Blood

11 . 1 F u n c t i o n s o f B l o o d
 Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products.
◊ The blood transports ingested nutrients, ions, and water from the digestive tract to cells, and the
blood transports the waste products of the cells to the kidneys for elimination.
 Transport of processed molecules.
◊ An example of this is when is lactate produced by the skeletal muscles during anaerobic respiration.
The blood carries lactate to the liver, where it is converted into glucose.
 Transport of regulatory molecules.
◊ The blood carries many of the hormones and enzymes that regulate body processes from one part of
the body to another.
 Regulation of pH and osmosis.
◊ Buffers, which help keep the blood's pH within its normal limits of 7.35-7.45, are found in the blood.
 Maintenance of body temperature.
◊ As blood flows through areas of the body that are metabolically active, the heat generated by
metabolism warms the blood.
 Protection against foreign substances.
◊ Certain cells and chemicals in the blood constitute an important part of the immune system,
protecting against pathogens, such as certain microorganisms, as well as some toxins.
 Clot formation.
◊ When blood vessels are damaged, blood clotting protects against excessive blood loss. When tissues
are damaged, the blood clot that forms is also the first step in tissue repair and the restoration of
normal function.

11 . 2 C o m p o s i t i o n o f B l o o d
 Blood ◊ Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
◊ is a type of connective tissue that ◊ Oxygen-poor blood is dull red or purple
consists of a liquid matrix containing  Blood Volume
cells and cell fragments. ◊ About 4-5 liters (L) - female adult
 Components of Blood ◊ About 5-6 liters (L) - male adult
◊ plasma (liquid matrix) ◊ makes up about 8% of our body weight
◊ formed elements (cell and cell  When blood is separated:
fragments) ◊ Erythrocytes (RBC) sink to the bottom
 Blood characteristics (45 percent of blood, a percentage
◊ Sticky, opaque fluid known as the hematocrit)
◊ Heavier and thicker than water ◊ Buffy coat contains leukocytes ( and
◊ Metallic, salty taste platelets (less than 1 percent of blood)
◊ Blood pH is slightly alkaline, between  Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer
7.35 and 7.45 between the erythrocytes and plasma
◊ Blood temperature is slightly higher than ◊ Plasma rises to the top (55 percent of
body temperature, at 38ºC or 100.4ºF blood)
 Color range

11 . 3 P l a s m a
 Pale yellow fluid in blood
 91% water, 7% proteins, and 2% other components ( ions, nutrients, gases, waste products, and
regulatory substances)
 Unlike the fibrous proteins found in other connective tissues, such as loose connective tissue, plasma
contains dissolved proteins.
◊ Plasma Proteins
 Albumin (58%): Maintains osmotic pressure, crucial for water balance.
  Globulins (38%): Support immune system (antibodies, complement), transport molecules, and act
as clotting factors.
 Fibrinogen (4%): Essential for blood clotting; converts to fibrin during clot formation.
 Blood Clotting and Serum
◊ Fibrinogen's role in blood clotting (4% of plasma proteins).
 Essential for the formation of blood clots.
 Activated clotting factors convert fibrinogen to fibrin, a threadlike protein that forms clots.
◊ Importance of blood clotting:
 Prevents excessive bleeding from injuries.
 Vital for wound healing and maintaining vascular integrity.
◊ Serum: Plasma without clotting factors.
 Used in medical tests to analyze blood components without interference from clotting factors.
 Valuable in diagnosing various medical conditions.

