1

I. The Grapevine
A grapevine is an example of a perennial plant; one that grows or blooms
over the spring and summer, dies back during the autumn and winter
months, and then repeats the cycle the following spring. Meticulous
pruning and training help the vines stay nice and organized, and focus their energy
on growing impeccable grapes.

There are more than sixty different species of grape vines, but the majority of the
world’s quality wine production stems from one type, Vitis Vinifera.

The first year of growth in a vine’s life is meant to build up nutrient stores. Any
flower clusters that grow are usually cut back, so that the vine can focus its energy on
establishing a strong root system.

Usually by the third year of growth, a vine is ready to produce fruit of proper
quality for winemaking. Broadly speaking, a grapevine matures over a period of
up to 30 years, before slowing down dramatically in vigor

During the first few years of a vine’s life, the growth of the permanent wood
(trunk) and building a solid root system is the name of the game.

2
 The cluster/ bunch

The grape berry

Assignment #1 The Grapevine: Parts of the grapevine

a. Answer the following questions.
1. Why is the grapevine considered a perennial plant?
2. When is the plant ready to produce fruit of proper quality for winemaking?

3. What are the two most important aspects during the first years of a vine's life?

.....................................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................................

3
b. Match the parts of the vine in the box with the correct information.
TRUNK CANOPY LEAVES PETIOLE INTERNODE

TENDRIL SUCKERS CANE BUD NODE HEAD SHOOT

1. The ....................... supports vegetative (leaves and stems) and reproductive (flowers and
fruits) structures of the vine.

2. The ...................... is the top of the trunk.

3. The ......................... is the 1-year-old wood arising from the arms. It is also the principal
structure of concern during the dormant season.

4. The .......................... is the primary unit of vine growth. It consists of stems, leaves, tendrils
and fruit.

5. The .......................... is the collective arrangement of vine's shoots, leaves and fruit.

6. The ......................... absorb sunlight and CO2 in the process of photosynthesis.

7. The ........................... connects the leaf to the shoot, conducts water and food to and from
the leaf and maintains the orientation of the leaf.

8. The ............................ are slender structures that coil around smaller objects and provide
support for growing shoots.

9. The ........................ is the growing point that develops in the leaf axil.

10. .............................. are shoots that grow from the crown area of the trunk. They are
removed early.

11. Leaves are attached at the slightly enlarged area on the shoot that is referred to as a
........................

12. The area between nodes is called the ......................... The distance between nodes is an
indicator of the rate of shoot growth.

4
c. Label the parts of the grapevine and the grape berry.

5
6
 The Lifecycle of a Grapevine

One of the most expensive and most important activities in the vineyard (besides
harvest) is winter pruning. The prior year’s canes are cut back and the
pruner chooses the best canes to grow new shoots for the coming year’s
harvest. The pruning system used is determined during the vineyard design, but
it is possible to change the way vines are trained from season to season if vigor
(over or under production) is an issue.

During April/May (Sept/Oct in the Southern Hemisphere) the first signs of life occur,
sap rises up and the buds begin to break. The buds are extremely delicate during
this time, for spring hailstorms can destroy them.

After the buds break in early spring, they continue to grow. Some viticulturists
prune the downward facing shoots to ensure that all the shoots grow upward and
to reduce the potential crop size. This strategy involves reducing quantity to
increase quality because vines that produce limited numbers of grapes produce
more concentrated grapes.

7
The flowers of grapevines are called perfect flowers: they pollinate themselves
without the need of bees.

In June and July (Nov/Dec in SH), young clusters begin to appear. These clusters
will eventually become berry bunches.

In mid to late summer, the green berries start to change color and ripen. This
time period is called vérasion (“verre-ray-shun”) and it’s the most beautiful time of
8
the year in a vineyard when the berries change colors from a vegetal green to yellow,
pink, red or purple. Just before vérasion begins, some wine growers do green
harvesting, wherein a little excess weight is removed from the vines (the
superficial grape bunches) so that the vines can focus their energy on the
remaining grapes.

The wood continues to ripen over the course of the summer, turning brown and
hardening In tandem with wood growth, the grapes continue to ripen and sugar
levels rise. Harvest usually occurs sometime between Sept-Nov (Feb-May in SH)
when the grapes are in the proverbial “sweet spot.” Harvest time is a crucial
moment when the grapes reach their perfect ripeness. Viticulturists and harvesters
work around the clock to pick the grapes in time. Grapes do not continue to ripen
once picked.

In the late fall, some producers leave a few bunches on the vine for a late-harvest
wine. The grapes raisinate (dry out) and are later pressed to make a very sweet,
dessert wine. At this point, the vine has stopped producing carbohydrates from the
chlorophyll in the leaves. The leaves then lose their color and fall to the ground.
9
From November (May) onward, winter returns, foliage dies off, vines are
trimmed and pruned, and the cycle begins once again.

Assignment #2 The lifecycle of a grapevine.

a. Order the stages of the vine's lifecycle. Translate to Spanish
summer veraison spring budding fall harvest
winter pruning spring green shoots winter dormancy
fall late harvest summer berry growth spring flowering
1.................................................. 6....................................................
2.................................................. 7....................................................
3.................................................. 8....................................................
4. ................................................ 9....................................................
5..................................................
b. Answer the following questions
1. Why is pruning so important?
2. What happens during spring budding?
3. Why are downward facing shoots pruned?

10
4. Why are the flowers of grape vines called 'perfect flowers'
5. What happens to the grapevine in November/ December?
6. What happens during veraison
7. Why do some wine growers perform a green harvest
8. What happens to wood in the course of the summer?
9. When is the correct moment to harvest?
10. What happens to grapes in the late fall? What kind of wine can we produce with
them?
11.What happens to the vine from May onward (as winter returns)?

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
11
II. Wine Basics
What is Wine?
Wine is an alcoholic beverage made with the fermented juice of grapes.

What are Wine Grapes?

Wine grapes are different than table grapes: they are smaller, sweeter and have
lots of seeds and thicker skins. Most wines are made with a single species of
grape that originated in Caucasus called Vitis vinifera.

Today, the most planted wine grape in the world is Cabernet Sauvignon

Table Grapes vs. Wine Grapes

12
Wine grape vineyards

Wine grape vineyards commonly use vertical trellises to manage the greenery
(aka canopy) and grape exposure to sun. The goal with wine grapes is to
concentrate the flavor of the grapes produced.

Managing vine vigor is important for wine grape growers. Vine vigor is how
productive a vine is. An overly vigorous vine will produce a lot of average quality
grapes, a lower vigor vine will produce fewer more concentrated grapes. More
concentrated grapes = better wine.

13
14
The Taste of Wine
There are several facets that explain wine’s unique flavor: acidity,
sweetness, alcohol, tannin, and aroma compounds produced in
fermentation.

Acidity: Acid is a natural component in the wine and imparts a refreshing feeling
in the mouth. Acidity is the level of sourness in wine. Acidity makes your mouth
water. Low acid wines generally taste round or even flabby and high acid wines taste
lighter in body and very tart. Wine as a beverage lies on the acidic end of the pH
scale ranging from as low as 2.5 (lemon) to as high as 4.5 (Greek yoghurt). Wine
tastes tart. There are several different types of acids found in wine which will affect
how acidic a wine tastes. The most prevalent acids found in wine are tartaric acid,
malic acid, and citric acid.

Sweetness: sweetness in wine is primarily from grape sugars that are leftover after
fermentation, which are referred to as residual sugar (RS). Of course, our human
perception of residual sugar in wine is influenced by the other characteristics in the
wine, particularly acidity. Sweetness is less perceivable in wines with higher acidity.
The term “dry” refers to a wine without sweetness.

Alcohol: The taste of alcohol is spicy, palate coating. It's felt as a hotness or
warm feeling Wine’s average range of alcohol is about 10% ABV (alcohol by volume)
to 15% ABV.

