Tectonophysics, 23 (1974) 349-360

0 Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

CRUSTAL DEFORMATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES

IZUMI YOKOYAMA

Geophysical Institute, Hokkaido University, Sapporo (Japan)

(Accepted for publication March 26, 1974)

ABSTRACT

Yokoyama, I., 1974. Crustal deformations associated with volcanic activities. In: R. Green
(Editor), Recent Crustal Movements and Associated Seismic and Volcanic Activity. Tec-
tonophysics, 23 (4): 349-360.

Two models of pressure source to interpret the crustal deformations associated with vol-
canic activities are discussed by example. It is pointed that the magma pressure causing the
crust to be deformed may sometimes trigger remarkable tectonic earthquakes around vol-
canoes.

INTRODUCTION

A characteristic of crustal deformations associated with volcanic activities

is that one may suppose some pressure sources of possible types beneath vol-
canoes as generative forces of the deformations, in remarkable contrast to tec-
tonic crustal deformations of which origins are not always clear. Crustal defor-
mations associated with great eruptions of both basaltic and andesitic volcanoes
have proved to be elastic as a rough approximation, and deformation analyses
on some volcanoes, such as Hawaii and Sakurazima, have given some clue to
the processes of the volcanic activities and their subsurface structure.
In the following, two models of pressure source to interpret the deforma-
tions will be discussed by examples of Sakurazima and Kilauea, and another
possible effect of the magma pressure will be referred to.

TWO MODELS OF PRESSURE SOURCE BENEATH VOLCANOES

In order to interpret the crustal deformations observed around volcanoes,

already Mogi (1958) presented a model of pressure source of explosive or im-
plosive types. On the other hand, the author (1971), for the same purpose,
proposed an alternative model with pressure source of thrust type. The former
model has pressure distribution expressed in spherical harmonics P,"(cos19)
350

Ah
Ad

IL

(::: 0” K P
Fig. 1. The models of pressure sources : Pz (cos 8 ) and Pi (cos 6 ) types.

and reminds us of magma reservoirs while the latter has e (cos f3) distribution
symbolizing the points of dikes.
The deformations of the semi-infinite elastic body caused by an internal
pressure source of both types were already calculated by Yamakawa (1955)
and Soeda (1944) respectively as follows:

Pressure distribution of P”, (cos t3) type

Yamakawa (1955) calculated the deformations due to an internal pressure

source of this type. If P denotes pressure amplitude, p rigidity of the crust, f
depth of the pressure source, and a radius of source sphere, the radial displace-
ment of the surface at a distance R is obtained as:

,y
R
_3a3p R
(1)
4p (f2 + j-4
And the vertical displacement at the surface is as:

(2)

At the surface right above the source (R = 0),

u RO= 0, (1)'

uzo _3a3p
___ (2)’
4f2P
 351

0
2 3 4 5 R/F

Fig, 2. Vertical and radial displacements of the ground surface due to the pressure sources
of the two types.

In the above calculation, a certain vertical force is artificially applied to the

surface in order to nullify the stress there. This force naturally would affect
the internal pressure source; however, it was verified by Soeda (1944) that its
effect is very small if the depth of pressure source is larger than ten times the
radius of the source sphere (f > 100).
The above expressions of U, and U, contain unknown parameters a, P, and
p though a is conditioned to be smaller than one tenth of f. In order to eliminate
these unknowns, U, and U, will be discussed in the forms of the ratios to U,,
when f is aimed to be determined from a distribution curve of U, or U, versus
distance R; these ratios are the functions of f and R only. Assuming f % a, accord-
ing to the previous condition, the distribution of U, and U, with reference
to U,, are shown in Fig. 2A.