11 . 4 F o r m e d E l e m e n t s
 Formed elements account for 45% of total blood composition.
 Includes red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).
 Red blood cells constitute nearly 95% of all formed elements.
 The remaining 5% of the volume of the formed elements consists of white blood cells and cell fragments
called platelets
 Red blood cells are 700 times more numerous than white blood cells and 17 times more numerous than
platelets.
 Production of Formed Elements
◊ Hematopoiesis
 Hematopoiesis is the continuous process producing formed elements.
 All the formed elements of blood are derived from a single population of cells called stem cells,
or hemocytoblasts.
 Stem cells differentiate into various cell lines, regulated by growth factors
 Post-birth, hematopoiesis primarily occurs in red bone marrow.
◊ Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
 Normal red blood cells are disk-shaped, with edges that are thicker than the center of the cell.
 RBCs undergo unique development, losing nuclei and most organelles for specialization in
oxygen transport.
 The biconcave shape not only aids in gas exchange but also allows flexibility for navigating
through narrow capillaries.
 Hemoglobin constitutes one-third of the RBC volume, crucial for oxygen and carbon dioxide
transport it is responsible for the cell’s red color.
 Functions of Red Blood Cells
„ Oxygen Transport: Hemoglobin, comprising one-third of an RBC's volume, binds with oxygen
in the lungs
„ Each protein chain, called a globin, is bound to one heme, a red pigmented molecule.
„ Carbon Dioxide Transport: RBCs aid in transporting carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs.
„ Hemoglobin releases oxygen in tissues, facilitating cellular respiration.
 Life History of Red Blood Cells
„ Red Blood Cell Production
' Under normal conditions, about 2.5 million red blood cells are destroyed every second.
Fortunately, new red blood cells are produced just as rapidly
' Stem cells to proerythroblasts to mature red blood cells.Importance of vitamins (folate,
B12) and iron in the process.
„ Regulation of Red Blood Cell Production
' Stimulation by low blood oxygen levels.
' Low blood oxygen levels stimulate red blood cell production by increasing the formation
and release of the glycoprotein erythropoietin, EPO), primarily by the kidneys
' Negative-feedback mechanism to maintain homeostasis.
„ Aging and Removal of Red Blood Cells
 ' Process of macrophages in the spleen and liver removing old or damaged red blood cells.
' Recycling of components, including iron, and the role of bilirubin.
' Bilirubin is normally removed from the blood by the liver and released into the small
intestine as part of the bile
' Connection to jaundice and the normal elimination process.
◊ White Blood Cells
 White blood cells are spherical cells that lack hemoglobin
 When the components of blood are separated from one another, white blood cells as well as
platelets make up the buffy coat, a thin, white Iayer of cells between plasma and red blood cells
 Larger size and nucleus compared to red blood cells.
 Function primarily in the immune system and tissue maintenance.
 Ameboid movement allows them to leave the bloodstream and move through tissues.
 Functions:
„ protect against invading microorganisms and pathogens.
„ remove dead cells and debris from tissues by phagocytosis.
 granulocytes and agranulocytes:
„ granulocytes have visible cytoplasmic granules, while agranulocytes do not.
„ granulocytes:
' neutrophils: most common, with lobed nuclei, short lifespan, phagocytize microorganisms.
' basophils: release histamine and other inflammation-promoting chemicals.
' eosinophils: involved in inflammatory responses related to allergies and asthma, destroy
certain worm parasites.
„ agranulocytes:
' lymphocytes: smallest, important role in the immune response, produce antibodies, regulate
the immune system.
' monocytes: largest, become macrophages in tissues, phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, and
debris, activate lymphocytes.
„ lymphocytes:
' smallest white blood cells.
' various types with different functions in the immune response.
' activities include antibody production, destruction of microorganisms, contribution to
allergic reactions, graft rejection, tumor control, and immune system regulation.
„ monocytes:
' largest white blood cells.
' become macrophages in tissues.
' phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, cell fragments, and debris.
' break down phagocytized foreign substances and present them to lymphocytes for
activation.
◊ Platelets:
 minute fragments of cells.
 consist of a small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane.
 produced in the red bone marrow from megakaryocytes.
 formed when small fragments break off from megakaryocytes.
 enter the blood as platelets.
 play an important role in preventing blood loss.