Tannin: Tannin is a polyphenol (antioxidant) found mostly in red wine. Tannin

tastes astringent and gives a drying sensation felt on your tongue. Tannins can
taste bitter, but mostly, they are astringent and can be described like sandpaper:
fine, medium, gritty, or grippy.

Overall Body: All the traits mentioned above come together to give you a sense of
the wine’s body, it refers to the wine's weight: light, medium or full-bodied. A
combination of sugar, alcohol, tannins and acidity, which is essentially a
measure of how bold it tastes in your mouth. Ask yourself if the wine is light-,
medium-, or full-bodied.
Aroma Compounds: Within the tiny minutia of wine (the phenols, esters, higher
alcohols, acids, etc) is where you’ll find the complexities to wine’s flavors and aromas.
Each grape variety exhibits aroma compounds at different levels. This is why some
wines smell like berries and others smell like flowers. Another contributing factor to
wine’s aromas is aging. Oxidation and aging produce a range of unique flavors to
wine including nuttiness, and dried fruit/flower flavors.

15
What Are Tannins in Wine?

In wine, tannin is a textural element that makes wine taste dry.

Tannin is a naturally occurring polyphenol found in plants, seeds, bark, wood,

leaves, and fruit skins.

For example, about 50% of the dry weight of plant leaves are tannin!

As a characteristic of wine, tannin adds bitterness, astringency and complexity.

Wine tannins are most commonly found in red wine, although some white
wines have tannin too. (from aging in wooden barrels or fermenting on skins).

Where do Wine Tannins Come From?

Tannins in wine come from two possible places: wine grapes and wood.

What Are Grape Tannins?

Grape tannin comes from the skins, seeds, and stems of a wine grape. For this
reason, red wines tend to have higher tannins than white wines because the
extended contact of the grapes skins with the juice give the tannins time to dissolve
in the alcohol and water in the wine.
16
 What are Wood Tannins?
Wood tannins dissolve into wine through contact. Most commonly this happens when
wine is stored in wooden barrels. Oak barrels are the most popular choice because of
the flavors they add to wine such as vanillin.

Tannin powders, oak chips and oak staves are growing in popularity because they are
more affordable.

Assignment #3 Wine Basics

a. Answer the following questions.
1. What is wine?..............................................................................................................
2. What is vine vigor? What is better in the case of wine grapes, more or less vigor?
Why?
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
3. Compare wine grapes and table grapes. Compare: size, seeds, pulp, skin, acidity,
sugar and texture.

Size:................................................................................................................................
Seeds:.............................................................................................................................
Pulp: ..............................................................................................................................
Skin:................................................................................................................................
Acidity: ..........................................................................................................................

17
Sugar:
........................................................................................................................................
Texture:..........................................................................................................................
4. Match the facets of wine's flavor with the words in the box.

refreshing feeling palate-coating dry warm flabby oxidation

light-bodied astringent mouth-watering hotness full-bodied
bitterness medium-bodied ABV tart bitter grape variety
aging bold drying sensation sourness antioxidant polyphenol

Acidity:....................................................................................
Sweetness:..............................................................................
Tannins:..................................................................................
Alcohol:...................................................................................
Body:......................................................................................
Aroma compounds:................................................................
Tannins
5. What are tannins? ....................................................................................................
6. What do they add to wine?........................................................................................
7. Where do grape tannins come from? .....................................................................
8. Why do red wines have more tannins than white wines?.........................................
........................................................................................................................................
9. Where do wood tannins come from? ......................................................................

18
19
20
 From Variety (aka Primary Aromas): When made into wine, each grape
variety offers a unique set of aromas called primary aromas. These can
be fruit smells, herb smells and flower smells and come naturally just
from the grape. For example, Cabernet Sauvignon is commonly noted for its smells
of raspberry, green peppercorn and, sometimes, violet. The smells come from aroma
compounds which are found in different levels in different varietal wines. It is true
that on a molecular level, these aroma compounds look identical to actual fruit
smells.

Aromas commonly associated with varieties:

 Fruit flavors (e.g. peach, blackberry)

 Herbal flavors (e.g. bell pepper, mint, oregano)
 Flower flavors (e.g. roses, lavender, iris)

From Fermentation (aka Secondary Aromas): Fermenting wine essentially

turns grape sugars into alcohol and is commonly associated with a specific yeast
called Saccharomyces cerevisiae (essential in winemaking, baking and beer brewing
for thousands of years). The process of fermentation creates a group of
bouquets that are commonly referred to as Secondary Aromas. You’re no
doubt already familiar with secondary aromas, for example: freshly baked sourdough
bread.

Bouquets commonly associated with fermentation:

 Cultured Cream (yoghurt)

 Buttermilk
 Butter (commonly from a bacterial process called Malolactic Fermentation)
 Beer (commonly found in wines aged on the lees)
 Brewer’s Yeast
 Aged Cheese (Parmesan)
 Sourdough
 Mushroom
 Horse Sweat (from Brettanomyces)
 Band-Aid (from Brett)
 Bacon (from Brett)

From Aging (aka Tertiary Aromas): Aging wine introduces elements that add
(or alter) the aroma compounds in wine after it’s fermented. The group of
bouquets associated with aging are called Tertiary Aromas. The most
important element of aging is exposing wine to oxygen. In small amounts,
21
 oxygen produces positive smelling bouquets including the aromas of hazelnut and
roasted peanut. The next most common element is the use of oak. Oak
barrels do double-duty on a wine by slowly introducing oxygen (nuttiness) as well
as adding aroma compounds found in oak (in the same way tea leaves flavor hot
water).

Bouquets commonly associated with aging:

 Brown Sugar
 Vanilla
 Caramel
 Butterscotch
 Hazelnut
 Walnut
 Roasted Almond (different than fresh almond or bitter almond)
 Toasted Marshmallow
 Clove, Allspice, Baking Spices
 Cigar box
 Smoke
 Dried Tobacco
 Dried Leaves

Assignment #4 Bouquet vs. Aroma

a. Answer the following questions.
1. Where do primary aromas come from? Mention and exemplify the 3 types of
smells that come from the grape
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

2. Where do secondary aromas come from?

........................................................................................................................................
4. Where do tertiary aromas derive from?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

22
 b. Classify these aromas under the following categories:
1. Fruit/Floral/ Herbal (primary aromas)
2. Aromas from fermentation (secondary aromas)
3. Aromas from ageing process (tertiary aromas)

apple yeast aged cheese buttermilk vanilla clove

beer mushroom band-aid caramel dried tobacco butter

bell pepper grass plum black raisin grapefruit passion fruit

prune hazelnut smoke yoghurt dried leaves jam cherry

orange sourdough toasted marshmallow raspberry pineapple

horse sweat peach fig nectarine

23
III. The winemaking process

24
 STAGES OF THE WINE MAKING PROCESS

Wine making has been around for thousands of years. It is not only an art but also a
science. Wine making is a natural process that requires little human intervention,
but each wine maker guides the process through different techniques. In general,
there are five basic components of the wine making process: harvesting, crushing
and pressing, fermentation, clarification, and aging and bottling. Wine
makers typically follow these five steps but add variations and deviations along the
way to make their wine unique.

Harvesting
Harvesting is the first step in the wine making process and an important part of
ensuring delicious wine. Grapes are the only fruit that have the necessary acids,
esters, and tannins to consistently make natural and stable wine.

The moment the grapes are picked determines the acidity, sweetness, and flavor of
the wine. Determining when to harvest requires a touch of science along with tasting.
The acidity and sweetness of the grapes should be in perfect balance, but harvesting
also heavily depends on the weather. Once the grapes are taken to the winery, they
are sorted into bunches, and rotten or under ripe grapes are removed.

25
 Crushing and Pressing
After the grapes are sorted, they are ready to be de-stemmed and crushed. For many
years, men and women did this manually by stomping the grapes with their feet.
Nowadays, most wine makers perform this mechanically. Mechanical presses stomp
or trod the grapes into what is called must. Must is simply freshly pressed grape juice
that contains the skins, seeds, and solids.

