TheBookofMusicalKnowledge 10516327

TH E B O O K O F
MU SIC A L K NO W L E D G E
THE H I ST O R Y ,
TE C HN IQ UE , AND
AP P RE C IA T I O N O F MU S I C T O GE TH ER
, W ITH
L IV E S OF TH E G RE A T C O MP O SE R S
FO R MU S I C- L O VER S , ST U D E N TS
A N D T EA CH ERS
B Y ARTHUR ELSON
A UT H O RO P
“m “ BIOIAIN B
’
G UID ,
E
"
MUSIC C L UB P ROG RAMS . l 'l
” ‘
O.
S
B O TO N NE W Y O RK
HOUG HT O N MIFFLIN C O MP ANY
a bs M ed i na l
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C O PY RIG H T , n g, BY A R
TH U R E L SO N
AL L R IG H T S R E SE RV
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P u b li shed N o vem b er 1015
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S XT H IMPRESSI ON
I
L B RA R Y
a fA fz T E
A C H ERS
A NTA B A RB A
C O LLt i M
RA C A L IF
O RN OA
.
PREFAC E
THIS b ook has been pla nned with a view to pla cing b efore the gen
era l rea der the ma in facts th a t will ena ble him to a pprecia te m usic
intelligently One often hears the remar k I m fond of mu sic b u t
.
,
’
,
I don t u ndersta nd it The present work has been written with the
’ ”
.
idea of ena bling the non musicia n to comprehend the rea l mea ning
-
of the tona l art an d to fa miliarize himself with the va lu e of the

,
grea t com posers works the use of the instru ments the variou s m u
’
, ,
sica lforms a n d a num ber of su bj ects of sim i la r importa nce

, .
At the sa me time certa in other technica l topics ha ve been in

,
clu ded While these ha ve been pre sented in su ch a wa y as to be un

.
derstood by the non m u sicia n they h a ve been given with su fficient

-
,
thorou ghness to ma ke the work u sefu l a lso as a textbook It is there .
fore fitted to the needs of students an d tea chers as well as a ma teurs , .
An effort has been ma de to condense the chief points of a gen era l

mu sica l edu ca tion into a Single volume While this book shou ld .
prove of interest to the a verage rea der a course of stu dy has been
,
a dded which will ma ke it su ita ble f

, or use in high schools or colleges
a lso or in a n y institu ti on tha t a ims to give a course in the u nder

,
sta nding of mu sic .

C O NTENTS
PART I . THE EV OLUTI ON OF MUSIC

PRm ITIVE AND SAVAGE MUS IC
EARLY C HRISTI AN MUSI C

THE MINSTREL KN I GHT S
THE SCHOO Is OF COUNTERPOINT

THE HARMONI C S TYLE
PART II . THE GREAT C OMPOSERS
C H O P IN
C HERUB INI AND FREN C H OP ERA
LISZ T AND HIS C IRCLE

FROM G LINKA To TSCHAIKOVSKY
B RAHMS AND THE S YMPH ONISTS

G RIEG AND THE N ORTHERN COUNTRIES
STRAUSS AND RECENT GERMAN S .
V111 CONTENTS
XXVIII . AN S CH OOL
THE RUSSI
XX IX OTHER E UROPEAN N AT I ONS

.
XXX AMER ICA

.
PART III . MUSICAL FORM
MELODY AND APPREC IAT I ON

FI G URES AND PHRASES
THE S ONG F ORMS
-
THE R OND O S
THE S ONATA ALLEGRO F ORM
-
OT HER SONATA MO VEMENT S

THE ORCHESTRAL FORMS
D AN CES AND P I AN O S T YLES
THE V OCAL FORMS

THE C O NT RAP UNT AL F ORMS
PART I V . THE I N STRUME NTS

T HE P IAN O AND I TS PREDECESSORS
THE ORGAN
THE V O ICE
THE V I OL IN
OTHER BOWED INS TRUMEN TS

PLUC KED S TR I NG I NS TRUMENT S
-
FLUTE AND PI CC OLO

OB OE AND E NGLISH H ORN
THE BA SSOO NS
THE CLARI NETS
H ORNS TRUMPETS AND C ORNET S
, ,
TROMB O NES AND T UB AS

IN STRUMENTS or PERCU SSIO N
PART V . S PEC IAL T O PI C S
L IV S OME FAMOUS PI ANIS TS

.
L V SOME FAMOUS S INGERS

.
VI O LI NIS TS AND VIOLI N M USIC

CONTENTS
LV I I ORCHES TRAT ION

.
LV II I C ONDUC TING
.
L IX A C OUST IC S
.
L X How To R EAD M USIC

.
A PPENDIX
A IMP ORTANT M US I CAL TER M S
.
B A COURSE OF S TUDY WI TH R EFERENCES

. ,
I NDEX
WAGNER .
EXAMPLE OF OLD
ATION N OT FROM AN OLD
SION OF THE AUTHOR
C AN ON ROM AN ANCIENT MANUSCRIP T IN THE BRIT ISH M USEUM

, F
“Sum er is icum en in " atin a bou
d g , t 12 15
D I LAsso
PALESTRINA
BACH
By perm issi on ofThe Pr

in t Collector s Quarterly
-
'
BEETHOVEN
WEB ER
SCHUEERT
VERDI
THE HUMAN E AR
xii ILLUSTRATIONS
D VORAE
PAINE ; C ONVERSE ; MACDOWELL ; HADLEY ; C HADWI CK ; F OO TE ; PARKER

G ROUP OF S TRINGED I NSTRUMENT S
1 Man dolin 2 L u te ; 3 Viola d Am ore; 4 Vi olin ; 5 B anj o; 6 Vi ola ;
. , . .
’
. . .
7 Vi ol
. on cello ; 8 Gu i tar ; 9 H arp ; 10 C ontra b ass
. . .
GROUP OF W OOD-W IND INSTRUMEN TS

1 B assoon ; 2 Oboe ; 3 B ass Cl
. . a r in et;
. 4 B asset Horn ; 5 Cl arin et;
. .
6 Ol d Fl
. u te ; 7 Sa x op hon e ; 8 E ng l
. ish Horn ; 9 B oehm Flute
. .
GROUP OF B RASS INSTRUMENT S

1 Val
. ve Trom b on e ; 2 Sli de Trom b one ; 3 Trum pet; 4 Serpent;
. . .
5 Horn ; 6 B ass Tu b a ; 7 C orn et; 8 O p hi cl

. . .ei de .
G ROUP OF PERCUSS I O N INS TRUMENTS

1 Sn are D ru m ; 2 Tri a n gl
. e ; 3 Chin ese Gon g ; 4 Gl
. . oc kenspi el; 5 C as . .
tan ets ; 6 X yl
. op hone ; 7 Kettl edrum s ; 8 B ass D rum ;
. 9 Cym b al s;
. .
10 C el
.esta
ADELINA PATTI
PAGANINI
OO K O F MUSIC A L KNOWL ED GE
PART I
T HE E VOLUTION OF MUSIC
TH E B O O K O F MUSIC AL
KNO W L ED G E
P RI M I T I VE AND S A VA G E M USI C
FETIS defines music as the art of moving the emotions by com
b ina tions of sound This sta tement would give to the tona l art a
.
very early origin a n d wou ld even a llow it a pre huma n existence in

,
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the songs of birds The beginning of huma n mu sic mu st ha ve been

.
voca l in ch ara cter Herbert Spencer considers song as a form of ex

.
pression arising from the reflex a ction of the voca l orga ns under
stress of em otion j u st as a cry follows pa in This wou ld reverse the
, .
definition of Fé tis an d ma ke mu sic a resu lt of em otion ra ther tha n

,
a ca u se .
It seems proba ble th a t the early songs developed from hu nting

ca lls or other voca l signa ls em ployed in primitive life As soon as
, .
su ch ca lls were u sed for the plea sure exp ressed or imparted a pa rt ,
from any usefu l purpose they beca me mu sic in the strict sense of
,
the term Melody wou ld thu s arise ea sily from the aruplifica tion of
.
a single ca ll or the u nion of severa l Some au thorities think tha t

.
song wa s first a n a ccompa niment to the muscu lar expression tha t

led to d a ncing ; b u t the hu nting Signa ls prob a bly a nteda ted the
-
ru d im enta ry ta ngos of the prim itive ra ces .
The orig in of different sca les m ay be tra ced with more deta il even ,
“
if som e of it is legendary Our own sca le is founded on fa ct for
.
”
,
Pytha goras brou ght its ma thema tica l rela tions from E gyp t an d ,
ma de them the ba sis of the Greek sca les In this system the pitc hes
.
ofthe notes corresponded to defin ite fra ctiona l par ts of a stretched
str ing The Greek system beca m e the basis of the Ambr osia n a nd
.
Gregoria n m odes described in deta il in a la ter cha pter ; a nd the

,
sa me pitches were employed in the dia tonic mode tha t repla ced
these For the last two centuries the interva ls by common con
.
,
sent ha ve been a ltered Slightly to ma ke our twelve equa l semi

, ,
tones tha t permit of modula tion from one key to a ny other .

