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Chapter 1: Introduction to Genetics
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which one of the following pairings between the subdiscipline of genetics and the
phenomenon is incorrect?
a. Evolution—Population genetics
b. Gene regulation—Molecular genetics
c. Allelic frequency alteration—Population genetics
d. Arrangement of genes on chromosome—Transmission genetics
e. Chemical nature of the gene—Transmission genetics
Answer: e
Section: 1.1
Comprehension Question
2. Which one of the following topic of research belongs to the discipline of transmission
genetics?
a. Inheritance pattern of gene alleles

b. Mechanism of DNA Replication
c. Gene expression patterns
d. Evolution
e. Chemical modification of nucleic acids
Answer: a
Section: 1.1
3. The complete genetic makeup of an organism is referred to as its

a. chromosome.
b. alleles.
c. locus.
d. genome.
e. phenotype.
Answer: d
Section: 1.1
4. Identify a true statement from the descriptions concerning genetics below.
a. The theory of pangenesis states that all living organisms are composed of cells.
b. Bacteria and viruses are not useful in studying genes and inheritance because they are
structurally and metabolically different from eukaryotic cells.
c. Charles Darwin accurately described the laws of inheritance in his landmark book, On the
Origin of Species.
d. Many human traits, such as skin and hair color, are determined by more than a single
gene.
e. Evolution can occur without genetic changes in the population.
Answer: d
Section: 1.1
5. Identify a false statement from the descriptions of genetics below.
a. Humans first applied genetics to the domestication of plants and animals between
approximately 10,000 and 12,000 years ago.
b. Some viruses use RNA to carry their genetic information.
c. Albinism results from a mutation in the genes that control the synthesis and storage of
melanin.
d. All human traits that display blending inheritance are affected by single gene.
e. The process by which genetic information is copied and decoded is similar for all forms
of life.
Answer: d
Section: 1.1
6. Which of the following species is considered a model genetic organism?
a. The plant, Linaria vulgaris

b. The deer mouse, Peromyscusmaniculatus
c. The worm,Caenorhabditis elegans
d. The frog, Hylachrysoscelis
e. The chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes
Answer: c
Section: 1.1
7. Which of the following would serve the least well as a model for understanding basic
mechanisms of inheritance?
a. Fruit flies
b. Humans
c. Yeast
d. Mice
e. Zebrafish
Answer: b
Section: 1.1
8. Which of the following statements is true?
a. Each subdiscipline of genetics is very specific as to what is explored and does not overlap
with the othersubdisciplines.
b. All phenotypes or traits are always determined by multiple genes.
c. Albinism rises from the overexpression of the gene that controls the synthesis and storage
of melanin.
d. Humans make excellent model organisms, as a variety of traits are well-defined.
e. None of the statements above are true.
Answer: e
Section: 1.1
Application Question
9. Which of the following statements is correct?
a. All genomes are encoded in DNA only.

b. All genomes are encoded in nucleic acids.
c. All genomes are encoded in proteins only.
d. The genetic instructions are decoded completely differently in each organism.
e. The molecular mechanism suggests life evolved from multiple primordial ancestors.
Answer: b
Section: 1.1
10. Which of the following theories of inheritance is currently considered true?
a. Germ-plasm theory
b. Pangenesis
c. Blending inheritance
d. Inheritance of acquired characteristics
e. None of the above is considered true based on new evidence.
Answer: a
Section: 1.2
11. Which one of the following topics belongs to a different subdisciplineof genetics when
compared to the rest?
a. Mechanism of gene regulation

b. Allele frequencies of certain gene in different environments
c. Transcription
d. Chemical alternation of chromosomes
e. Mechanism of DNA repairs and maintenance
Answer: b
Section: 1.2
12. Which of the following theories of inheritance is no longer accepted as true?
a. Pangenesis
b. Blending inheritance
c. Inheritance of acquired characteristics
d. Preformationism
e. None of the above is currently considered true.
Answer: e
Section: 1.2
13. Which of the following correctly describes the cell theory?
a. Genetic information from different parts of the body travels to the reproductive organs.
b. The cell is the compositional and functional unit of all life.
c. Inside the germ cells, there exists a fully formed miniature adult which enlarges in the
course of development
d. The genetic material itself blends, which cannot be separated out in figure generations.
e. Traits acquired in a person’s lifetime become incorporated into the person’s hereditary
information, which will be passed onto their offspring.
Answer: b
Section: 1.2
14. Which of the following examples of scientist and their contribution is matched incorrectly?
a. Watson and Crick—chemical structure of DNA

b. Mendel—principles of heredity using pea plants
c. Gilbert and Sanger—DNA sequencing methods
d. Morgan—polymerase chain reaction
e. Sutton—genes on chromosomes as units of inheritance
Answer: d
Section: 1.2
15. Choose the correct match between the scientist and the field of genetics that they made the
contribution to.
a. Haldane and Wright—transmission genetics

