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CHAPTER 34 RESPIRATION
LECTURE OUTLINE
34.1 Why Exchange Gases and What Are the Requirements for Gas Exchange?
A. The Exchange of Gases Supports Cellular Respiration
1. Respiration is the process by which organisms exchange gases with the environment
a. Oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is released
B. Gas Exchange Through Cells and Tissues Relies on Diffusion
1. All animal respiratory systems facilitate the diffusion of O2 and CO2 through three adaptations
a. Respiratory surfaces must remain moist
b. The respiratory surfaces are thin
c. Respiratory surfaces must have a large surface area
2. The movement of air across the respiratory surface is called bulk flow
34.4 How Does Gas Exchange Occur in the Human Respiratory System?
A. Gas Exchange Occurs in the Alveoli
1. Alveoli are sacs covered with capillaries (Figure 34-7b)
2. They contain a single layer of epithelial cells
a. Surfactant prevents the collapse of alveoli
3. The respiratory membrane consists of the alveolar wall and the capillary wall
KEY TERMS
alveolus (plural, alveoli) gas-exchange portion respiratory center
bronchiole gill respiratory membrane
bronchus (plural, bronchi) Heimlich maneuver respiratory system
bulk flow hemoglobin spiracle
conducting portion inhalation trachea (human)
countercurrent exchange larynx tracheae (insect)
diaphragm lung vocal cords
epiglottis pharynx
exhalation respiration
LECTURE ACTIVITIES
Section Reference
34.3 How Is Air Conducted Through the Human Respiratory System?
Introduction
In this activity, the students explore the forces associated with a forced exhalation in both a normal lung and the
lung of an emphysema patient. The students should be familiar with the anatomy of the lung and the structure
and function of the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
Materials Needed
• Handouts of the simplified pictures of the lungs (see the following pages)
• Transparency or overhead diagram of the anatomy of the human lung showing the pleural space
Procedures
Part I: Normal Lung
Hand out a copy of the picture for an exhalation in a normal lung to each student and orient them to the various
parts. Emphasize that this picture has been simplified for demonstration purposes.
The instructor should have a transparency or projected image of these pictures that can be shown to the class
during the activity.
Discuss the three forces that cause air to leave the lungs during exhalation: chest collapses, diaphragm moves
upward, and the lungs recoil like a rubber band. These forces put pressure on the lungs and the air is forced out.
Discuss what happens during a forced exhalation: additional forces added by contracting muscles to collapse
chest and abdomen.
Using simple numbers, work with the students to show how these forces work together to create the positive
pressures in the lungs that help expel the air.
Begin by having the students write a “40” in the box next to the CHEST WALL AND DIAPHRAGM label. This
will represent the value of these forces during exhalation.
Next, have the students write a “15” next to the ELASTIC LUNG label. This represents additional force placed
on the air in the lungs when the lung recoils like a rubber band during an exhalation.
ASK: “What would be the total force on the air in the alveoli?”
(The total force would be 55. Have the students write a “55” in the box inside the ALVEOLI.)
Explain that as this air is leaving the lung, it is entering larger and larger tubes (larger and larger bronchioles,
bronchi, and trachea).
ASK: “What is going to happen to the pressure of this air as it enters these larger and larger tubes?”
(The pressure will drop as it moves up the respiratory tree.)
A useful analogy to use here is to describe water flowing through a hose of a specific diameter under constant
pressure. If a hose with a much larger diameter is attached to the end of the smaller hose, what happens to the
water pressure as it moves into the larger hose?
Using the figure, have the students move up the tube to each box and drop the pressure by 5 as they go to
each one. The sequence should now read 55 – 50 – 45 – 40 – 35 – 30.
Have the students identify the point at which the pressure in the “tube” drops below the pressure exerted by
the CHEST WALL AND DIAPHRAGM.
ASK: “Why is this point significant?”
(Because the lungs are enclosed in the chest cavity, all of the bronchioles and bronchi feel the pressure exerted by the
chest during the forced exhalation. The result is that the chest could cause the tube to collapse when the pressure
inside the tube falls below the pressure exerted by the chest. The very force that helps expel the air can interfere with
its ability to leave the lungs. This “airway collapse” would interfere with a person’s ability to exhale.)
ASK: “Why do the airways in a normal lung not collapse when we perform a forced exhalation?
