Test Bank For Fundamentals of Management Canadian 8Th Edition by Robbins Isbn 0133856747 9780133856743 Full Chapter PDF

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Chapter 2 Environmental Contraints on Managers
1) The part of the environment that is directly relevant to achievement of an organization's goals
is the specific environment.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Type: TF Page Ref: 18
Skill: Recall
Objective: 2.1 What is the external environment for managers?
AACSB: Analytical Thinking
2) The term suppliers includes providers of financial and labour inputs.

Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
3) To a national television network like the CBC, your home DVD player could be considered a
competitor.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Applied
4) Economic conditions are part of the organization's specific environment.

Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
5) Demographic conditions are part of the organization's general environment.

39
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
6) Shareholders are defined as any constituency in the organization's external environment that
may be affected by the organization's decisions and actions.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
40
7) Millennials are referred to as competitive, idealistic, team players.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
8) The European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) have
both created regional trading alliances.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
Objective: 2.2 What challenges do managers face in a global environment?
AACSB: Application of Knowledge
9) The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed in 1992 to create the EU.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
10) Through the creation of the EU, each member country now has increased border controls,
nationalist policies, and protected industries.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Applied
11) The three original partners of NAFTA are Canada, the United States, and Mexico.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
12) NAFTA has strengthened the economic power of all three member countries.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
41
13) The World Trade Organization was formed in 1995 and evolved from the Maastricht Treaty,
an agreement in effect since the end of World War II.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
14) The legal/political environment is an important factor of managing in a foreign environment.

Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
15) Only when a country's legal/political environment is unstable or revolutionary is it of

concern to managers.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
16) Research indicates that organizational culture has a stronger impact on employees than
national culture.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
17) A planned economy is one in which resources are primarily owned and controlled by the
private sector.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
18) Power distance refers to the degree to which a society encourages people to be tough,
confrontational, assertive, and competitive.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
42
19) People in a society that is high in uncertainty avoidance don't feel threatened by uncertainty
and experience low levels of anxiety, stress, and aggressiveness.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
20) Canada is an example of a country with small power distance.

Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
AACSB: Diverse and Multicultural Work Environments
21) A society with high uncertainty avoidance relies on rules and trusts its social institutions to
deal with an uncertain future.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
22) Cultures with a high assertiveness rating tend to have people who are timid and shy.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
23) Multinational corporations became commonplace in the mid-1960s.

Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
Objective: 2.3 How do organizations do business globally?
24) By decentralizing management authority to the local country, the transnational corporation
reflects an ethnocentric attitude.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Applied
43
25) "Born globals" are companies that choose to go global from inception; they commit
resources up front (material, people, financing) to do business in more than one country.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
26) Multidomestic corporations use one strategy for all global operations based on the different
domestic influences that are present in the firm's original home market.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
27) Transnational corporations run their businesses from their home country.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
28) Global outsourcing refers to the practice of purchasing materials or labour from around the
world wherever it is cheapest.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
29) Importing is an approach to going global that involves making products at home and selling
them overseas.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
30) Setting up a foreign subsidiary involves a higher degree of risk and commitment than
franchising.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
44
31) Multinational corporations maintain significant operations in two or more countries
simultaneously.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
32) Transnational corporations run their businesses from their home country.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
33) When organizations go global, they often start by simply exporting products to one or more
foreign countries.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
34) After the outsourcing stage, companies that are going global often turn to exporting and
importing goods across international borders.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
35) Licensing and franchising typically follow the export-import phase of globalization.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
36) In a strategic alliance, companies join together to form a separate entity to produce a product.
Answer: FALSE
Skill: Recall
45
37) The Environmental Uncertainty Matrix ranges in complexity from "stable to dynamic" on the
horizontal axis and from "simple to complex" (degree of change) on the vertical axis.
Answer: TRUE
Skill: Recall
Objective: 2.4 How does the environment affect managers?
38) The external environment consists of the global environment, _.

A) organizational culture, and the general environment
B) specific environment, and the general environment
C) primary environment, and the secondary environment
D) primary environment, and the general environment
E) national culture, and the specific environment
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Type: MC Page Ref: 18
Skill: Recall
39) An organization's specific environment .

A) is unique and changes with conditions
B) is the same regardless of the organization's age
C) is determined by the top level of management
D) includes demographic and technological conditions that may affect the organization
E) includes economic and global conditions that may affect the organization
Answer: A
Skill: Recall
40) The specific environment of organizations consists of external forces that have a direct
impact on managers' decisions and actions. The main forces are customers, suppliers,
competitors, and .
A) legislators
B) pressure groups
C) employees
D) lawyers
E) shareholders
Answer: B
Skill: Recall
46
41) Which of the following is an example of a force in the general environment?
A) customers
B) demographics
C) suppliers
D) competitors
E) pressure groups
Answer: B
Skill: Recall
42) The primary goal of managers when dealing with suppliers is to ensure a steady flow of
.
A) cash from investors into the organization
B) inputs at the lowest price available
C) customers at the distribution outlets
D) industry entrants to help maximize the competition among suppliers
E) cheap labour to produce products at the lowest possible cost
Answer: B
Skill: Recall
43) For an amusement theme park like Paramount Canada's Wonderland in Toronto, an
insurance provider would be an example of which factor in its specific environment?
A) competitor
B) customer
C) pressure group
D) government agency
E) supplier
Answer: E
Skill: Applied
47
44) For an organization such as a hospital that needs nurses, the labour union and the local labour
market are examples of which factors in its specific environment?
A) pressure group and supplier
B) customer and special-interest group
C) both are examples of suppliers
D) government agency and competitor
E) pressure group and competitor
Answer: C
Skill: Applied
45) Which of the following is included in an organization's specific environment?

A) interest rates
B) government legislation
C) demographics
D) competitors
E) inflation
Answer: D
Skill: Applied
46) According to the textbook, the environment includes those external forces that
have a direct and immediate impact on managers' decisions and actions and are directly relevant
to the achievement of the organization's goals.
A) general
B) specific
C) secondary
D) forward
E) primary
Answer: B
Skill: Recall
48
47) United Parcel Service represents which factor to Canada Post in its specific environment?
A) competitor
B) supplier
C) customer
E) pressure group
Answer: A
Skill: Applied
48) Which of the following is an example of a secondary stakeholder?