11 . 5 P r e v e n t i n g B l o o d L o s s
 vascular spasm:
◊ immediate but temporary constriction of a blood vessel.
◊ results from smooth muscle contraction in the vessel wall.
◊ stimulated by chemicals released by damaged vessel wall cells and platelets.
 platelet plug formation:
◊ accumulation of platelets to seal a small break in a blood vessel.
◊ crucial for maintaining blood vessel integrity.
◊ involves platelet adhesion to exposed collagen.
 ◊ mediated through von Willebrand factor (a protein produced and secreted by blood vessel endothelial
cells) produced by endothelial cells.
◊ platelet release reaction: platelets release ADP and thromboxane, activating more platelets.
 positive feedback loop.
◊ activated platelets express fibrinogen receptors.
◊ fibrinogen bridges form between platelets in platelet aggregation, creating a platelet plug.
 Blood Clotting
◊ occurs when blood vessels are severely damaged.
◊ involves the formation of a fibrin network trapping blood cells, platelets, and fluid.
◊ clot is a network of threadlike protein fibers, called fibrin
◊ Clot Formation Stages:
 Activation of clotting factors through contact with exposed connective tissue or released
chemicals.
 Prothrombinase converts prothrombin to thrombin.
 Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin.
 ◊ Factors Affecting Clotting Process:
 Manufacture of clotting factors in the liver.
 Vitamin K requirement for synthesis.
 Involvement of Ca2+ and platelet-released chemicals.
◊ Control of Clot Formation
 Clotting can spread uncontrollably throughout blood vessels if not regulated.
 Blood contains anticoagulants preventing clotting under normal conditions.
„ Antithrombin and heparin are examples of anticoagulants.
„ They inactivate thrombin, preventing the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin.
 At injury sites, rapid activation of clotting factors overwhelms anticoagulants, allowing clot
formation.
 Away from injury sites, sufficient anticoagulants prevent the spread of clot formation.
 Unwanted Clots:
„ Platelets encountering damaged areas can form attached clots called thrombus.
' Thrombus breaking loose and floating through circulation is termed an embolus.
„ Both thrombi and emboli can be fatal if they block vessels supplying vital organs.
 Prevention of Abnormal Coagulation:
„ Administration of anticoagulants like heparin can prevent or hinder abnormal coagulation.
' Heparin acts rapidly to inhibit clot formation.
„ Warfarin (Coumadin) acts more slowly by suppressing the liver's production of vitamin K–
dependent clotting factors.
◊ Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis:
 After clot formation, the clot undergoes clot retraction, condensing into a more compact structure.
 Platelets contain contractile proteins (actin and myosin) similar to those in muscle.
 Platelets form extensions attaching to fibrin through surface receptors.
 Contraction of extensions pulls on fibrin, leading to clot retraction.
 During clot retraction, serum (plasma without clotting factors) is squeezed out of the clot.
 Benefits of Clot Retraction:
„ Retraction pulls edges of damaged blood vessel together.
„ Helps stop blood flow, reduces infection risk, and enhances healing.
„ Fibroblasts move into the damaged area, and new connective tissue forms.
„ Epithelial cells around the wound divide and fill in the torn area.
 Fibrinolysis Process:
„ Damaged tissue repair involves fibrinolysis.
„ Inactive plasma protein, plasminogen, is converted to active plasmin.
„ Thrombin, clotting factors, and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) stimulate plasminogen
conversion.
„ Plasmin gradually breaks down fibrin over a few days.
 Heart Attack Treatment:
„ A heart attack can occur due to a clot blocking blood vessels supplying the heart.
„ Treatment involves injecting chemicals into the blood to activate plasmin.
' Plasmin activators quickly dissolve the clot, restoring blood flow to the cardiac muscle.
' Examples include streptokinase (a bacterial enzyme) and t-PA produced through genetic
engineering.

11 . 6 B l o o d G r o u p i n g
 Large losses of blood have serious ◊ the transfer of blood or blood
consequences: components from one individual to
◊ Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes another.
weakness  Infusion
◊ Loss of over 30 percent causes shock, ◊ the introduction of a fluid other than
which can be fatal blood, such as saline or glucose solution
 Blood Transfusion into the blood.
 Hemolysis
 ◊ destruction or the rupture of the red ◊ genetically determined proteins
blood cells  Antibodies
 Antigen ◊ part of the body’s defense system and
◊ are found on the surface of the blood, interact with specific antigens
used to determine the type of blood; ◊ are the “recognizers” that bind foreign
Type A, B, AB, or O antigens
 ABO BLOOD GROUPS
◊ Blood types are based on the presence or absence of two antigens;
 Type A
 Type B
 ABO blood group (continued)
◊ Presence of both antigens A and B is called type AB
◊ Presence of antigen A is called type A
◊ Presence of antigen B is called type B
◊ Lack of both antigens A and B is called type O
 Rh Blood Group
◊ Another important blood group is the Rh blood group, so named because it was first studied in the
rhesus monkey. People are Rh-positive if they have certain Rh antigens on the surface of their red
blood cells, and they are Rh-negative if they do not have these Rh antigens.
◊ The ABO blood type and the Rh blood type are usually designated together. For example, a person
designated as type A in the ABO blood group and Rh-positive is said to be A-positive.