(In a normal lung, the point at which the pressure in the “tube” falls below the pressure exerted by the chest is very
high in the respiratory tree. If the students are familiar with the anatomy of the respiratory system, they will
remember that at these “high points,” the pathway is reinforced with semicircular bands of stiff cartilage that help
prevent these tubes from collapsing under pressure.)
At this point, the students should be able to explain why the airway in a normal lung does not collapse when a
forced exhalation is performed.
Move on to Part II to explore this concept in the lung of an emphysema patient.
Assessment Suggestions
None
Handouts or Display
See the following pages.
Section References
34.3 How Is Air Conducted Through the Human Respiratory System?
Health Watch: Smoking—A Life and Breath Decision
Introduction
In this activity, a case study is used to help students explore the role of the respiratory system and how smoking
can interfere with this function on multiple levels. Within this activity, the students are asked to make
connections to the earlier material on blood and circulation.
The case can be used prior to introducing respiration to encourage the students to explore material in the text
before it is introduced in class. If the case is to be used this way, more time must be devoted in class so that the
students have ample time to read and ask questions. Another possibility is to have the students complete the case
as an assignment prior to the introduction of material in the classroom.
Alternatively, the case can be used to encourage the application of concepts related to the respiratory and
cardiovascular systems after they have been presented in class. The case can be completed in small groups during
a class period or as an assignment done outside of class time.
Materials Needed
• A copy of the handout of the case and case questions to each student
• A copy of the textbook or other reference material on respiration and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD) for each student
Procedures
Several of the questions that follow the case challenge students to make connections to a variety of concepts. In
order to facilitate this process, it is helpful to have the students in small groups of three or four students to
encourage discussions.
After handing out the case, have a student in each group volunteer to read the case to their group and act as a
facilitator to work through the case questions and discuss the answers. It is important that the groups have the
textbook or other material on COPD available to use as a reference.
When the small groups have had 20–25 minutes to discuss the answers, the classroom can be reassembled
for a class discussion.
Have the groups take turns reporting question answers to the class and encourage other groups to add
additional information as the discussion continues.
Assessment Suggestions
None
Handouts or Display
See the following pages.
3. In the blood gas test, the oxygen measurement is reported as “saturation.” How is oxygen carried in the
blood, and what exactly is being “saturated” with oxygen?
(Oxygen in the blood is bound to a protein called hemoglobin that is carried in the red blood cells. As oxygen mixes
with blood, the hemoglobin becomes 100% “saturated” when there is no more room for oxygen to bind.)
4. Why does this person have low oxygen saturation? What is preventing him from having saturations in the
normal range?
(The fluid in the lungs is preventing the normal diffusion of oxygen from the air into the blood at the alveoli.
Less oxygen is diffusing into the blood of this patient and the amount of oxygen in the blood is lower than
normal.)
5. How does the abnormal oxygen saturation value relate to the patient’s cyanotic (blue) appearance?
(When oxygen binds to hemoglobin, this protein turns a bright red color. When hemoglobin is not bound to
oxygen, it is much darker and appears blue under the skin. The low oxygen saturation in this patient means that
there is more of the deoxygenated hemoglobin. This produces the blue appearance [cyanotic].)
6. How does the abnormal oxygen saturation value relate to the patient’s elevated heart rate?
(Because this patient is carrying an abnormally low level of oxygen in the blood, the heart must compensate by
moving the blood faster to deliver an adequate amount of oxygen to the tissues. This delivery rate can be
increased with an elevated heart rate.)
7. If you had to choose between emphysema and chronic bronchitis as your diagnosis, which would you
choose, and what evidence did you use to make this choice?
(Although these conditions often occur together, the more likely diagnosis is chronic bronchitis. The elevated
white blood cell count and fever suggest an infection. Emphysema is not an infection. Chronic bronchitis is a
persistent lung infection that produces the symptoms seen in this patient [cough, fever, excess mucus or fluid].)
8. Explain why doctors are using antibiotics and bronchodilators to treat this patient. How will these help to
improve this patient’s condition? (The term bronchodilator can be broken down into “broncho” and “dilator”
to understand its meaning.)
(A bronchodilator is a drug that helps relax the smooth muscle that surrounds the bronchioles and bronchi in
the lungs. This relaxation allows these tubes to dilate [open wider], which allows for more airflow. With greater
airflow, more air can be brought into the lungs to deliver more oxygen to the blood.