A) customers
B) creditors
C) suppliers
D) media
E) shareholders
Answer: D
Skill: Applied
49) Why should organizations be concerned with managing external stakeholder relationships?
A) external stakeholders engage in direct transactions with the organization
B) they are sources of outputs (goods and services)
C) they are sources of inputs (resources)
D) it may lead to less environmental change
Answer: D
Skill: Recall
50) To a cable television provider like Shaw Cablesystems, a satellite TV company like Bell
would be considered a .
A) customer
B) supplier
C) pressure group
D) competitor
E) regulator
Answer: D
Skill: Applied
49
51) Neighbourhood activists who protest against the building of "big box" stores would be
considered which factor in the specific environment for Walmart or Home Depot?
A) competitor
B) pressure group
C) customer
E) supplier
Answer: B
Skill: Applied
AACSB: Ethical Understanding and Reasoning
52) The global environment of an organization includes which of the following?

A) demographic conditions
B) issues directly relevant to achieving organizational goals
C) stakeholders
D) suppliers
E) pressure groups
Answer: A
Skill: Recall
53) Which of the following is usually part of an organization's general environment?

A) weather conditions
B) political conditions
C) competitors
D) suppliers
E) pressure groups
Answer: B
Skill: Recall
50
54) Interest rates, inflation rates, and stock market indexes are all examples of what factor in an
organization's general environment?
A) economic
B) political
C) sociocultural
D) technological
E) legal
Answer: A
Skill: Recall
55) A downturn in contributions from the public to the United Way charity is an example of the
impact from what factor in the charity's general environment?
A) political
B) sociocultural
C) technological
D) economic
E) global
Answer: D
Skill: Applied
56) The Canadian Human Rights Act is an example of a .

A) sociolegal condition
B) political/legal condition
C) political/sociological condition
D) sociocultural condition
E) demographic condition
Answer: B
Skill: Applied
51
57) Which Act makes it illegal for employers to discriminate on the basis of race, national or
ethnic origin, colour, religion, age, sex, marital status, mental or physical disability, or sexual
orientation?
A) Canada's Human Rights Act
B) Canada's Employment Equity Act
C) Canada's Competition Act
D) Canada's Civil Liberties Act
E) Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Answer: A
Skill: Recall
58) Sociocultural conditions consist of the .

A) demographic profiles of an organization's suppliers
B) laws that govern human rights and the competitive activities of organizations in a society
C) level of unemployment and real economic incomes of workers
D) changing expectations of the society in which organizations operate
E) socialization processes that help to maintain organizational cultures
Answer: D
Skill: Recall
59) When researchers discovered a link between trans fatty acids and heart disease, many
consumers became concerned. As a result, Ontario-based Voortman's Cookies decided to
eliminate all trans fats from its products. Voortman's was responding to changing
conditions.
A) political/legal
B) economic
C) technological
D) sociocultural
E) competitive
Answer: D
Skill: Applied
52
60) As employees have begun to seek more balance in their lives, organizations have had to
adjust by offering family leave policies, more flexible work hours, and even on-site child care
facilities. This is an example of how changing conditions can affect an organization.
A) demographic
B) economic
C) sociocultural
D) technological
E) political/legal
Answer: C
Skill: Applied
61) As more consumers have become aware of the use of rendered feed and the poor treatment of
chickens in many large-scale poultry farms, some farm managers have switched to all-natural
feed and "free range" breeding methods. This is an example of how changing
conditions can affect an organization.
A) demographic
B) economic
C) sociocultural
D) technological
E) political/legal
Answer: C
Skill: Applied
62) Human resources managers are increasingly using the Internet to search for qualified
candidates through online résumé systems and job-posting websites. This is an example of how
changing conditions can affect an organization.
A) demographic
B) economic
C) sociocultural
D) technological
E) political/legal
Answer: D
Skill: Applied
AACSB: Information Technology
53
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its way. In Greenland, B. cordatus is very common in the dog, and probably also
in man, though few cases have been recorded. B. mansoni Cobb. (= B.
liguloides Leuck.) was, till recently, known only in the larval state from China and
Japan. Iijima, however, has found older specimens in the latter country. B.
cristatus Dav. is a species founded somewhat doubtfully on two fragments
found, one in a child, the other in a man, in France.
Occurrence of Cestodes in Domestic Animals.[103]—Among domestic

animals, the dog is, undoubtedly, the most frequently attacked by Taeniae. Six
species of Taenia (T. serrata, marginata, coenurus, echinococcus, krabbei, and
possibly T. serialis), Dipylidium caninum (the commonest form), Mesocestoides
lineatus, and three or four species of Bothriocephalus have been found in the
dog. The table of life-histories (p. 83) shows that sheep, rabbits and other
Rodents serve as the intermediate hosts, in which the cystic stages of the
species of Taenia are found. Hence the prevalence of T. serrata in a given
locality is connected with the abundance there of the rabbit and hare, in which
the larva (Cysticercus pisiformis) occurs. Bothriocephalus cordatus develops
from the young stage present in the fish which the Icelanders give to their dogs.
In Iceland and certain parts of Australia T. echinococcus infests one-third to one-
half the number of dogs examined; a fact connected with the frequency of
Echinococcus in man in these countries.
In sheep the most noteworthy and dangerous parasite is Coenurus cerebralis (or
the cystic stage of the dog-taenia, T. coenurus), which gives rise to the disease
known as "gid" or "staggers." It is found in various parts of the brain or spinal
cord, and the symptoms differ according to the position of the parasite. If this
presses upon one hemisphere the sheep describes circles and finally falls: if on
the optic lobes, the eyes are affected: if the pressure affects the cerebellum the
movements of the sheep are uncertain and incoordinated. Four or six weeks
after the appearance of the symptoms, death results from cerebral paralysis, or
from general debility, and the loss of sheep incurred by this disease (happily less
frequent in England than formerly) has been calculated by Youatt at a million for
France annually; at 35 per cent of the flocks for England in bad seasons; and
about 2 per cent for Germany. Besides sheep, which are most subject to "gid"
during their first year, various ruminants—Goat, Ox, Moufflon, Chamois, Roe,
Antelope, Reindeer, Dromedary—are attacked in the same way. A similar form,
Coenurus serialis Baill., is common in the wild rabbit in this country, and in
Australia in the hare and squirrel. It forms large swellings in the connective
tissue of various parts of the body, but usually does not affect the health of the
host. It is not known in what carnivore Taenia serialis Baill. normally occurs.
Experiments have, however, shown that it develops rapidly in dogs.
The preventive measures which are steadily diminishing the prevalence of the
Cestode parasites in man in some parts of Western Europe cannot be dealt with
here, but it may be noticed that the Jewish observance with regard to swine is
the surest preventive measure against taeniasis and trichinosis. Careful
inspection of meat and general cleanliness, are the leading measures that in
these hygienic matters secure the greatest immunity from disease.
Table of the Life-Histories of the principal Cestodes of Man and the

Domestic Animals.
Cestode. Final host. Larva. Intermediate host.