b. Mendel—molecular genetics
c. Gilbert and Sanger—population genetics
d. Darwin—molecular genetics
e. Morgan—transmission genetics
Answer: e
Section: 1.2
16. The first complete DNA sequence of a non-viral, free-living organism was obtained for
a. a bacterium in 1900.
b. a bacterium in 1945.
c. a bacterium in 1995.
d. humans in 1990.
e. humans in 2000.
Answer: c
Section: 1.2
17. The three-dimensional structure of DNA was first deciphered based on the work of
a. James Watson.
b. Francis Crick.
c. Maurice Wilkins.
d. Rosalind Franklin.
e. All of the above
Answer: e
Section: 1.2
18. Which of the following scientists contributed significantly to the foundations of population
genetics?
a. James Watson
b. Thomas Hunt Morgan
c. Ronald Fisher
d. Charles Darwin
Answer: c
Section: 1.2
19. Which of the following scientists contributed significantly to the foundations of molecular
genetics?
a. James Watson
c. John B. S. Haldane
d. Charles Darwin
Answer: a
Section: 1.2
20. Which of the following scientists contributed significantly to the foundations of transmission
genetics?
a. James Watson
c. John B. S. Haldane
d. Charles Darwin
Answer: b
Section: 1.2
21. The contribution Charles Darwin made to biology was to

a. demonstrate the connection between Mendel’s principles of inheritance and evolution.
b. propose that evolution occurs by natural selection.
c. develop the theory of evolution, based on earlier theories of population genetics.
d. connect the fields of evolution and molecular genetics.
Answer: b
Section: 1.2
22. combines molecular biology and computer science.
a. Single-nucleotide polymorphism
b. MicroRNAs
c. Polymerase chain reaction
d. Bioinformatics
e. Eukaryotics
Answer: d
Section: 1.2
23. A measurable or observable trait or characteristic is called a
a. phenotype.
b. genotype.
c. single-nucleotidepolymorphism.
d. Small interfering RNA.
e. gene bank.
Answer: a
Section: 1.2
24. The complete genetic makeup of any organism is referred to as
a. phylogeny.
b. pheynotype.
c. genome.
d. genotype.
e. single-nucleotidepolymorphism.
Answer: c
Section: 1.2
25. A change in allele frequency within a population over time leads to

a. agenome.
b. aphenotype.
c. agenotype.
d. mutations.
e. evolution.
Answer: e
Section: 1.3
26. Genetic information can be carried in which of the following biomolecules?
a. Proteins
b. DNA and not RNA c.
RNA and not DNA d.
Either DNA or RNA
e. Proteins and not RNA
Answer: d
Section: 1.3
27. Which correctly shows the flow of genetic information during gene expression?
a. RNA → DNA → protein

b. Protein → DNA → RNA
c. DNA → RNA → protein
d. DNA → protein → DNA
e. None of the above
Answer: c
Section: 1.3
28. The contribution of Gilbert and Sanger to modern genetics was to
a. develop the PCR technique.