4 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLED GE
Not allpeople however use our sca le In Sia m an d some neigh
, , .
boring cou ntries the octa ve is divided into five six or seven equ a l , ,
pa rts to form a sca le The Hindu s on the other ha nd us ed sm a ller

.
, ,
sca le pa rts tha n ours ha ving third a nd quarter tones The legen ds
-
,
-
.
tell us th a t when the god Kr ishna ca me to earth he was met by no ,
less tha n sixteen thou sa nd nymphs ea ch of whom sa ng to him in a ,
mode different from th a t of the others If they a l lsa ng a t once the .

,
b ea rer wou ld cer ta m ha ve needed more tha n huma n pa tien c e ;

b u t the a ccount does not dea l with th a t point Fr om this event ca me .
the nu merous m odes or Raa gnis tha t were found in the na tive
, ,
India n music These were often of grea t power ; a n d som e were held
.
even too potent for morta l use Thus it is rela ted th a t the E m peror .
Akba r comma nded the fam ou s singer Na ik Gob aulto sin g the Mo de
of Fi re Tha t performer a fter finding allrefu sa l va in star ted his
.
, ,
fa ta l ta sk b u t took the preca u tion of plu nging u p to his neck in the

,
wa ters of the Dj u m na Before his song was over the wa ter arou nd
.
,
him bega n to boil E ven then the Emperor wou ld not let him stop ;
.
so b e resumed the fiery stra in only to b urst into fla mes a n d be ,
consumed as he finished it The story seems a pocrypha l though .

,
m any la ter singers ha ve been known to be persua ded into a ttempt

ing things tha t they ca nnot ma na ge sa fely .
China u ses the so ca lled penta tonic sca le consisting of interva ls

-
,
sim ilar to those of the bla ck keys on our pia nos Tha t this sca le m a y .
give pleas ing effects is shown by the Scotch folk mu sic in which -
,
“
m a ny of the m ost bea u tifu l songs su ch as Au ld La ng Syne or ”
,
“
Bonnie Doon are wholly in the five note sca le Turning a ga in to
,
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legend we find th a t the Chinese evidently preferred this sca le to our

,
dia tonic mode Long a g o the sa ge Ling Lun in sea rch of knowledge
.
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, ,
ca me to the ba nks of the sa cred river Here he fou nd the i m m orta l .
bird of China the Poa ng Hoaug with its ma te The fema le bir d
,
-
, .
sang the notes of ou r dia tonic sca le while the ma le bir d lim ited his ,
ou tpourings to the penta tonic sca le At tha t time everything fem .
inine was held of little a c cou nt in China so the fem a le s notes were ,
’
rejected an d those of the ma le bird chosen A little j u diciou s cu t

, .
ting among the ba mboo reeds on the river ba nk ena bled Ling Lun - -
to perpetua te this sca le At present the Chinese often sing with a

.
piercing intona tion ; b u t their mu sic itself is not a t allunpleas ing as ,
the song in pra ise of the Mu Li flower will Show - .

T SIN -
FA
( A Chi n ese pra isi ng bra n ch fMu L i fl ow ers

'
’
so ng a o -
thr own in to a m a iden s
doo r )
.
6 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
Am ong ncient instr uments those of the Chinese are best de
a ,
scribed Their invention is a scribe d to Ka i Tien Chi the nin th em

.
- -
,
p eror of the spi r it u a l dyn a sty m entioned in Chinese mythology .
They are cl assified a ccording to their ma teri a l a n d form the fol ,
lowing eight grou ps : (I) The sou nd of skin ; (2 ) the sou nd of stone ;
( )
3 th a t of met a l ; (4 ) of b a ked cl a y ; (5) of si l
k str ings ; (6 ) of wood ;
7
( ) of b a m boo ; ( 8 ) of ca l a b a sh .
The skin of a nim a ls su ita bly ta nned is used in the eight varieties
, ,
of Chinese dru m Most of these are barrel sha ped but two of the
.
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,
smaller ones are more fla t a n d often pa rtly filled with rice gra ins,
-
.
M usica l stones to the nu mber of sixteen form wha t is known as the

, ,
ki n g the stones being Sh a ped mu ch like a ca rpenter s squ ar e a n d

’
hun g in a row These are very va lu a ble when pe rfect They da te

. .
from early times a set of them h a ving been received as tribu te in the
,
year 2 2 50 B C The sou nd of meta l is heard in the ma ny bells a n d

. .
gongs which are highly esteemed in China B aked cla y forms the
,
.
ma teri a l of the hi uen a whistle with from five to seven a pertures

, .
Silk str ings are employed on the ki n and the che which are widely ,
used The form er has seven strings giving only the five tones of the
. ,
penta tonic sca le The la tter is mu ch la rger ha ving twenty five

.
,
-
strings These str ings are plu cked to prod u ce the tone which is
.
,
u nu su a lly soft a n d a greea ble Wooden instruments are devoted

.
a ltogether to noise The chief forms are a hollow box stru ck by a

.
h a m mer a n d a tiger ima ge with wooden pegs in its ba ck the peg

,
-
, s
being swept a t a stroke in mu ch the sa m e fashion th a t a sma ll boy

will use in ru nning a stick along a picket fence B a mboo forms the .
si a o a n d the fl u tes The former is a set of sixteen Pa n pipes The

.
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la tter ha ve only three fin g er holes a nd therefore dema nd mu ch -

,
skill in pl a yi ng Still more difficu lt was the obsolete form with the
‘
mouthpiece in the centre thr ee holes on ea ch Side and the ends , ,
stopped u p The ca la bash or gour d serves as the a ir cha m ber of

.
, ,
-
the cheng which has gold tipped reeds stuck into it to form a
,
-
primitive orga n In recent yea rs the Chinese ha ve a dopted foreign

.
instruments of the ba njo a nd tru m pet type .
Musica l instru ments were proba bly copied from na tura l models .
The wind whistling in a hollow reed would suggest the fl u te ; a

bra nch bu mping a ga inst a hollow tree m ay well have led to d rums ;
while the twanging bowstring develops na turally into a rudimentary
a pproa ch ; and the Ir oquois bra ves reserved it for love ca lls The -
.
fin ger holes were u su a lly few in nu mber ma king it dif

- fi cu lt f
or the ,
performer to get a n y b u t the sim plest effects .
Instrum ents of the horn a nd tru mpet type a lso are fou nd a mong
primitive peoples Africa n horns ha ve been ma de of ivory wood or
.
, ,
even large se a shells Ju st as Siegfried in Wa gner s Nibelu ngen

.
,
’
Tr ilogy has his own horn ca ll so ma ny Africa n chiefs ha d sp ecial

, ,
horn Signa ls of their own for use in b a ttle or to indica te a pp roa ch

, .
Som etim es nearly every m em ber of a tr ibe wou ld h a ve su ch a signal .
The M a oris of New Zea la nd ha d wooden wa r tru mpets seven feet -
long which were au dible for severa l m iles The India ns on the u pper
,
.
Rio Negro ha d something between a tru m pet an d a ba ssoon ma de ,
in eight different sizes for u se in their SO ca lled devils mu sic On -

’
.
these they pl a yed good m elodies with fu ll a ccompa niment Wom en , .
were barred from this ceremony on pa in of dea th a n d even for ,
bidden to look a t the instrum ents ; a n d it is sa id tha t the poison u sed

as a pena lty f or brea king this ru le was given by fa thers to their own
d au ghters a nd by hu sba nds to their own wives

, .
The gong is very popu lar a m ong sa va ges Gong like sou nds are .
-
obta ined in Borneo from sma ll pieces of iron a n d even from ch a ins ,
thr own into the a ir Skilfu l Africa n pla yers can get ma ny effects
.
from the gong Its chief use however has been to arou se its hearers
.
, ,
to war like frenzy a condition tha t sometimes r esu lts from gong
,
mu sic in m ore civilized na tions Bells were a dopted by the Ea st .
Indian Peg us who united twenty of them into one instrument