For white wine, the wine maker will quickly crush and press the grapes in order to
separate the juice from the skins, seeds, and solids. This is to prevent unwanted color
and tannins from leaching into the wine. Red wine, on the other hand, is left in
contact with the skins to acquire flavor, color, and additional tannins.

Fermentation

Simply put, fermentation is where the sugar converts into alcohol and CO2. There are
plenty of techniques and technologies used during this process to accompany the
different kinds of grapes. To keep things simple, this stage mainly includes:

 red and white wines: yeast is added to the vats so that fermentation can
take place.
 red wines: carbon dioxide is released during fermentation which causes the
grape skins to rise to the surface. Winemakers must punch down or pump over the
“cap” several times a day to keep the skins in contact with the juice.
 red wines: the grapes are pressed after fermentation is complete. After
racking to clarify the wine, the reds will spend several months aging in barrels.

After crushing and pressing, fermentation comes into play. Must (or juice) can begin
fermenting naturally within 6-12 hours when aided with wild yeasts in the air.
However, many wine makers intervene and add a commercial cultured yeast to
ensure consistency and predict the end result.

Fermentation continues until all of the sugar is converted into alcohol and dry wine is
produced. To create a sweet wine, wine makers will sometimes stop the process
before all of the sugar is converted. Fermentation can take anywhere from 10 days to
one month or more.

Clarification
Once fermentation is complete, clarification begins. Clarification is the process in
which solids such as dead yeast cells, tannins, and proteins are removed. Wine is
transferred or “racked” into a different vessel such as an oak barrel or a stainless steel
tank. Wine can then be clarified through fining or filtration.
26
Fining occurs when substances are added to the wine to clarify it. For example, a wine
maker might add a substance such as clay, egg whites or gelatin that the unwanted
particles will adhere to. This will force them to the bottom of the tank. Filtration
occurs by using a filter to capture the larger particles in the wine. The clarified wine is
then racked into another vessel and prepared for bottling or future aging.

Aging and Bottling

Aging and bottling is the final stage of the wine making process. A wine maker has
two options: bottle the wine right away or give the wine additional aging. Further
aging can be done in the bottles, stainless steel tanks, or oak barrels. Aging the wine
in oak barrels will produce a smoother, rounder, and more vanilla flavored wine. It
also increases wine’s exposure to oxygen while it ages, which decreases tannin and
helps the wine reach its optimal fruitiness. Steel tanks are commonly used for zesty
white wines.

After aging, wines are bottled with either a cork or a screw cap, depending on the
wine maker’s preference.

27
28
29
 Assignment #5 The winemaking process
a. Match the steps in the winemaking process with the definitions below.

1. HARVEST 6. SETTLE 11.AGE

2. SELECT 7. RACK 12. BOTTLE

3. CRUSH 8. FINE 13. STORE

4. FERMENT 9. FILTER/STABILIZE

5. PRESS 10. BLEND

a. To transfer juice away from the settled solid materials in the tank or barrel
....................................

b. To allow solid material in the juice or wine to fall to the bottom of the tank or barrel
..........................

c. To pick grape berries when the sugars, acid levels and flavors are at desired levels
...................

d. To inoculate the juice or the must with yeast and maintain temperatures while yeast
consumes sugar .........................

e. To squeeze the must and separate the juice from the skins and seeds ............................

f. To break open the berries and make the juice accessible to the yeast ............................

g. To stabilize and further clarify the wine by eliminating microbial instability by

passing it through various filters.............................................

h. To clarify wine by adding a fining agent (egg whites, gelatin, bentonite)

..............................

i. To fill sterile bottles and insert cork. .........................................

j. To combine wines from different varieties, different vineyards and different winemaking
treatments.................................

k. To allow wine to develop complex aromas and create new esters from the alcohol and
acids ..................

l. To choose the best berries for winemaking, usually on a table before

crushing...............................

m. To keep wines in a horizontal position in a dark, temperature controlled, moderately

humid place...............................

30
b. Answer the following questions.
1. When is the right time to harvest?.............................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
2. What is fermentation?...............................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
3. What is the main difference in the fermentation of red and white wines?
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
4. What is fining? ..........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
5. What are the effects of aging wine in oak barrels?....................................................
........................................................................................................................................
c. Complete the process of winemaking with the correct form of the verbs
in brackets. Use the passive voice .

Harvesting

Grapes .......................................... (harvest) when acidity, sweetness and tannins are

in perfect balance but harvest also depends heavily on the weather.

Grapes ........................................ (take) to the winery, where they ..............................

(sort) into bunches. The best berries ................................... (choose) while rotten or
under ripe grapes ....................................... (remove).

Crushing and pressing

After grapes are sorted, they .......................................... (de-stem) and

............................. (crush) to produce must. For white wines, the grapes
........................................ (press) quickly to separate the juice from the skins, seeds
and solids. Red wine, on the other hand, ................................... (leave) in contact with
the skins. Additional flavors, color and tannins ....................................(extract) in this
way.

Maceration

Must .................................... (macerate) to prevent fermentation from starting and to extract

color and flavor from the skins without extracting bitter tannin. This ...................................
(call) cold soaking.

31
Fermentation

Yeast.................................... (add) to the vatsso that fermentation can take place. Sugar
...................................... (convert) into alcohol and CO2. CO2 ...................................... (release)
so the grape skins rise to the surface, forming a cap. For red wines, the must
................................... (press) after fermentation is complete.

Calarification (Fining)

Clarification is the process in which solids such as dead yeast cells, proteins and tannins
...................................... (remove). Wine .................................. (rack/transfer) into a different
vessel. Then, it ................................. (clarify) through fining or filtration.

Fining occurs when fining agents such as gelatin, egg whites or clay ........................... (add) to
the wine to clarify it. Unwanted particles .............................. (force) to the bottom of the tank
and they .................................. (filter). The clarified wine .................................. (rack) into
another vessel and it .................................. (prepare) for bottling or future aging.

Aging and bottling

Aging and bottling is the final stage in the winemaking process. Wines
..................................(can age) in bottles, stainless steel tanks or oak barrels. After aging,
wines .................................. (bottle) with either a cork or a screw cap.

Storage

Wines ................................. (keep) in a horizontal position in a dark, temperature controlled,

moderately humid place.

32
How Wine Making Processes Affect Wine
6 wine making processes and what they do to wine
1. Harvest Date

The moment the grapes are picked is a pretty big deal. It is probably the most
important thing a winemaker can do to ensure that they make awesome wine. Picking
earlier will produce wines with higher acidity, lower alcohol and perhaps more green
flavors and aromas. It could also lend to more bitter tannin. Picking later in the
harvest season will produce wines with lower acidity, higher alcohol (or sweetness)
and more subdued tannin. Some wines when picked too late must be artificially
acidified in order not to taste ‘flabby’ or ‘flat’. Additionally, some will have water
added to them (called ‘watering back’) to reduce the alcohol concentration in the
completed wine. This could be why many commercial wines have identical ABV levels
of 13.5%.

Besides picking the grapes at the moment when acidity level and sweetness are
perfectly in balance there’s also a weather problem. Every vintage is different.
Sometimes weather takes a turn for the worse at the end of the growing season and
can even result in a bad vintage. In a situation where rains are forecasted in cooler
climate areas (Northern Italy, Burgundy, Oregon, etc) some winemakers may choose
to hedge their bets and pick grapes before optimal ripeness.

33
2. Cold Soaking and Skin Contact

Winemakers often talk about maceration time (a.k.a. skin contact) and cold soaking.
Both of these terms refer to how long the grape skins touch the juice while it turns
into wine. Cold soaking is a process that happens before there’s alcohol in the mix. By
keeping the grapes cold, the grape must is too cold for yeast to start fermenting. The
theory of cold soaking is to carefully extract color and fruit flavors from the skins
without extracting bitter tannin. The total time that grape skins touch a wine is
maceration time.