The antibiotics will help to treat the bacterial infection that is evident in the symptoms [fever, high white
blood cell count, mucus production]. The infection is the major contributing factor to the fluid accumulation in
this patient. By reducing the infection, oxygen delivery to the blood will become more efficient.)
1. What is hypertension? What is the likely cause of this patient’s hypertension? What is “average” blood
pressure, and how does this patient’s blood pressure compare?
2. A “blood gas test” was performed to measure oxygen levels. Explain why the blood was taken from an artery
(arterial) and not a vein.
3. In the blood gas test, the oxygen measurement is reported as “saturation.” How is oxygen carried in the
blood, and what exactly is being “saturated” with oxygen?
5. How does the abnormal oxygen saturation value relate to the patient’s cyanotic (blue) appearance?
6. How does the abnormal oxygen saturation value relate to the patient’s elevated heart rate?
7. If you had to choose between emphysema and chronic bronchitis as your diagnosis, which would you
choose, and what evidence did you use to make this choice?
8. Explain why doctors are using antibiotics and bronchodilators to treat this patient. How will these help to
improve this patient’s condition? (The term bronchodilator can be broken down into “broncho” and “dilator”
to understand its meaning.)
Section Reference
34.4 How Does Gas Exchange Occur in the Human Respiratory System?
Introduction
Henry’s law states that the amount of gas dissolved in a solution is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
over the solution. A bottle of soda helps demonstrate Henry’s law. When the bottle is opened to the air, the carbon
dioxide (CO2) in the mixture will slowly escape (diffuse) until the pressure of CO2 in the liquid is the same as the
pressure of CO2 in the air. The soda will then be “flat.” A bottle of soda opened on top of a mountain at 15,000 feet
will foam and overflow. The opposite will happen with soda opened under pressurized conditions. A champagne
cork won’t pop in a pressure chamber where air pressure is increased to five times what it would be in the air at
sea level.
Why do we not see this foaming action in our blood when it reaches the lungs? The answer is simple, but
students need to think about Henry’s law and how to apply it to this simple scenario. The gas dissolved in a soda
was forced into the solution under high pressure. As a bottle of soda sits on a shelf, it is not equalized with the
pressure in the room air. The cap on the bottle prevents this equalization from happening. When the cap is
opened, the CO2 diffuses into the room. The change from the dissolved form to the gaseous form can be seen with
the formation of bubbles. When the pressure inside the bottle is lost as the cap is removed, CO 2 within the fluid
column “comes out” of the solution as a gas bubble. This bubble rises to the top of the column and then escapes as
a gas into the air.
The gases dissolved in blood were not “forced” into the blood under pressure, and therefore the difference in
pressures is not as great as it would be in a soda bottle. Small gradients in concentration help account for the
movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide as we breathe, but these differences are small enough that we do not
experience “foaming” in the blood.
SCUBA divers face a problem that is similar to what is seen with a soda bottle. A diver breathes air that is
pressurized in a cylinder in a column of water where the external pressure increases as you go deeper. In this
case, the respiratory gases are entering the blood at much higher concentrations (partial pressures) than they
would be if you were simply breathing room air at sea level. When a diver returns to the surface, the gases come
out of solution because the external pressure decreases as you move into shallow water. The gases dissolved in
the blood under pressure will now diffuse back out as they equalize with the lower-pressure conditions. If a diver
ascends rapidly, the dissolved gases can come out of solution too quickly and form gas bubbles similar to what
you see with the bottle of soda. Nitrogen gas bubbles forming in the blood when a diver returns to the surface too
quickly is very dangerous and is responsible for a condition called the “bends.” To prevent this from happening,
divers are trained to return to the surface very slowly to allow the dissolved nitrogen to diffuse as a gas into the
lungs without the formation of bubbles in the blood. By the time the diver reaches the surface, the gases dissolved
in the blood are equalized with the air, and the danger is reduced. A small amount of this excess nitrogen remains
in the blood after the dive, and it may take some time before full equalization is achieved.
For more information on this condition, perform an Internet search using “the bends” as search terms.
Materials Needed
• Three 16-oz or 20-oz unopened sodas
• Paper towels
Procedures
1. Begin with a discussion on how CO2 is carried in the blood and why it leaves the blood and enters the air that
we exhale.
(This helps the students understand how a gas can dissolve in blood. Most students will be more
comfortable understanding how solids [such as salt] dissolve, but they may not understand the concept of
dissolved gases. A very simple chemical definition of a dissolved substance is one that exists as a molecule or
ion in water.)
