete reality. Learning through the arts often results in greater academic achievement and higher test scores. ‘Assessment Alternatives: There is growing recognition that true/false, multiple choice, and short answer tests do not give a true picture of what students know and have accomplished. These are primarily measures of memorization and recall, and do not always even test comprehension. They certainly do not give students opportunities 0 demonstrate that they can apply what they have leamed or use their knowledge in creative or even just practical ways. By extending the strategies of assessment which based distributed throughout the program, that is, formative evaluation studen's cay a peers be Aes the weightage of assessment is Laie inp i ee chalet alematives which demands innovative oachinn ea hanna, ncules assess e teaching and learning strategies. Character Education: Educational of academic achievement. Howe ystems foday are focused on raising aM 4 i fe understand the i ver, as we consider the world in which we live, eae a of helping students to learn much more than the SY help students Pons coviFonments, activities, the arts, and service Pree Sy cooperation. These and a onsiblity, compassion, integrity, civility, leaders Ieamed by carpi cet elements of healthy, well-developed characte cal Cognit nd opportunities to exercise them. gnitive Coaching: Research ind; * il and that eachers whe tho nasa that teaching is a complex intellect aot more cooperative ed ak Higher levels produce students who are higher =H" ee Solvers. Iti the invisible skills of teachin i ie instructional decisions, which produce °°" jectjnstruction. Cognitive coaching is a form of mediati professional interactions in a variety of Settings and Situations with i 5 enhancing self-directed learning. It is a composite of skills and es the intention of tgolsand mental models and beliefs. In addition itis a model force ee AS and toenhance students’ self-directed learning, ‘assroom mediation Cooperative Learning: Cooperative learning is one of the best Tesearched of all teaching strategies. The results show that students who have Opportunities so a collaboratively, learn faster and more. efficiently, have greater retention, and feel = positive about the learning experience. Needless to say, this is not to say that students can just be put into a group and assigned a Project to complete. There are very specific methods to assure the success of group work, and it is essential that both teachers and students are aware of them. Democratic Classrooms: Classroom management has always been an important skill for teachers, especially new ones, to master. That term, however, connotes a top- down organization which has rapidly lost favor in recent years as more collaborative models have been developed. It is important of course to make sure students are ‘on task’ in a fairly orderly environment, but when they are in a democratic environment in which they help to establish their own rules, take responsibility for their own behavior, and are strongly motivated to learn they do not need a manager. They respond to someone who tries to understand their needs, identifies their strengths, and helps to Cteate a collaborative atmosphere. i i sons Direct instruction is effective for helping students to Pg centiaten pstrustion: owl anced raise scores on standardized tests that use i i inde: i memorize facts and skills, and Wil Ta ort-answer questions. It is an important multiple choice, true and false, virposes, Direct instruction may not, however, educational tool for these specific ae apply what they have learne .d. It does not help students to understand and fadents lear in many different ways, and does not : ft stu ewan lake into account the by aie that can be used in learning. eee netdevelop help students to identify tHe are so essential in today’s world, nor does it foster higher order thinking skills (Me + eaming itself Direct instruction basi lace Curiosity, desire to learn, SO faith that integrating the arts and othes experion in teaching and learning, will help students to meet cas higher standards in ways Processes in the Coe ted ‘jevelopment of mind, body, and spirit. that foster the coor! ly life is our first school for emotional learning’, ajehologist and author of Emotional Intelligence. Wis F leman, P = taken place in terms of health, academic remarked Daniel Go! ent have taken p \ . IX found that students dover ropment, and social relationships by incorporating a Emotional Intelligence jon: Environmental education proj i 1 Educ teachi ; Environmental ny uy group tea 4 iversify the curricull™ “mic context. Research shows that real-life hands-on, diversify the © rong academic a song room in a ste the classroom A re shes and teaches students: learning effe38. Give periodical test in the semester/year itself. 39. Be aware of where the st 40. Be aware of students who are absent frequi / : ' 41. Diagnose the student's pre-requisite learning by a questionnaire and giyg then feedback as soon as possible. 42. Repeat so that students should hear, read or see key material at least three 43. Provide structure for visually oriented students by posting the day’s mp, board, overhead/screen. | | 44, Use multiple examples to illustrate key points and important concepts, 45. Beavailable to students before or after class and join their conversation on Course topics. | 46. Use community resources in your teaching. 47. Solicit suggestions from students for outside resources and guest speakers on course topics. ; 48. Tell the students time frame to return assignment. 49. Keep a course diary-brief notes on calendar/copy of syllabus and note what has worked well so that is can be selected for the next academic year also. 50. Gather student’s feedback in first few weeks to improve teaching and learning, and return it graded in the next any Clasy ridents stay (hostel) to transfer any information ently. 