, ,
pla yed by ha mmer strokes The Ja va nese bel ls or gam m elong

-
.
, ,
sou nded like a string orchestra when hear d from a dista nce by the
Challenger expedition .
Pri m itive drum s com e in a llsizes from the skin covered bowls of ,
-
the Hottentots to the large hollow tr ee tru nks of the Ash a ntis In -
.
Africa the dru m has severa l u ses beside tha t of a ccompan ying mu sic
or d a ncing It is em ployed to a nnou nce the arriva l or departure of a
.
stra nger to give the mar ching tim e for na tive carriers or even for a
, ,
code of signa ls The Dwa lla tribes h a ve su ch signa ls which they

.
,
r ea d with as mu ch skill as a telegra ph ope ra tor will use in receiving
messa ges on his sounder .
The m a ri m ba is a set of fla t sticks on gour ds of different sizes ,
the sticks being struck by a h a mmer Some have cla im ed this as the .
PRIMITI VE AND SAVAGE MUSIC 9
origi n of the pia no b u t it would be far more correct to ca llit the pre
,
cursor of the xylophone .
Plu cked str ing instru ments are well represented by the guitar of
-
the Asha ntis known as the la nku Th is has a long neck join ed to a
, .
hollow skin covered wooden box It has eight strings su pported in

,
-
.
,
two rows by a bridge The Africa ns ha ve zithers a lso wi th strings of

.
,
ba mboo fibres or twis ted ra tta n thr ea ds .
Most widesp rea d am on g str inged instruments is the harp It u n .
dou btedly developed from the twa ng of the bowstring a lthou gh the ,
New Zea la nders do not ha ve bows an d yet do possess a form of the ,
lyre The harp of the Ka fli rs is a sim ple bow on which the strin g
.
,
m a y be tightened or loosened a t will by mea ns of a sliding ring .
For resona nce a hollow gour d is las hed to the bow near one end
, .
Other Africa n tr ibes ha ve ha rps varyi ng in Size an d with the strings ,
ra nging in nu mber from seven to eighteen In G u inea the na tives .
ma ke a n wolian harp from the lea f sta lk of the aeta pa lm by separa t -

,
ing its pa ra llel fibres an d pu tting a bridge u nder them Lu tes ha ve .
been fou nd on the lower Congo with stri n gs of pa lm fibres Da ,

.
hom ey has a prim i tive ma ndolin while New B rita in an d the York ,
Isla nds possess a ru dim enta ry b a njo .
The use of friction in tone prod u ction seems to h a ve origina ted in

-
Afr ica The negro ha bit of rubbing two sticks together prod u ces
.
fearfu l a n d wonderful results b u t it is a principle ea sy to a pply to

,
other ma teria ls Thus the Da maras stroked their bowstrings an d

.
,
prod u ced pra ctica lly a violi n tone The M B a lun da negroes evolved .
’
a c ru de violin with thr ee str ings of pla nt fib re The M a la ys ha ve a .
two str inged violin while Ea st Ja va offers a sort of fla ttened Violon

-
,
cello with horseha ir strings on a fra me of a rare variety of cocoa

,
nu t The Ara bia n reba b O ften considered the origin of our violin
.
, ,
ha d two strings which were plu cked a t first an d only bowed in la te r ,
tim es Other Ara bia n instruments were the lu te (a lu d) the ta bor

. ,
(ta mbourine ) the single stringed monochord the kettledrum the

,
-
, ,
za m a r (a n oboe ) the nef yr (trumpet ) severa l flutes a n d the d u lci

, , ,
m er wi th its ha mmer stru ck str ings tu ned in sets of thr ee

,
-
The .
la st nam ed is the rea l prototype of the harpsichords an d spinets th a t

-
led to the modern pia no The Ara bia n m usic like tha t of Moha m
.
,
m edans in genera l has a seven toned sca le derived fro m a theoreti

,
-
,
ca lsystem ofseventeen fra ctiona l tones The sca le however is not .

, ,
uniform its interva ls dif
, fering a ccording to the num ber of fra ctiona l
par ts u sed in ea ch tone The mu sic is rhyth m ica l in chara cter an d.
strikin g in ef fect It is well echoed in Felicien D a vid s symphonic

.
’
“ “
ode The Desert and in Sa int Sa é ns song La B rise ,
” -
’
.
Ba bylonia a n d As syria possessed harps d u lcimers lyres lu tes , , , ,
pipes tru m pets a nd dru ms The lyres were mu ch like those of

, , .
G reece instru ments with an enla rg em ent or resona nce cha m ber
,
a t the botto m near ly vertica l sides a n d cr oss b ar a t the top fr om

, ,
-
,
which the vertica l strings ran down Som e of the B a bylonia n in .
strum en ts m entioned in the third ch a pter of D a niel h a ve G r eek
na mes A du lci m er like a ffa ir wi th strings plu cked instea d of stru ck

.
-
, ,
was known as the psa ltery .
Am ong the Hebrews mu sic was cherished by the prophets as ,

I
ea rly as the timEOfSa m u elor ab ow
'
ln the second temple , ,
bu ilt a bou t 52 0 B C singing with instru menta l a ccompa nim ent was
. .
,
cu stomary an d the psa lms were collected for su ch use This early
, .
“
mu sic is lost even the old Hebrew tu nes of to da y su ch as Kol
,
-
,
Nidrei being compara tively modern The Hebrew instru ments

”
, .
were a lmost wholly borr owed from other na tions The h u mo r or .

,
harp was proba bly sma ll enou gh to be a lyre The nebelwas a

, .
psa ltery som etimes hu ng on the pla yer s neck The asor which
,
’
.
,
D a vid mentioned as an instrument of ten str ings was a lyr e pla yed ,
wi th a plectrum The tim bre] or ta bor or ta boret was a sma ll

.
, , ,
h a nd dru m or ta mbourine proba bly ma de in different sizes Gym

-
, , .
b a ls were known an d trumpets an d flu tes ; while proba bly som e use

,
was ma de of the Egyp tia n sistru m as well as g uita rs an d pipes The , .
organ in the te m ple was proba bly a set of very large Pan pipes -
.
The Ta lmu d a sserts th a t when this organ was pla yed the people ,
in the streets of Jerusa lem cou ld not hea r one a nother ta lk B u t .
the na m e used m agrepha mea nt fire shovel a lso a n d m a y ha ve re

, ,
-
,
ferred to the large shovel tha t was thrown down a fter the sa crificia l
fires were bu ilt Some a u thorities even hold it to be a dru m All this
. .
shows our la ck of knowledge on the su bject a n d the ina ccura cy of ,
the early wr iters Another striking story comes from Josephu s who
.
,
mentions a concert of two hu ndred thou sa nd singers forty thou sa nd ,
sistra forty thou sa nd harps and two hundred thou sa nd tru mpets
, , .
Ancient Egypt th a t la nd of mu ch forgotten civiliza tion ha d a

, ,
Well developed system of mu sic The flu tes in the Ol

-
d tombs as . ,
PRIMIT IVE AND SAVA GE MUSIC 11
l e dy men tioned are fou nd to be excellent instru ments There

a r a , .
were thr ee varieties of harp a sma ll bow Sh a ped a ffa ir to be

, ,
-
carried on the shoulders a larger bow sha ped instru ment tha t was
, ,
-
held u pright an d the more ma ssive loop sha ped affa ir often tr ia n
, ,
-
,
gu lar in form None of these however ha d the pilla r beyond the

.
, ,
str in gs tha t com pletes the tria ngle in moder n harps and keeps the
instru ment in perfect tu ne For this rea son the Egyptia n harps
.
could not ha ve stood very grea t tension an d mu st h a ve been com ,
pa ra tivel y low in tone The str ing s var ied in num ber from thr ee to
.
twenty or m ore The Egyptia n l .

yres Sh a ped like the letter U with ,
a cr oss b ar a bove ha d five or more str ings

-
, The lyres were u su a lly .
set u pright on a ta ble or pedes ta l b u t cou ld be held horizonta lly in