Pressure distribution of P,O(cos 19) type

This model of pressure source may correspond to an upward or downward

thrust force if the polar axis of the spherical harmonics coincides with the
vertical and the radius is relatively small. Soeda (1944) calculated the de-
formations to be caused by an internal pressure source of this type. The radial
displacement of the surface at a distance R is obtained as:

a2P 6FR _ 3 {F - (F2 + R’):}

” =-% [ (F2+R$ R(F2 + R2)i I

1
a4P 19FR - 2R 2 F - (F2+ R2);
3+- (3)
- 126~ (F2 + R2)i F2 R(F2 + R2)$
F(F2 + R2)T
352

And vertical displacement of the surface is:

_.A!~
1
3
_7 +

(F2 + R2)’ (F2 + R2)T

2 1 5 2F2-R2
+ _. - -_
7 (Fz + Rz): 21 (Fz+ R2$ I (4)

At the surface right above the source (R = 0):

uRo= 0 (3)’

Assuming F > a, the distributions of U, and Uz referred to U,, are shown in

Fig. 2B.
The displacement curves of the two models shown in Fig. 2 are not sub-
stantially different from each other. However, the vertical displacements of
the surface right above the sources expressed in eqs. 2’ and 4’, depend upon
3/4(a3/f2) and 5/6(a2/F), respectively. If we take f=F=lOa and the other con-
ditions remain the same, the latter is about ten times larger than the former.
In other words, to cause the same vertical displacements, the Py model needs
the source pressure only one tenth of the Pz model.
Also the distributions of horizontal displacements due to the pressure
sources of the two models shown in Fig. 2 enable us to estimate approximate-
ly the depths of the pressure sources as the radial distances where the horizon-
tal displacements take maxima.
Whether one adopts the Pg model or the Py model, one must prefer a single
model to superposition of plural models because the mutual effects of the
plural boundary conditions are not always negligible in the latter case.

THE 1914 ERUPTION OF SAKURAZIMA, JAPAN

Vertical displacement

The remarkable depression around Sakurazima in its 1914 eruption was ob-
served by amori (1916) as shown in Fig. 3. Mogi (1958) interpreted this de-
pression by a model of Pz type and got the depth of pressure source as 10 km
assuming the maximum depression to amount to 150 cm at point A in Fig. 3.
Yokoyama (1971) applied a model of Py type to the above depression and
obtained the depth of pressure source as 6 km. In Fig. 4 the degrees of fitness
 IO km

Fig. 3._Vertical displacements around Sakurazima before and after the 1914 eruption
(after Omori, 1916). A and E respectively denote the assumed centre of depression and
the epicentre of the earthquake which occurred on the first day of the eruption.

Fig. 4. Radial distributions of the depressions observed before and after the 1914 eruption
of Sakurazima and calculated by the two models. f and F denote the depths of the pressure
sources of the I’: and Py types, respectively.
354

of both the theoretical curves for the observed values are almost indiscrimi-
nate.
The pressure change P at the source is determinable when the vertical dis-
placement at the surface right above the pressure source Uz, and the depth of
the source f or F are known. In the following, rigidity of the crust 1-1is assumed
as loll c.g.s.
The above calculations assume f or F > lOa, otherwise, all results are not
applicable to the observations.

Pg model

where f= lOa = 10 km, Uz, = 150 cm.

Then one gets: P = 20 kbar.

P’: model

U -5dLp
z”-6 pF
where F = lOa = 6 km, U,, = 150 cm.

Then one gets: P = 3 kbar.

On the other hand, the pressure of explosion of Sakurazima may be approxi-
mately estimated by the maximum horizontal arrival distance of the projected
fragments. According to Koto (1916), strong showers of projected incandescent
stones, dragging behind them threads or tails of grey vapors, like meteors, are
said to have fallen hot, abundantly and hissing into the sea to a distance of
3 - 3.5 km from the vent. Hence, the initial velocity is estimated at 170 m/set,
and the pressure of explosion as about 300 bar. The difference between the
estimation by the Py model (3 kbar) and that of the explosion pressure (300
bar) may not be unreasonable.
On the other hand, the crustal deformations around Sakurazima shown in
Fig. 3 was interpreted as the results of block movements by Tsuboi (1933).
The direction and the magnitude of the tiltings of the mosaic blocks are shown
in Fig. 5 where the arrows indicating the directions of tilting of the blocks
converge towards the centre of depression shown in Fig. 3. The block move-
ments provide that a land block behaves or tilts as a rigid body.
It is rather peculiar that the same deformations are interpretable by either
elastic deformations of the crust or tiltings of the rigid land blocks. How-
ever, the generative forces of both the deformations should be identical.
 355

KAGOSIHA

‘ig. 5. Tiltings of the land blocks in the Sakurazima district (after Tsuboi, 1933).

cm1

1
v
1890 1900 10 20 30 LO 1950 60 70
Fig. 6. Changes of height of BM 2473 referred to BM 2466 shown in Fig. 3. The arrows de-
note the activities of Sakurazima.