7 times, lenu on TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS. Teaching and learning has four aspects: teacher, student, learning process and learning situation. The teacher creates the learning situation for the student. The process is the interaction between the student and teacher. Teaching-learning process is a means through which teacher, the learner, the curriculum and other variables are organized in a systematic manner to attain pre-determined goals and objectives. Teaching-learning process implies that all the various elements of teaching-leaming situation have to be brought into an intelligible whole. The teaching-learning activities which are varied and complex have to be harmonized. These elements and activities include leamers and their individual differences, the methods of teaching, the material tobe taught, classroom conditions, teaching aids and devices, assignments, questioning and answering, creating, thinking, enjoying, practical skills, discussions and many mot Chief aspects of teaching-learning process: Command, planning and organization of the subject matter or content a4 activities: The soul of effective i i Fi teaching-leaming i mand of the su matter. Subsequent aspect is to deli Sone, se h : sides e Progressive methods of teaching and learning. Bes! : teaching an it the satin the students to develop habits of learning, itis the sole responsibilty lo emphasize on self-learning on the part of students. inti abili Land main! This ca : an ability to contro! This can be achieved by virtue of teacher's interest on ea Psychology of learn 2 ers: An j teaching and Teaming ideal teacher Tealizes that the aforementioned asP yects : wa “tudes ‘willbe made effective onty if the interests, abilities 85 re eal yo. mitations of the 1 and Jimnital 0 _farners are considered. Teacher shoul atience in dealing with learners and encoura; should possess tolerance and Ppances teaching-leaming broader and ee of the learner which jon: A teacher Bvalttation arn should carefully evaluate his/her student grategies towards learner's progression. Self evaluation b: - 's to explore the are mutually beneficial. y both students and teachers Teaching and learning: A three-way communication: Interaction between the teacher and learner is the core of teaching and learnii : 1 unin; ‘This interaction through a sort of three-way communication, results in behaviorchanges ; inges jn the learners. A learner needs help of a teacher when he and to solve any problem. e/she want to learn any subject Information Inf 2) 8) Information Informati ” processing | “> |_presenting receiving Educational objectives (6) (5) and @) contents Diagnosing Responding Taformation processing ee = Learner Information |(8) Presenting Fig. 9.6: Teaching-learning process The process of guiding the learner involves eight steps 28 given in Figure 9.6. They are: Step 1: Educational objectives and content Step 2: Communication from teacher to learner Step 3: Receiving information from teacher to learner Step 4: Processing information in the learner Step 5: Response from learner to teacher Step 6: Diagnosing learner by teacher Step 7: Formative evaluation of the learner Step 8: Feedback information from teacher 10 Tea ING AND LEARNING PROCESS ATRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF TEACH ible answers to the question This model ican attempt to consider most of the PONS Aer 6 ene model, te earn more than others. ng : SN 0 oc nf ae categories (Table 9.1) and is illustrated in the reasons can be classified into fo Figure 9.7. by teacher merTable 9.1: Four categories of transactional model Categorie ‘egories Description Context All those factors outside of the class room that might 7 teaching and learning ‘Ont Influence 1ny put “Those qualities or characteristics of teachers and students th bring with them to the classroom experience vat they Classroom processes | Teacher and sludent behaviors in the classroom as well as som: other variables such as classroom climate and teacher-studon relationships Output Measures of student learning taken apart from the normal instructional process [Class Room Processes| Teacher behavior ‘Student behavior Other ‘Student Achievement Fig. 9.7: A transactional model of teaching-leaming process Input: Input refers to descriptions of teachers and students prior to their coming into the classroom. There are again two important subcategories: Teacher Characteristics and Student Characteristics. Some important subcategories of teacher characteristics include the teacher’s values and beliefs, knowledge, thinking and communication skis performance skills, and personality. There are many more possible subcategories 35 but these seem to be the most important. The most important teacher characteristic» the teacher’s values and beliefs or more particularly teacher efficacy (Ashton, ie This variable is a measure of the teacher’s belief that students can learn and tat he can teach. Another important set of teacher characteristics includes the teacher knowledge with respect to the content domain—knowledge of subject matter © taught; human growth and development—theories, topics, and stages; learning "ag behavioristic, cognitive, humanistic; and the teaching/learning process—Co""eP* principles as well as their application in formal and informal environments: ast from! Classroom processes: The second most important category, at 1881 coat perspective of the educational institution and educational psychology, is the clTeaching and Learning Process | 255 esses category. This includes all the variables that woul Prot re are three subcategories: Teacher behavior, St hecellancous. The category of teacher behavior cons would make in the classroom and includes three additional subcategories: Planning, Management, and Instruction. Planning refers to all of those activities a teacher mi; ght go to get ready to