,
stea d They were pla yed either by a plectrum or by the fin gers The
. .
la ter lu te s were p rovided with frets a long the neck in qu ite m odern ,
fas hion There were O boes with stra w reeds in the mou th pieces an d
.
-
,
sometimes dou ble tubes ; Tr um pets were m a de of copper or bronze ,
a n d u sed chiefly f ita ry purp oses The syr inx existed in variou s
or m il .
sizes Percu ssion instruments inclu ded bone or ivory cla ppers cym
.
,
ba ls ta mbour ines a nd a t lea st two kinds of drum besides the Sis

, , ,
tr u m The las t was a Set of m eta l ba rs ha nging loosely in a fra me

.
,
an d giving a jingle when sha ken It is thou ght th a t this instrument

.
was u sed to give signa ls f or workmen to p u ll a n d ha ultogether j u st ,
“
as one of a gr ou p of sa ilors tugging a t a rope will sing a chantey ”
to gu ide the m en in pu lln together rhythmica lly Appa rently .
The Egyptia ns employed mu sic as a socia l diversion a courtly ,
lu xu ry a n d an a dj u nct of religiou s c eremonies It was u nited with

, .
poetr y an d da ncing Professiona l Singers pla yers a n d d a ncers re

.
, ,
ceived ca refu l tra ining a t large institu tions a n d so m e of the pictur e ,
relics Show this in grea t deta il The existing instru ments indica te
.
tha t the a ncient Egyptia n sca le was proba bly dia tonic an d so m e of ,
the pictures suggest the use of ha rmony in instrumenta l combina
In the seventh opened to the Greeks a n d ,
this in tM W fii fll
y The Greek mu sic .
is derived lar gely from the Egyptia n m a ny of the Greek works on ,
musi c ha ving been written in Egypt This being so the Egyptia n .

,
12 THE B OOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
music as well as the Greek becomes the sour ce from which our own
, ,
tona l art developed We know little of the Egyptia n sca le and

.
,
nothing of the nota tion ; but a pparently it cou ld not h a ve been

grea tly different from tha t of Greece which has been described in
,
deta il by ma ny writers The so ca lled Ptolema ic sca le system b e

.
-
ca m e a la ter model for Greece .
Enou gh has been set down here to show tha t music is by no mea ns
a recent development The known a ntiqu ity of the Chinese instru
.
ments (of which in pa ssing we m a y note tha t the Ja pa nese are

, ,
mostly copies ) is so grea t tha t it ma kes our earliest mu sica l cla ssics
blush for their extrem e you th The widesprea d employment of com
.
para tivel y a dva nced instruments shows us th a t mu sic m i ght wel l

ha ve developed into a grea t art elsewhere than in E ur ope M usic .
,
a fter all is la rgely a ma tte r of tas te ; the Chinese on hea ring E ur o

, ,
pea n mu sic u nder the a u spices of Fa ther Amiot sa id th a t it was no

,
dou bt very learned b u t tha t it did not touch the hea rt like their own
,
“
mu sic B u t the old motto offers to ea ch his own a n d for Occi
.
”
,
denta l na tions the history of mu sic except for the earliest Egyptia n
,
suggestions is wholly confined to E ur ope The postscript of the las t

, .
centur y shows us a development in America too ; b u t th a t has been

largely a reflection of Europea n sta ndards and models .
G REE C E AND RO ME
WHEN the poet Collins ca lled pon some party or parties un
u
“
known to revive the j ust designs of Greece a t the expense of
”
,
“
Cecilia s mingled world of sou nd it is dou btfu l if he knew j ust
’ ”
,
wha t those designs were Certa m it was disloya l to the m em ory of

.
Purcell a n d the grea t Eliza betha n com posers who ha d gone before
hi m B u t su bsequ ent discoveries ha ve given us a better insight into
.
the su bject of a ncient Greek mu sic an d we now ha ve several a ctua l

,
specim ens of tha t music to su pplem ent the ma ny historica l trea
In Greece poetr y a n d music were a t first tr ea ted as one a rt In

, .
the Mythica l or Heroic Age the wa ndering minstr el flourished He

, .
would tra vel a bou t from p la ce to pla ce reciting his epic fra gm ents
or shorter poems wi th a certa in style Of ch a nting or ca ntilla tion , ,
for ea ch kind of poetry The m u sic therefore was not defin ite the
.
, , ,
voca l cha nting an d lyr e a ccompa nim ent varying on repetition even
though the sty le rema ined consta nt The poets were received with .
su f
fi cient honor in their pe ripa tetic voca tion We rea d tha t .
Sev en c iti es
im ed the birth ofHom er dea d
cl
a ,
Throu g h whi ch the livin g Hom er b eg g ed hi s bread .
B ut this wa s written som e twenty seven centu ries a fter the event
-
a n d it is p r ob a ble th a t geniu ses of the Homer or Hesiod type wo u ld
not often go hu ngry .
Shorter lyrics bega n to a ppear in the seventh an d sixth centuries

B C Ion ic i a m bics a n d elegia cs wer e com posed by Ar chilochu s a n d
. .
Tyr taeu s to be su cceeded by the lyrics a n d odes of Sa ppho Alcaeus

, , ,
a n d An a cr eon to sa y nothing of Pi n d ar a n d the l a ter p oetesses

, ,
M yr tis an d Corinna These were still su ng with im m ovisa tiona l

.
a cco m p a ni m ent They m u st ha ve ha d a strong effect for Solon on

.
, ,
hea ring a work of Sa ppho expressed the hope tha t he might not die
,
before he ha d lea rned su ch a bea u tifu l song .
M usic was given a scientific ba sis by Pytha goras Born in Sa mos .

in the year 582 B C he tra velled extensively an d brought ba ck from
. .
, ,
Egypt the knowledge of syste m a tic m u sic He ga ve to the sca le the .
ma thema tica l proportions expla ined in the la ter cha pter on a c ous
tics , a sca le which was em ployed a l m ost inta ct u ntil 1700 A D . .
,
a n d then ch a nged only Slightly to form our p r esent sca le From his .
work a n d tha t of his su ccessors ca me the well developed system of -
Greek m odes .
The ba sis of the modes was the tetra chord or grou p of four a d ,
j a cent notes The dia tonic tetra chord consisted of interva ls repre
.
sented by E D C an d B in our nota tion The chroma tic tetra chord

, , ,
.
ha d the inte rva ls of E C sharp C a n d B ; while the enh armonic

,
-
, ,
tetra chord ha d still sma ller intervals in its lower part The dia tonic .
tetra chord was varied by the use of C sharp instea d of C a n d D -

,
Sh arp a lso instea d of D The origina l tetra chord was ca lled Doria n
.
,
tha t with one Sha rp Phrygia n an d th a t with two sh arps Lydi a n , .
These tetra chords were ma de into sca les by the a ddition of tetra
chords below If the tetra chords were a dded a bove the sca les
.
,
beca me Hypodori a n Hypophrygia n an d Hypolydia n with an extra

, , ,
one the Mixolydia n to complete the series Their interva ls when

, , .
,
tun ed on the octa ve lyr e were as follows : ,
D ori an E C G F E
P hryg i an E 01 4 G F# E
L y di an E CA A G# F# E
Mixoly di an E C A G F E
Hy p odori a n E C A G F1? E
Hyp ophryg i an E C it A Git F# E
Hy p ol y di an E C if AI; G1? F3 E
These it will be seen correspond in size of interva ls with white
, ,
key sca les on our pia nos starting on ea ch degree of our dia tonic
sca le Thu s the Doria n has E to E interva ls the Phrygi a n D to D
.
,
interva ls a n d so on The Lydia n mode corresponds to our dia tonic

, .
“
sca les ; so tha t when Collins wr ote Wra p me in soft Lydia n mea s ,
”
ures he was ca lling for nothing new to modern ears E a ch m ode was
, .
su pposed to ha ve its own specia l qu a lities the Doria n being decid ,
y strong a n d m artia l The Hymn to C a lliope one of the few

”
edl .
,
bits of old Greek m u sic still exta nt is Doria n in effect its chief note , ,
being wha t we wou ld ca ll the third sca le degree The im pressive .
power of this mode m a y be seen a lso in the older Scotch setting of

d Robin G ra y which begins an dends on the th ird sca le degree
”
Aul , .
The G reeks combined all their sca les into one larg e two octa ve -
a ffa ir co m posed of four Do ri a n tetra chor ds with the necessa ry al

,
tera tions These notes were na med fro m the str ings on the lar ge
.
two octa ve lyre The na m es an d further deta ils m ay be fou nd in

- .
, ,
“
Wa ldo Selden Pra tt s excellent book The History of Mu sic The
’ ”
.
music was nota ted by letters The Greeks used few letters b u t .
,
ga ve them new mea nings when written sidewise or u pside down .
The Roma ns did not understa nd the principle of the octa ve ; and in
a dopting the G reek system they contin u ed the letters thr ough the
a lph a be t a n d even a dded other ch ara cte rs

,
.
The Greek dra ma ma de use of mu sic Its decla ma tion ha lf epic .