Secular changes in height of a bench mark around Sakurazima

After the 1914 eruption of Sakurazima, the precise levels have been repeat-
ed in this district. The variation of the height of BM 2473 referred to BM
2466 is shown in Fig. 6. The 1914 eruption was a flank eruption while the
eruptions since 1956 have continued intermittently at the summit crater. The
 IO km
*
1 c
3m

Fig. 7. Horizontal displacements of triangulation points on Sakurazima and vicinities before

and after its 1914 eruption. AA and BB denote the fissure line with craterlets and the de-
pression centre, respectively. (After A. Imamura.)

depression of the bench mark caused by the 1914 eruption has not completely
recovered to the stage before the 1914 eruption though it was not known
exactly. Anyway, we may roughly estimate the strain accumulation in this dis-
trict by the above curve.

Horizontal displacement

The horizontal displacements of the trian~lation points on and around

Sakurazima during the period 1898 to 1914 after its eruption are shown in
Fig. 7 where line AA denotes the fissure line with craterlets and ellipse BB
does the convergent area of the displacement vectors which is identical with the
centre of depression found by the precise levels along Kagosima Bay shown
in Fig. 3. As mentioned before, one may estimate the depth of pressure source
at about 3 km beneath the volcano from the displacements at both the sides
of fissure line AA. Though the fissure already appeared at the earth surface
and therefore, strictly speaking, the elastic theories are not applicable, the
range of maximum horizontal displacements may be approximately determin-
able from the result of triangulation.

THE 196748 ERUPTION OF KILAUEA, HAWAII

The 1967-68 eruption of Kilauea was discussed by Fiske and ~nosbita

 357

I km
8 t

Fig. 8. Migration of the centre of uplift observed in the 1967-68 eruption of Kilauea
during January 1966-October 1967. Heavy lines indicate shifts which took place in two
weeks or less (after Fiske and Kinoshita, 1969).

(1969) from the st~dpo~nt of geodetic observations. During the period Janu-
ary, 1966--October, 1967, they repeated fourteen surveys of level and tilt and
seven geodimeter surveys and found the migration of the centre of uplift as
shown in Fig. 8, by determining the successive centres assuming the Pg models.
The migration of the centre of uplift may be the wandering of the upward
thrusts in sills and,dikes which are approximated by the PT model better than
the P$ model. Two examples of the vertical displacements of bench marks a-
round Kilauea for the periods January - July, 1966 and August - October,
1967 are analyzed by the Py models. The results are shown in Figs. 9A and B,
respectively, where the double circles denote the reference points. In both
the cases, the depths of the pressure sources are obtained as 2 - 3 km be-
neath the respective points in Fig. 8.
The pressure change P at the source of the deformation during the period
January - July, 1966 is estimated at 640 bar for a P(zmodel with F = 2 km,
U,, = 10.7 cm, and p = 101r c.g.s.
From the horizontal displacements of twenty geodimeter lines during the
period Jan. 6-Feb. 21, 1967, Fiske and Kinoshita (1969) estimated the depth
of the pressure source at 2 km which is equal to the results obtained from the
vertical displacements in the above.
358

100
.r e
A B

80.

60.

5
0b
h 40-

20- 2c

0 I 2 3 4 ( I 2 3 4 SW km

Fig. 9. Radial distributions of the uplifts observed in the 1967-68 eruption of Kilauea.
The curves show the calculated ones of Py models and the double circles do the reference
points. A. January-July 1966, corresponding to 0 in Fig. 8. B. August-October 1967,
corresponding to m in Fig. 8.