b. discover DNA in the nucleus of cells.
c. describe the structure of DNA.
d. show that genes were made of DNA.
e. develop a method for sequencing DNA.
Answer: e
Section: 1.3
29. Which of the following is not a part of a single nucleotide?
a. Nitrogenous base
b. Sugar
c. Hydrogen bond
d. Phosphate
Answer: c
Section: 1.3
30. A form of a gene that has a slightly different sequence than other forms of the same gene but
encodes the same type of an RNA or protein, is called a(n)
a. locus.
b. allele.
c. homologous chromosome.
d. heterozygote.
e. homozygote.
Answer: b
Section: 1.3
31. is a change in allele frequency of a population over time.
a. Blending inheritance
b. Preformation
c. Genome d.
Evolution e.
Phenotype
Answer: d
Section: 1.3
32. Permanent, heritable changes in genetic information (DNA) are called
a. evolution.
b. defects.
c. SNP.
d. alleles.
e. mutations.
Answer: e
Section: 1.3
33. Within cells, genes are located on structures called
a. genomes.
b. chromosomes.
c. phenotypes.
d. genotypes.
e. alleles.
Answer: b
Section: 1.3
ShortAnswer Questions
34. Albinism is rare in most human populations, occurring at a frequency of about 1 in20,000
people. However, the trait occurs at a frequency of 1 in 200 in certain Hopi villages of Black
Mesa in Arizona. Explain in terms of natural selection why albinism is so rare in most human
populations.
Answer: In most populations, there is fairly strong selection against albinism because
albinos don’t produce melanin, causing their skin cells not to be protected from the damaging
effects of sunlight. Also, the lack of melanin in their eyes causes them to have poor eyesight.
Finally, in most cultures albinos are seen as abnormal, and they are not normally sought out
for marriage and mating. Therefore, in most populations the alleles that cause albinism are
selected against, and they decrease in frequency or are kept at a low level, causing the
recessive trait to be rare.
Introduction
35. Albinism is rare in most human populations, occurring at a frequency of about 1 in 20,000
Mesa in Arizona. Explain in terms of natural selection why the trait is so much more
common among the Hopis of Black Mesa.
Answer: Albinos occupy a privileged position among the Hopis of Black Mesa. In this
culture, albinos are viewed as especially pretty, clean, and intelligent, and they often occupy
positions of leadership. Albinos are celebrated in the villages as a sign of purity of Hopi
blood in the community. Furthermore, albinos are often excused from normal male field
labor because of their sensitivity to sunlight, causing them to be left behind in the village
with the women during the daytime. This allows them extra mating opportunities compared
to the other men of the village. Therefore, the alleles that cause albinism are either selected
for in this culture or at least not selected against as strongly as in other cultures, allowing the
trait to occur at a much higher frequency.
Introduction
36. Albinism is rare in most human populations, occurring at a frequency of about 1 in 20,000
Mesa in Arizona.In light of this example and others that you might be aware of, critique the
idea that a particular allele is either beneficial (adaptive) or harmful (maladaptive).
Answer: This example and others show that the effect of a particular allele cannot be
evaluated outside of the context of the environment of the population in which the allele
exists. A particular allele might be harmful in one environment but beneficial in another
environment. Although we know of some alleles that seem to be harmful in all current
environments, they might have been beneficial in the past or might be in the future.
Introduction
37. List some traits of a species that make it ideal as a genetic model organism.
Answer:
(1) Short generation time
(2) Sufficientnumbers of progeny for study
(3) Adaptability to a laboratory environment
(4) Ability to be inexpensively housed and propagated
(5) Small size
Section 1.1
38. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is an important model system for studying inheritance
in animals and genetic control of animal development, including humans.If researchers
ultimately want to understand a biological process in humans, why might they want to study
the process in fruit flies first?
Answer: Researchers might want to study the process in fruit flies first because it would
likely be easier to study it in fruit flies, and what is discovered in fruit flies might apply to
humans. Fruit flies have been used for over 100 years as a model system to study animal
genetics and development.
Section 1.1
39. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is an important model system for studying inheritance
in animals and genetic control of animal development, including humans. Evaluate fruit flies
as a model system for human biology. What are their strengths and weaknesses as a model
system?
Answer:
Strengths – Fruit flies have proven to be an excellent model system for studying aspects of
biology that they share with humans. Fruit flies are simpler in structure and physiology than
humans and have a much simpler genome. They are small and easy to raise, they have a short
generation time, and they produce a large number of offspring. Their chromosomes have
been mapped and their genomes analyzed extensively. It is relatively easy to isolate and
study mutants that are defective in specific processes of interest. These characteristics make
them ideal for genetic studies of biological processes.
Weaknesses – Some aspects of fruit fly genetics and development are not shared with
humans. Therefore, some features discovered in fruit flies will not apply directly to humans.
Also, humans have many features that fruit flies lack. Fruit flies will not serve well as a
model system for studying these features of human biology.
Section 1.1
40. What common features of heredity suggest that all life on Earth evolved from a common
ancestor?
Answer: Despite the remarkable diversity of life on Earth, all genomes are encoded in
nucleic acids. With few exceptions, the genetic code is common to all forms of life. Finally,
the process by which genetic information is copied and decoded is remarkably similar for all
forms of life.
Section 1.1
41. Why might bacteria and viruses be good model organisms for studying the basics of
inheritance? Describe two advantages over studying genetics in mice, dogs, or humans.
Answer:Bacteria and viruses have their genetic material (DNA) organized into genes, just
like other organisms, so the basics of inheritance are the same in bacteria and viruses, as in
other organisms.
The genetic systems of bacteria and viruses are simpler when compared to higher eukaryotic
organisms such as mice, dogs, or humans: they have fewer genes, fewer chromosomes, and
less DNA.
Bacteria and viruses reproduce more quickly than higher eukaryotic organisms: the
generation time is shorter than for mice, dogs, or humans.
Bacteria and viruses are easy and less expensive to grow (take up less space, have less
complicated nutritional needs) than vertebrates.
Section 1.1
42. Many good ideas in science ultimately turn out to be incorrect. The author mentions several
such ideas in the history of genetics. In your own words,state one idea in the history of
genetics that turned out to be incorrect.
Answer: Answers will vary but might include pangenesis, inheritance of acquired
characteristics, preformationism, or blending inheritance, which are all described in Section
1.1. Pangenesis – The idea that information needed to encode each body structure is stored in
that structure and transported to the reproductive organs and passed to the embryo at
conception. Inheritance of acquired characteristics – The idea that traits acquired through use