Rabbit, Hare, Mice
Taenia serrata Cysticercus
Dog (liver and
Goeze pisiformis Zed.
peritoneum)
Monkeys,
Cyst. tenuicollis Ruminants,
T. marginata Batsch Dog, Wolf
Rud. Ungulates (in
peritoneum)
T. saginata Goeze
(= Ox, Giraffe (in
Man Cyst. bovis Cobb.
T. mediocanellata muscles)
Küch.)
Pig, Man,
Cyst. cellulosae
Monkeys, Bear,
Rud. (? Cyst.
T. solium Rud. Man Dog, Cat, Black
acanthotrias
Rat (in various
Weinl.)
organs)
Cat and
other Cyst. fasciolaris Rat, Mouse, Bat
T. crassicollis Rud.
Felidae, Rud. (liver)
Stoat
Brain of Sheep,
Ox, Goat,
Dog, Arctic Coenurus
T. coenurus Küch. Dromedary,
Fox cerebralis Rud.
Camel,
Antelope, Horse
Coenurus serialis Rabbit (connective
T. serialis Baill. ? Dog
Baill. tissue)
T. echinococcus Dog, Dingo, Echinococcus Man, Monkeys,
v. Sieb. Jackal, polymorphus many
Wolf Dies.(incl. Carnivores,
Rodents,
E. multilocularis Ungulates,
found in Man) Ruminants, and
Marsupials; also
in Turkey and
other birds
Moniezia expansa Sheep, Ox,
Unknown
Rud. Goat, etc.
Thysanosoma Sheep,
Unknown
fimbriata Dies. Cervidae
Stilesia
Sheep Unknown
globipunctata Riv.
Anoplocephala
Horse Unknown
perfoliata Goeze
Dipylidium caninum
Cysticercoid larva Body-cavity of
L. (= Taenia
Man, Dog, (Fig. 43), Trichodectes
cucumerina Bloch
Cat Cryptocystis and Pulex of
= T. elliptica
trichodectis Vill. Dog
Batsch)
Cercocystis Vill.
Hymenolepis [104] (develops
Mouse, Rat Usually absent
murina Duj. in parental
host)
H. nana v. Sieb. Man Unknown
Meal-moth, Asopia
H. diminuta Rud. (= (Pyralis)
Man,
Taenia farinalis; also
Mouse, Cercocystis Vill.
flavopunctata certain
Rat
Weinl.) Orthoptera and
Coleoptera
The Ostracods
Candona
Duck, rostrata and
Drepanidotaenia
Goose, Cercocystis Vill. Cypris
gracilis Zed.
Wild Duck compressa, and
also Cyclops
viridis
Cypris
D. anatina Krabbe Duck " " incongruens,
and also Perch
Cyclops
D. setigera Fröh. Goose " "
brevicaudatus
D. infundibuliformis Common
" " House-fly
Goeze Fowl
Dicranotaenia Duck " " Cypris ovum
coronula Duj.
Davainea ? Limax cinereus,
Fowl " "
proglottina Dav. L. agrestis
D.
madagascariensis Children Unknown
Dav.
D. friedbergeri
Pheasant Unknown ? Ants
v. Linst.
Mesocestoides
Dog Unknown
lineatus Goeze
Probably first
enters an
Plerocercoid, i.e
Invertebrate
Bothriocephalus Man, Dog, solid, elongate
host, which is
latus Brems. ? Cat larva, with no
eaten by Pike,
bladder
Perch, Trout,
etc.
Fig. 40.—A, Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) infested by an advanced larva

of Schistocephalus solidus Crepl. B, The larva. All × 1½. (From specimens in
the Cambridge University Museum.)
Structure and Development of Cestoda.[105]—Of the unsegmented Cestodes,

Caryophyllaeus mutabilis, from the intestine of carp and other Cyprinoid fishes,
is the most easily accessible form. Triaenophorus nodulosus, which is very
useful for the study of the excretory system, occurs mature in the pike. In the
body-cavity of the Stickleback (Fig. 40) a large, broad, yellow worm may
sometimes be found, the larva of Schistocephalus solidus Crepl., which occurs
in the intestine of Terns, Storks, Mergansers, and other birds. Species of Ligula
are found in the same birds. The intestine of a Lophius or Cyclopterus ("lump-
fish") contains, usually, the early and intermediate stages of various Cestodes,
while the alimentary canal of Elasmobranchs often contain many peculiar
Tetrarhynchidae and other forms. For the study of development, the Taenia
anatina from the duck may be used. The ripe proglottides are collected, and the
eggs placed with Cypris ovum in an aquarium, with the probability that some of
the embryos will enter the Ostracod, and the peculiar Cysticercoid may be bred.
[106] Cysticercus pisiformis and Coenurus serialis, which occur commonly in
rabbits, are also suitable objects for examination.
A Cestode such as Echinobothrium (Fig. 36) is divisible into head and