,
a n d h a lf lyr ic rese m bled in some degree the ca ntilla tion of the early
,
minstrels b u t was u sed by the choru s as well as by single perform ers

, .
Instru ments of the wood wind cla ss (flutes Oboes clarinets etc )
-
, , , .
were gra dua lly intr odu ced also .
Most common a mong Grecian instru ments was theJm This L
ha d a resona nce box (often tortoise shell ) a U sh a ped fra me a n d a -

,
-
,
cross b ar with from four to eighteen strings Larger th a n the lyre

-
, .
was the ki tha m or phor m i nx in which the str ings were carried
, ,
partly over the side of the resonance box instea d of bein g a tta ched
to the top It is held by Greilsa m er a n au thority on the Violin
.
, ,
tha t la ter ki tharas with enl arged side fra mes behind the strings m a y -
h ave su ggested the viols tha t led to the modern Violin The m a gadis .
was a n Ori en ta lharp of varying sha pe with a bou t twenty strings

-
, .
From this ca me the term m a ga dizin g which mea nt pla ying In

” ‘‘
,
octa ves instea d of u nison Other harps were known under the na mes
.
of barbitos an d tri gon a ccording to their sha pe All these were

, .
pla yed with the plectrum or plu cked by the fingers .
Am ong the wind instru ments the most pop ular was the a u l os or
, ,
direct flute of ca ne or bored wood This ha d a deta cha ble mou th .
piece a n d from two to eight fing er holes There were dou ble fl u tes
,
-
.
,
in which two tu bes extended from one mou thpiece The pla yer .
often wore a stra p ar ou nd his cheeks ena bling him to get grea ter ,
power Sometim es a bellows was a tta ched ma king the flu te a b ag

.
,
pipe The syr inx was a set of tu bes bou nd together an d pla yed by
.
,
blowing over the open ends The sa lpi nx was a na tura l tru m pet of
.
“
bronze som ewha t ta pering in sha pe The term flu te proba bly
,
”
.
inclu ded a lso instruments of the clar inet or oboe typ e with single ,
GREECE AND ROME 17
or dou ble bits of vi bra ting reed in the m ou thpiece The deeper .
flu tes were proba bly like our bassoon Thu s the so m br e an d impres .
“
sive chara cter of the Nom e of Kra dias a dea th mar ch pla yed on
”
,
-
the jou rney to an execu tion mus t ha ve dra wn m u ch of its effect

,
from som e tone color simila r to tha t of the ba ssoon

-
.
Am ong the wind instru m ents is a lso the ra ther m ysteriou s wa ter
organ invented by Ktesib ios a t Alexa ndr ia in the year 150 B C In
,
. .
Roma n ti m es this consisted of two or three sets of pipes m ou nted on

a wind chest a ke y boa r d of va lve levers a n d a p a ir of p artly fil
-
, ed
l ,
pu mps ca u sing a ir pressure by hydrau lic mea ns

-
.
M an y of these instruments were pla yed a t pr iva te or sem i pu blic -
occa sions ; b u t they beca me a prom inent fea ture in the pu blic games .
The Olym pic Ga m es occurrin g once every four yea rs a t Elis da ted
, ,
ba ck to the ninth centu ry B C At these ga m es there was often a con

. .
test oftru m peters which beca m e a reg ular event in 396 B C Most
, . .
famou s a m ong the G reek tru mpeters was Herodorus of Megara who ,
won the p rize ten tim es in su ccession a n d in one yea r was Victoriou s ,
in a ll four of the grea t festiva ls the Olym pic the Pythia n the , , ,
Nem ea n an d the Isthmia n M a ny a necdotes are told of this m u

, .
He would sleep on a bea rskin in imita tion of Hercu les ,
a n d the lion s skin His m u sic was so lou d tha t a t tim es som e of his
’
.
a u ditors were stu nned by the concu ssion He cou ld pl a y u pon two .
tru m pets a t the sa me tim e an d when he did so the a u dience ha d to

,
sit farther a way th an u sual to a void the b a d effects of the noise

, .
Once a t the siege of Argos when the tr oops were giving wa y he b e

, ,
g an to sou nd his two tru mpets which so insp ired the warriors tha t
,
they returned to the fight an d won the victory The trum pet was .
u sed f or m ilita ry sig na ls ra ther th a n f

or rea l
ly mu sica l pur poses It .
was blown on the mar ch or to u sher in a pr ocla ma tion or even to

, ,
aro u se the a nima ls in horse ra ces -

.
In the mu sica l contests the pr ize seems to h a ve gone to lou dness

ra ther th a n to wha t we shou ld ca ll expression Trumpeters wou ld .
often inj ure themselves in their efforts an d som etim es even bur st a ,
blood vessel H armonides wishing to astoni sh his au ditors is sa id

-
.
, ,
to h ave killed himself thu s while pla ying the flu te .
Flu te contests took pla ce in the Pythia n ga mes held in honor of ,
Apollo s victory over the Py thon One of the contesta nts once won
’
.
the prize in a ra ther Singu lar ma nner While he was pla ying on a .
18 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLED G E
stra ight flu te (held directly before the fa ce like a tr um pet ) he found , ,
the m ou thpiece su ddenly clogged Insta ntly ch a nging the p osition

.
of his instru ment he continu ed by pla ying it as a side flu te in the

,
-
,
ma nner of our pr esent da y perform ers His presence of mind was

-
.
rewarded by the Victo r s cr own

’
.
It was na tura l tha t mu sic shou ld pla y a large part in an y festiva l

dedica ted to Apollo ; a n d in la ter yea rs these events beca me a mbi
tiou s enou gh Thu s in the yea r 2 50 B C shortly a fter Athens had
. . .
,
won a temporary freedom from M a cedonia a mu sica l festiva l took ,
pla ce tha t wou ld ha ve delighted the hearts of Richar d Strau ss a n d

other modern wholesa lers The work performed was a representa tion
.
of the comba t betwee n Apollo an d the Python in five movements , .
The composer is u nknown an d it is prob a ble tha t the mu sic took

,
sha pe gra du a lly under m a ny ha nds ; b u t the deta ils of the scoring
are reco rded with some fu lness .
The first movement represented Apollo com ing to Pytho an d ,
joining other celestia l beings in their pa stim es This inclu ded a .
da nce of the Horas with the Grac es an d M u ses presiding The move
, .
ment opened with thirty si m i ki ons or ha nd pla yed harps ; a nd these

,
-
m a y h a ve given some harmony f or the pla ying of cho rds on the harp
,
(instea d of u nison ) ha d a lrea dy bee n ta u ght by Stra ton icus Twelve .
of the ha rps were of the enla rged form kn own as epi gonei on with
‘
forty strings instea d of thirty five After a time ninety five wood
-
.
-
wind pla yers were hea r d u sing the pla gi a ulos (side flu te ) an d bom
,
byr (a sort of cl ar inet ) This was a l

. lin the E olia n or Phrygia n mode .
At the da nce were hear d the krota la or cla ppers commonly used to
, ,
a ccomp a ny the d a nces of B a ccha ntes a n d others .
The second movement portra yed the descent of Apollo to the

fra y It was in the Mixolydia n mode a sca le tha t even in our mu sic
.
,
su ggests hesita tion a n d su spense The low notes of twenty seven

.
-
deep bom bos pipes somewha t like our b ass clarinets ga ve a porten
, ,
tou s an d fu nerea l effect to the end of the m ovement .
The th ird movem ent pictured the a ctua l comba t in the ma rtia l ,
Doria n mode an d with a ra pid ia mbic rhythm Forty three clari