3. Hot Fermentation vs. Cool Fermentation

Fermentation temperature is another technique that changes resulting fruit flavors

and color in a wine. A hot fermentation can get up to 80-100 °F (26-37 °C — nearly
hot tub temperature) as the yeasts metabolize and produce alcohol. Warmer
fermentations are usually used for red wines for increased color and tannin. There
are also several minimalist producers practicing warmer fermentation temperatures
on white wines. Their goal is non-interventionist wine making that is more in tune
with the conditions of the vintage.

Cold and cooler fermentations are usually practiced on white and rosé wines. Landon
Sam Keirsey explained that cooler temperatures (from 42 – 50 °F, 6 – 10 °C ) help
preserve delicate aromas in white wines. The reason for this is aroma compounds are
volatile and are more likely to be lost at a higher temperature where reactions happen
faster. This is probably why wine serving temperature greatly affects the taste of wine
out of the bottle.

34
4. Pump Overs vs. Punch Downs

Pumpovers
Pumpovers can extract higher amounts of tannin in a wine depending on the
frequency and force. Some pump over systems are basically wine sprinklers, offering
a gentler extraction and some aggressively stir up the fermentation tank. For larger
fermentation tanks in commercial operations, much needed oxygen comes through a
pumpover device.

Punch Downs
Punch downs, on the other hand, are a very delicate way of stirring a wine. They keep
skins from getting too extracted and little to no amount of added oxygen in the
fermentation. Punch downs are typically done by hand.

5. Oak-Aging vs. Steel Tank

35
Oak aging does more than just add a vanilla flavor to wine. Oak increases a wine’s
exposure to oxygen while it ages. Oxygen decreases tannin and can help a wine reach
its optimal fruitiness. Wines aged for many years in oak develop nutty flavors.

Steel tanks are commonly used for zesty white wines like Pinot Gris, although it’s not
uncommon to find steel tank aged red wines. Steel tanks limit the oxygen exposure to
wine and keep wines fresher.

6. Corks vs. Screwcaps

One misunderstood topic about winemaking is the choice of using a cork or

a screwcap. In most circumstances there is no difference between wine in a bottle
with a cork or a screwcap.

The interesting thing about the topic of wine closures is that corks let oxygen in at
unpredictable amounts. There is also an issue with TCA ‘cork taint’ that affects about
1-2% of wines. Screw caps (and other cork alternatives), on the other hand, can
control the amount of oxygen that comes inside the bottle per year.

36
The wine grower's calendar
JULY: PRUNING. This operation is usually done by hand in the middle of the
winter. Canes, or sarments, are hard and dry, with no vegetation. The pruned
cane is called a spur. Early budding vines may be pruned deliberately late to delay
budbreak and reduce frost risk.

AUGUST: TOPPING UP. In the cold of the winter, wine can contract or reduce
in size, creating a pocket of air between the wine and the barrel. Re-filling the barrel
with wine reduces the risk of harmful oxidation. Bungs, usually plastic, must be
airtight.

SEPTEMBER: PLANTING NEW VINES. Planting new vines is a spring operation.

It means planting grafted or ungrafted vines and installing vineguards to
protect them from predators like rabbits. the vineguards also create a small
greenhouse around the new vine.

OCTOBER: RACKING. Moving wine from one container to another with the
aim of leaving potentially harmful sediments (solids). This is usually done after
alcoholic fermentation. a wine may be racked up to three or four times during its
first year in barrel.

NOVEMBER: PROTECTING AGAINST FROST. Some methods of protecting

young buds against frost include wind machines, portable heaters, drums with
fire and spraying water.

DECEMBER: SHOOT POSITIONING. Young shoots are tied to wires so that the
vine is in a good position to absorb sunlight and produce high-quality grapes

JANUARY: SPRAYING AGAINST PESTS. Rain and humid weather promote

fungal diseases that plague vines. Spraying techniques vary from one man with a
tank on his back, a machine or even by plane

FEBRUARY: VERAISON. Red grapes soften and turn from green to red. Growers
also perform a summer or green harvest, where less ripe or excess clusters are
removed. the aim is to concentrate the remaining sunshine and nutrients into fewer
berries, making a more concentrated wine.

MARCH: HARVESTING. o pick the berries when the sugars, acid levels and
flavors are at desired levels. The most important thing is when to pick the
berries.

APRIL: PUNCH DOWN. Punching down the cap of skins that have floated to the
surface of the fermentation vat helps to keep the cap moist, to aerate the wine and
to encourage the extraction of colour and flavour from the skins.

MAY: FINING. Fining, a method to clarify wine is used for serious red wines in
their second year. Egg whites, or other fining agents like bentonite and gelatin
37
can be added to the wine to attract very small solid particles that fall to the
bottom of the barrel. First year wines may be transferred from the fermentation vat to
barrel (racking), this is not the same as fining.

JUNE: EARLY TASTINGS. Early tastings of the new wines begin. Some decisions
are made about how different lots or tanks of wine will be blended or not.
Malolactic fermentation should have started in the barrel or tank after the
introduction of special lactic bacteria.

Assignment #6 The wine grower's calendar

A. Mark True (T) or False (F). Correct any false statement.
1. Pruning is done in spring. .....................
2. In winter, canes and sarrments are soft and humid. .....................
3. In the cold of winter, wine can contract or reduce in size. .....................
4. Racking takes place before alcoholic fermentation. .....................
5. New vines are planted in winter. ....................
B. Mention the step of the wine grower's calendar that is being described.
1. To move the cap of skins that have floated to the surface of the fermentation vat.
..........................
2. To clarify wine using egg whites, gelatin or bentonite. ...............................................
3. This operation is done by hand in the middle of the winter. Dry sarrments are cut.
..........................
4. To pick the berries when the sugars, acid levels and flavours are at desired levels.
.........................
C. Answer the following questions
1. What is the aim (the objective) of re-filling a barrel with wine?...............................
........................................................................................................................................
2. What is racking? What's the purpose?.....................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
3. Mention 3 methods to protect vines against frost.....................................................
........................................................................................................................................
4. What is the aim of shoot positioning?......................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
5. What happens in Veraison?...................................................................................

38
........................................................................................................................................
6. What is the aim of fining? Mention 3 fining agents...............................................
........................................................................................................................................
7. Why is punching down performed?......................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
8. Why are vineguards installed around new vines? ................................................
........................................................................................................................................

39
IV. Sparkling wines
Sparkling wine might just be the most technical of all wines in the world. The reason
most sparkling wine is so complex is because of the need for two fermentations; one
to make wine and the other to make bubbles. Since sparkling wines were first
introduced (starting in the mid 1500’s), several processes have been developed and
each result in a unique sub-style of sparkling wine. Take a look at the major sparkling
wine production methods and which wines are made with each technique.

How Sparkling Wine is Made

There are 6 major methods by which sparkling wines are produced, each resulting in
a different carbonation level and, ultimately, a different style of bubbly! We’ll discuss
all the styles, but the two worth paying attention to the most are Traditional Method
(used for Champagne, etc) and Tank Method (used for Prosecco, etc).

 Traditional Method
 Tank Method
 Transfer Method
 Ancestral Method
 Continuous Method
 Carbonation

Under Pressure
Sparkling wines have different pressure levels which affect our perception of their
taste. The higher the pressure, the more fine the bubbles. Here are some accepted
terms for sparkling wine in terms of bubble pressure:

 Beady: a wine bottled with <1 additional atmosphere of pressure (14.7 psi).
Bubbles appear on the sides of the bottle (or glass) when the wine is opened.
 Semi-Sparkling: (a.k.a. Frizzante, Spritzig, Pétillant, Pearl) a wine with 1–
2.5 atmospheres (14.7–37 psi) of pressure that is slightly sparkling.
 Sparkling: (a.k.a. Mousseux, Crémant, Espumoso, Sekt, Spumante) The EU
has deemed that bubbly wines with 3 or more atmospheres can be labeled as
sparkling.