proglottides. Moniez has suggested that the head is really the morphologically
hinder end of the body, in which case the formation of proglottides would closely
resemble the mode of segmentation of an Annelid larva. The close similarity,
however, between the Cysticercoid larva (Fig. 43, F) and the Cercaria of a liver-
fluke, seems to show that the anterior end is the same in both cases, and since
it bears the central part of the nervous system, we may reasonably call it the
"head." Moreover the hinder end of a Platyhelminth usually possesses the chief
excretory pore. Another difficulty is the determination of dorsal and ventral
surfaces. Authors are agreed,—on the analogy of Trematodes, in which the
testes are usually dorsal and the ovaries ventral,—that the dorsal and ventral
aspects of a Cestode are determined by the position of these organs, although
the often radially formed "head," the lateral or superficial position of the genital
apertures, and the variability of these features, render it a matter of considerable
doubt whether "dorsal" and "ventral" are more than useful conventional terms.
The suckers and hooks are borne on a muscular cap, the "rostellum," which is
only slightly developed in the Ichthyotaeniae. The body is solid, and is divisible
into an outer muscular coat—enveloped in a (possibly epidermal) investing
membrane—and an inner parenchymatous tissue containing the chief part of the
excretory, nervous, and reproductive systems. One or two pairs of longitudinal
excretory vessels are present, usually connected by transverse ducts and
opening by a single terminal pore. Occasionally a regularly paired arrangement
of lateral or secondary pores is present (Figs. 38 and 41, for.sec). Flame-cells
occur at the end of the fine tubules (Fig. 38), and the whole system is well
developed, but may undergo degenerative changes in the older proglottides.
The central nervous system varies according to the degree of differentiation of
the rostellum; and, owing to the difficulty of staining the nerves and the
contradictory statements of authors, we do not yet possess a fully reliable
account of the nervous system even of the commoner Taeniae. Free nerve
endings and other sensory terminations have been recently stated to exist in the
cuticle of Cestodes and Trematodes. If true, this would tend to show that the
parasitic mode of life of these animals demands a complex nervous system
comparable with that of the Turbellaria.
Fig. 41.—Diagrammatic transverse section of Schistocephalus solidus Crepl., from
the Wild-duck, illustrative of the Cestodes with uterine aperture (uto). × 12.
cs, Cirrus-sac; for.sec, one of the paired lateral openings of the excretory
vessels; ln, longitudinal nerve; ov, ovary; ovd, oviduct; par.m,
parenchymatous muscles; r.sem, receptaculum seminis; sh.gl, shell-gland; te,
testes; ut, uterus; uto, uterine pore; vag, vagina; vd, vasa deferentia; yd, yolk-
duct; yg, yolk-glands (black); ♂ , male, ♀ , female genital aperture. (After
Riehm.)
The reproductive organs, unlike the preceding systems, are discontinuous from
one proglottis to the next. The male and female organs and their mutual
connexions, especially in the unsegmented Cestodes, may be compared in
detail with those of Trematodes, but the difference between the arrangement of
the generative organs of various Cestodes is very great.[107] The penis (Fig. 41,
cs) is evaginated through the male pore (Fig. 41, ♂ ), and inserted far into the
vagina (♀, vag) of the same or another segment of the tape-worm.
Fig. 42.—A, Free-swimming, six-hooked larva of Bothriocephalus latus Brems.

(the broad tape-worm of Man), still enclosed in a ciliated (possibly cellular)
double membrane or mantle. In this condition it may continue to live in water
for a week or more, but eventually throws off its ciliated coat (as in B) and
commences to creep about vigorously by the aid of its hooks, in search of its
first host, which is at present unknown. (After Schauinsland.) × 600.
From this fact and the anatomical relations of the vagina, it is becoming
increasingly probable that the so-called uterus of Trematodes is an organ
corresponding to the vagina of Cestodes, and not to the uterus of Cestodes. The
latter opens to the exterior in Schistocephalus, Bothriocephalus, and some other
Cestodes of fishes by a special pore (Fig. 41, uto). Through this, some of the
eggs (which in these genera give rise to ciliated larvae) are enabled to escape,
and need not wait for the detachment of the proglottis, as must happen in the
Taeniidae, where the uterus is closed. This uterus, a true physiological one, is
probably the homologue of the "canal of Laurer" ("Laurer-Stieda canal," or
"vagina") of Trematoda. The fertilised ovum and yolk are brought together into
the "ootype," where the shell-gland forms the egg-shell around them (Fig. 41,
sh.gl) and the egg is then passed into the uterus. The ovum segments to form a
minute six-hooked larva, which may (Bothriidae, Fig. 42) or may not (Taeniidae)
be ciliated. Thus in Taenia serrata the proglottides are shed with the faeces of
the host (dog), and they protect the young from the desiccating influence of the
surroundings. If inadvertently eaten by a rabbit along with herbs, the proglottis
and larval envelope are digested, and by its six hooks the tiny larva bores
through the gastric wall into the portal vein, and so into the liver. Here the hooks
are thrown off, and the solid mass of cells becomes vacuolated.
Fig. 43.—Stages in the development of Dipylidium caninum L. (= Taenia elliptica

Batsch, T. cucumerina Bloch), the commonest of the Dog-Taeniae; compare
Fig. 44. A, Six-hooked larva (now often spoken of as an "Onchosphaera"); B,
larva elongating; formation of a central lacuna; C, larva further advanced; D,
distinction between body and tail is visible; E, invagination of the rostellum is
commencing; F, Cysticercoid larva with four suckers, invaginated rostellum,
and excretory vessels. c, Calcareous concretions in cells of the larva; ex.o,
excretory aperture; ex.v, excretory vessels; inv, invagination commencing;
rost, rostellum; sc, suckers. (After Grassi and Rovelli; highly magnified.)
Fig. 44.—Schematic longitudinal sections through the larvae of Dipylidium

caninum L. All these stages are passed in the body-cavity of the Dog-flea
(Pulex serraticeps). (Compare Fig. 43 for further details.) A, Six-hooked larva
with developing rostellum (shaded) and suckers (black). In this species the
invagination (C, invag.) occurs after the formation of these organs, and not,
as in most Taeniae, before it. B, Invagination commencing; the hooks are
developing above the rostellum, while beneath it the nervous system (dotted)
is seen. C, The invagination has now carried the suckers inwards. The tail
has become distinct, and the whole larva at this stage is known as a
Cysticercoid. hk, Larval hooks; invag, mouth of the invagination; n, central
nervous system; rost, rostellum and hooks; sc, suckers, of which only two
can be seen in a longitudinal section; four are really present. (After Grassi
and Rovelli.)
At one pole an invagination occurs, at the bottom of which the rostellum,

