Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
Regional Office IX, Zamboanga Peninsula

SHS
SHS

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
2 nd Semester - Module 4
Evidences and Evolutionary
Relationships of Organisms

Name of Learner: ___________________________

Grade & Section: ___________________________
Name of School: ___________________________
General Biology 2 - Grade 11/12
Support Material for Independent Learning Engagement (SMILE)
Module 4: Evolution: Evidences and Evolutionary Relationships of Organisms
First Edition, 2021

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Development Team of the Module

Writer: Kate Ann M. Ramos
Editor: Joel P. Ogoc
Reviewers: Joel P. Ogoc, Zyhrine P. Mayormita
Layout Artist: Chris Raymund M. Bermudo
Management Team: Virgilio P. Batan Jr. - Schools Division Superintendent
Lourma I. Poculan - Asst. Schools Division Superintendent
Amelinda D. Montero - Chief Education Supervisor, CID
Nur N. Hussien - Chief Education Supervisor, SGOD
Ronillo S. Yarag - Education Program Supervisor, LRMS
Zyhrine P. Mayormita -Education Program Supervisor, Science
Leo Martinno O. Alejo - Project Development Officer II, LRMS
Janette A. Zamoras - Public Schools District Supervisor
Joselito S. Tizon - Principal, Zamboange del Norte NHS

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 What I Need to Know
Evolution is the process of change in species over time. These changes can
be easily observed. However, these changes occur gradually for other
organisms that it would take thousands or millions of years. Various scientists
have contributed to the development of this theory. The widely accepted idea
for the theory of evolution is the one formulated by Charles Darwin. When he
first proposed that all new species descend from an ancestor, he conducted
many research and expeditions to provide as much evidence as possible.
In present times, the significant pieces of evidence for the theory of
evolution can be broken down into the fossil record, embryology, comparative
anatomy, and molecular biology. Thus in this module, you are expected to:
1. Explain evidence of evolution (e.g., biogeography, fossil
record, DNA/protein sequences, homology, and embryology)
(STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-12)
2. Infer evolutionary relationships among organisms using the
evidence of evolution (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-13)

What's In
Let us review what you have learned from the previous module. Answer the
activity below.

ACTIVITY 1. Match Me!

Directions: Match Column A with the correct answers in Column B by writing
the number of your answers in the Answer Grid. If all your answers are correct,
the sum when answers are added horizontally, vertically, or diagonally will give
you a magic number.

Column A Column B

a. A process in which new species form 1. Thomas Malthus

b. Authored the Theory of Evolution by 2. Hybrid sterility
Natural Selection
c. It occurs when a hybrid develops, 3. Pre-mating isolating
matures but fails to reproduce mechanism
d. States that increasing human 4. Jean Baptiste Lamarck
population limits resources
e. Species will not mate due to 5. Temporal isolation
different mating seasons
f. Sought pieces of evidence for the 6. Speciation
idea of uniformitarianism

1
 g. It occurs when organisms from the 7. Charles Darwin
same population and habitat
differentiate into two or more species
h. It prevents members of different 8. Sympatric speciation
species from mating
i. Proposed the inheritance of acquired 9. Charles Lyell
characteristics as an idea of
evolution

ANSWER GRID
A B C

D E F

G H I

What's New
Perform the succeeding activity to have some overview on our new lesson.
ACTIVITY 2. Where Do I Belong?
Directions: Below are twelve [12] words that are split into two parts. Find the
pair that fit together and write them in your answer sheet.

spe gans inhert

igin logous sils
riod cies fos
adap ry em
or theo homo

brology igial
vest tation
lution tance
pe evo
tra its

1. _________________________ 7. _________________________
2. _________________________ 8. _________________________
3. _________________________ 9. _________________________
4. _________________________ 10. _________________________
5. _________________________ 11. _________________________
6. _________________________ 12. _________________________

2
 What Is It
Evidences of Evolution

A. Fossils

Evidence of evolution is provided

by the past. Fossils are remains and
traces of ancient living organisms
preserved beneath rock layers, tar
pits, frozen in ice, or embedded in
amber. Fossils are most commonly in
the form of bones, shells, teeth, seeds, Figure 1. Fossils covered in
pollen grains, and feces. Most fossils amber (above) and formed in
were commonly found in sedimentary rocks (below)
rocks. Fossil records are used to track Image source:
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/if-you-found-
the evolutionary history of many a-fossil-on-the-ground-what-would-you-do-37694178/
https://www.dkfindout.com/us
organisms. /dinosaurs-and-prehistoric-life/fossils/types-fossils/