during one’s lifetime can be passed to one’s offspring. Preformationism – The idea that the
sperm or egg carries a tiny preformed person whose development simply involves
enlargement. Blending inheritance – The idea that the genetic material is a fluid that gets
blended during sexual reproduction between a male and female, resulting in the production of
traits in the offspring that are blended intermediates of those of the parents.
Section 1.1
such ideas in the history of genetics. Why do you think this particular idea was widely
accepted by scholars of that time? Include in your answer some evidence in favor of the idea,
observations that seemed to support the idea, or other rationale for accepting the idea.
Answer: Answers will vary but should include specific evidence or observations that support
the idea. Examples: Pangenesis – It is reasonable to assume that the information needed to
build a structure must reside in that structure. It is less obvious that the information might
also reside in other structures. Therefore, it is reasonable to envision the information being
stored in each structure and transported to the reproductive structures before being passed to
the next generation. Inheritance of acquired characteristics – Observations to support this
view would have been commonplace. For example, a man with a muscular physique would
often have sons with muscular physiques. A talented musician often produced children with
musical talent.Preformationism – It would have been hard for people before the late 1800s to
imagine how a complex organism could build itself from a single undifferentiated cell.
Indeed, the problem has occupied developmental biologists for over 100 years.
Preformationism is easier to understand. Add to that the poor optics of microscopes at that
time, and it is easy to understand how early biologists might have thought they could see a
preformed person in a sperm or an egg, such as in Figure 1.11. Blending inheritance – For
example, a mating between a tall person and a short person producing a person of medium
stature might have suggested blending inheritance.
Section 1.1
such ideas in the history of genetics. Summarize the evidence that ultimately caused the idea
to be rejected by modern geneticists.
Answer: Answers will vary but should include specific evidence or observations that do not
support the idea. Pangenesis – Observations of animals with body parts lost to injury
producing normal offspring would not support pangenesis. Inheritance of acquired
characteristics – Experiments were conducted in which body parts were removed and normal
offspring were produced, showing that the acquired characteristic was not inherited. Also,
experiments in which offspring are raised in an environment different from that of their
parents and do not develop their parents’ traits would suggest that the environment influences
development of these traits. Preformationism – Eventually better microscopes were produced
that proved that gametes do not contain preformed people. Also, we eventually came to
understand that both sperm and eggs contribute genetic information during sexual
reproduction. Blending inheritance – Mendel showed that genes behave as particles that are
not blended or changed during inheritance.
Section 1.1
45. List and describe two significant events in the history of genetics that occurred during the
twentieth century.
Answer:
1900: Mendel’s previously published work on pea plants, which stated basic principles of
inheritance, was rediscovered.
1902: Sutton proposed that genes are located on chromosomes.
1910: Thomas Hunt Morgan began studies of transmission genetics, using fruit fly mutants.
1930s: Fisher, Haldane, and Wright outlined the founding principles of population genetics.
1940s: Organization of chromosomes and genes were studied using bacteria and viruses.
1940s–1950s: Evidence was accumulated for DNA as the genetic material; Watson and Crick
described the DNA structure.
1966: The relationship between chemical structure of DNA and amino acid sequence of
proteins was determined.
1973: The first recombinant DNA experiments were conducted.
1977: The Gilbert and Sanger methods for DNA sequencing were published.
1986: Mullis developed PCR.
1990: The first use of gene therapy was used in humans.
1990s: The Human Genome Project was started.
1995: The first genome of a free-living organism was sequenced (Haemophilusinfluenzae).
1996: The first genome of a eukaryote wassequenced (yeast).
2000–present: The human genome sequence was released.
Section 1.2
46. Write a paragraph explaining why genetics is considered a young science, even though
people have been applying genetic principles for thousands of years.
Answer:Techniques for the observation of cells have been available only since the late
1500s, when the first microscopes were produced. The observation of chromosomes has been
possible for only a century and a half. The widespread systematic study of genes and
inheritance has been conducted only in the twentieth century, since the rediscovery of
Mendel's work in 1900. The structure of DNA was determined only in the mid-twentieth
century. Many molecular genetic techniques, like PCR, have been developed only in the last
few decades. However, without understanding the nature of chromosomes and genes, plant
and animal breeders have been applying the principles of inheritance for thousands of years,
to obtain desired characteristics in domesticated organisms.
Section 1.2
47. What common-sense observation makes the theory of preformationism unlikely?
Answer: Preformationism states that the egg or sperm carries a miniature adult, which would
mean that all characteristics come from either the mother or father. Simpleobservation shows
that offspring have traits from both parents.
Section 1.2
48. What common-sense observation makes the theory of acquired characteristics unlikely?
Answer: This theory states that characteristics acquired during one's lifetime are passed to
offspring. However, anatomical changes, like the loss of a limb, or the removal of a mouse's
tail, are not seen in offspring.
Section 1.2
49. Which features distinguish a prokaryotic cell from a eukaryotic cell?
Answer: Prokaryotic cells lack a nuclear membrane and possess no true membrane bounded
cell organelles, whereas eukaryotic cells possess a nucleus and membrane bounded
organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria.
Section 1.3
50. What common-sense observation makes the theory of blending inheritance unlikely?
Answer:This theory states that genetic information is mixed in an offspring and never
separated. Some traits, however, disappear from one generation to the next, only to reappear
in a subsequent generation.
Section 1.3
51. Describe one way in which discoveries in genetics currently impact your daily life apart from
this course.
Answer:Answers will vary, but the best answers will include one or more specific
discoveries in genetics and describe how they affect the student personally. Examples could
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hawks, keeping the chickens out of
the garden, sweeping the floor,
making the beds, churning, sewing,
darning, washing, ironing, taking up
the ashes, and making lye, watching
for the bees to swarm, keeping the cat
out the milk pans, dosing the sick
children, tying up the hurt fingers and
toes, kissing the sore place well
again, making soap, robbing the bee
hives, stringing beans for winter use,
working the garden, planting and
tending a few hardy flowers in the
front yard, such as princess feather,
pansies, sweet-Williams, dahlias,
morning glories; getting dinner,
darning, patching, mending, milking
again, reading the Bible, prayers, and
so on from morning till night; and then
all over again the next day.”
Emergencies of health and sickness