suckers, and hooks are gradually formed, but inside out as compared with the
head of the Taenia serrata. At this stage the larva (Cysticercus pisiformis) has
usually issued from the liver and attached itself to the omentum. The
invagination projects into the cavity of the bladder, within which a watery fluid
accumulates. Thus the "bladder worm" is formed, the head of which is
evaginated if the larva be introduced into the digestive system of a dog. The
bladder and neck of invagination are digested, while the head, protected by
these, remains, and forms the neck, from which the proglottides are afterwards
segmented off. In Taenia (Hymenolepis) murina the whole development may
take place in the parental host, the larva living in the villi, the adults in the cavity
of the same rat's intestine (Grassi). The different forms of Cestode larvae
depend largely upon the presence and degree of development of the caudal
vesicle or bladder, which in Scolex polymorphus (Fig. 38) (the young stage of
Calliobothrium filicolle Zsch.) is practically absent. If the bladder be small, the
larva is known as a Cysticercoid. For example, the common Dipylidium caninum,
which lives in the dog, has such a larva, the development of which is explained
and illustrated by Figs. 43 and 44. The bladder becomes exceeding capacious in
Coenurus and Echinococcus.
Table for the Discrimination of the more usual Cestodes of Man and
Domestic Animals.[108]
I. Scolex in most cases with hooks; uterus with a median and lateral
branches; yolk-glands simple, median; genital pore single; dorsal
excretory vessel narrower than the ventral, without a circular
commissural trunk; eggs without pyriform apparatus (processes of the
ovarian membrane)
Gen. Taenia L. (s. str.)
A. Genital ducts pass on the ventral side of the
nerve and of the two longitudinal excretory
vessels T. crassicollis Rud.
B. Genital ducts pass between the dorsal and ventral longitudinal vessels.
a. Nerve present on dorsal side of genital ducts.
α. Head armed T. solium Rud.
β. Head unarmed T. saginata Goeze.
b. Nerve on ventral side of genital ducts.
Dog-Taeniae[109]
Head armed; genital pore marginal and
— Single
Many proglottides; strobila several centimetres long; small hooks
with guard.
Bifid hooks, which are
— 230µ-260µ long[110]; genital pore very
distinct T. serrata Goeze.
— 136µ-157µ long; genital pore not very
salient T. serialis Ball.
Entire large hooks, which are
— 180µ-220µ long; length of mature
segments double their width T. marginata Batsch.
— 150µ-170µ long; length of mature
segments treble their width T. coenurus Küch.
3-4 segments; a few mm. long T. echinococcus
v. Sieb.
— Double and bilateral Dipylidium caninum
L.
Head unarmed; two genital pores on ventral Mesocestoides
surface lineatus Goeze.
II. Scolex without hooks; one or two transverse uteri present; one or two
genital pores and yolk-glands, the latter never median; genital ducts
pass on the dorsal side of the nerve; eggs with pyriform apparatus.
A. One transverse uterus present.
a. Uterus with bullate egg-sacs; pyriform apparatus without horns; genital
ducts between dorsal and ventral vessels
Thysanosoma Dies.
α. Head large (1.5 mm.); square lobed testes in median field; posterior
margin of segments fimbriated; genital pore double
T. fimbriata Dies.
β. Head small; no fimbriae; pore rarely double T. giardii Riv.
b. Uterus without saccular dilatations; segments Anoplocephala E.
short, thick, and slightly imbricate Blanch.
Horse-Taeniae.
α. Head very large A. plicata
— No posterior lobes Zed.
— Four posterior lobes A. perfoliata
Goeze.
β. Head small, without posterior lobes A. mamillana Mehl.
B. Two uteri and two genital pores present; horns of pyriform apparatus
well developed; genital ducts pass on the dorsal side of the
longitudinal vessels
Moniezia R. Bl.
a. Interproglottidal glands [111] arranged in linear series (planissima
group)
M. planissima S. and H. M. benedeni Mz. M. neumani Mz.
b. Interproglottidal glands saccular (expansa group)
M. expansa Rud. M. oblongiceps S. and H. M. trigonophora S. and H.
c. Interproglottidal glands absent (denticulata M. denticulata Rud.
group) M. alba Perr.
C. Uterus single or double, without spore-like egg-sacs; eggs with a single
shell; genital pores irregularly alternate; strobila narrow; testes absent
from median part of the field
Stilesia Raill.
a. A transverse uterus in middle part of median S. centripunctata
field; head 2 mm. diameter Riv.
b. Two lateral uteri in each segment; head less
than 1 mm. in diameter S. globipunctata Riv.
III. Scolex almost invariably provided with hooks; genital pores on left border
of segment; eggs with three shells but no cornua. Segments broader
than long; posterior angles salient.
Hymenolepis Weinl.
a. Scolex with a single series of 24-30 hooks, each 14-18µ long
H. nana v. Sieb. H. murina Duj.
b. Scolex very small, unarmed H. diminuta Rud.
IV. Scolex provided with two elongated muscular pits. Body segmented; three
genital apertures in middle of ventral surface
Bothriocephalus Rud.
Body 2-20 metres in length
B. latus Brems. B. cristatus Dav. (doubtful species). B. cordatus Leuck. B.
mansoni Cobb. (= B. liguloides Leuck.)
Classification of Cestodes.—The following classification, which, so far as the

Taeniidae are concerned, follows that employed by Railliet, Blanchard, and most
recent writers, includes only a few representative genera:—
1. Fam. Cestodariidae Mont. (Monozoa Lang).

Gen. Caryophyllaeus, Archigetes, Gyrocotyle, Amphilina.
2. Fam. Bothriocephalidae.
Sub-Fam. 1. Bothriocephalinae. Gen. Bothriocephalus, Schistocephalus,
Triaenophorus (= Tricuspidaria).
Sub-Fam. 2. Ligulinae. Gen. Ligula.
Sub-Fam. 3. Solenophorinae. Gen. Solenophorus, Duthiersia.
Sub-Fam. 4. Diphyllinae. Gen. Echinobothrium.
3. Fam. Tetrarhynchidae.
Gen. Tetrarhynchus.
4. Fam. Tetraphyllidae.
Sub-Fam. 1. Phyllobothrinae. Gen. Phyllobothrium, Echeneibothrium,
etc.
Sub-Fam. 2. Phyllacanthinae. Gen. Calliobothrium, Anthobothrium, etc.
5. Fam. Taeniidae.
Sub-Fam. 1. Cystotaeninae. Gen. Taenia s. str.
Sub-Fam. 2. Anoplocephalinae. Gen. Moniezia, Thysanosoma, Stilesia,
Anoplocephala.
Sub-Fam. 3. Cystoidotaeninae. Gen. Dipylidium, Hymenolepis,
Drepanidotaenia, Dicranotaenia, Echinocotyle, Davainea.
Sub-Fam. 4. Mesocestoidinae. Gen. Mesocestoides, Dithyridium.
Sub-Fam. 5. Ichthyotaeninae. Gen. Ichthyotaenia, Corallobothrium.
CHAPTER IV
MESOZOA
DICYEMIDAE—STRUCTURE—REPRODUCTION—OCCURRENCE: ORTHONECTIDAE—
OCCURRENCE—STRUCTURE: TRICHOPLAX: SALINELLA.
The Mesozoa are an obscure group, the position of which in the animal kingdom
is still doubtful. The name Mesozoa was given to the group by its discoverer, E.
van Beneden,[112] as he concluded that they were intermediate between the
Protozoa and the higher Invertebrates. Recent authors, however, have called
attention to the resemblance existing between them and the "sporocysts" of
Trematodes, and though we still are ignorant of certain important points in their
life-histories, the Mesozoa are most conveniently (and probably rightly)
considered as an appendix to the Platyhelminthes.
Fig. 45.—A, B, C, Stages in the development of the vermiform larva in Dicyema