11 . 7 D i a g n o s t i c B l o o d Te s t s
 Type and Crossmatch
◊ Blood transfusions are common and life-saving procedures.
◊ Blood typing is crucial to prevent transfusion reactions.
◊ Blood Typing:
 Determines ABO and Rh blood groups.
 Cells separated, tested with antibodies, and agglutination identifies antigens.
 Blood Crossmatching
◊ Importance:
 Donor blood must match ABO and Rh type of the recipient.
 Crossmatch ensures compatibility beyond ABO and Rh.
◊ Process:
 Donor cells mixed with recipient's serum, and vice versa.
 No agglutination (the clumping of particles together) for safe transfusion.
 Complete Blood Count
◊ Comprehensive blood analysis providing essential information.
◊ Includes red blood cell count, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and white blood cell count.
◊ Red Blood Count
 Red Blood Count (RBC):
„ Normal ranges for males (4.6–6.2 million red blood cells) and females ( 4.2–5.4 million per
microLiter of blood)
 Erythrocytosis:
„ Overabundance of red blood cells.
„ Consequences: increased blood viscosity, reduced flow rates.
 Blood Doping:
„ Intentional process to increase red blood cell count.
◊ Hemoglobin and Hematocrit Measurement
 Hemoglobin Measurement:
„ Normal ranges:
' For males: 14–18 grams per 100 mL of blood.
' For females: 12–16 grams per 100 mL of blood.
 „ Hemoglobin helps carry oxygen, and measuring its levels is essential for understanding and
managing various health conditions.
„ Low Hemoglobin: Indicates anemia (e.g., iron deficiency or chronic diseases).
„ High Hemoglobin: May result from dehydration, lung diseases, or bone marrow disorders.
 Hematocrit Measurement:
„ The percentage of the total blood volume that is composed of red blood cells
„ Normal ranges:
' For males: 40–52% of total blood volume.
' For females: 38–48% of total blood volume.
„ Factors Affecting Hematocrit:
' Red Blood Cell Number and Size: Variation in size affects hematocrit levels because it is
based on volume.
' Disorders: Conditions like iron deficiency anemia can influence hematocrit.
„ Importance in Assessing Blood Properties:
' Hematocrit reflects blood viscosity and oxygen-carrying capacity.
◊ White Blood Count and Differential White Blood Count
 White Blood Count:
„ Measures the total number of white blood cells in the blood
„ Normal range: 5000–9000 white blood cells per microliter of blood.
„ White blood cells are a crucial component of the immune system
' Leukopenia: Lower than normal WBC, resulting from decreased production or destruction
of red marrow.
i Causes include radiation, drugs, tumors, viral infections, deficiency of vitamins folate
or B12.
' Leukocytosis: Abnormally high WBC.
i Often caused by bacterial infections stimulating neutrophils.
' Leukemia: Cancer of the red marrow characterized by abnormal production of white blood
cells.
 Differential White Blood Count:
„ Determines the percentage of each of the five kinds of white blood cells
„ Normal ranges:
' Neutrophils: 60–70%
' Lymphocytes: 20–25%
' Monocytes: 3–8%
' Eosinophils: 2–4%
' Basophils: 0.5–1%
„ Insights into specific health conditions based on the proportion of each type.
„ Example: Increased neutrophils in bacterial infections, elevated eosinophils in allergic
reactions.
 Clotting
◊ Platelet Count
 Normal range: 250,000–400,000 platelets per microliter of blood.
 Thrombocytopenia: Reduced platelet count leading to chronic bleeding through small vessels and
capillaries.
„ Causes include decreased platelet production as a result of hereditary disorders, vitamin B12
deficiency, or certain therapies.
◊ Prothrombin Time Measurement
 Measures clotting time (normal: 9–12 seconds).
 Determined by adding thromboplas tin to whole plasma.
„ Thromboplastin: Chemical released from injured tissues that starts the process of clotting
 INR (International Normalized Ratio) standardizes clotting time.
 Abnormalities may indicate deficiencies in clotting factors or liver dysfunction.
 Vitamin K deficiency, certain liver diseases, and drug therapy can affect prothrombin time.
 Blood Chemistry
◊ Composition of materials dissolved or suspended in plasma can be used in assessing the functioning
of body systems through blood chemistry.
 High blood glucose levels: Potential indicator of insufficient insulin production.
 High blood urea nitrogen (BUN): Sign of reduced kidney function.
 Increased bilirubin: Indicates liver dysfunction.
 High cholesterol levels: Increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
◊ Each component provides insight into the health of specific organs or body functions.
◊ Routine blood chemistry tests aid in diagnosing and monitoring various medical conditions.