affected the daily routines. “Doctor-
medicine” might have its place, but
home remedies were considered most
reliable—and available. A doctor with
his saddlebag of pills and tonics might
be a day’s ride or more away from the
patient. But nature’s medicine chest
lay almost at the doorstep. Plants in Joseph S. Hall
swamp and meadow, leaves and bark
and roots of the forest: all healed Mrs. Clem Enloe of
many ailments. From ancient Tight Run Branch was
Cherokee wisdom and through their 84 years old when
own observations and testing, Joseph S. Hall
mountain people learned the uses of photographed her in
boneset, black cohosh, wild cherry, 1937. “I was told that
mullein, catnip, balm of gilead, if I took her a box of
Solomons-seal, sassafras, and snuff, she would let
dozens of other herbs and plants. me take her picture.”
While they found one school and That’s the snuff in her
laboratory in the woods and hills blouse. She didn’t
around them, the people of the Great give in so easily on
Smoky Mountains also worked to everything. She
provide themselves with more refused to observe
orthodox classrooms. Continuing the park’s fishing
customs that had begun before the regulations and fished
War, the residents of many little every season of the
year. She was filling a
communities “made-up” a school. This
meant that they banded together, and can with worms when
each contributed to a small fund to Hall approached. “See
pay a teacher’s salary for the year. that,” she said
The “year” was usually three months. pointing to the can, “I
use them for fishing
John Preston Arthur left a vivid
memoir of his experience in one of and I’m the only one
these so-called “old-field” schools, in this park who’s
which were located on land no longer allowed to.”
under cultivation:
Edouard E. Exline
The one-room log schoolhouse at Little Greenbrier,
like the somewhat larger Granny’s College at Big
Greenbrier, provided the basics in reading, writing,
and arithmetic.
Edouard E. Exline
And judging by the smiles of Margaret Tallent and
Conley Russell, the place was lots of fun.
Edouard E. Exline
Herman Matthews conducts a class in the school’s
last year of operation, 1935. He was the only teacher
who had completed college.
“In lieu of kindergarten, graded and normal schools was the Old-
Field school, of which there were generally only one or two in a
county, and they were in session only when it was not ‘croptime.’
They were attended by little and big, old and young, sometimes by
as many as a hundred, and all jammed into one room—a log cabin
with a fireplace at each end—puncheon floor, slab benches, and no
windows, except an opening made in the wall by cutting out a
section of one of the logs, here and there. The pedagogue in charge
(and no matter how large the school there was but one) prided
himself upon his knowledge of and efficiency in teaching the three
R’s—readin’, ’ritin’ and ’rithmetic—and upon his ability to use
effectively the rod, of which a good supply was always kept in stock.
He must know, too, how to make a quill pen from the wing-feather of
a goose or a turkey, steel and gold pens not having come into
general use. The ink used was made from ‘ink-balls’—sometimes
from poke-berries—and was kept in little slim vials partly filled with
cotton. These vials, not having base enough to stand alone, were
suspended on nails near the writer. The schools were paid from a
public fund, the teacher boarding with the scholars.”
During the latter 1800s, free schools began to replace subscription
schools. But the quality and methods of education did not appear to
change drastically. Across the Smokies, in East Tennessee’s Big
Greenbrier Cove, Granny’s College provided the rudiments of public
education for many students and was an example of similar schools
in the Great Smokies region. Lillie Whaley Ownby remembered the
house which was turned into a school:
“Granny College was built before the Civil War by Humphry John
Ownby. This house was two big log houses, joined together by a
huge rock chimney and a porch across both rooms on both sides of
the house. The houses were built of big poplar logs. The rooms were
18×20 feet and both rooms had two doors and two windows. The
floor was rough, hewn logs. There was a huge fireplace in it. The
living room had a partition just behind the doors and a cellar about
8×10 feet.”
After Mrs. Ownby’s father had acquired the old log building, he went
to Sevierville, the county seat, and proposed to the school
superintendent that he would furnish this house if the county would
supply a teacher for Big Greenbrier children. This was agreeable,
and Granny’s College, as it was locally known, came into being.
“The men made benches, long enough for three or four to sit on. The
back was nailed up on some blocks and the children used the wall
for a back rest. There was no place for books except on the benches
or floor. Dad furnished wood for the fire. The boys carried it in and
kept the fire going. Everyone helped in keeping the house clean and
keeping water in the house.”
Church as well as school was a personalized part of family and
community life in a way not known in more formal, urban situations.
Each fulfilled not only its own specific function, spiritual or
intellectual, but also satisfied social needs. The doctrine was strictly
fundamentalist; the dominant denominations were Baptist and
Methodist, although the Presbyterian influence was also present,
especially in the schools that were founded with both money and
teachers drawn from other regions of the country.
Each summer, Methodist camp meetings brought families together
under the long brush arbors for weeks of sociable conversation and
soulful conversion. The visiting ministers’ feast of oratory was
matched only by the feast of victuals prepared by housewives over
the campfires as they cooked and exchanged family news, quilt
patterns, recipes, and “cuttings” from favorite flowers and shrubs.
Baptists were the most numerous denomination. They divided
themselves into many categories, among others the Primitives, the
Freewills, the Missionaries, and one small group called the Two-
Seed-in-the-Spirit. Their rules were strict: no violins in church, no
dancing anywhere. To be “churched,” or turned out of the
congregation, was heavy punishment—and not infrequent.
One aspect of church that incorporated an important feature of
mountain life was its singing. In ancient Ireland and Wales songsters
had been accompanied on the harp. Settlers had brought the Old
Harp song book of early hymns and anthems with them from the
British Isles, and on down the valleys and across the mountains into
these remote byways. The notes of this music were not round but
shaped, and shape, rather than placement on a staff, indicated the
note. This method simplified reading the music; and as the
unaccompanied, usually untrained, singers took their pitch from a
leader, they proceeded in beautiful harmony, usually in a minor key.
The mournful sound of minor chords was also familiar in the ballads
common throughout the hills. Death and unrequited love were their
recurring themes, whether they reached back to England and the
Scottish borders, as in “Lord Thomas and Fair Elender,” or recounted
some local contemporary affair. Beside their blazing hearths during
long, lonely winter evenings, or at jolly gatherings or through lazy
summer Saturday afternoons, mountain people remembered the
past and recorded the present as they sang, altering and adding to
the ballads which had been taught to them and which in turn would
be handed on to another generation.
Pages 88-89: Butchering was a chore shared by nearly
everyone in a family. Here, the Ogles—Earl, Horace,
Collie, and Willard—butcher a hog as they get ready
for a long winter.
National Park Service
Edouard E. Exline