typus van Ben. (After Ed. van Beneden.) cal, "Calotte"; gc, germinal cell; n,
nucleus of endodermal cell.
The animals composing this group are minute and parasitic, and are composed
of a small number of cells. They may be divided into two families: the
Dicyemidae, which occur exclusively in the kidneys of certain Cephalopods
(cuttle-fish); and the Orthonectidae, which live in the brittle-star Amphiura
squamata, the Nemertine Nemertes lacteus, or the Polyclad Leptoplana
tremellaris. In addition to the undoubted Mesozoa, certain anomalous forms—
Trichoplax adhaerens and Salinella salve—may be referred to this group.
Fig. 46.—Dicyemennea eledones Wag., from the kidney of Eledone moschata. A,

Full-grown Rhombogen with infusoriform embryos (emb); B, one of the latter
developing; C, fully formed; D, calotte, composed of the upper nine cells
shown in the figure. (After Ed. van Beneden and Whitman.) emb, Infusoriform
embryo; g, part of endoderm-cell where formation of these embryos is rapidly
proceeding; n.ect, nucleus of ectoderm-cell; n.end, nucleus of endoderm-cell;
p, "calotte."
Dicyemidae.—If the kidney of Eledone moschata, a Cephalopod common on

our south-western shores, be opened, a number of fine, yellowish, hair-like
filaments may be seen attached at one end to its inner surface, floating in the
fluid contained in the renal cavity. These may be Dicyemennea eledones Wag.,
although another form, Dicyema moschatum Whit., also occurs in the same
host. D. eledones (Fig. 46) is 7 to 9 mm. long, transparent, and is composed of
one large inner cell with a simple nucleus (Fig. 46, n.end), and of an outer layer
of ciliated cells, nine of which form the "calotte" or pole by which the animal is
attached. Within the former (endodermal) cell the formation of urn-shaped
"infusoriform embryos" takes place (B and C), the fate of which is not known, but
they are possibly the males. The individual which produces these larvae is called
a "Rhombogen." Other individuals which produce a more elongated larva
("vermiform larva," Fig. 45) are called "Nematogens," and Whitman has
described a third kind, which produce first infusoriform, and then vermiform,
larvae (Secondary Nematogens).[113]
The occurrence of the known species of Dicyemids (a group which has not been
investigated on our coasts) is as follows:—
Species. Host.
Dicyema typus van Ben. Octopus vulgaris.
D. clausianum van Ben. O. macropus.
D. microcephalum Whit. O. de Filippi.
D. moschatum Whit. Eledone moschata.
D. macrocephalum van Ben. Sepiola rondeletii.
D. truncatum Whit. Rossia macrosoma, Sepia elegans, S.
officinalis.
D. schultzianum van Ben. S. biseralis, Octopus vulgaris.
Dicyemennea eledones Wag. Eledone moschata, E. aldrovandi.
D. mülleri Clap. E. cirrosa.
D. gracile Wag. Sepia officinalis.
Conocyema polymorphum S. officinalis, Octopus vulgaris.
van Ben.
Orthonectida.[114]—Two species of Orthonectids are fairly well known,

Rhopalura giardii Metschn. from Amphiura squamata, and R. intoshii Metschn.
from Nemertes lacteus. The latter appears to be very rare, the former occurring
in 2 to 5 per cent of the number of hosts examined. The parasites occur in a
granular "plasmodium," the nature of which is uncertain. Metschnikoff regards it
as formed by the Orthonectids, and he considers that the cellular envelope, by
which it is sometimes enclosed, is developed from the neighbouring tissue of the
host. These granular, sometimes nucleated, plasmodial masses, which can
perform active amoeboid movements in sea-water, occur attached to the ventral
part of the body-cavity of Amphiura, and between the gut-branches and body-
wall in Nemertes. Should these hosts be infected by great numbers of the
Orthonectids, their sexual organs degenerate (as is the case with pond-snails
attacked by sporocysts[115]), and it is possible that the remains of these organs
may constitute the "plasmodia" (Braun).
Rhopalura giardii is of distinct sexes. Either males or females are found in one
Amphiura. Two kinds of females, flattened unsegmented, and cylindrical
segmented forms, are known. They consist of a ciliated ectodermal layer
enclosing an endodermal mass of eggs, between which is a fibrillar layer usually
considered to be of a muscular nature. The cylindrical female gives rise to eggs
which develop, probably exclusively, into males. The flattened female produces
eggs from which females alone arise, though the origin of the two forms of this
sex is not well ascertained. The males contain spermatozoa which fertilise the
eggs of the cylindrical female, whereas the ova of the flat form probably develop
parthenogenetically.
Fig. 47.—Rhopalura giardii Metschn. (from the brittle-star Amphiura squamata). ♂,

Full-grown male (× 800); ♀ 1, flattened form of female (× 510); ♀ 2, cylindrical
female (× 510). (After Julin.)
Trichoplax.[116]—This anomalous animal has only been found in aquaria,

originally in the marine aquarium at Graz by Schulze. It has the appearance of a
large, flattened, ciliated Amoeba (1.5-3 mm. in diameter), but is distinguished by
its structure. The upper surface is composed of a flattened epithelium. The lower
surface is made up of cylindrical ciliated cells, which pass imperceptibly into the
branched cells, embedded in a hyaline matrix, which compose the middle layer
of the body. No distinct organs, and beyond simple fission, no mode of
reproduction, have been observed. One species, T. adhaerens, is known, but
has never been met with in a free state.
Salinella.[117]—This is another aquarium-animal, found by Frenzel in the

