Photo Ashows a lighthouse being moved in the United States.

Modern equipment and machinery are needed to move large

buildingslike this. Smaller houses are sometimes moved
using lorries.
Mochines such as those used to move the Cape Hatteras
iabthouse have only existed for a few centuries. Before then,
moving and lifting things had to be done using only human or
animal power, or by using energy from the wind or moving water.

AThe Cape Hatteras lighthouse in North

Carolina, USA, hasa mass of almost 5000
B|Stonehenge was built over 4000 years ago. The largest stone has tonnes. t was moved 460 metres inland
a mass of 50 tonnes. because of coastal erosion.

C|We do not know how ancient peoples built
their large structures. This photo shows students
testing a possible way in which the 50 tonne
stones in Stonehenge might have been moved.
1 Look at photo A. Name the forces acting
on the building as it is being moved, and
describe what they are doing.
2 Look at photo C. The students are using
rollers beneath the stone they are pulling to
reduce friction.
a How does friction affect the movement of
an object?
b| Describe two ways of reducing the friction
between two surfaces without using rollers
or wheels.

3 The students moving the stones are using energy.

a Where do humans get their energy from?
b| Where does this energy originally come from?
c| Drawa diagram to show the energy
transfers between the original source of
energy and the students.
 FORCESAND
9la MOVEMENTT
HOW D0 FORCES AFFECT OB.ECTS AND THE WAY THEY MOVE?

When an object is pulled along the ground, the

force of friction between the object and the
ground makes it difficult to move. Friction can
be reduced using rollers or wheels. In
snowy
countries, sleds have been used for thousands
ofyears to move heavy loads.

1 Look at photo A. Suggest why sleds

are only used when there is snow on
the ground.
If the forwards force on a movingsled is the
same size as the force of friction, the forces on
the sled are balanced. The sled will continue
to move at a constant speed. A| This sled is being used to transport logs.

If the horses pull harder the forces on the sled will be

unbalanced. The difference between the forward and
backwards forces is the resultant force. In this case, the
resultant force will be acting in a forwards direction and the
sled will accelerate (get faster). As well as changing the
speed, unbalanced forces can also change the direction in
which something is moving and its shape.
In photo B, the shape of the metal horseshoe is being changed
using a force from the hammer. Some changes of shape are
not as obvious as this. For example. in photo A the leather in
the horse's harness will stretch as it pulls the sled. Even things
like metal wires stretch a little when they are pulled.
B|The shape of this horseshoe is being C| Forces on a moving boat. Longer arrows represent
changed so that it fits the horse's hoof. larger forces.

Some of the stones used in Stonehenge come

from Preseli, in South Wales, over 250 km away.
Many archaeologists think these stones were
transported using boats on rivers and the sea.
Early boats were paddled using oars, but later upthrust
force from wind
boats had sails to use the wind to move them. pushing on sails
A boat moving through the water has several
forces acting on it. water resistance
130 weight
 2 Look at photo C. Write down the force that:
and air a is caused by gravity
Water reSistance
of
resistance are forms b| is helping to make the boat go forwards
act to
drag. Drag forces c| will increase if the speed of the boat increases.
slow down objects moving
3 The weight of the boat in photo C is 2000 N. How big is the
through fluids. The size of the upthrust? Explain your answer.
as the
drag force increases
speed of the object increases, EXplain what will happen to the speed of the boat if the wind
has gets stronger.
because more of the fluid
to be pushed out of the way 5 Explain why a sailing boat will slow down if the wind speed gets less.
each second.

Topspeed
Thetop speed of a ship or other vehicle depends on the maximum force that
can move it forwarcds and on the friction ordrag acting to slow it down. As aship
aots faster, the water resistance increases. Eventually the water resistance is as
large as the force from the sails and this means that the ship cannot accelerate
any more. It is now at its top speed for that amount of wind.

force force
from sails from sails

water
water resistance
resistance

top speed
accelerating
water resistance is equal to the maximum force from the sails.
DThe top speed of the ship is when the

EACT Look at diagram D. On a different day, the

6
top speed of the ship is higher. Suggest
two ways that this could happen.