Three children look on as he works at his shaving
horse on a stave. His coopering equipment includes a
draw knife, crow cutter, jointing plane, stave gauge,
and barrel adze.
Edouard E. Exline
At his blacksmith shop Messer shapes a small metal
piece, one of many he turned out just to keep his farm
running.
Edouard E. Exline
Here is Messer the tanner, scrubbing the pelt side of a
hide with a scythe blade after taking it out of the vat
and removing the spent bark with a long-handled
strainer.
And among those visitors who would begin to search the mountains
during the approaching 20th century, the folk song collectors and the
ballad seekers could find here a repository of rare, pure music—
much of it now forgotten even in its own homeland. The visitors
would find a way of life that might seem static but which was, indeed,
changing. For the early pioneers had yielded to the authentic
mountaineer. His log cabin was being replaced by sash-sawn lumber
in a frame house. Extensive apple orchards and corn crops yielded
the basic ingredients not only for fruit and bread but for the luxuries
of a brandy and whisky known also as moonshine, white lightning,
Old Tanglefoot.
Hunting and fishing, which had been necessities for the first settlers,
eventually turned into sport as well. Buffalo, elk, wolves, beavers,
passenger pigeons, and a variety of other game disappeared early
and forever, leaving only the memory of their presence in names like
Buffalo Creek, Elk Mountain, Wolf Creek, Beaverdam Valley, Pigeon
River. But deer, black bear, fox, raccoon and other animals remained
to challenge the mountain man and his dogs. The relationship
between a hunter
and his hounds was
something special.
A dog shot or stolen
could be cause for a
lifelong feud.
Names of individual
dogs—Old Blue,
Tige, Big Red—
were cherished by
their owners, as
were certain breeds.
The Plott dogs,
named after the
bear hunters who
bred them in
Haywood County’s
Balsam range, were
famous for their
tenacity and
strength in hunting
bear.
One of the sharpest
condemnations that
could be laid on a
mountain man
concerned the
hunting dogs. An
early resident of Edouard E. Exline
Roaring Fork above
Gatlinburg was a In the mountains you had to work
“hard, cruel man,” hard at being self-sufficient. And
despised by his some men did better than others.
neighbors and in One such man was Milas Messer of
turn despising them. Cove Creek. Setting barrel staves to
He had frightened the hoop takes a bit of coordination,
children and cut a but Messer makes it look easy.
fellow “till he like to
bled to death.” Finally—and most devastatingly—it was agreed that
“he was the type of fellow that would pizen your dog.”
Livestock raising was important throughout the Great Smoky
Mountains. Stock laws had not yet been passed, and rail fences
were built to keep cattle, horses, hogs, or sheep out of gardens,
fields, and yards rather than in pastures, pens, and feedlots. Animals
roamed the fields and woods. Hogs fattened themselves on the mast
of nuts and roots from the great chestnut, oak, and hickory forests;
cattle grazed on the grassy balds in summertime. By mid-May,
farmers in the coves and valleys had driven their cattle into the high
places of the Smokies. Once every three weeks or so thereafter,
they returned to salt and “gentle” them, thus keeping them familiar
with their owners. In October, before the first snowfall, the cattle
were rounded up. If the season had been good, livestock drives to
near or distant markets began.
During both the roundup and the drive, livestock marks played a
critical role of identification. These were devised by each farmer—
and acknowledged by his neighbors—as the “brand” signifying
ownership. These might be various “crops,” “knicks,” and “notches:”
an “underbit” (a crop out of the under part of the ear), or a “topbit” or
a “swallow-fork” cut in the skin below the neck, or a combination of
them all. If several kinds of animals were included on a livestock
drive, there was a settled rule of procedure. Cattle led the way,
followed by sheep, then hogs, and finally turkeys, which were usually
the first to start peering toward the sky and searching for the night’s
resting place.
All of these plodding, grunting, gobbling creatures were kept in order
with the help of one or two good dogs. If a hunter’s dogs were
valuable, a livestock drover’s dogs were invaluable. “Head’em,” the
drover called, and his dogs brought recalcitrant animals into line,
nipping the slow to hurry and curious to remain orderly.
During a long day’s drive to the county seat, or a several weeks’
journey to the lowlands of the Carolinas or Georgia, men and beasts
surged forward in a turmoil of shouting and noise, dust and mud,
autumn’s lingering heat and sudden
chills. But on these journeys, the
men left their small mountain
enclaves for a brief glimpse of the
larger world. They returned home not
only with bolts of cloth and winter
supplies of salt and coffee, but also
with news and fresh experiences.
And accounts of these experiences
were related in a language that was
part of the mountaineer’s unique
heritage. That language revealed a
great deal about the people; it was
strong and flexible, old yet capable of
change, sometimes judged
“ungrammatical” but often touched
with poetry. In a later century,
students and collectors would come
here seeking the Elizabethan words,
the rhythmic cadences of this
speech. It harkened back to a distant
homeland.
The mountain person’s “afeard” for
afraid, or “poke” for paper bag, were
familiar to Shakespeare. In Chaucer
could be found the mountaineer’s
use of “holpt” for helped, and such
plurals as “nestes” and “waspes.”
Charles S. Grossman Webster confirmed that “hit” was
Salt licks are among Saxon for it, and the primary
the few remaining meaning of “plague” was anything
pieces of evidence of troublesome or vexatious (the
the great herding mountain man might well say
activity that once someone was plaguing him). The
flourished in the habit of turning a noun into a verb
Smokies. Notches often added strength to an otherwise
were cut into logs or dull sentence: “My farm will grow
chiseled into rocks so enough corn to bread us through the
the salt wouldn’t be winter,” or, when speaking of the
wasted as it would be heavy shoes that were brogans,
if placed on the “Those hunters just brogued it
ground. The salt was through the rough places.”
good for the cattle, The daily poetry and humor of the
and the regularity of mountain language was caught in
the procedure helped the names of places—Pretty Hollow
to keep them from
Gap, Charlie’s Bunion, Fittified
becoming completely Spring, Miry Ridge, Bone Valley—
wild. and in descriptive words like “hells”
and “slicks” for the tangled laurel and
rhododendron thickets. It was present in the familiar names of plants:
“hearts-a-bustin’-with-love,” “dog-hobble,” “farewell summer.” And
the patterns of their quilts, pieced with artistic patience and skill, bore
names such as “tree of life,” “Bonaparte’s March,” and “double
wedding ring.”
Thus, the mountain people adapted their language, as they had their
lives, to the needs and beauty of this land they called home. And
contrary to what might seem the case, these later residents were a
more nearly distinctive group than that which had first come. The
pioneers had been a fairly heterogeneous group, but as the years
passed, those with itching feet and yearning minds moved on to
other frontiers. Restless children wandered west in search of instant
gold and eternal youth. In time, those remaining behind became a
more and more cohesive group, sharing a particular challenge,
history, folklore, economy, dream. Their lives were gradually
improving. They had earned the privilege and joy of calling this their
homeland.
Spinning and Weaving