Traditional Method
a.k.a. Méthode Champenoise, méthode traditionnelle, Methode Cap Classique,
Metodo Classico Examples: Cava, Champagne

Bottle Pressure: 5–7 atmospheres or ~75–99 psi

The most important facet of the traditional method is that the transformation from a
still to a sparkling wine occurs entirely inside the bottle.

1. Base Wine or “Cuvée”: grapes are picked (usually just a tinsy bit younger to
preserve acidity) and fermented into a dry wine. The winemaker then takes the
various base wines and blends them together into what the French call a
“cuvée”, which is the final sparkling wine blend.

40
 2. Tirage: Yeast and sugars are added to the cuvée to start the second
fermentation and wines are bottled (and topped with crown caps).
3. 2nd Fermentation: (inside the bottle) The second fermentation adds about
1.3% more alcohol and the process creates CO2 which is trapped inside the
bottle thus carbonating the wine. The yeast dies in a process called autolysis
and remain in the bottle.
4. Aging: Wines are aged on their lees (the autolytic yeast particles) for a period
of time to develop texture in the wine. Champagne requires a minimum of 15
months of aging (36 months for vintage Champage). Cava requires a minimum
of 9 months of aging but requires up to 30 months for Gran Reserva Cava.
Most believe the longer the wine ages on its lees, the better.
5. Riddling: Clarification occurs by settling the bottle upside down and the dead
yeast cells collect in the neck of the bottle.
6. Disgorging: Removing sediment from bottle. The bottles are placed upside
down into freezing liquid which causes the yeast bits to freeze in the neck of
the bottle. The crown cap is then popped off momentarily which allows the
frozen chunk of lees to shoot out of the pressurized bottle.
7. Dosage: A mixture of wine and sugar (called Exposition liqueur) is added to
fill bottles and then bottles are corked, wired and labeled.

Tank Method
a.k.a. Charmat Method, Metodo Italiano, Cuvée Close, autoclave
Examples: Prosecco, Lambrusco
Bottle Pressure: 2–4 atmospheres (ATM) 30–60 psi

The tank method came about during the industrial advancements made in the early
20th century and is the main process used for Prosecco and Lambrusco wines. The
major difference between the tank method and the traditional method is the removal
of the individual bottle as the vessel used to turn a still wine into a sparkling one.
Instead, base wines are added together with the sugar and yeast mixture (Tirage) into
a large tank. As the wine has a second fermentation, the CO2 released from the
fermentation causes the tank to pressurize, whereafter wines are then filtered, dosed
(with Expedition liqueur) and bottled without aging.

Tank method sparkling wines have a much more freshly made character with
stronger secondary (yeasty) flavors. Some may argue that the tank method is not as
high-quality of a production method as the traditional method of sparkling wine.
While the process is more affordable (and thus is popular with lower quality wines), it
is still used for fine sparkling winemaking.

Transfer Method
a.k.a. Transversage
Examples: Small format (187 ml) and large format (3L+) Traditional Method
sparkling wines
Bottle Pressure: 5–7 atmospheres (ATM) or ~75–99 psi

This method is identical to the Traditional method except that wines need not be
riddled and disgorged in the same manner. Instead, the bottles are emptied into a
pressurized tank and sent through pressurized filters to remove the dead yeast bits
41
(lees). Then, the wines are bottled using pressurized fillers. You’ll find this method
used most commonly for non-standard sized bottles

TIP: Transversage method is slightly different than transfer method in that wines
are riddled and disgorged into tanks and do not require the filtration step.

Ancestral Method
a.k.a. Méthode Ancestrale, Méthode Rurale, Pétillant Naturel (a.k.a. “Pet-nat”)
Examples: Loire, Jura,
Bottle Pressure: 2–4 atmospheres (ATM) or 30–60 psi

This method of sparkling wine production uses icy temperatures (and filtration) to
pause the fermentation mid-way for a period of months and then wines are bottled
and the fermentation finishes, trapping the CO2 in the bottle. When the desired level
of CO2 is reached, wines are chilled again, riddled and disgorged just like the
traditional method, but no expedition liqueur (sugar) is added. The technique is
referred to as the Ancestral Method because it’s assumed that this is one of the
earliest forms of sparkling winemaking.

Méthode Diose Ancestrale: This variant of the Ancestral Method empties the
wines into a pressurized tank and filters instead of riddling and disgorging.

TIP: Several producers of Pétillant Naturel wines opt to close their wines with a
crown cap.

Carbonation
a.k.a. Gas Injection, Industrial Method
Examples: NewAge
Bottle Pressure: 3 atmospheres (ATM) 45 psi

The carbonation method simply takes a still wine and carbonates in a pressurized
tank. While it’s possible that this method has benefits, at the moment the only
carbonated wines are lower quality bulk wines. Still, if you’ve ever drank New
Age on the rocks, while sitting outside in the sun, you might feel it was quite alright
after all (BTW, New Age is a carbonated sweet white wine blend of Torrontés and
Sauvignon Blanc).

42
43
44
45
46
 V. Wine Tasting

1. Look

HUE: Take a look at the hue. If it’s a red wine, is it more pinkish or reddish? This
simple color observation is often a big clue as to the variety(ies) and climate where
the wine was made.

 The generally accepted hues for red wines are: Purple, Ruby, Garnet, and
Tawny.
 White wines use: Straw, Yellow, Gold, and Amber.
 Rosé wines use: Pink, Salmon, and Copper.

INTENSITY: Next, take a look at the color from the edge to the middle of the glass.
How opaque is it? This is the color intensity.

Also, how much does the color change from the rim to the middle? This “rim
variation” is often an indicator of age in a wine.

47
 VISCOSITY: Swirl your glass and take a look at how it forms tears (aka “legs”) on
the side of the glass. Are they thick, slow-moving tears or fast ones? This tells us the
wine is either higher alcohol, higher sweetness, or both.

CLARITY: Is the wine clear, cloudy, or turbid (cloudy and thick with suspended
particles)?

Clarity is a hint towards some winemaking techniques used on the wine,

including fining and filtering.

2. Smell

When you first start smelling wine, think big to small. Are there fruits? Think of
broad categories first, i.e. citrus, orchard, or tropical fruits in whites or, when tasting
reds, red fruits, blue fruits, or black fruits. Getting too specific or looking for one
particular note can lead to frustration. Broadly, you can divide the nose of a wine into
three primary categories:

 Primary Aromas are grape-derivative and include fruits, herbs, and floral
notes.
 Secondary Aromas come from winemaking practices. The most common
aromas are yeast-derivative and are most easy to spot in white wines: cheese rind, nut
husk (almond, peanut), or stale beer.
 Tertiary Aromas come from aging, usually in bottle, or possibly in oak.
These aromas are mostly savory: roasted nuts, baking spices, vanilla, autumn leaves,
old tobacco, cured leather, cedar, and even coconut.

When you smell a wine, concentrate on the following aspects:

1. Intensity
2. Fruit
3. Herb/Other
4. Oak
5. Earth

SMELL (SNIFF)
1. Smell the wine first

2. Swirl the wine (hold the glass and make circles to aerate the wine)

3. Take a deep whiff (put the glass to your nose and inhale)

4. Smell the aroma, also called the bouquet or the nose.

5. Analyze your impressions

48
 3. Taste

When you taste a wine, you’ll focus on flavors and feel (how the wine feels on your
palate/ in your mouth). Make sure you swish it around in your mouth to get the full
effect before swallowing.