Argentine, in an artificial saline solution with which he filled some aquaria. It
measures .2 mm. in length, and has a somewhat flattened, barrel-shaped
appearance. A single layer of ciliated cells bounds a central cavity opening at
each end. Fission, and conjugation followed by encystment, have been
observed. One form, S. salve, is known from salines taken from Cordova.
NEMERTINEA
BY
LILIAN SHELDON
Staff Lecturer in Natural Science, Newnham College, Cambridge.
CHAPTER V
NEMERTINEA
INTRODUCTORY—EXTERNAL CHARACTERS—ANATOMY—CLASSIFICATION—
DEVELOPMENT—HABITS—REGENERATION—BREEDING—GEOGRAPHICAL
DISTRIBUTION—LAND, FRESH-WATER, AND PARASITIC FORMS—AFFINITIES
The Nemertinea form a compact group, the affinities of which have not been at
present clearly determined. Several species were mentioned and described in
the works of various naturalists during the latter half of the eighteenth century,
though their anatomy was not understood until considerably later. The first
mention of any member of the group was made by the Rev. W. Borlase in his
Natural History of Cornwall, published in 1758. He gives a short description and
a rough figure of Lineus marinus. From that time the increase in the knowledge
of the group was very gradual. New species were from time to time described,
but few of the descriptions could boast of much completeness, and many
erroneous views were held until comparatively recent years. The group was very
variously classified, but the general arrangement in early times seems to have
been to unite it with the Planarians. Valuable contributions to the history of the
development were made in 1848 and the few subsequent years by Desor,[118]
Gegenbaur,[119] Krohn,[120] and Leuckart and Pagenstecher[121]; and more
recently by Metschnikoff[122] and Salensky.[123]
Nemertines for the most part closely resemble one another in all essential
points, though they differ considerably in size, colour, and external details. They
vary in length from less than an inch to thirty yards, this extreme size being
attained by Lineus marinus.
Fig. 48.—Lineus marinus Mont., from the living specimen in the coiled condition.
Plymouth. × 1. a, Anterior end; b, posterior end.
Fig. 49.—L. marinus, from the same specimen as Fig. 48, in the expanded
condition. a, Anterior end; b, posterior end.
Nemertines are common on the British coasts; about forty species have been
recorded from this area. On turning over a stone on a sandy or muddy shore in a
pool left by the receding tide, there may often be seen a coiled mass, having the
appearance of a uniform slimy string twisted into a complicated knot. If it be
carefully removed, the ends can generally be made out, one bluntly rounded and
the other slightly tapering (Fig. 48, a and b). Occasionally there may be seen
attached to the blunter end a fine thread, which moves about freely. This thread
may, by an instantaneous movement, be drawn into the body, no trace of its
existence being left except at the tip of the head, where a small pore is visible;
this is the orifice through which it was withdrawn. Shortly afterwards the thread
may be again shot out, the process being instantaneous and often accomplished
with great force. This thread (Fig. 50, p) is the proboscis, a very important and
characteristic organ in Nemertines.
Most Nemertines are marine; they are mostly indifferent to climate and to the
nature of the soil on which they live.
A few forms live on land (e.g. Tetrastemma agricola,[124] Geonemertes

palaensis,[125] and G. chalicophora[126]) or in fresh water (e.g. Tetrastemma
aquarum dulcium[127] and T. lacustre[128]) in various parts of the globe. There
are also parasitic forms; the best known of which is Malacobdella.[129] A pelagic
form, Pelagonemertes,[130] has been described by Moseley.
Fig. 50.—Side view of head of Cerebratulus (Micrura) tristis Hubr., showing the
everted proboscis. Naples. × 2. Drawn from a spirit specimen. c.s, Cephalic
slit; m, mouth; p, proboscis.
External Characters.—A typical Nemertine possesses an elongated worm-like

body (Fig. 49), which is usually thrown into numerous close coils (Fig. 48). In
section it may be either round or more or less flattened, with the lateral edges in
some cases quite thin and almost fin-like. One or two broad, flattened, and leaf-
shaped forms are known, but such a condition is exceptional, and the forms in
which it occurs have probably assumed it owing to the adoption of special
modes of life.
In the ordinary forms the posterior end of the body is pointed either bluntly or
sharply. The head is somewhat broader than the rest of the body, and often
assumes a spatulate form. Eyes (Fig. 51, e) are usually present either in one or
several pairs, or in symmetrically-arranged groups on each side of the head. The
mouth (Fig. 58, m) is situated near the front end of the body on the ventral
surface, and is usually rendered conspicuous by being surrounded by thick
tumid lips. It varies in form from being slit-like to elliptical. At the anterior end of
the body a small terminal pore occurs; this is the external opening of the
proboscis (Fig. 51, p.p).
Nemertines are often very diversely and brilliantly coloured, the hues most
commonly found being white, yellow, green, deep purple, and various shades of
red and pink. The ventral surface is usually paler in colour than the dorsal, and
the latter is often marked by longitudinal and transverse stripes (Fig. 59) in
contrasting colours.
The whole animal is enveloped in a layer of mucus, which sometimes becomes

hardened to form a tube, and this may be still further strengthened by an
admixture of particles of sand or earth.
The body is capable to a great extent of contraction and extension, a Nemertine

many inches long being apt, when irritated or alarmed, to contract itself to the
length of not more than half an inch. Hence, unless the animal is kept and
carefully watched, a very erroneous idea may be conceived as to its size.
Anatomy.—The body-wall consists of several layers (Fig. 52), which in a typical