Like Homer’s Penelope, like the Biblical spinners and weavers, like
their sisters at the wheel and loom in many times and places, women
of the Great Smokies simultaneously fulfilled the need for sturdy
cloth and a need for creating esthetic designs and pleasing patterns.
Frances Goodrich, who spent four decades helping to preserve and
honor the region’s handicrafts, wrote:
“Hardly any other subject arouses so much enthusiasm and interest
in a circle of mountain women as does the subject of weaving and its
kindred arts. This is true whether the participants in the talk are
themselves weavers or only their kinsfolk. Such work has for
generations taken the place of all other artistic expression, and
everyone, at least in the days of which I am telling, knew something
by experience or by watching the work or by hearsay and tradition, of
this fine craft.
... In the younger women who were learning to weave and keeping at
it, I could see the growth of character. A slack twisted person cannot
make a success as a weaver of coverlets. Patience and
perseverance are of the first necessity, and the exercise of these
strengthen the fibers of the soul.... One who has had to do with
hundreds of mountain girls ... has told me that never did she find one
to be of weak and flabby character whose mother was a weaver:
there was always something in the child to build on.”
Turning animal and vegetable fibers into cloth necessitated several
steps. The fibers had to be washed and then carded, or
straightened, with wire-toothed implements. Then the women
combed the carded fibers and rolled them onto a rod called a distaff,
hence the distaff side of the family. In the next step, Aunt Rhodie
Abbott (below) stretches, twists, and winds the fibers with a spinning
wheel in Cades Cove.
The women then dyed some of the yarn. In the last step, Becky
Oakley (left) weaves the yarn into cloth on a loom. Then the women
had to turn the cloth into clothes and other things.
In some places the Little River Lumber Company, and
other logging firms, sent logs cascading down the
mountain sides in intricately constructed chutes.
Little River Lumber Company
The Sawmills Move In
A people and their style of life do not change drastically in one year
or two years or three. The year 1900, then, does not define a time
when thousands living in the Great Smokies suddenly abandoned
their 19th-century ways and traditions and bounded into the modern
world. Real transition would come only with the upheavals of the
succeeding decades, only as a result of America’s industrialization
and two world wars and the arrival of a national park. Yet the
beginning of a new century did inject one major new element into the
lifestream of the Great Smoky Mountains: the lumber companies and
their money.
The people who lived here had logged before. A man might operate
a family enterprise along some hillside or in a low-lying cove, using a
few strong-armed relatives or neighbors to help cut and move the
choicest timber of the forest. Andy Huff, for example, established a
small sawmill in Greenbrier Cove in 1898. Leander Whaley had cut
yellow-poplar, buckeye, and linden from the upper cove—along
Ramsey Prong—during the 1880s. These and a few other individual
loggers felled the largest and most accessible of ultra-valuable
woods such as cherry, ash, walnut, hickory, and the giant yellow-
poplar, or “tulip tree.” They used steady, slow-plodding oxen to drag
the heavy logs to mill, then hauled the lumber to markets and
railroads in stout-bedded wagons drawn by four mules, double-
teamed.
But the virgin timber soon attracted a wider attention. In 1901, a
report on the Southern Appalachians from President Theodore
Roosevelt to Congress concluded simply that “These are the
heaviest and most beautiful hardwood forests of the continent.” Of
the Great Smokies in particular, the report noted that besides the
hardwoods the forest contained “the finest and largest bodies of
spruce in the Southern Appalachians.” Lumber entrepreneurs were
equally impressed. In that same year, three partners paid about
$9.70 per hectare for the 34,400-hectare ($3/85,000-acre) bulk of the
Little River watershed. Some 20 years later, Col. W. B. Townsend
moved from Pennsylvania and took control of Little River Lumber
Company.
On the North Carolina slopes of the Smokies, companies purchased
land in swaths stretching from ridge to ridge, staking off watersheds
like so many claims. In 1903, W. M. Ritter Lumber Company set up
its operations along Hazel Creek. A year later, Montvale Lumber
Company moved into the adjacent Eagle Creek area. To the west of
Montvale would, in time, lie the Kitchin mill and its Twentymile Creek
domain; to the east of Ritter, Norwood Lumber Company embraced
the reaches of Forney Creek. And looming beside and above them
all stood the 36,400 timbered hectares (90,000 acres) of the
Champion Coated Paper Company, an area that included Deep
Creek and Greenbrier Cove and the headwaters of the Oconaluftee
River.
The companies needed men to cut the trees, skid the logs, work the
animals, saw the lumber, lay the roads. They called upon the
mountaineers who still owned small tracts in Cades Cove and
Cataloochee and lower Greenbrier and throughout the Smokies; or
they allowed some workers who had sold forested land to stay in
their homes, though now on company property; or they brought in
hired hands from outside and housed them and their families in
dormitory-like buildings and readymade “towns.” These
mushrooming mill villages—Elkmont on the Little River, Crestmont
on Big Creek, Proctor on Hazel Creek, Ravensford and Smokemont
and Fontana—provided a booming cash market for homegrown food
and, as soon as the money changed hands, imported products.
More often than not, residents of the Great Smoky Mountains drove
to and from market in covered wagons that protected their goods.
Because the drive to an outside market such as Waynesville,
Newport, or Maryville might take two or even three days, local
families sold what they could to the loggers and sawmill men. They
set up honey and apple stands along the roads and offered grapes in
season. They supplied stores with butter and eggs. Children could
trade in one egg for a week’s supply of candy or firecrackers.