, .
-
nets were stru ck on the outside to represent the sou nd emitted

,
by the monster gnashing his teeth Fi fty pla yers on the syrinx imi
.
ta tedthe Python s gro ans A hundred lyre pla yers ha ndled the p ol
’
.
y
phthongos and barbi tos la rge instruments with compa ra tively few
,
GREECE AND ROME 19
str ings The com plete forces were now in a ction a nd nu mbered over
.
,
five hu ndr ed inclu ding the lou d ku m baloi or cy mbals with the
, , ,
sma ller va rieties known as l ekidoi a n d oxu ba phoi At the height of .
the tu m u lt ma jor thirds (cons idered the most discorda nt interva l )

,
ra ng ou t fr om forty five tru m pets -

.
The fourth m ovemen t showed the mons ter s dying struggles ’

.
Fi fty five shrill fifes ga ve a po rtra ya l of his a ngry hisses The ea rlier
- .
strings with the forms of the lyr e known as atrop os phoi ni x a n d

, , ,
sa m bu ca ga ve striki ng qua r te r tone a ccom p a niments to represent

,
-
the Python s las t gasp s With his dea th a solemn sponda ic rhythm
’
.
,
ended the m ovem ent .
The fina l movement was an ova ti on to Apollo in the Hypolydia n ,
mode .
Su ch a festival consisted of wha t is known as progra mm e music ,
which tries to tell a story or portra y som e event or scene th a t nec essi
ta tes expla na tion on the program m e In contra distinction is the .
school known as pure or a bsolu te m usic in which the music is to be

, , ,
enjoyed for its bea u ty without the a idof an y written story or descrip
tion of wha t it might mea n The progra m m e school was well de .
vel oped in a ncient G reece an d has even given us a modern ph ra se , .
When a m usicia n a ttempted to give on his lyre a picture of a storm ,

“
the wit Doria n who was present remarked I ha ve heard a better
, , ,
tempest in a pot of boiling wa ter This has com e down to us in

”
.
,
“
a lter ed form as A tem pes t in a tea pot ”
.
,
The Nem ea n games celebra ting the sla ying of the Nemea n lion by
,
Hercu les conta ined no definite m usica l contest ; b u t flu te pla ying

,
-
was a llowed f or the purpose of stim u la ting the a thletes a n d p r ob ,
a bly p rizes wer e a warded f or it .
A stone discovered a t Chios bea rs on its fa ce the na mes of ma ny

mus ica l victors It Shows th a t prizes were a warded for rea ding
.
music a t sight for rha psodizing for a ccom p anying with a sma ll harp
, ,
pla yed by ha nd an d for a ccom pa nying on the ki tha ra pla yed partly
,
by the left ha nd an d partly by a plectrum held in the right Many .
lesser festiva ls su ch as the Pa na thenaea ha d their musica l contests

, , .
Pericles ga ve mu ch encouragem ent to music an d erected the Odeon ,
for mu sica l events This bu ilding ha d a dome sha ped roof which
.
-
,
gave it excellent a cou stic properties .
The power of music among the a ncient G reeks was most marked .
We rea d of Terpan der singing a wa y the Spar ta n dissensions ; Tyr
taeu s ar ou sing th a t sa m e people to martia l glory ; or Solon inspiring
the defea ted Athenia ns to reta ke Sa la m is In these songs the words .
were na tura lly of very pointed significa nce ; b u t there was a rever
ence for the com pelling power of m u sic tha t does not exist to da y -
.
Even though our mu sic m a y be f ar more involved a n d developed
th a n tha t of Greece modern au ditors a re not swa yed by m usic as

,
were the Greeks a n d a few other prim itive ra ces Orpheu s a n d the .
Sirens cou ld ha ve been evolved only a m ong a people strongly in

flu en ced by the tona l art .
Tha t music was cherished in ma ny wa ys is shown by the exa mple

of Poly cra tes who kept a boy choir a t his court in Sa m os to sing
,
sweet Lydia n melodies during his mea ls B u t the most plea sing .
pictur e in Greek mu sic was perh aps the specta cle of S a ppho a t
Mitylene tra ining her school of fa ir young Grecia ns in the m ysteri
,
ous power of poetry song an d instru m enta l mu sic

, , .
Rome a dopted Grecia n cu ltiva tion a nd was on ly slightly origina l ,
in mu sic Trum pets were more varied in form as b efitted a martia l

.
,
people The hydrau lic orga n has been mentioned a lrea dy With the
. .
Roma ns the ti bi a or flu te (often with reed mou thpiece like a cl ari

, ,
net ) u su rped the prom inent position tha t the lyre held in Greece
, .
The tibi a was used in a ll religious ceremonies except those of

B a cchu s which dema nded the ki thara ; so Mendelssohn showed his
,
“
tori ca la ccu ra cy in u sing fl u tes pr om inently f or the chorus 0 be
gra ciou s ye Im morta ls in St Pa ul Flu te pla yers were used
,
”
, . .
-
a t Roma n fu nera ls a n d in such ostenta tiou s nu mbers th a t a su m p

,
tu ary l a w was pa ssed li m itin g their number to ten .
The flu te pla yers formed a guild or union ; an d Va leriu s Ma xi m us

-
,
gives an a necdote showing their power When the mu sicia ns were .
once exclu ded from the tem ple of Ju piter where they ha d previou sly ,
been a llowed to ta ke their meals the whole guild left Rome in pro
,
test an d went to the neighboring loca lity of Tibur Withou t them

, .
it was a lmost impossible to ca rry on m a ny of the religiou s a n d pu blic

ceremonies The Sena te therefore sent messengers to ask their re
.
turn When the strikers rema ined inflexible the wily messengers
.
,
persua ded the people of Tibur to give a fea st in honor of their visi
“
tors ; an d before the musicians cou ld sober u p from the effects
”
of this fea st they were bu ndled into ch ariots an d brou ght ba ck to

,
GREECE AND ROME 21
Rome They received a lltheir form er privileges with new ones in

. ,
a ddition ; b u t a t certa in p u blic performa nces a fter this event the y
a lwa ys ma sked the m selves to Show their sh a m e a t their inglorious

,
retur n .
Rom e ha d her ga mes b u t a t these as in the military triu m phs

, , ,
the mu sica l effects were striking a n d colossa l ra ther th a n artistic .
The mu sic of priva te esta blish m ents was proba bly better in qua lity ;
a n d Apu leiu s a fter hearing some of this ga ve high pra ise to the com
, ,
bin a tion of flu tes ki tha ras an d voices The Roma n pla ys were a c
, , .
com pa nied by gently flowing flu te m u sic which was pleasing enou gh ; ,
b u t in la ter tim es this too grew more devoted to effects of displ a y .
In the la ter da ys of the E m pir e there was a grea t dem a nd for Ga di

,
ta nia n singers or da ncers These ca m e from the neighborhood of

.
the m odern Ca diz which still su pplies tenor voca lists Ma ny of the
,
.
thea trica l performers were sla ves an d were su bjected to the most
,
stringent rules to prevent them from spoiling their voices by excesses .
The d a nce especia lly in pan tom i m e form rea ched a high sta te of
, ,
perfection in a ncient Rom e A certa in da ncer was once told by

.
Dem etriu s the Cynic tha t his art was merely a n a dj u nct to mu sic ;
whereu pon the da ncer ma de the instruments stop a nd ena cted the ,
su bject of Mars an d Venu s with su ch skill tha t Dem etriu s was

for ced to withdra w his reproa ch On a nother occa sion a pri n ce of
.
Pontu s was enterta ined by Nero The prince cou ld not u ndersta nd
.
La tin an d did not enjoy the pla ys given for him B u t he a dmired
, .
the pantom im es gr ea tly When Nero wished him to na m e a parting

.
gift he a sked for the d ancer who ha d a ppeared in these specta cles
, ,
expla ining tha t an artist so gifted in physica l exp ression wou ld

ma ke an inva l ua ble interpreter .
Nero him s elf cu ltiva ted m u sic with m arked a ssidu ity even pra c ,
tisin g br ea thing in a recu mbent position with weights pl a ced u pon

him In his own estima tion he was a grea t ar tist thou gh in rea lity
.
,
his voice was ra ther thin a n dhusky He u sed to contrive to ha ve his

.
frien ds ask him to sing an d wou ld a ccept prin cely fees for his a p
,
p eara n ce When a soothsa yer once told him tha t he wou ld so m e

.
“
tim e find him self deserted by allhis friends he replied An ar tist , ,
ca n ear n his living in a n y co un tr y When he a ppeared pu blicly his