1. Sweetness: Sweetness in wine is primarily from grape sugars that are leftover
after fermentation, which are referred to as residual sugar (RS). Of course, our
human perception of residual sugar in wine is influenced by the other characteristics
in the wine, particularly acidity. Sweetness is less perceivable in wines with higher
acidity. Awine can be bone dry, dry, off-dry or sweet
2. Tannin: (for red wines) Tannin is a polyphenol (antioxidant) found mostly
in red wine. Tannin tastes astringent and gives a drying sensation felt on your
tongue. High tannin wines will grip the insides of your lips to your teeth. Tannins can
taste bitter, but mostly, they are astringent and can be described like sandpaper:
fine, medium, gritty, or grippy.
3. Acidity: Acidity is the level of sourness in wine. Acidity makes your
mouth water. Low acid wines generally taste round or even flabby and high acid
wines taste lighter in body and very tart.
4. Alcohol: Alcohol is felt in your throat as a warming sensation. It is detected
by a hotness at the back of the mouth. Alcohol should compliment, not dominate the
wine.
5. Overall Body: All the traits mentioned above come together to give you a
sense of the wine’s body, it refers to the wine's weight: light, medium or full-
bodied. A combination of sugar, alcohol, tannins and acidity.which is
essentially a measure of how bold it tastes in your mouth. Ask yourself if the wine is
light-, medium-, or full-bodied.
6. Additional Flavors: Are there any flavors you can identify while tasting the
wine that you didn’t identify in its smell? Take note!

4. Conclusion

After you’ve tasted the wine, now you have the opportunity to consider the wine’s
quality. Here are some of the questions to ask yourself:

1. Is the wine in balance? This is a question referencing the notes you made
in the tasting section. Wines that are “in balance” have tastes that are balanced
between one-another including acidity, tannin (if it’s a red), and alcohol level. While
different wines have different intensities, a quality wine will be in balance with itself.
2. Is the wine complex? If you have a great deal of tasting notes for this wine
and can still think of more, you’ve got a pretty complex wine on your hands.
3. What is your opinion? Now that you’ve properly assessed the wine, what do
you think of it (overall)?

49
50
51
52
 The Real Difference Between Flavor vs Taste
 Taste refers to the senses inside our mouth including our tongue.
Taste focuses primarily on sweet, salt, bitter and sour. There are also two disputed
tastes: “umami” (i.e. deliciousness) and “metallic”. Mouthfeel focuses primarily on
viscosity (i.e. body), tannins, and the overall texture of the wine.

 Aroma occurs inside our noses and relates specifically to our sense of smell
 Flavor is when taste and aroma converge

What is Flavor?

Fruit Flavors in Red Wine

The first, most obvious flavors to identify in wine are the fruit flavors.

Fruit flavors in red wines typically fall into two different categories: red fruit and
black fruit flavors.

Wines with more “black fruit” flavors tend to be more full-bodied, including wines
like Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah. Of course, there are some exceptions to this rule,
but this idea is fairly reliable if you’re just getting started.

If you are tasting a red blend, it is possible to identify both red and black fruit flavors.
In doing so, you’ll actually be picking out the different wines used to create that
blend. Experts can even isolate the flavors in their mouth and make an estimate as to
what the blend contains.

53
54
Fruit Flavors in White Wine
White wines offer two major fruit types: tree-fruits and citrus fruits.

When you taste a white wine, think about the fruit flavor and then focus on the
ripeness of that flavor.

55
56
Factors influencing our perception of wine
Wine tasting is more than just a technical investigation, it is insightful research. try
going beyond the ability to identify aromas and flavors. Wine tasting is about
sensations and your perception. Factors that can influence your perception
are:

-Time of day -age -your aroma and taste receptors

-temperature of wines -hunger

-background noise -experience

The parts of a wine bottle. Label the picture with the parts of the bottle

1. Label 4. Neck
2. Cork (natural/synthetic) 5. Base
3. Capsule 6. Punt

The parts of a wineglass. Label the pictures with the parts of the glass.

1. Bowl 2. Rim 3. Stem 4. Base 5. Equator

57
1. FULL-BODIED RED WINES (CABERNET SAUVIGNON, SYRAH, CABERNET
FRANC)

2. MEDIUM-BODIED RED WINES (MERLOT, BARBERA)

3. LIGHT-BODIED RED WINES (PINOT NOIR, GAMAY, BLAUFRÄNKISCH )

4. ROSÉ WINES (GRENACHE, SANGIOVESE, MOURVÈDRE)

5. FULL-BODIED WHITE WINES (OAKED CHARDONNAY, R IBOLLA GIALLA)

6. LIGHT-BODIED WHITE WINES (SAUVIGNON BLANC, ZELEN, PINELA,

PINOT GRIS, RIESLING ITALICO)

7. AROMATIC WHITE WINES (MOSCATO, GEWÜRZTRAMINER, RIESLING)

8. DESSERT & FORTIFIED WINES (VINJAK, PORT, SHERR Y, MADEIRA, LATE

HARVEST, NOBLE ROT, STRAW WINE, ICE WINE)

9. SPARKLING WINES (CHAMPAGNE, CAVA, PR OSECCO, MÉTHODE

CLASSIQUE, PENINA, SEKT LAMBRUSCO)

58
...and now, let's taste!
We'll be tasting and describing the 5
basic types of wine. You'll find a
glossary to help you develop your
vocabulary to describe all the
aspects of wine we have studied
and tasting mats as well.
Let's sip then, cheers!

59
Glossary
12 Categories of Wine Descriptions
Wine Terms For Body
Thin a wine that has acidity but little substance

Cliff-Edge the taste of a wine disappears quickly

Hollow a wine with no mid-palate

Mellow wine without major intensity

Short a wine with short lasting flavor

Austere a wine that’s hard to drink

Angular a wine that has rough edges

Delicate a wine that is faintly bodied

Elegant a wine tasting light-bodied with high acidity

Light-Bodied a wine that is light on the palate

Finesse a wine that has well integrated acid and tannin

Closed a wine that doesn’t have much flavor but has tannin

Polished a wine that tastes clean and well-made

Complex a wine that keeps on delivering more interesting flavors

Full-Bodied a big, bold flavored wine

Tight a wine with high tannin that interferes with other flavors

Firm a wine with high tannin that dries out your mouth

Powerful a bold wine with high intensity

Concentrated a wine with bold fruit flavors, moderate acidity and tannin

Dense a wine with bold fruit flavors and moderate tannin

Opulent a bold wine with smooth tannins and lower acidity

Rich a wine saturated with fruit flavors

60
Extracted a wine that is darker and richer than most wines in its style

Flabby a wine that has very low acidity

Fat a wine with fruit but no acidity or tannin

Wine Terms for Style

Barnyard a wine that smells like a farmyard

Smokey a wine that smells like a camp fire

Earthy a wine that has a distinct dirt-like aroma

Leathery a wine that has the smell of leather

Musky a wine that smells richly of musk ox

Fleshy a wine that tastes fruity and meaty at the same time

Accessible a wine that is easily appreciated by drinkers

Clean a wine that doesn’t have earthy or rustic flavors

Delicate a wine that is faintly flavored

Elegant a wine that has higher acidity

Polished a wine that tastes clean and well-made

Refined a wine that tastes very clean

Wine Terms For Tannin

Bitter bitter tannin is very intense and ‘green’

Harsh tannin that dries out your mouth

Aggressive tannin that drowns out the other wine flavors

Grippy tannin that sticks to the sides of your mouth

Angular tannin that hits one spot on your palate

Powerful big smooth tannins

Coarse tannins with a choppy grit, like course sandpaper

Leathery delicate but earthy tannin often found in older wine

Rigid aggressive tannins in the front of your mouth

Muscular aggressive chalky tannin; used to describe young wines

Firm persistent fine-grained tannin

61
Structured well integrated but persistent fine-grained tannin

Chewy a tannin that makes you want to chew it from the sides of your
mouth

Chocolate fine-grained smooth tannin with very little bite

Silky fine-grained ultra smooth tannins with very little bite

Smooth well integrated tannin

Round smooth tannin with no bite

Opulent more fruit than tannin

Velvety very smooth tannin

Voluptuous more fruit than tannin

Supple well integrated tannin

Soft low tannin

Mellow little-to-no tannin

Spineless lack of tannin makes wine taste weak

Flabby lack of tannin makes wine taste weak

Wine Terms For Acidity

Bright a wine with pronounced acidity

Astringent a wine with aggressive acidity and tannin

Austere a wine with aggressive acidity and tannin

Thin a wine that has acidity but little substance

Lean usually used to describe a white wine with low fruit and high
acidity

Angular when a wine’s acidity and tannin hit focused points on your
palate

Racy a wine with bracing acidity

Tart a wine that tastes sour due to acidity and/or yeast (see ’sour’)