7 Explain how the forces on the Cutty Sark

(photo E) are different to the forces on the
ship in diagram D, and why the Cutty Sark
has a higher top speed.

can
fastest recall the names of different types of force
Ihe Cutty Sark was one of the speed of
explain the effects of balanced and unbalanced
Sailing ships, with a maximum of tea from
over 30 km/h. It brought cargoes
forces

China, and the first tea to arrive in England explain why moving objects have a top speed.
prices. 131
each year sold for the highest
 ENERGY FOR
9lb MOVEMENT
WHICH ENERGY RESOURCES CAN BE USED TO MOVE THINGS?

Te eariest forms of transport often used animals to carry things, or to pull Sleds
Or cats with wheels. The enerav needed by humans and animals Comes from their
Too0. The energy in the food originally came fromthe Sun. Today we also directly
USe energy from the Sun (solar eneray) to heat water and to produce electricity.

energy transferred
from the Sun by light

energy stored in plants energy stored

(chemical energy) in animals

Ships were moved usingoars, or using energy from the

wind. Anything that is moving contains a store of kinetic
energy.
Write down three examples of substances or
objects that are stores of chemical energy.
2 Explain how the galley in photo B could be said
to be using solar power.

3 Write down one factor that affects the amount

of kinetic energy stored in an object.

Just over 200 years ago, some forms of transport B|Galleys were ships with oars and sals
started to use energy stored in coal. Coal is a fossil
fuel, formed underground over millions of years from
the remains of plants. Fossil fuels are a very convenient C|The Puffing Devil was built by Richard
Trevithick in 1801. It used the energy sto
way of storing large amounts of energy, but they are a in coal. This is a modern replica.
non-renewable resource because they will run out one
day. Today we also use energy stored in oil and natural
gas for transport. Energy released by burningfuels can
be transferred by heating to be used for cooking or
keeping our homes warm.

Explain how energy stored in coal originally

came from the Sun.
Y717BAF

132
 other energy stores
Cmaller amounts of energy can be stored using
The clock in photo Duses weights to weights and springs.
keep it going. A weight on a chain
adually falls and transfers energy to the clock.
hiects is called gravitational potential EneraV stored in raised
potential energy (or strain energv. Some clocks use elastiG
materials can store energy) stored in a wound-up spring. Elastic
energy when they are deformed (change shape).
Internal (or thermal) energy is the energy stored in
particles. There is more of this the mnovement of
transferred from hot objects to energy in things that are hot. Energy is
cooler objects by heating. pendulum
An archer uses a bOw to shoot an
5 arrow.
al How is energy stored just
before she shoots?
b|What happens to this energy as she shoots?
al Give two examples of weights
6 objects or substances that store
gravitational potential energy.
bl Describe two factors that affect the amount of
potential energy stored in an object. gravitational
D|a pendulumclock

Transferringtransferred
energy
Many modern devices use energy
electricity. Electricity by
cannot be stored, but has to be generated using
Such as wind, moving water or solar energy, or from renewable resources FACT
Uranium nuclear
resources such as fossil fuels or nuclear energy. non-renewable fuel can release over
Energy is never created or destroyed, but only transferred. This is the law of 80 million million
conservation of energy. However energy is not always transferred usefully. joules of energy
Ihe efficiency of an energy transfer compares the useful energy per kilogram. Petrol
to the total energy transferred. Wasted energy is usually
transferred only releases about
transferred to 46 million joules per
the surroundings by heating, and often by sound as well. This energy is kilogram when it
dissipated (spread out). The greater the efficiency, the less energy is wasted. burns.
7 Write down three energy resources that are:
a renewable b|non-renewable.
8
Early steam engines had efficiencies of only a few per cent.
a What energy store did steam engines use?
D|VWas most of this energy transferred as wastedor useful energy?
Explain your answer. can
C|Suggest two ways in which energy might have been wasted. recall ways in which
9 energy can be stored
Aman pushes his daughter on a swing to make her start moving. and transferred
a Draw an energy transfer diagram (similar to diagram A) to show recall the law of
the energy transfers. conservation of energy
b| Explain why the swing eventually stops moving after the man state the meaning of
stops pushing it. efficiency.
133
 9lc CALCULATE
HOW DO WE
SPEED
SPEED?