”
.
,
soldiers prevented the au dien ce from lea ving ; thou gh so m e j u m ped

from win dows a n d others feigned dea th in order to be ca rried ou t
, .
Ina ttention was severely pu nished ; an d when Vespa sia n was ca ug ht
a sleep a t su ch a n event hi s friends ha d h ar d wor k to sa ve his life
, .
Nero once ma de a tour of the Grecia n gam es There he bribed

.
better artists to withdra w ; a n d one of these proving obdura te was

, ,
forced a side a nd killed by his soldiers Na tura lly under such condi
.
tions he was a lwa ys a warded the prize He did not fiddle while
.
Rom e burned beca use the a ncients ha d no Violins b u t he a scended a

,
“
tower an d was moved to sing The Destru ction of Troy a ecom
,
”
,
pa nyi ng himself on the lyr e When his enem ies revolted he con
.
,
sidered winning b a ck their a llegia nce by singing p a thetic so n gs to
them When Rome rebelled he tried to pla ca te it by offering to a p

.
,
pea r in ma ny musica l events in the a pproa ching pu blic games ; b u t

som ehow the city declined his of fer When he fled he was mu ch
.
,
“
ra nkled by being ca lled tha t pitiful harper and he kept a sking
his few comra des if a nyone could pla y better tha n he cou ld Before .
“
his su icide he excla imed Wh a t a n artist the world will now lose !
, ,
”
There was u ndou btedly some bea u ty in the Roma n mu sic ; b u t

on the whole this fea ture was oversh a dowed by the displa y of the
,
games a n d triu m phs When Ambrose arra nged the church modes
.
,
he took them from G reci a n ra ther than from Roma n sources .

24 THE BOOK OF MUSI CAL KNOWLED G E
the Pur ita ns in M assa chusetts Some of the congrega tion would .
na tura lly sing better tha n others and the experts would gra dua lly ,
ga ther in one spot where their voices would lea d while others fol
,
lowed or beca me silent a ltogether Pa id singers existed as ea rly as .
the second century G ra dua lly they ca me to disregard the sim ple
.
an d exp ressive style a n d to indu lge in b r illia ncy to aro u se a d m ira

,
tion It was proba bly to remedy this sta te of a ffa irs th a t Pope
.
Sylvester I founded a singing school a t Rome in the year 32 0 At

-
.
tha t time too a specia l pla ce was a ssigned to the choir In A D 48 1

, , . . .
,
the Cou ncil of La odicea decreed th a t none b u t cler ks (ca ll ed ca noni

ca lsingers ) shou ld be a llowed to sing d u ring the service At this .
period the churches were a mbitiou s in architecture an d the arts ,
of pa inting an d sculpture combined their a ttra ctions with those of

mu sic At first no instruments were em ployed in the service b u t
.
,
gra dua lly the orga n was a dopted and by the yea r 450 it was com ,
mou ly used in Spa in .
Toward the end of the fourth century Ambrose Bishop of Milan , , ,
tried to esta blish music on a definite system He a dopted from his .
“
idea of the Greek modes four sca les or tones These ca lled , .
,
“
a u thentic , had interva ls like white key sca les on our pia nos -
beginning wi th the notes D E F a n d G In the au thentic modes

, , , .
the keynote was a t the bottom a n d the domina nt (chief note ) usu
,
a lly a fif th a bove it From ea ch of these four au thentic modes Pope

.
Gregory the G rea t derived a pla ga l (obliqu e ) mode ha ving the ,
sa m e keynote but with the sca le now rea ching from a fourth below
,
the keynote to a fifth a bove it an d with the domina nt less th a n a

,
fifth a bove the keynote As the compa ss of the a vera ge voice is not
.
mu ch over a n octa ve the interva l from the lowest pla ga l note to the
,
highest au thentic note was la rge enough to sa tisfy the dem a nds of
the sing ef s After the sixth century four more modes were a dded
.
, ,
two a uthentic a n d two plaga l on the interva ls of white key sca les
,
-
beginning with C a nd with A The m u sic of the C a tholic service has

.
been ba sed largely on these modes ever since th a t time .
Other bra nches of the Church ha dtheir mu sic The Greek Chu rch .
used mu ch orna menta tion for exa mple an d sometimes em ployed

, ,
the Byza ntine sca le (interva ls like C D fla t E F G A fla t B ,

-
, , , ,
-
, ,
a n d C ) ; the Syr ia n Chur ch ha d its own hymns especia lly those by ,

”
Ephraem Syrus who was ca lled The H arp of the Holy Spirit ;
,
EAR LY CHRISTIAN MUSIC 25
while the Coptic Chur ch a dopted melodies tha t were intrica te an d

fu ll of modu la tion B u t the Gregoria n was the on ly system th a t
.
infl u enced E ur ope It was ta bu la ted la ter into a set of hexa chords
.
,
or six note grou ps with a se m itone in the m iddle of ea ch

-
, The sca le .
was dia tonic except f or the fa ct tha t some of these hexa chor ds ca used
a cha nge from B to B fla t B na tura l was ca lled du ru m or h ar d an d

-
.
-
, ,
B fla t m ol
-
le or soft , words which ga ve rise to the Germa n terms
Du r f or ma jor a n d Mol lfor minor In the eighth century we find .
Charlema gne sending em issaries to Rome to get fu ll an d a ccura te

deta ils on the methods of G regoria n singing .
The m usic a t this time was su ng wholly in u nison or octa ves .
Hu cb a ld a monk of St Ama nd living a t the be ginning of the tenth

, .
centu ry is sa id to ha ve been the first to systema tize part singing

,
- .
He a llowed some voices to sing the melody while others took the ,
sa m e melody a fifth higher or a fourth lower This proc ed ure ca lled .

,
“
para llel m otion wou ld see m horribly ha rsh to modern ears
, .
Pr oba bly it was not grea tly enjoyed even a t first ; f or in the next
century we find Guido of Arezzo disca rding the fifths a n d modify ,
ing the fourths somewha t Gu ido who died abou t 1050 was a noted
.
, ,
singer an d tea cher He ha d a fa mou s boy choir which san g a mong

.
, ,
other numbers a hymn to St John ru nning thu s :

,
axis
Ut quean t l
Reson a re fib ris
Mira g estoru m
i
Fa m ul tu oru m ,
Sol ve pollu ti CZ J
u ”!
I t
he
L a bii rea tum , 14 4 I
Sa ncte Johann es
3: fl
!
.
In the hymn melody it happened th a t ea ch line except the last began

a degree higher th a n the p receding line G u ido therefore a dopted .
the syll a bles a t the beginn ing of the first six lines as na mes for the
notes of the sca le Ut Re Mi Fa Sol L a These n a m es ha ve
, , , , , , .
las ted un til the present with Si (or Ti ) a dded la ter an d Utreplaced
, ,
by Do except in Fr ench instru menta l m usic Thus Gu ido was the

, .
inventor of wha t is ca lled soif gggp (singing by note n ames inste a d

’
of words ) By its mea ns he tra ined his choir very thorou ghly ; an d
.
he took this choir with him when ca lled to Rome in 102 6 to expla in
his system to the Pope .
M m this time on for more th an four centuries England took the

, ,
26 TH E BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
ea d
l in the musica l a dva nce The length of this period m a y be appre
.
c ia ted when we consider th a t the Germ a n cla ssics which fo rm the ,
most importa nt pa rt of modern m u sic were a llcrea ted dur ing the ,
las t two centuries The Netherla nds were su prem e in the fifteenth
.
a n d sixteenth centuries a n d Ita ly s swa y l a sted only into the

’
J
,
eighteenth even then overla ppin g the work of Ba ch an d H a ndel

, .
Gu ido ha d lessened the effect of consta ntly recurring fourths in

part singing by a llowing two voices to com e together when nea r
-
,
either end of their compass one part then diverging gra du a lly from
,
the other which rema ined sta tionary u ntil the interva l between the
,
two ha d r ea ched the requ isite size Th u s was intr odu ced wha t is.
”
now known as oblique motion Between the da te of his dea th .
a nd the end of the centur y Engla nd ha d developed the p rinciple of

,
contrary motion in which voices or parts cou ld proceed in opposite

,
dir ections a n d ha d a lso ma de it a llowa ble for voices to proceed in

,
the sa m e dir ection by varyin g interva ls Thu s there ca me a bou t a .
sort of mu sica l declara tion of independence a sserting th a t a llvoices ,
in p art music were to be considered free a n d equ a l This took pla ce