2. Using one of the soda bottles, discuss how (and why) the CO2 dissolved in the soda is similar to blood.
3. Discuss Henry’s law (see Introduction above).
4. Open one of the soda bottles and have the students describe what is happening to the CO 2 and why it leaves
the soda and enters the air.
5. Discuss the problem faced by a SCUBA diver (see Introduction).
6. Gently shake the two remaining bottles of soda.
7. Using one of the bottles, discuss what happens when a diver returns to the surface too quickly and then open
the cap on the bottle and remove it (have some paper towels handy for cleanup).
8. The concept of the “bends” can be discussed as the bottle foams.
9. Using the other bottle, explain how divers returning to the surface can avoid the bends by ascending slowly.
Very gently “crack” open the cap on the bottle and let air escape as slowly as possible. If foaming does begin
to occur, the cap can be opened and closed several times to slowly release the pressure.
10. Have the students compare the amount of “foaming” that occurred between the two demonstrations and
emphasize why it is so important for a diver to return to the surface slowly.
Assessment Suggestions
None
Section Reference
34.4 How Does Gas Exchange Occur in the Human Respiratory System?
Introduction
Before beginning this activity, the students should be familiar with the concept of pH and the relationship
between pH and the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. In addition, the students should be
comfortable reading chemical equations like the one below.
This activity can be completed as a lecture demonstration or as a small-group activity. The activity is designed
to demonstrate the consequences of transporting carbon dioxide dissolved in plasma. When carbon dioxide reacts
with water, it forms an acid (carbonic acid). Excess amounts of this gas in the blood can cause a shift in pH if the
body is unable to compensate. When the body does not fully compensate, a condition called acidosis can result.
This activity explores this concept.
For nonmajors, it is often useful to explain that an equilibrium equation like the one you see above runs
“downhill” from the “high spot.” This type of language avoids the need for equilibrium calculations from actual
concentrations. For example, by adding additional CO2 into water, you are increasing the amount of this gas in the
solution. The left side of the equation becomes the “high spot” and runs “downhill” to the right. This drives the
production of H+ with the associated pH change. When excess bicarbonate is added, it creates a new “high spot”
and drives the reaction to the left. The concentration of H+ will fall and a pH change will be noted again.
To explore acidosis in more detail, perform an Internet search using “acidosis” as the search term.
Materials Needed
• Gloves
• Goggles
• Phenol red solution (see Procedures)
• Sodium bicarbonate, solid (NaHCO3)
• Test tubes
• Test tube racks
• Straws
• Textbook
Procedures
If this is being completed as a lecture demonstration, prepare a couple of test tubes of phenol red solution (filled
halfway) and place them in a test tube rack.
Il faut insister sur cette idée qu’en ne punissant pas les enfants,
on leur évite de mentir. En effet, ils emploient le mensonge comme
un bouclier. Ils se dissimulent derrière lui. C’est un moyen de cacher
la faute et d’éviter le châtiment. Si, lorsqu’ils ont commis une
maladresse, cassé quelque objet, ils savent qu’en l’avouant on ne
les grondera pas, qu’on ne les frappera pas, qu’on leur dira
simplement : « Ce n’est pas bien. Tâche de faire attention », qu’on
leur représentera le prix des choses, le soin qu’il en faut avoir, dans
ce cas-là, ils avoueront, ils ne mentiront pas. Ils auront acquis, pour
l’avenir, le précieux bénéfice de la franchise.
Argent.
Cette formule d’un fort banquier m’a toujours frappé et vaut qu’on
la creuse et la médite : « Si je n’étais pas honnête par nature, je le
serais par intérêt. »
Oui, c’est notre intérêt d’être honnête. C’est l’habileté suprême,
quoi qu’il y paraisse.
Ménage.
Une femme doit connaître à peu près le prix des choses que sa
cuisinière achète. Sans quoi, comment modérer la danse du panier ?
Un excellent entraînement pour l’adolescente, c’est d’accompagner
parfois la domestique aux Halles.
Et puis, il faut pouvoir au besoin mettre la main à la pâte,
connaître des principes et un peu de pratique culinaires. La patronne
qui réprimande sa cuisinière sans rien savoir du métier, manque
autant de prestige et frise autant le ridicule qu’un ingénieur qui
reprend un ouvrier sans pouvoir saisir l’outil et lui montrer comment
s’en servir.
De la parure.