interact with students in the classroom. Management refers to controlling student behavior, while instruction refers to actually guiding student | Teaming. Thete arv variety of specific teacher classroom variables that have been . related to student learning. Id occur in the classroom. udent behavior, Other/ ts of all the actions a teacher Output: The most important of these categories is the output category because the variables in the rest of the categories are used to predict or relate to the variables measured in this one. There are a variety of outcomes that are important in today’s world such as cognitive development and character that are not presently discussed when we talk about student learning. The most important category is output because once that has been defined it impacts the importance of the variables in the other categories. Context: The category of context includes all of those variables outside of the classroom that have an impact on teacher and student characteristic, classroom Processes, and output. The most immediate subcategories of context variables include school characteristics and school processes. School characteristics include variables Such as organizational structure and school size. School processes include factors Telated to activities such as leadership, supervisory practices, and school climate. Other important context subcategories include the community, peer groups, the society, State and national policies and international/global conditions.[=e : 10 Methods of Teaching hapter a IC LEARNING OBJECTIVES 01 2 completion of this chapter, the students will: ; 1, Narrate the principles of selection of teaching and learning methods 2. Practice seminar following set guidelines 3, Differentiate between lecture, demonstration and seminar 4. Appreciate various forms of discussion 5. Explain problem-based learning and apply in practice 6. Use role play as a method of teaching 7. Prepare self-instructional module 8. Enumerate simulated teaching 9. Appreciate the significance of project and field trip method 0. Explain microteaching and apply in practice 1. List the activities to be executed in programmed instruction 2. Realize the importance of team teaching 3. Conduct workshop 4. Appreciate the application of computers in nursing 5. Utilize questioning as a method of teaching Students have different ways of absorbing information and of demonstrating their knowledge. Teachers often use techniques which cater to multiple learning styles to help students retain information and strengthen understanding. A variety of methods are used to ensure that all students have equal opportunities to learn. For effective teaching to take place, a teacher needs to consider students’ background knowledge, environment and learning goals. PRINCIPLES FOR SELECTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODS 1. Methods should be suited to the objectives and the content of the course: There is no one best method; there are only methods, each of which may contribute in a different way to the accomplishment of learning outcomes. Many differett methods may be used in the same class provided it is congruent with the Jearning objectives. Some courses by their nature require individualized teaching #4 learning procedures. Thus, the criterion in selecting a method for a course is nol so much the general category of method i aan it in ere as the inherent! the situation and the learning outcomes cued ers Methods should be adapted to the capacity of the student: Methods of teachin should be chosen according to the intellectual maturity and the receptiveness Athe students. The teacher should be flexi a of cching (he capeiy ee i planning and teaching. Adapting peer students insofar as possible, pee ee ee oes his course t identify the stents as peaeral share of time at the beginning or dent and also by providing short assignm ‘duals would help interest in cach ‘ass helps the teacher to Tear the acade ents frequently at the beginning of ase vehoald be in aceord with sound psych a cnet ident is recognized as one of the most important eae cago ene propriate teaching methods, adapted to the anced ibe selestion of a pfally used will help to make learning more Gee an ee Many asses are usualy delivered verbally. Using eae perceptual experiences that can concretize the students’ fea i ie pee er standing. Selecting and using methods that ee meet sees their learning also is an important psychological consideration. le ine thods should suit the teacher personally and capitalize on her special assets: Insts students, feachers also possess individual differences, The expression of values and ideals such as integrity, kindliness, love of learning, respect for students nay bein different form and each teacher should ase that form of expression that ismost consistent with his/her nature. There is no one best personality for successful icmpingy It will be highly appreciated among teachers when they have healthy veo idualty developed from self-awareness and a conscious effort We one’s own potentiality to the best advantage in teaching and learning by developing oun Pile. Teachers should develop the capacity to explore the ways which can e and make his/her teaching most perfect. ‘her should create his/her own. teaching 5, Methods can be used creatively: Every fea method by choosing and adapting available techniques in par with his/her own personality and the objectives ‘and the content of the course that he/she teaches. A teacher should not be satisfied with the available resources for teaching. He/she should always look for innovations and novel ideas for delivering a class in such away that he/she captures the attention of all students and keep them motivated. hhich helps the throughout. It should also include independent learning activity w s. Hence, the teacher should continuously perform students to equip themselves. 