Fossils also provide information

on how old the organism was. It can
be determined by (1) relative dating or
(2) radioactive dating or absolute
dating. In relative dating, the age of
the fossil is determined by comparing
the layers of sedimentary rock in
which the fossil is located. The
deepest layers of the sedimentary rock are the oldest layers, thus
containing the oldest fossils. The upper layers are newly formed, thus
containing newer fossils.
In radioactive dating, the age of rocks or fossils is determined
using the decay or break down of radioactive elements into
nonradioactive elements at constant rates. The time in which half the
radioactive atoms of a certain kind in rocks or fossils will break down
into atoms of another element is called the half-life.
All organisms have carbon-14 radioactive isotope. The carbon
supply of an organism that is still alive is constantly replaced, thus
maintaining the amount of carbon-14 in its body. Carbon-14 starts to
break down or decay when an organism dies. This radioactive dating
using carbon isotopes is called carbon dating. Carbon-14 has a half-life
of 5,710 years. By carbon dating, scientists can estimate the age of
fossils up to about 75,000 years old. Other radioactive isotopes such
as Potassium-40 or Uranium-238 are used to date fossils more than
100,000 years old.

3
 B. Embryology

An embryo is an organism in its early stages of development.

Embryology is the study of the development of the anatomy of an
organism from an embryo to its adult form. Embryos of many different
organisms appear similar. For instance, vertebrate embryos (e.g.,
reptiles, birds, humans) share common structures and disappear by
the time the organism reaches its juvenile or adult form. For the
vertebrate embryos mentioned earlier, aquatic vertebrates will retain
their tails, and their pharyngeal gill slits will become gills. On the other
hand, land vertebrates will lose their tails in their adult forms. Thus,
embryology provides further evidence for evolution.

Figure 2. Embryonic development of several vertebrates

Image source: https://learninglink.oup.com/static/5ccba044515b560010c690ea/index.html

C. Evidence from Anatomical Structures (Comparative Anatomy)

Another piece of
evidence that supports
evolution is comparing
similarities and
differences of structures
among living organisms.
Evolution is supported by
homologous structures,
analogous structures, and
vestigial structures.
Homologous structures
are parts of different
organisms that are similar
Image source: Pearson Education Inc. in inner or underlying

4
structures but serve different functions. Examples of homologous
structures are shown in Figure 3. Looking closely in Figure 3, they
are made up of the same bones, but each type of bone is shaped
differently for each species. The structures of their forelimbs are
according to a specific function. Bat wings are for flying, and whale
flipper is for swimming. Homologous structures indicate that species
descended from a common ancestor.
Structures of unrelated species may evolve to look alike because
they serve a similar function. Analogous structures are those that
have the same function but do not have similar underlying
structures. In Figure 4, the shark pectoral fin is made up of
cartilage, while the whale flipper is made up of bones. Both
structures function for swimming. Species with analogous structures do
not indicate that they descended from a common ancestor.

Figure 4. Shark pectoral fin (left) and whale flipper (right) are analogous
structures
Image source: https://www.pvsd.k12.ca.us/

Vestigial structures are anatomical structures that are usually reduced

or have no function in many organisms. These structures were previously
functional in the ancestors of the species but are only remnants in the
present-day species. For example, the appendix and coccyx or tailbone of
humans are vestigial structures. The appendix is thought to have no use in
humans, but it helps in the digestion of cellulose for other mammal
species. The human coccyx or tailbone is a shortened version of the bony
tail possessed by our ancestor species. The tailbone of ancestor species
aids in balance and climbing. Vestigial structures provide evidence for
shared ancestry.

Figure 5. Coccyx bone (left) and appendix (right) are one of the vestigial
structures in humans
Image source: https://www.mountnittany.org/articles/healthsheets/35079
https://creationbc.org/index.php/are-vestigial-organs-valid-evidence-of-evolution

5
D. Evidence from Molecular Biology (DNA/Protein Sequences)

All living organisms passed on genetic information from

generation to generation via the DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
molecule. If life was generated through evolution, then closely
related species will be more similar in their DNA sequence than
distantly related species. The sequences in the DNA molecule code
for specific amino acids. Amino acids make up proteins. Proteins are
molecules that are used to build up, repair body parts, and serve
other functions. Closely related species will be more similar in their
amino acid sequence than distantly related species.