Speed is a way of saying how far

you can travel in a certain time. Spacecraft (Apollo) 38 986 kmih
This tinme can be a second (s),
Aeroplane
a minute (m), an hour (h), or
even 3530 kmh
longer. Land speed record 1223 km/h
To work out a speed, you have
to measure a Maglev train 430 km/h
distance and a
time. The units you use for speed Steam train 202 km/h
dependon the measurements
you take. For example, if a car Horse galloping 70 km/h
travels 200 miles in 4 hours, its
speed would be in miles per hour Human running 44 km/h
(mph). Other units for speed that
are often used are kilometres
per hour (km/h) and metres per A|The highest speeds that humans can travel are getting faster al hei
second (m/s).
distance
speed
time Example
metres in 20.6 seconds.
Many moving objects do not travel at a constant A racehorse runs 402
speed. For example, cars can travel faster on What was its speed?
motorways than in town, and may have to stop 402 m
speed =
at junctions. The mean (average) speed for a 20.6 s
journey is the total distance travelled, divided by = 19.5 m/s
the total time taken.

1 You are growing a little taller each year.

What units could you use to measure Distance-time
how fast you are growing? graphs
A horse and rider cover 54 km in 9 hours. You can show how fast someone travelled during
2
a Calculate the mean speed. ajourney using a distance-time graph. Thisis
Sometimes called adisplacement-time grap
b| Explain why the fastest speed during line
distance in a straightGraphB
the journey was higher than your Displacement is the
answer to part a. between an object and its starting point.
and horses.
(opposite) shows a by coach.
Look at photo A on page 134. What
journey shows
3
was the mean speed of the Kon-Tiki raft Asteep line on a distance-time graph line
during its journey? Give your answer in that something is moving quickly. Ashallow
horizontal
km/day. shows it is moving slowly. If the line is
the object is not moving at all.
136
 Distance-time graph for a coach journey
4 Look at graph B.
uphill, and the al How far did the coach travel?
100
horses are tired b| How long did it stop when they changed
the horses?

80
(km)
Distance
c| Duringwhich part of the journey was the
coach moving fastest?
coach stops to
60
change horses mostly downhill 5 Calculate the speed of the coach for the first
on a good road
4 hours of the journey.
40 Sketch a distance-time graph to show your
Journey toschool.
20 coach travels
on flat roads
Relative speeds
When you talk about how fast you can walk or run, you
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B Time (h) are measuring your speed over the ground. However
you can also walk alongatrain while it is moving. If
you walk at 2 m/s towards the front of the train and the
train is travelling at 50 m/s, your speed relative to the
ground outside is 52 m/s. If you walk towards the back
of the train, your speed relative to the ground is 48 m/s.
If two trains are travelling towards each other, and
both are moving at 100 mph, they are moing at
200 mph relative to each other.
Sailors and pilots have to think about relative motion
c|The actors in this film scene are only moving all the time, because water and air are usually moving.
slowly relative to the train, but they could be
moving at up to 50 m/s relative to the ground. EACT
If you are sitting down reading this you
are not moving relative to the ground.
D|The speed of a boat depends on its speed But you are moving at a speed of about
through the water and on how fast the water itself 108 000 km/h relative to the Sun!
is moving.