7 systematic self-analysis of himself/herself and teaching methods and should be willing to experiment innovative techniques to serve the given purposes. the 3, Meth be most effectiv: LECTURE METHOD rp involved in clarification or explanation Lecture method refers to the teaching procedut r n of the students of some major idea. “This method lays emphasis On the penetration of palais TL aiierens passive but he/she also uses question answers to keep them attentive in the class. It is used to motivate, clarify, expand and review the infermation. By ebanging voice BY impersonating characters, by shifting hishher posing, by using simple devices: © PY coher can deliver lessons effectively. While delivering lecture, a teacher can indicate by his/her facial expressions, gestures and tones the exact slide of meaning that he/she wishes to convey. Thus, we can say that when teacher takes the help of a engthy-short explanation in order to clarify his/ her ideas or some fact that explanation is termed as lecture or lecture method. ot oyEa enc ccrrar care: Definition of Lecture acher to the students usually accompanieg ' y tes Presentation of the content by - some type of visual aid or handout. ring i er for Lectul jdelines for 2 Teach Guidelit contact. Make the arners feel what you have (0 say is direc, od eye contact, «well as your voice communicate to th te lem: | Maintain £0¢ to cach one T and their eyes: indications of doubt of interest. : intait i ree of enthusiasm. a ral ue ore nversational voice. Enunciate your words clearly, Make spoken word. . Speak ina natur a ain the learners can hear evel : certail t points by the use of gestures, repetition, and variation in 4, Emphasize important voice inflection. 5, Check learners’ comprehen! lly t the faces of the learners and by questioning. : indication of doubt or: misunderstanding isnot a sure way of checking on leamer's comprehension. The best time to clear away mental fog is when the fog develops. Mental fog tends to create a ‘mental block that prevents the learners from concentrating on the subject matter being presented. 6. Instruct on the class Jevel. Use words, explanations, questions, and the like, directed to the needs of the average learner in the class. Identify and prepare instructional aids to illustrate the points. 7. Stimulate learners to think. Think, as used here, refers to creative thinking rather than to a mere recall of facts previously learned. Use a number of instructional devices for stimulating learners thinking. Among those devices are thought- provoking questions, class discussions. 8. sae examples to link the subject matter to the lives of the learners. . Sequence the content logically, systematically and sequentially building upon previous content areas. y. Your eyes @ sions. a jerstanding, nd reactions communicate to you. Watch j, ‘Or personal a desire to participate, fatigue, or a ogy il facial expres 1, misund wt arefully throughout the presentation by Watching sion the prese Observing facial expressions as an 2 10. Avoid being prescriptive and try to be provocative +i Maintain time stipulations. : wer pagan diverse range of instructional materials can be used to support the content such as slides, charts, posters, flannel and so on. Advantages/Strengths of Lecture Method Lectu i Logistically, a ae find that lectures appeal to their learnin styl Lectures method familia *, casero create than other methods of instructiO® ere taught. Because most voller nets because it was typically te wo eee ae ne lege xperience in this predominant instuctional ee ional delive ry method.Methods of Teaching J] 259 jows information of facts, information and concepts in a rel 'vely short span o} 8, i nation co time: ce pel a Multiple res| | , jnteract with student flawge number of students can be accommodated + Deotures contain experiences which inspires, data It stimulates thinking to open discussion. ns, knowledgeable igcable and with different points of vi sof view can pisadvantages/Li itations of Lecture Method Decrease student involvement in learni ing wh ig esatia Ce aeaanel g when content is readily available and Students who are weak in note-taking skills wil 1g skills will hi i they should remember from lectures. el arieea Ma Students can find lectures boring causing them to lose interest. Students may not feel that they are able to ask questions as they arise during lectures. Teachers may not get a real feel for how much students understand because there is not that much opportunity for exchanges during lectures. «Experts are not always good teachers. + May have a high cost in preparation and development o + Leaming is difficult to gauge. * Communication is one-way. DEMONSTRATION METHOD. Tor to accompany a formal lecture or informal ‘ demonstration is useful either by itsel telk in the classroom, laboratory of clinical area. f visual aids. Definition of Demonstration Itis a physical display of the form, purpose of increasing knowledge visualized explanation of facts and proct or showing how. Demonstration is relatively uncomp! not require extensive verbal elaboration. outline or a substance of object or events for the of such objects or events. It can be defined as stration involv’ edures. Demons es showing what Ticated process in that it does Guidelines for Good Demonstration 1. It should be planned and rehearsed by the fe 2. The equipments used for demonstration show 3, Adequate lighting arrangements Pe made on demo background table need to be provided. , ; 4. All the equipments are placed in order efore starting the demonstration, The equipments likely to be used should be placed in oe left i Palen le i ; in which it is likely t© / and it should be arranged in the same order in wi 5. Before actually ie the demonstration ‘clear statement about the Purpose of demonstration be made to the students. acher before hand. id be visible to the whole class. stration table and a proper