E. Biogeography

Biogeography is the study of the geographical distribution of fossils

and living organisms. The distribution of species in a particular landscape
provides proof for evolution. For example, present-day camels (Camelus
species) descended from the same camel ancestors. These camel ancestor
species lived in the continent of North America about a million years ago.
The North American camels millions of years ago migrated to other
places such as East Asia, Africa, and South America. Once camels reached
these places, they evolved independently. Over time, they evolved
adaptations to better survive in the environment they inhabit. Through
natural selection, descendants of the original camel ancestors evolved the
diversity they have today.

Figure 6. Camel Migrations and Present-Day Migration

Image source: https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Book%3A_Human
_Biology_(Wakim_and_Grewal)/09%3A_Biological_Evolution/9.3%3A_Evidence_for_Evolution

6
Inferring Relationships from Evidence of Evolution

All living things have DNA, RNA, and protein molecules. Living
things share some biomolecules which may be used to prove evolutionary
relationships. The building blocks of these chemicals may be analyzed to
show similarities and differences among organisms. The more similarities
in their genetic sequences and amino acid sequences, the closer the
relationships among organisms.
One of the proteins that all living organisms share is Cytochrome-
c. This protein functions in the electron transport chain system of the
mitochondria which is needed for energy release coming from food.
Different organisms show a variance of Cytochrome-c. When the amino
acid sequences of Cytochrome-c protein are compared between species, it
shows the evolutionary relationship among them. As a matter of fact, the
amino acid sequence of Cytochrome-c has long been used as evidence to
support the current scheme of evolutionary biology and the widely accepted
theory that all life on Earth all share a common ancestor.
In a paper published as early as the mid-20th century, Margoliash
(1963) examined the amino acid sequences of Cytochrome-c found in a
horse, man, pig, rabbit, chicken, tuna, and baker's yeast. In the study, he
found that 53% of the residues are identical in Cytochrome-c taken from
the seven organisms. When the yeast's Cytochrome-c is taken out of the
equation, leaving the six remaining vertebrates, this value increases to
73%. The most likely explanation for such a great degree of similarity is
that all these proteins derive phylogenetically from a common primordial
Cytochrome-c, even though these organisms examined are as distantly
related as yeast and horses (Margoliash, 1963).
Indeed, the more similarities in amino acid sequences two
organisms have, the more likely it is that they are evolutionarily closely
related. Moreover, when compared with each other, Margoliash (1963)
inferred that Cytochromes-c from relatively closely related species show few
differences, while those from phylogenetically distant species are more
widely dissimilar (see Fig. 7.)

Fig. 7. Variance in
cytochrome-c amino acid
sequence among the
examined organisms. The
higher number indicates
greater difference in amino
acid sequence and thus
these organisms are more
distantly related while the
lower number of variances
indicates greater similarity
and hence these organisms
are more closely related.
Retrieved from Margoliash (1963).

An examination of
Fig. 7 shows that, as an
example, the difference

7
in the amino acid sequence (expressed as "number of variant residues")
between horse and pig is 3, while the difference between horse and yeast
has a value of 44. This tells us that, since horse and pig have fewer
differences in their amino acid sequence, they are more closely related than
horse and yeast are with each other since they have more differences in
their amino acid sequence.

What's More
Activity 3. Deepening The Concepts
Directions: Answer the following questions.

1. How does (a) relative dating and (b) absolute/radioactive dating

determine the age of fossils? ___________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. How does embryology provide evidence for evolution? ________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3. How do homologous and vestigial structures provide evidence for
evolution? ____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
4. What could be possible for some species belonging to the same family
to be presently living in various locations on Earth? You can further
support your answer with an example. _____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Scoring Rubric
5 points 4 points 3 points 2 points
Content The concept is One (1) Two (2) More than two
complete & concept is concepts are (2) concepts
clearly evidently evidently are evidently
evident. irrelevant irrelevant irrelevant
Spelling and There are no There are 1-3 There are 4-5 There are
Grammar spelling, spelling, spelling, more than 5
punctuation, punctuation, punctuation, spelling,
or grammar or grammar or grammar punctuation,
errors. errors. errors. or grammar
errors.

8
 What I Have Learned
Activity 4. Fill Me!
Directions: Use the clues below to complete the word for each item. A letter
in its exact position is given as an additional hint.

