By: Ryan.

Sarayeldin Yr 12
Physics Assignment

Doppler Effect

The Doppler Effect is used in medical physics to help detect numerous

cardiovascular diseases by identifying the rate of blood flow flowing
through a patient’s veins, major arteries and major organs. An
ultrasound is made by using a transducer to produce a high pitched
soundwave which is then reflected (echoed) off the boundaries,
whereas flowing blood cells travelling away from the signal needs
more time to reach the flowing cells and return to the receiver, and
the cells flowing towards the transducer reduce the time needed for
Figure 1 Doppler imaging of blood flow being
the frequency to return back to the receiver. This echo travels back to affected by a leaking valve
a receiver located on the transducer. The boundaries of the different
mediums such; fat, soft tissue (e.g. nervous system), muscle and bone, will be penetrated by various
frequencies due to the different levels of density. The Doppler Effect is used in ultrasound by
measuring the time taken (velocity) to receive an echoed frequency. Depending on the velocity,
process of the Doppler Ultrasound will help determine the direction and velocity at which the blood
cells are flowing. The coloured Doppler helps provide a visual image of the blood flow, i.e. the blue
colour means that the blood is moving away from the receiver and the red colour means that the
blood is moving towards the receiver. A mix of both colours distinguishes a leaking valve in the
cardiovascular system e.g. the bicuspid valve, as seen in Figure 1.

Doppler imaging has helped society by diagnosing patients with diseases such as:

 Atrial Fibrillation
Atrial Fibrillation is a disease that affects the rhythm of the heart’s beats. There are two types
of Atrial Fibrillation; Lone Atrial Fibrillation, which occurs when the disease develops without
the patient having any history of having a cardiovascular problem, and Secondary Atrial
Fibrillation, which is caused by other cardiovascular diseases/problems (e.g. Heart valve
disease)1. This abnormality could result in; palpitations (i.e. irregular or rapid beating of the
heart), dizziness, weakness, and/or shortness of breath2.

 Heart Valve Disease

Heart Valve Disease involves an abnormality in the functionality of the valves of the heart
causing; palpitations (i.e. irregular or rapid beating of the heart), dizziness, weakness, swelling
of the patient’s ankles, feet or abdomen, discomfort in the patient’s chest, quick gain in
weight, and/or shortness of breath3. This disease is caused by the abnormal growth and
development of leaflets of the valve. For instance the leaflets may either be; too small, too big,
leaky, or not attached as it should normally be.

1
emedicinehealth, Atrial Fibrillation (cont.), ©2012 WebMD, Inc., viewed 29/8/12,
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/atrial_fibrillation
2
emedicinehealth, Atrial Fibrillation (cont.), ©2012 WebMD, Inc., viewed 29/8/12,
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/atrial_fibrillation
3
MedicineNet.com, Heart Valve Disease (cont.), ©1996-2012 MedicineNet, Inc., viewed 30/8/12,
http://www.medicinenet.com/heart_valve_disease

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 By: Ryan.Sarayeldin Yr 12
Physics Assignment

Doppler Ultrasound Video

The first part of the video provides an explanation of how the Doppler Effect is used in medical
imaging, including an outline of how it is produced. The second part of the video is an example of an
Echocardiogram which clearly shows the direction of blood flow, as well as a leakage in the valve
through the mix of red and blue colours, signalling that the blood is flowing in different directions.
The video also consists of an A-scan which identifies when the heart beats.

Video URL: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Wa1qJsM7D0 http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=9nzkF0hmy04

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 By: Ryan.Sarayeldin Yr 12
Physics Assignment

Nuclear Medicine

Bone Scans

Bone scans are used to detect and monitor abnormalities in the skeletal system, such as cancer and
fractures, by injecting a small dose of radioactive material (e.g. Technetium-99m) into the patient,
often through their blood stream. The radioactive substance is then accumulated in the patient’s
bones and the substances mainly gather around abnormalities in their bones. The patient is then put
through a scanner which then shows the skeletal structure through the medical imaging as well as
the disorders, cancers, deformities and fractures.

 Advantages
o Examines the whole skeleton or a specific section of the skeleton in search for
fractures, or cancers.
o Reveals fine stress fractures because the radioactive materials move to that point
and is displayed as a bright spot in the scan.
o Also detects problems and abnormalities early to reduce the effect of the diseases.