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Test Bank for Genetics A Conceptual Approach 5th Edition by Pierce ISBN

a. Inheritance pattern of gene alleles

3. The complete genetic makeup of an organism is referred to as its

4. Identify a true statement from the descriptions concerning genetics below.

5. Identify a false statement from the descriptions of genetics below.

6. Which of the following species is considered a model genetic organism?

a. The plant, Linaria vulgaris

8. Which of the following statements is true?

9. Which of the following statements is correct?

a. All genomes are encoded in DNA only.

a. Mechanism of gene regulation

12. Which of the following theories of inheritance is no longer accepted as true?

13. Which of the following correctly describes the cell theory?

a. Watson and Crick—chemical structure of DNA

a. Haldane and Wright—transmission genetics

21. The contribution Charles Darwin made to biology was to

23. A measurable or observable trait or characteristic is called a

24. The complete genetic makeup of any organism is referred to as

25. A change in allele frequency within a population over time leads to

26. Genetic information can be carried in which of the following biomolecules?

a. RNA → DNA → protein

28. The contribution of Gilbert and Sanger to modern genetics was to

a. develop the PCR technique.

31. is a change in allele frequency of a population over time.

32. Permanent, heritable changes in genetic information (DNA) are called

33. Within cells, genes are located on structures called

47. What common-sense observation makes the theory of preformationism unlikely?

49. Which features distinguish a prokaryotic cell from a eukaryotic cell?

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