highly-developed Nemertine are as follows:—
1. An external epidermic layer (ep), consisting of ciliated cells, among which are
placed numerous unicellular glands. These glands probably secrete the mucus
in which the Nemertine is usually enveloped; their contents when in the body are
very highly refracting. The epidermis rests on a basement membrane (b.m).
2. The two or three muscular layers, arranged as either an external circular and
an internal longitudinal, or an inner and an outer circular separated by a
longitudinal layer, or, as in the figure (c.m and l.m), two longitudinal separated by
a circular layer.
Fig. 51.—Amphiporus lactifloreus Johnst., drawn from the living specimen, from
the dorsal surface. Plymouth. × 2. e, Eyes; g, generative organs; n.g, nerve
ganglion; p.p, proboscis pore; p, proboscis.
3. A fairly thick connective-tissue layer often found between the epidermis and
the muscles, into which latter it gradually merges (s.t).
The Digestive System.—The mouth is placed on the ventral surface near the
anterior end of the body (Figs. 53, 58, m). It leads into a straight oesophagus
(Fig. 53, oes), whence passes off the intestine (int), which is continued as a
straight non-convoluted tube to the anus (a), situated terminally at the posterior
end of the body. The intestine is thrown out throughout the greater part of its
course into paired lateral pouches.
Fig. 52.—Diagrammatic transverse section of a Nemertine (Schizonemertea)

through the middle region of the body. b.m, Basement membrane; c.m,
circular muscle layer; d.b, dorsal blood-vessel; ep, epidermis; g, generative
organs; int, intestine; l.b, lateral blood-vessel; l.m, longitudinal muscle layers;
n.c, lateral nerve-cord; n.l, nerve plexus; p, proboscis; p.s, proboscis sheath;
s.t, subcutaneous layer.
The alimentary canal is lined throughout by a ciliated epithelium. The

oesophagus has, in addition to this layer, an outer thick coat of large granular
cells, which probably have a glandular function.
Proboscis.—The most characteristic organ of the Nemertines is the proboscis

(Figs. 50, 53, 54). For many years its disposition and function were
misunderstood, and it was supposed to be a portion of the digestive system. The
proboscis, which lies dorsal to the alimentary canal, opens at the extreme
anterior end of the body by a small pore (Figs. 51, 53, 58). When retracted it is
sometimes considerably folded, and lies in a long pouch or sheath. To the walls
of this sheath it is attached round its anterior end; and strong muscles unite its
posterior extremity to the sheath a short distance from the posterior end of the
latter.
The proboscis seems to be exclusively a tactile and protective and defensive
organ, for which functions it is eminently fitted by the great ease and rapidity with
which it is everted or thrust out from the body. It consists of two distinct regions
(Fig. 54, g.p and m.p). In the retracted state the anterior part is a hollow tube
with very thick muscular walls made up of several layers. At the base of this part
in many of the Nemertines there is situated a sharp-pointed spine projecting
forward into the lumen, and several smaller stylets situated in a pair of vesicles
close to the base of the central spine. The position of the spines in the everted
proboscis is shown in Fig. 57. The posterior part of the proboscis is also a tube,
but instead of being muscular, its walls are glandular. This posterior glandular
part is never everted.
Fig. 53.—Diagrammatic drawing of a Nemertine from the dorsal surface to show

the position of some of the principal organs. a, Anus; c.s, cephalic slit; g,
generative organs; int, intestine with its lateral diverticula; m, mouth; n.c,
lateral nerve-cord; n.g, nerve ganglion; oes, oesophagus; p, proboscis; p.p,
proboscis pore; p.s, proboscis sheath.
The eversion is effected by a turning inside out of the anterior part of the
proboscis (Fig. 54). The process whereby the proboscis is retracted has been
very aptly compared to the effect which would be produced by the inversion of
the finger of a glove, accomplished by pulling a string attached to its tip on the
inside, the anterior muscular part being comparable to the finger and the
glandular part to the string. It is thus obvious that in the everted condition the

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Chapter 2 Environmental Contraints on Managers

2) The term suppliers includes providers of financial and labour inputs.

4) Economic conditions are part of the organization's specific environment.

5) Demographic conditions are part of the organization's general environment.

14) The legal/political environment is an important factor of managing in a foreign environment.

15) Only when a country's legal/political environment is unstable or revolutionary is it of

20) Canada is an example of a country with small power distance.

23) Multinational corporations became commonplace in the mid-1960s.

38) The external environment consists of the global environment, _.

39) An organization's specific environment .

45) Which of the following is included in an organization's specific environment?

48) Which of the following is an example of a secondary stakeholder?

52) The global environment of an organization includes which of the following?

53) Which of the following is usually part of an organization's general environment?

56) The Canadian Human Rights Act is an example of a .

58) Sociocultural conditions consist of the .

Occurrence of Cestodes in Domestic Animals.[103]—Among domestic

Table of the Life-Histories of the principal Cestodes of Man and the

Cestode. Final host. Larva. Intermediate host.

Fig. 40.—A, Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) infested by an advanced larva

Structure and Development of Cestoda.[105]—Of the unsegmented Cestodes,

A Cestode such as Echinobothrium (Fig. 36) is divisible into head and

Fig. 42.—A, Free-swimming, six-hooked larva of Bothriocephalus latus Brems.

Fig. 43.—Stages in the development of Dipylidium caninum L. (= Taenia elliptica

Fig. 44.—Schematic longitudinal sections through the larvae of Dipylidium

At one pole an invagination occurs, at the bottom of which the rostellum,

Classification of Cestodes.—The following classification, which, so far as the

1. Fam. Cestodariidae Mont. (Monozoa Lang).

Fig. 45.—A, B, C, Stages in the development of the vermiform larva in Dicyema

Fig. 46.—Dicyemennea eledones Wag., from the kidney of Eledone moschata. A,

Dicyemidae.—If the kidney of Eledone moschata, a Cephalopod common on

Orthonectida.[114]—Two species of Orthonectids are fairly well known,

Fig. 47.—Rhopalura giardii Metschn. (from the brittle-star Amphiura squamata). ♂,

Trichoplax.[116]—This anomalous animal has only been found in aquaria,

Salinella.[117]—This is another aquarium-animal, found by Frenzel in the

A few forms live on land (e.g. Tetrastemma agricola,[124] Geonemertes

External Characters.—A typical Nemertine possesses an elongated worm-like

The whole animal is enveloped in a layer of mucus, which sometimes becomes

The body is capable to a great extent of contraction and extension, a Nemertine

Anatomy.—The body-wall consists of several layers (Fig. 52), which in a typical

Fig. 52.—Diagrammatic transverse section of a Nemertine (Schizonemertea)

The alimentary canal is lined throughout by a ciliated epithelium. The

Proboscis.—The most characteristic organ of the Nemertines is the proboscis

Fig. 53.—Diagrammatic drawing of a Nemertine from the dorsal surface to show

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