1. _ _ _ _ E _ _ _
2. V______________
3. _O_____
4. ____L_____
5. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _U _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
6. ___T____
7. _I__________
8. _____O____
9. _N_______

Clues:
a. Anything that is used to prove or disprove something
b. Non-functional or partly functional organs
c. Preserved remains of an ancient organism
d. Similar structures from the same ancestral body parts but have
different functions
e. The primary constituent of genes
f. Made up of amino acids
g. The study of the geographic distributions of organisms
h. The study of the development of the anatomy of an organism to its
adult form
i. Have similar functions but different anatomical structures

What I Can Do
ACTIVITY 5. Let's Compare!
Directions: Compare the sequence of amino acids in the Cytochrome-c
protein of different vertebrates. Follow the procedure below for this activity.

Procedure:
1. Given are the sequences of amino acids in the cytochrome C of the
human, chimpanzee, gorilla, Rhesus monkey, horse, and kangaroo
(Table 1). The numbers on the top correspond to the specific amino
acid (a.a.) of that organism (Example: 113 in humans is VAL for Valine
while in kangaroo, it is CYS for Cysteine)

9
 2. Study the amino acid (AA) sequence carefully and identify the number
of amino acid differences between a specific organism with human as
reference.
3. Complete Table 2 below by supplying the required information. To
compute for % Difference use the formula below:

Number of a.a difference x 100

Total AA given in the sample

Example % Difference between Human and chimpanzee

= 0 x 100
30
= 0%

4. After completing Table 2, answer the Guide Questions that follow.

Table 1

Activity adapted from Brittain T. (Biology the Living World) Lab Manual, 1989

Table 2
No. of Amino Specific Amino
Organism Percent (%) Difference
Acid Difference Acid Number
Human & 0 None 100%
Chimpanzee
Human and
Gorilla
Human and R.
monkey
Human and
Horse
Human and
Kangaroo

10
Activity Questions:

Q1. Which of the following organisms have the greatest number of amino
acid differences as compared to a human? What does this imply?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Q2.Which of the following organisms have the least number of amino acid
differences as compared to a human? What does this imply?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Q3. Which organism is closely related to a human? Why?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Q4. Which organism is least related to a human? Why?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

11
 Assessment
Direction: Write the letter of your choice in the space provided before the
number.

___1. Which of the following is NOT true about fossils?

A. They are proofs of life in the past
B. They suggest that life has a history
C. The older the fossil, the less it looks like modern-day species
D. They seem precisely like modern-day species, regardless of their
age

___2. DNA of the life-forms on Earth is almost universal and seems to be

the template from one original source. This line of inferring can be
based on what evidence of evolution?
A. Embryology
B. Fossil Record
C. Molecular Biology
D. Comparative Anatomy

___3. Exactly different organisms such as fish and humans may have
resemblances during the early stage of their development and will lose
some key likenesses as they grow in the later stage of development,
which among the following is the line of evidence that underlie the
said concept for evolution?
A. Embryology C. Molecular Biology
B. Fossil Record D. Comparative Anatomy

___4. Preserved bodies of cave-dwelling man from cold and icy places
suggested that humans look different in the past; what evidence of
evolution is used?
A. Embryology
B. Fossil Record
C. Molecular Biology
D. Comparative Anatomy

___5. Boa constrictors, a kind of snake, have a remnant of what appears to

be rudimentary hind legs; what type of body structure are these?
A. Vestigial Structures

12
 B. Analogous Structures
C. Embryonic Structures
D. Homologous Structures

___6. Fox and polar bears, which are distant relatives, both developed
white-colored fur to adapt to the snowy environment where they
habituate. These body structures are identified as:
A. Vestigial Structures
B. Analogous Structures
C. Embryonic Structures
D. Homologous Structures

___7. Evidence of evolution is provided by genetic information? The more

similar the
A. Amino acid sequences, the more closely related the species, are
B. Hormones between organisms, the more closely related they are.
C. Amino acid sequences, the more distantly related the species are.
D. Hormones between organisms, the more distantly related the
species are.

___8. How do scientists determine the age of fossils through the use of
relative dating?

A. Study of various rock layers in which the oldest fossils are in the
middle layers.
B. Studying different layers of rock where the oldest fossils are located
in the deepest layers.
C. The study of various rock layers in which the oldest fossils are
located in the newest layers.
D. The study of various rock layers where the oldest fossils have to be
confirmed by other tests, regardless of the rock layer's location.