 Disadvantages
o Exposure to radioactive materials may cause cells to mutate, i.e. cannot be used on
pregnant women due to risk of affecting the developing baby.
o Only shows structure and not functions.
o Bad bone resolution.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan is produced by injecting a chemical, “tracer” that is
created to make FDG, 18-2-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose, which will travel to the areas that requires the
glucose the most. The glucose will then breaks down and releases positrons, which then collide with
the electrons to emit gamma radiation at 180° to the point of collision. This process is known as
annihilation. As a result, an alpha particle is discharged in the following chemical reaction:

14 1 11 4
N + H → C + He
7 1 6 2

The PET scanner then converts the gamma rays into electrical signals, which is then used to form an
image by a computer. The computer then uses colours and contrast to distinguish cancerous cells by
highlighting the dark areas in the scan. The patient must first fast for up to 6 hours to before the
injection to help prevent it from being absorbed by any foods. The patient must then wait for
approximately 1 hour after injection for the tracer to be metabolised, which then allows the
scanning to take place whilst they are in a lay stationary position. PET scanning has helped in;
determining benign from malignant tumours, proving the effectiveness of treatment therapies,
diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, detect brain tumours.

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 By: Ryan.Sarayeldin Yr 12
Physics Assignment

 Advantages
o Provides a detailed image of the body’s biochemical structure.
o Provides a detailed representation of any signs of tumours and other abnormalities.
o Shows functionality of organs.
o Gives nervous system detail.
o Whole body scanning.
o Identifies bone structures.

 Disadvantages
o Exposure to radiation.
o Expensive.
o Poor resolution.

Bone Scan vs. X-Ray

a)Bone Scan of right hand

b)X-Ray of right hand

Figure 2 Comparison of Bone Scan, a), and X-Ray, b)

http://www.thefullwiki.org/Basic_Physics_of_Nuclear_Medicine/PACS_and_Advanced_Image_Processing

Figure 2 shows the difference between a bone scan and a x-ray. Through this image, it is evident that
x-rays have a better resolution because the image is taken similarly to a photograph with a lead plate
which provides a sharper image of mainly the skeleton of the right hand rather that soft tissue,

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 By: Ryan.Sarayeldin Yr 12
Physics Assignment

however, it can only detect fractured and broken bones. Whereas, the bone scan uses a contrast
which is absorbed by the skeletoral system and glows through the soft tissue, and not only detects
fractures and breaks but also skeletal abnormalities and cancers. This is shown by the contrast which
glows as a result of a larger accumulation of radio active material where it is atracted to an
abnormality. The bone scan can also detect fractures that are too small to be detected by a x-ray.

PET Scan of Healthy Body Part/Organ with its Diseased Counterpart

Figure 3 Comparison between a PET scan of a healthy lung and a second PET scan
of an unhealthy lung with lung cancer.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/carolsplayground_cancer_support/2227097467/
Figure 3 is a comparison of two PET scans which includes one healthy lung and the other diagnosed
with cancer. The dark spots in the Abnormal PET scan show the development and spread of the
cancerous disease within the lungs near the heart. The greyish figure of a human torso helps identify
that the cancer is infecting the patient’s right lung. The dark spot on the heart in the abnormal PET
scan discovers that the spread of the disease is reaching other vital organs.

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 By: Ryan.Sarayeldin Yr 12
Physics Assignment

Impact of The Doppler Effect, Bone Scans, and PET Scans on Society

These three types of medical imaging have allowed society to:

- Use an alternative diagnosis process which is cheaper than surgery and more efficient.
- Be diagnosed earlier which has reduced the death rates and improved health standards.
- Increased exposure to radioactive chemicals and supplied society with a burden to dispose
radioactive waste.
- Increase prices to use the technology.
- Better understand modern day diseases in regards to the causes, symptoms and the
improvements to find a cure.

The Doppler Effect, Bone Scans, and PET Scans have all significantly impacted society, economically,
environmentally and ethically. They have all benefitted modern day society by providing it with an
alternative diagnostic process which doesn’t involve expensive surgery and helped prevent
numerous amounts of deaths through early diagnosis. As a result society is now able to last longer.

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 By: Ryan.Sarayeldin Yr 12
Physics Assignment

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. emedicinehealth, Atrial Fibrillation (cont.), ©2012 WebMD, Inc., viewed 29/8/12,

http://www.emedicinehealth.com/atrial_fibrillation
2. MedicineNet.com, Heart Valve Disease (cont.), ©1996-2012 MedicineNet, Inc., viewed 30/8/12,
http://www.medicinenet.com/heart_valve_disease
3. Physics 3rd edition, Jacaranda Text Book
4. http://www.thefullwiki.org/Basic_Physics_of_Nuclear_Medicine/
PACS_and_Advanced_Image_Processing
5. http://www.flickr.com/photos/carolsplayground_cancer_support/2227097467/
6. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Wa1qJsM7D0
7. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9nzkF0hmy04

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