MAGMA PRESSURE AND REMARKABLE EARTHQUAKES

Prior to volcanic eruptions, magma ascends from the deep by processes of

zone melting and volatile components gradually concentrate in the liquid
phase. The magma permeates into the surrounding rocks as dikes and sills,
and causes the crustal deformations around volcanoes and simultaneously de-
creases the ultimate strength of the rocks triggering earthquakes. The magma
pressure finally overcomes the external pressure at a certain depth producing
fissures up to the earth surface. Thereafter, magma may outflow through the
fissures or vents. That depth must be 2 - 10 km beneath volcanoes according
to the results of crustal deformation analyses.
A model of a volcano analogized by a triaxial compression apparatus with
the control of pore pressure is shown in Fig. 10. The magma ascending from
the deep with fluid pressure p permeates into the centre of a volcano under
hydrostatic pressure u2 = u3. The ultimate strength of rocks at a fixed con-
fining pressure decreases nearly linearly with increasing pore pressure or de-
creasing effective pressure as shown in Fig. 11 after Handin et al. (1963).
In the case of the 1914 eruption of Sakurazima, 9 hours after the commen-
cement of the eruption, an earthquake of magnitude 6.1 occurred near the
 359

Pressure in fluid medium

_ I* --Pressure vessel.
62 = 6-3

0-i = O-3-
Impermeable jacket

Hollow

Fig. Il. Ultimate conpressive strength of Berea sandstone at 24”C, 2 War c~~fin~~g pres-
sure as function of pore pressure and effective confining pressure (after Handin et al., X963).
360

volcano (epicentre E in Fig. 3). The S-P duration of this earthquake observ-
ed at the Kagosima Weather Station was 1.9 set corresponding to a probable
hypocentre depth of 6 - 10 km. The seismic volume of this earthquake shouid
be equal to a sphere of 30 km in radius. Comparing this volume with the
volcanic body, one may say that this earthquake should not be volcanic but a
tectonic one triggered by magma pressure.
One may find the other examples of remarkable tectonic earthquakes
which might be triggered by magma pressure prior to or during volcanic eruptions:
In the case of the 1910 eruption of Usu, Hokkaido, an earthquake of magni-
tude 6.5 occurred near the volcano 30 hours before the commencement of
the eruption. During the 1962 eruption of Miyakezima, the Seven Izu Islands,
two earthquakes of magnitude about 6 occurred near the volcano.

CONCLUSION

It is pretty certain that the pressure source models of Py or P$ types can

interpret fairly well many examples of crustal deformations around volcanoes
on the basis of elasticity, but these are not always unique methods to inter-
pret the phenomena. One should take anelastic properties of the crust into
consideration. As for the occurrences of remarkable tectonic earthquakes near
volcanoes probably triggered by magma pressure, more quantitative informa-
tions such as their focal mechanisms should be accumulated.

REFERENCES

Fiske, R.S. and Kinoshita, W.T., 1969. Inflation of Kilauea Volcano prior to its 1967-1968
eruption. Science, 165 : 341-349.
Handin, J., Hager, R.V., Jr., Friedman, M. and Feather, J.N., 1963. Experimental deforma-
tion of sedimentary rocks under confining pressure: pore pressure tests. Bull. Am. Assoc.
Petr. Geol., 47: 717-755.
Koto, B., 1916. The great eruption of Sakura-jima in 1914. J. Col. Sci. Tokyo Imp. Univ.,
38, Art. 3: l-237.
Mogi, K., 1958. Relation between the eruptions of various volcanoes and the deformations
of the ground surface around them. Bull. Earthquake Res. Inst., 36: 99-134.
Gmori, F., 1916. The Sakura-jima eruptions and earthquakes, II. Bull. Imp. Earthquake
Invest. Comm.: 8(2): 35-179.
Soeda, K., 1944. On the deformations produced in a semi-infinite elastic solid by an interior
source of stress. Q. J. Seismol., 13: 263-291 (in Japanese).
Tsuboi, C., 1933. Investigation on the deformation of earth’s crust found by precise geo-
detic means. Jap. J. Astron. Geophys., 10: 93-248.
Yamakawa, N., 1955. On the strain produced in a semi-infinite elastic solid by an interior
source of stress. J. Seismol. Sot. Jap., (ii) 8: 84-98 (in Japanese).
Yokoyama, I., 1971. A model for the crustal deformation around volcanoes. J. Phys.
Earth, 19: 199-207.