___9. Which among the following best explains the fossil records as
evidence of evolution?
A. Recorded events from the past indicate that the Earth was once
filled with water.
B. Recorded activities of animals from prehistoric times suggest that
people came from monkeys.
C. Fossils recorded the history of life on Earth and indicated that
ancient life forms were different from modern-day species.
D. Fossils suggest that the Earth is not the same as today; for
instance, there was once a massive landmass called the Pangaea.

___10. How will you use biogeography as evidence to infer an evolutionary

relationship?

13
A. Organisms living close with each other sharing different niches are
closely related to each other.
B. Organisms with different developmental patterns were separated
due to natural events or forces.
C. Even if found at different places, organisms with similar
developmental patterns might once live together.
D. The unique characteristics of the organisms living on an open area
are indicative of their ancestry and speciation.

14
 Additional Activities
ACTIVITY 6. Justify!
Directions: Write an explanation on the question
below. Refer to the figure on the right showing the
structural palms of various primate species.

Tarsiers are one of the small species of

primates generally found in tropical islands like
Bohol, Philippines. Gibbons are small apes usually
found in the forests of Southeast Asian regions.
Chimpanzees are considered to be the highest form
of "thinking organisms" on Earth.

The theory of evolution asserts that these

species evolved from a related ancestor. By
observing the given figure, how will you support or Palms of various
primate species
reject the said claim?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Scoring Rubric
5 points 4 points 3 points 2 points
Content The concept is One (1) concept Two (2) More than two
complete & is evidently concepts are Concepts are
clearly evident. irrelevant evidently evidently
irrelevant irrelevant
Spelling and There are no There are 1-3 There are 4-5 There are more
Grammar spelling, spelling, spelling, than 5 spelling,
punctuation or punctuation or punctuation or punctuation or
grammar errors. grammar errors. grammar errors. grammar errors.

15
Answer Key General Biology 2 Module 4

16
References
Printed Resources
Alexander, P., Bahret, M.J., Chaves, J., Courts, G., and Naomi Skolky D'Alessio.
Biology: The Living World. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1989.
Brittain, TM., Biology: The Living World Laboratory Manual, New Jersey, USA:
Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs. 1989.

Commission on Higher Education (2016). General Biology 2, Teaching Guide for

Senior High School. First Edition. Commission on Higher Education

La Union Schools Division Office (2020). General Biology 2, Quarter 3: Week 4,

Module 4: Evidence of Evolution. Department of Education
Margoliash, E. (1963). PRIMARY STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION OF CYTOCHROME
C. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 50(4), 672–679.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.50.4.672

Rea, M.A., and Dagamac, N.H. (2017). General Biology 2 Textbook. Rex Publishing
House.
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# PREUNIT STATEMENTS POST. https://cpb-us-
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NOTEPACKET-2d3l811.pdf

(PDF) Biogeography - ResearchGate.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259706424_Biogeography

1 Given are the sequences of amino acids in the cytochrome ....

https://www.coursehero.com/file/p4k9qgae/1-Given-are-the-sequences-of-
amino-acids-in-the-cytochrome-C-of-the-human/

Biogeography - Physical Geography - Research Guides at ....

https://researchguides.dartmouth.edu/physical_geography/biogeography

Cellular Structure and Processes Crossword.doc - Name ....

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Chapter 5 • Lesson 29.

https://www.wsfcs.k12.nc.us/cms/lib/NC01001395/Centricity/Domain/862
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Embryo | Repropedia. https://www.repropedia.org/embryo

Evolution and Biodiversity, Genetics, Digestive System, Ecosystem.

https://www.slideshare.net/JeneviveOloroso/evolution-and-
biodiversitygeneticsdigestive-systemecosystem

Evolution Science Grade 10 - SlideShare.

https://www.slideshare.net/JEvzOlliuqNobrac/evolution-science-grade-10

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https://ebrary.net/3896/history/scientists_determine_age_fossils

https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Book%3A_Human_Biology_
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ution

I couldn't be more sarcastic with this one... - Imgflip. https://imgflip.com/i/r5hxb

Making an app with no money: A guide for cash-strapped app ....

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Ohio’s State Tests - Weebly. https://dharmoncw.weebly.com/uploads

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PPT - Which of the following organisms have the greatest ....

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