7 Look at photo D.
al How fast is the boat moving relative to
the riverbank?
bl If the river was flowing in the opposite
direction to that shown, how fast would the
boat moving at boat be moving relative to the riverbank?
5mls through
the water

Can
describe the meanings of speed and mean (average)
speed
use the formula relating speed, distance and time
FVer flowing at2 ms represent simple journeys on a distancetime graph.
137
 JATIONS
9lc AN
HOW DOWE DRAW AND INTERPRET DISTANGE-TIME GRAPHS?
GRAPHS
Calculating distances and times
The text in the box describes Sam's cycle ride. VWe can
use this description to construct a distance-time graph
to show his ride.

Sam cycled at 16 km/h for half an hour,

then at 8 km/h for the next half hour.
He covered the last 6 km at 24 km/h.

We need to know the distance and time for each

part of the journey.
The formula for calculating speed is
distance
speed
time
d
This can be written in symbols as s =
t

Sometimes you may need to calculate a distance if youknow the Example

speed and time, or calculate a time from a distance and speed. How far does Sam travel during
The formula can be rearranged: the first half hour?
distance = speed x time time distance distance = speed x time
speed
= 16 km/h x 0.5 hours
=8 km
1 Calculate how far Sam travels in the second half hour of his ride

2
Calculate how long Sam took to complete the last part of
his ride.

3
Use vour answers to questions 1 and 2to drawa distance
time araphto showSam's ride. Your vertical axis should
ao up to 20 km and your horizontal axis should go up to
1.5 hours. Remember to give your graph a title.
S
Calculating agradient B|This triangle can
Youcan use a distance-time graph to compare the speeds at different you to work out
helpdifferent
the versions
imte in aiourney. A steeper line shows that a larger Cover
distance has been of the formula.
travelled in a given time than a snallower ine. So, the steeper the line yOu
up the quantity ano
the faster the speed. want to calculate,
what you can see IS
need.
you
the formula
138
 N
WOR
Youcan also use information from a distance-time graph to calculate speeds.
The gradient of.a line is a way of describing how steep it is in numbers.
Thelargerthe value of the gradient, the steeperthe line.
FICALLY

For distance-time graphs, the gradient of aline represents the speed.

On graphC, the gradient will be how far the object travels in 1 second.
this represents the distance So the eauation is
gradient
vertical change calculating the
horizontal change distance travelled
this represents the tíe Per second

Distance-time graph for a toy car

horizontal change (time taken) Example
100T Graph Cshows how a radio-controlled car moves.
Calculate the speed of the car between points B
(m)80
Distance and C by working out the gradient of the line.
60 Vertical difference (distance) = 60 m -20 m
vertical
change = 40 m
40 (distance
moved) start with the end of the section otf the line you are
20
B interested in and read its value from the vertical
scale, then subtract the value for the beginning of
|A that section of line.
0 2 6 10
Time (s) Horizontal difference (time) =6 s 4s
=2s

Find the value on the horízontal axis for the end

of the section you are Looleing at,and subtract the
value for the beginning of that section of the line.

40 m
gradient = Remenmber that the units
D|These radio-controlled
In around 5
cars can cover 100 metres 2s
tor speed depenod on the
seconds. = 20 mn/s units used to measure the
distance and the tíme.

Calculate the gradient of the following lines

on graph C:
a|A-B b|D-E.
Rat graph B on page 137.Calculate
the use the formula relating speed, distance and time
Speed of the coach during the following draw and interpret distance -time graphs
parts of the journey: calculate the gradient of a line on a graph.
a<the downhill section startingat 5 hours
b| the uphill section starting att 7 hours. 139
 TURNING
9ld FORCES
HOW CAN YOUINCREASE THE SIZE OF A FORCE?