Edgy a richer wine with high acidity

Nerve another word for bracing acidity in wine

Zippy a lighter wine with very noticeable acidity

Zesty a lighter wine with noticeable acidity

62
Lively a lighter red or white wine with noticeable acidity

Fresh a wine with moderate acidity; often used to describe young

wines

Crisp a wine with noticeable acidity

Delicate a wine that may have heightened acidity, but lighter on tannin
and fruit

Soft a wine with lower acidity

Flabby a wine with very low acidity

Fallen Over a wine that no longer has acidity due to age

Flat a wine with no acidity

Wine Terms For Alcohol

Jammy a wine made with ripe fruit with high alcohol

Hot a wine that has high alcohol

Burn when the alcohol ‘burns’ the back of your throat

Legs wine with thick legs have more alcohol and/or sugar content

Wine Terms For Fruit

Jammy the fruit flavors in the wine taste like jam

Ripe the wine is produced with very ripe grapes

Juicy used to describe young wines, big on fruit but low FINESSE

Flamboyant a wine that is very showy with fruit flavors

Fleshy a wine that tastes fruity and meaty at the same time

Extracted wine that is darker ∓ richer than other wines made with the
same grape

Plumy a red wine with fresh plum flavors

Red Fruit usually red fruit flavors indicate a lighter bodied wine

Dark Fruit ‘full bodied’ red wines have more ‘dark fruit’ flavors

Grapey a wine that tastes more like grape juice

Berry possible berry flavors found mostly in red wine

63
  Strawberry
 Raspberry
 Cherry
 Blueberry
 Blackberry

Cassis (aka ‘black currant’) a very earthy fruit

Citrus citrus flavors found mostly in white/rosé wine

 Lime
 Lemon
 Grapefruit
 Orange
 Citrus Zest

Stone Fruit possible stone fruit flavors found mostly in white/rosé wine

 Apricot
 Nectarine
 Peach

Tropical Fruit possible tropical fruit flavors found mostly in white/rosé wine

 Banana
 Pineapple
 Leechie
 Coconut

Melon a juicy and sweet fruit flavor in white wines

Apple a very common aroma found in white wine

Wine Terms for Herb

Stemmy a negative bitter note usually on the finish

Stalky a woodsy herbaceous bitter note on the finish of red wine

Vegetal usually considered a negative ‘earthy’ quality on the finish of red

wine

Cat’s Pee a negative tart acidic aroma associated with Sauvignon Blanc

Asparagus a cooked aroma on white wines typically perceived as negative

Green also known as herbal, herbaceous and leaf-like

Grassy the smell of fresh-cut grass associated with white wines like
Grüner Veltliner

Sage a resinous and flowery herbal smell mostly in red wine

64
Eucalyptus a mint-like resinous herbal smell associated with red wines
from Australia

Jalapeno a fresh spicy aroma found in a few white wines

Dill a complex aroma found in red wine

Bell Pepper an aroma in both red and white wine associated with a chemical
compound group called pyrazines

Gooseberry a sweeter herbal flavor found in Sauvignon Blanc

Quince a green and tart fruit with astringent qualities

Wine Terms for Spice

Spicy the sensation of spice either from alcohol, acidity or variety

Musky an intense animalistic spicy flavor

Bright a wine with moderate acidity perceived as spicy

Pepper a variety characteristic of pepper

Anise a variety characteristic of licorice

Clove a sweet woodsy flavor often attributed to oak aging

Wine Terms for Flower

White Flowers lily, apple blossom and gardenia are found in aromatic white
wines

Violet a floral aroma associated with fine red wines like Cabernet
Sauvignon

Perfumed a highly aromatic wine, typically used to describe white wine

Lavender a resinous floral aroma associated with wine originating in the

South of France – common in red wines

Rose a positive floral aroma found in both red and white wines

Citrus Blossom citrus blossom is found in white wines from Riesling to

Chardonnay

Geranium considered a wine fault at high levels due to improper

winemaking

Wine Terms for Oak

Smoky a smoky oak flavor could be due to highly toasted oak barrels
65
Charcoal a flavor commonly associated with red Bordeaux wine

Sweet Tobacco a sweet resinous smell and flavor on the finish of an oaked wine

Toasty a positive descriptor for highly oaked wines

Spicy baking spices like clove, allspice, nutmeg are from oak aging

Clove a complex oak aroma often found with European oak

Nutty a flavor that develops with longterm aging in barrels

Coconut often associated with oaked Chardonnay and American oak

barrels

Caramel a sweet aroma from aging wine in toasted oak barrels

Vanilla flavor compound vanillan comes from oak

Buttery an aroma compound diacetyl from oak which is easy to identify

in white wines

Dill an herbaceous oak aroma commonly associated with American

oak

Creamy similar to ‘buttery’ but also is a texture due to malolactic

fermentation

Wine Terms for Yeast

Sour a taste sensation similar to sour cream due to yeast flavors

Cheesy mostly a white wine aroma that adds a savory character

Biscuit noted in aged sparkling wines as yeast breaks down over time

Creamy a taste in red (and some white wine) due to Malolactic

Fermentation (MLF)

Buttery while most buttery sensations are due to oak aging, the textural
oily feeling on a white wine is from M.L.F.

Wine Terms for Inorganic

Minerality an undefinable rock-like character to wine with flavors other

than fruit

Graphite a pencil lead-like aroma and taste found in fine red wines

Wet Asphalt a wet-rocky aroma found in white wines with moderate acidity

Unctuous a textural description for wines with a soapy or oily feeling on

the tongue
66
Oily a textural description for a wine that slicks like oil in your
mouth – often due to MLF (see ‘creamy’)

Petroleum a positive characteristic in fine aged Riesling

Plastic a chemical-like aroma associated with high-acidity white wines

Tar a very strong burnt, resinous and woodsy smell in earthy full-
bodied red wines

Rubber a moderately strong resinous aroma found in both red and

white wines

Diesel a strong gasoline smell mostly associated with Australian

Riesling

Smoky a burnt charcoal-like aroma usually associated with red wine

67
Adjectives
abundant distinctive full
accessible distinguished full-bodied

aerated easy-drinking generous

appealing effervescent graceful

approachable elegant harmonious

balanced excellent heady

big exceptional highly enjoyable

blended exemplary highly rated

bright expansive intense

broad expressive jammy

buttery finely textured juicy

chewy firm large

classic flashy lasting

classically styled fleshy layered

clean floral light

complex focused lively

concentrated food-friendly luscious

creamy fragrant lush

crisp fruit-driven luxurious

deep fruit-filled mature

dense fruity medium-bodied

68
memorable ripe sweet
riveting sweet-tart
mouth-coating
round tart
multi-dimensional
satin-smooth textured
multilayered
satiny thick
nice
saturated toasty
nicely integrated
silky trademark
opulent
sleek velvety
outstanding
slightly candied versatile
personality-filled
smooth vibrant
pleasant
smooth-textured vine-ripened
plump
soft viscous
plush
soft-textured voluptuous
premier
solid well-balanced
pronounced
sophisticated well-structured
pungent
spicy-sweet wonderful
racy
structured young
refined
supple
rich