You can move heavy objects using a lever. Alever is a long bar
that turns around a pivot or fulcrum. When you push down on 1 What is a lever?
one side you are applying an effort and the object on the other
end moves up. This object is called the load. The longer the 2 Explain what a fulcrum is.
lever, the easier it is to move the load.

effort

effort
pivot load
(man pushes (weight of effort
load
load
on lever) barrel) distance distance
A|The effort force moves further than the load. B|The effort is smaller than the force needed to lift the
weight of the load directly.
There are many simple levers in the home. Most levers work by changing
a smaler force into a larger one. The lever acts as a force multiplier if 3 Suggest one other
the effort distance is greater than the load distance. When the load is object that has a
lifted. the effort force is smaller than the force at the other end of the lever lever as a:
pushing up on the load. The force has been multiplied. However, the effort alforce multiplier
force has to move through a greater distance than the load. b distance multiplier.
Some levers can act as distance multipliers instead.
In this case a large effort force moves a small distance.
and the load you are moving moves a greater distance.
pivot

loac effort
load efort

C|A bottle opener is a lever. It is aforce multiplier. D|Your arm is a lever.

It is a distance
multiplier.
140
 force
distance

Turning forces
spannerin diagram Eis being used to turn the nut.
The
The
turning effect of aforce is called a moment. The
s0zeofthe moment depends on the size of the force and
the distance between the force and the pivot. Moments pivot The distance is always
measured at right angles
measured in units called newton metres (N m). (perpendicular) to the force.
are
momentofthe force X perpendicular distance
force (N m) (N) from the pivot (m)
4
The spanner is 0.2 m long and the force is
20 N. Calculate the moment of the force.
220 N

Ne can use ideas about moments to explain how

levers work. Look at diagram F. If the moment due 400 N
2 m 1 m
to the effort is equal to the moment caused by the
load. the lever will not move. If the effort moment effort load
moment = 400 N × 1 m
isareater than the load moment, the load will
moment = 220 N × 2 m
= 440 N m = 400 N m
move in the direction shown.
F|The barrel will move up because the moment from
5 Look at photos C and D. Explain why: the effort is bigger than the moment from the load.
al the bottle opener is a force multiplier
b an arm is a distance multiplier.

Look at diagram G. Which force is the load

In equilibrium 6
and which is the effort?

The crane in diagram G is acting as a lever. Look at diagram G. The rope holdingthe
Ihe crane is balanced, because the clockwise barrel is moved so that it is only 0.5 m from
moment is balancing the anticlockwise moment. the pivot.
We say it is in equilibrium. If the man in al Will the anticlockwise momnent be larger
dlagram G pulls a little harder, the forces will not or smaller than before? Explain your
answer.
be balanced and the barrel will rise.
blCalculate the new anticlockwise
3 m
1m moment. Show your working.

600 N
pivot

can
describe how a simple lever can multiply
forces or distances
identify the load, effort and pivot on a
diagram of a lever
describe the factors that affect the size of
1800 N a moment
clockwise moment
explain why something will balance if the
anticlockwise
=1800 moment
N×1 m
= 600 Nx3 m
= 1800 N m moments are equal and opposite.
= 1800 Nm
141
 9le MORE MAHINES
WHAT OTHER SIMPLE MACHINES MAKE IT EASIER TO MOVE THINGS?

Amachine is anything that can help us to work

with forces. Most machines help by allowing us
to use asmaller force to move an object. Levers
are simple machines. Another type of simple
machine is a ramp. It needs less force to push
an object up aslope than it does to lift it directly.
The shallower the slope, the less force is needed.
Force needed
Force needed to push block
to lift block = 500 N
= 1000N

2 m 4m
Weight
1000 N
A|No-one knows how the Ancient Egyptians
built the pyramids. Some archaeologists think
that ramps were used to help move the huge
Weight blocks of stone up to the top.
1000 N

object, but
B|A ramp reduces the force needed to lift an FACT
the object has to be moved further.
It is estimated that over 2 million blocks
of stone were used to build the Great
Write down twO more examples of where ramps Pyramid at Giza, in Egypt. Most of the
1
are used. stones had a mass of 2500 kg or more.

move things.
Pulleys can alsSo be used to help us to
lifting the load easier C|Pulleys and levers make it easier to contro
Indiagram D, pulley X makes the rope instead of liftina the sail and to steer.
because we can pull down on
change the force
the object directly, but it does not needed to pull the
needed. Pulley Y halves the force
pulled twice as far as for
object, but the rope has to be
force needed even further
pulley X. Pulley Z reduces the

2 Suggest two other uses of pulleys.

woman would
Look at the pulley in photo C. The went
rope
need less force to control the sailif the
not done. pulteys
round more pulleys. Suggest why this is
Fudder

tiller (a lever)
142
Work
physics, Work means the amount of
In
energy transferred when a force moves
25 N

50 N
something. Work is measured in joules (J).
for calculating work done is:
The formula 100 N

work done = force distance moved in the

(J) (N) direction of the force (m)

Example
Iook at pulley Yin diagram D. The force on the rope is
50N. and the rope is pulled through a distance of 2 m.
How much work is done? 100 N 100 N 100 N

work = 50 N x2m D|If the rope is pulled for 1m through pulley

= 100 J X, the weight will be lifted by 1 m and will
gain 100 Jof gravitational potential energy.

Inpulley Y, the force from the rope lifts the weight upwards, and the weight moves up by
1m. The energy transferred (work done) by pullingon the rope is alltransferred to the
weight. The weight has 100 Jmore gravitational potential energy than before it was lifted.
In a similar way, energy is transferred (work is done) when a force is used to stretch a
spring. This energy is stored as elastic potential energy in the stretched spring.

Conservation of energy
Indiagram D, pulley Z allows the weight to be lifted using a force of 25 N, but the rope
has to be pulled for 4 m to lift the weight by 1 m. The same is true of all machines - if
a smaller force is needed to move something, the force has to move through a greater
distance.
You would expect that the same work is done to lift the weight even when the pulley
allows you to use asmaller force. However, frictioncauses a little more work to be done
When smaller forces are used.

4 Look at diagramn B. Calculate the work done to

a< lift the block directly upwards
b|push the block up the ramp.
G|Comment on your answers to parts a and b.
Look at diagram B. Explain why it will actually need Gan
Tnore energy to lift the block using the ramp than it will describe how simple machines
to pull it directly upwards. can magnify forces
6
A neavy box is pulled along the floor. The
work done is describe the factors that affect
200J. Explain the final form of this energy store. the total work done.

143
 PLYING
9le ENERGY
WHAT TRANSPORT IDEAS DID NOT LAST?
Steam engines had to carry a supply of coal with them. In the 1840s several engineers built railways
wiiere the engines were beside the track instead of part of the train. This meant the trains did not
have to carry fuel. These 'atmospheric' railways had a long tube laid along the track with a slot.
Air pumped into the tube from pumpingstations along the track pushed on a piston attached to the
train. Unfortunately the atmospheric railways had problems with air leaking out of the pipe, and they
turned out to be more expensive to run than steam locomotives. They only ran Tor afew years.

A|A train on the 'atmospheric railway' in Devon.

Although diesel-powered trains still have to carry

their energy store with them, many modern trains
use energy transferred to them by electricity.
The train does not emit any polluting gases.
Suggest some advantages and
disadvantages of an atmospheric railway
compared to a steam-pOwered railway.
2 Suggest some advantages and
disadvantages of modern electric trains
compared to diesel-powered trains.
3 Mr Smith travels 90 miles from Bristolto
Birmingham. The journey takes 1.5 hours
by train. The train stops for 10 minutes in B| Electric trains can only run on tracks where Overhead
the middle of the journey. Draw a labelled wires or an extra 'live' rail have been installed.
distance-time graph to show this journey.
4 Engines are machines. Simple machines
include levers, pulleys and ramps.
al Write a sentence or two for each of
these simple machines to explain how
HAVE YOUBRBSAY
they can help us to move things. It is expensive to install overhead
b| Explain why a machine that magnifies electricity wires along railway line
electrified
a force needs as much energy as doing so only busy main lines are money
the same task without the machine. Should the government invest
in electrifying all the railway linesin
Britain?
144