69
 Negatives

acidic foul-tasting overly sweet

astringent funky plain

bad tasting hangover-creating poorly crafted

biting hard puckering

bitter harsh questionable

bitter hay rubbery

bittersweet hazy saccharine

boring impure sauerkraut

burning inconsistent second-class

burnt match inferior sharp

cabbage kerosene skunky

cheap low-quality soapy

cloudy modest solvent

diesel moldy sour

diluted musty sour

disagreeable nauseating sour stomach

distasteful not worth drinking stale

dusty numbing starchy

earthy off-flavored stemmy

ethanol old straw

ethyl acetate onion strong

flat ordinary sugary

flavorless overkill sulfur

70
 syrupy unappealing viscous
unappetizing watered
tannic rinsewater
undrinkable watery
tart
unpalatable weak
tartness
unpleasant wet cardboard
taste bad
unripe wet paper
tasteless
unsavory wet wood
terrible
vinegary
thick
viscid
thin

Nose
animated expressive nutty
floral open
attractive
flowery perfumed
beautiful
focused powerful
bright
fragrant pure
classic
fruit--driven refined
classy
fruity rich
complex
herbaceous robust
concentrated
huge soft
defined
layered spicy
delicate
lifted subtle
elegant
light sweet
enticing
lively tremendous
excellent
lovely wonderfully []
explosive
lush

71
 fruit-filled sweet
fruit-forward unprepossessing

fruity vigorous

full-bodied vinous

fully open vividly varietal

Bouquet

ample
harmonious warm
appealing
huge well-developed
aristocratic
intense
aromatic
inviting
attractive
juicy
classic
light
complex
lively
contemporary
lovely
delicate
luxurious
developed
medium
distinctive
modern
elegant
noble
enticing
perfumed
exotic
ripe
expansive
scented
fine
seductive
floral
solid
flowery
spicy
fragrant
subtle
fresh

72
 Acidity

agreeable reasonable
balanced refreshing

bracing spicy

bright steely

brisk tangy

citrusy tart

crisp vibrant

fine well-balanced

fresh well-integrated

harmonious zesty

high zingy

invigorating

judicious

juicy

lemony

light

lively

mild

moderate

natural

perky

racy

73
 intense soft
jammy
soft-textured
juicy
solid

substantial
large
supple
lasting
Mouthfeel sweet
layered
thick
[]-infused light
viscous
abundant long
voluptuous
balanced lush
well-balanced
big luxurious
well-structured
bright multilayered
yeasty
broad nice

buttery opulent

clean pleasant

complex plump

creamy plush

finely textured pronounced

fleshy rich

fruit-filled ripe

full round

generous satin-smooth

harmonious seamless

heady silky

integrated sleek

74
 mouth-watering

Tannins
persistent

abundant polished

acidic ripe

balanced round

big soft

caressing softening

chewy sturdy

chunky supple

complex sweet

condensed tightly knit

earthy velvety

elegant well-balanced

expressive well-concealed

fine

fine grain

finely honed

firm

grainy

gripping

integrated-oak

mellow

moderate

mouth-coating

75
Finish lively smooth
long soft
[]-filled
lovely solid
appealing
luscious succulent
beautifully knit
luxuriant supple
chewy
meaty tangy
clean
moderately tart
concentrated
astringent tasty
creamy
mouth-filling thoughtful
crisp
outstanding tightly focused
developed
persistent warm
dry
pleasant well-balanced
elegant
pleasing
expressive
polished
fine-grained
refined
focused
refreshing
full
ripe
gentle
ripely flavored
good
round
graceful
satin
harmonious
satisfying
huge
seamless
juicy
silky
layered
silky-smooth
lengthy
simple
lingering

Phrases
76

 [] acidity blends into the wine's great
structure and tannins
 [] are pronounced on the palate
 [] aromas are underscored by sweet []
 [] at a very good price
 [] fans will appreciate the casual
sophistication and elegant structure of
this wine
 [] flavors are dominated by []
 [] flavors are integrated with []
 [] flavors meld with ripe tannins
 [] gives this wine an approachable
softness
 [] greets the nose with robust aromas
of [] and []
 [] intermingles with []
 [] laced with cedar and []
 [] marries fruit, oak, and tannin in a
harmonious balance
 [] on the nose and [] on the finish
 [] unfolds from the glass
 a floral bouquet with a good backbone
of acidity
 a gorgeous, complex bouquet of []
 a great addition to your private wine
cellar
 a great everyday wine
 a light [] quality persists on the palate
 a lively palate filled with []
 a nice wine at a great value
 a palate of []
 a panoply of []
 a perfect [] wine for sipping
 a perfect balance of []
 a perfect companion at the table
 a pleasant wine with flavors of []
 a rich vein of tannins that give the
wine a [] texture
 a round, balanced tannin structure
 mingling smoothly with []
 notes of []
 on the finish
 on the nose
 on the palate, [] mingles with []
 opens on the palate with hints of []
 opens with []
 pigments of []
 plush in the mouth
 potent [] and [] coat the palate
77
 prominent [] flavors threaded by []
 propped by mouth-watering tannins
and acidity
 rich [] on the nose yield to [] and []
elements on the palate
 ripe tannins surround rich []
 round with notes of []
 should develop bottle complexities
over the next [] years
 should soften and develop in the bottle
 straight-up [] flavors and spicy oak
 strong fruit flavors are framed by []
 supple tannins effortlessly surround
the lingering fruit flavors of []
 the [] is crisp and luscious, exhibiting
vibrant [] flavors layered with aromas
of []
 the [] quality of the wine provides for a
wide range of food pairings
 the [] reveals a [] nose offering scents
of []
 the acidity makes the fruit sparkle
 the aroma boasts clear notes of []
 the aroma offers layered elements of []
 the barrel fermentation brings a []
structure
 the bouquet is driven by []
 the flavors are deep and layered with
[]
 the fruit is supported by a balanced
mouthfeel
 a vibrant freshness matched by an []
 adding further depth to this fruit-
based core are notes of []
 an intersection of [] and []
 aromas of [] are layered inside a frame
of [] and []
 aromas of [] precede []
 as the finish rolls on
 at its peak of taste
 balanced by an earthy minerality
 balanced oak bouquet
 beautifully balanced with a smooth,
lingering finish
 bouquet of []
 bright fruit flavors of [] and [] are
beautifully complemented by subtle
notes of []
 consistently praised for high quality
and value
 creamy [] undertones balance [] and []
on the finish
 favorable growing conditins allowed  with a long, sweet finish
 with a rich, complex core of []
for a wine with richly layered flavors of
[] and []  with a streak of []
 features flavors of [] that weave into []  with a supple mouthfeel
and []  with an array of []
 flavors of  with hints of []
 flavors of [] are balanced with []  with ripe tannins that give full and
 for the most discriminating lasting intensity
connoisseur/aficionado  with weight and presence on the palate
 fragrant in []
 from the vine
 has an impressively deep core of []
 hints of []
 in texture
 intense [] and [] are punctuated with a
rich oak finish
 is defined by []
 light [] and [] notes carry the finish
 light in texture with [] and [] fruit,
hinting at []
 lush flavors of [] and [] are highlighted
by [] and notes of []
 made with the choicest []
 the ideal complement to []
 the mouthfeel is delicate yet vibrant
 the mouthfeel is rich and juicy with
flavors of []
 the nose combines
 the wine blends [] with []
 the wine boasts full body and a []
complexity
 the wine is spicy with perfumes of
cherries and violets
 this is a benchmark [] Valley []
 this superbly crafted wine boasts
aromas and flavors of []
 this vintage reveals []
 unfolds in layers of []
 unfolds to reveal []
 unfolds with []
 vibrant notes of []
 well-balanced finish
 will develop nicely in the bottle for the
next several years
 wine and dine
 with [] and [] underlying the []
 with a crisp, light finish
 with a long French oak finish

78
Tasting Mats

79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115