-
.
before the yea r 1100 a n d is ma de clear by a relic known as the

,
Winchester Troper which da tes from th a t year In a ddition to

”
, .
the old fou rths and fifths thirds an d sixths were now u sed Hu cb a ld
,
.
ha dgi ven his system the name of or ganu m while the newer interva ls ,
were known u nder the title of fau xbou rdon .
In the mea n while mu sica l nota tion grew from its crude begin
,
n in g s in the D ark Ages to something not u nli ke its modern form .
Nota tion has been a most con serva tive af fa ir Every now an d then .
some one pr op oses a wholly new system of writing mu sic ; an d most

of these systems wou ld be an improvement as our present method ,
is ra ther cu mbersom e B u t the innova tions do not gain grou nd for

. ,
the present system has the inertia of ma ny centuries behind it .
Before the tenth century no one ha d an y idea of the principle of

the sta ff M u sic was a t first lea rned ora lly an d sung to words in
.
,
the un cia l cha ra cters th a t preceded the bla ck letter Gra dua lly the -
.
monkish tea chers an d pu pils bega n to invent a n d use little signs to

a id their memory The chief principle of these signs rested in the
.
fa ct th a t a horizonta l li ne a bove a word mea nt sta tionary pitch ,
a rising line or cur ve mea nt r ising pitch an d a downwar d line fa lling ,
pitch These signs were su pplemented by others representing tr ills

. ,
FRO M AN OL D MA NU SC R I P T IN THE P O SSE SSI ON O F TH E A UT HO R
EARLY CHRISTIAN MUSIC 27
turns an d the variou s component pa rts of m elody ; and our trill and
,
tu rn signs am ong other bits of nota tion com e dir ectly from su ch
, ,
ea rly expe ri ments These primitive marks were known as the

.
“
neu mes an d flourished from before the seventh century until
”
,
well beyond the tenth There were different systems the Byza ntine
.
,
neu m es being u nlike those used in western E urope One variety .
was known as the fly tra ck nota tion (p edes m uscaru m ) beca use
”
-
,
its thickly sprea d signs looked like the ma rks tha t a fly wou ld m a ke
if it cra wled over the parchm ent after a sojourn in the ink bottle -
.
It will be seen from the a bove description th a t the neu mes were
not an exa ct nota tion They served as a guide to the memory ; they
.
also showed if the voice Shou ld go u p or down ; b u t they did not sta te
how far up or down it shou ld go Thu s a specimen of neu m e nota tion
.
did not give any a ccura te su ggestion to the person seeing it for the
first tim e Yet modern investiga tion is tireless a nd m en of the
.
,
Riem a nn ty pe ha ve Shown tha t pa tient research ena bles them to

solve a l m ost a l
lthe signs u sed in this a ncient sy stem of nota tion .
Some tim e be tween the yea r 92 5 an d 950 an u nknown musicia n ,
so m e red ink or pigment an d a ru ler he m a de m usica l progress

, , ,
possible by dra wing a single line This line extended thr ou gh the .
neu mes horizonta lly a n d represented the pitch of the F below mid
,
dle C Now allthe notes a bove F cou ld be represented by signs

.
a bove the l ine an d lower notes by signs below it

, The principle .
worked so well th a t a nother line was a dded soon a fter perha ps by ,
the sa me m a n The second line green or yellow in color represented

.
, ,
the C a bove the F an d was marked like the ea rlier line with its
, , ,
proper letter This F an d C are stillwith u s to da y ha ving cha nged

.
-
,
their form only slightly to beco m e the F an d C clefs of the present ,
which are pu t on the beginning of a staffto Show the position of the

notes F or C N o other lines were then a dded ma king a four lined
.
,
-
staff
.
Other a ttempts a t sta ff nota tion ha d been ma de either indepen d

-
,
ently or as a resu lt of the lines thr ough the neum es The chief one .
was perh a ps the work of Hu cb al d who died in 9 32 It e m ploy ed the

, .
principle of a sta ff of many lines b u t in this sta ff only the spa ces
,
were used These sp a ces too did not conta in notes b u t a ctua l
.
, , ,
words ea ch sylla ble being written in the spa ce showing the pitch
,
at which it was to be sung The spa ces of Hucb ald s sta ffwere .
’
marked by the old b u t clu msy method of using four Greek letters ,
the pitch vary ing when they were pla ced sidewise or upside down .
In this syste m the words ha d to be rewr itten in their proper position

or ea ch a dded pa rt ; a n d we ca n tra ce Hu cb a l
d s fourths an d fifths
’
f
by followi ng the lines of sylla bles a long his pa ges .
The first use of the four lined sta ff which lasted th rough the Mid
-
,
dle Ages has been a scribed to Gui do thou gh proba bly it took pla ce
, ,
before his da y The third line of this sta ff represented A an d was

.
,
between F an d C while the fourth line was either a bove or below

,
the other thr ee specimens of old missa ls showing both cas es a nd

, ,
usua lly h a ving the F an d C ma rked on ea ch sta ff Thu s both lines .
a n d spa ces were used ; a n d the gra dua l a doption of a fif th line ga ve

us the sta ff of to da y For the non mu sicia n it m a y be sta ted tha t
-
.
-
,
while the F a n d the la ter G are marked in definite pla ces on our
sta ff by clefs which grew from the old forms of those letters we ha ve
, ,
a lso a relic of the mova ble lette rs in the C clef which m a y be pu t on ,
a lmost a n y line of the sta ff .
At first the lines a n d even the sta ff were used with the neumes
, , .
Bu t gra dua lly the l a tter ga ve wa y to notes a n d we find Fra nco of ,
Cologne giving these notes a definite va lu e in his thirteenth century -
tr ea tise on mea sur ed music The ea rly pla in song (Gregoria n cha nt
.
-
ing ) showed little variety of rhythm B u t gra dua lly as music was .
,
more widely u sed the need for the nota tion of rhythm resulted and
, ,
a ttempts to represent it were ma de After the a doption of mea sured .
notes there ca me a division of mu sic into triple or double rh ythms

, .
“
The former being typica l of the holy Trinity was ca lled perfect
, ,
rhythm a n d marked by a cir cle The la tter being only two thir ds
”
.
, ,
of the tr iple rhythm was marked by two thirds of the circle ; a n d

,
this b roken circle has been mista kenly tra nsformed into the letter C ,
which is now used as a time signa ture for four qua rter rhythm It - - .
is not rea lly a C and therefore ca nnot be the initia l of wha t is known
,
“
as common time There was a fur ther division of ea ch bea t into
”
.
“
triple or dou ble rhyth m this su bdivision being ca lled the prola
,
ti on The ma jor or tr iple prola tion was a ccepted if no Sig n was

.
”
, ,
present while the minor or du ple prola tion was ca lled for by a dot
, , , ,
pla ced in the middle of the perfect or broken circle Thu s the circle .
practica lly ca lled for time ; the broken circle for the circle with
wha tever sounds good is good In the Am brosia n Library a t
, .
“
Mila n there is an old trea tise ca lled Ad Orga nu m fa ciendu m,
”
,
which da tes from a bou t the year 1100 This conta ins examples of .
very free pa rt writing the voices a t ti m es ma king bold s kips or

-
, ,
cr ossing ea ch other even when the harmony is only two p art

,
-
.
The growth of the principle of imita tion marked a g rea t step for
ward towar d the contra punta l forms The ch arm of su ch im ita tion .
gra d u a lly led to ca nonic writing in which the p arts follow one an
,
other ; an d tha t was a lmost surely the first form of artistic com posi
tion An early su ggestion of im ita tion is fou nd in an old French
.
ma nu script the work being proba bly composed in the twelfth cen
,
tury It consists of a low voice singing the words a pparently a n old

.
,
”
hym n C u stodi nos while the two u pper voices tha t are set a ga inst
, ,
it give clea r i m ita tion a pproa ching the ca nonic style As will be
, .
shown in a la ter section the ca non consists of a melody u sed as its

,
own a ccompa nim ent in other voices the theme entering a t different ,
ti mes in ea ch voice The sim plest exa mples of this sty le are the
.
“
familiar part songs known as rounds
-
”
.
In the thirteenth century certa in composers b ega n to a pprecia te

“
wha t we ca ll double counterpoint in which two voices change
”
,
their rel a tive positions an d repea t their themes in a new rela tive
loca tion B u t the first contra pu nta l form to develop fu lly was the
.
ca non This m a y be seen from the old English rota or round

.
, ,
“
Su mer is icu m en in which is described in a l a ter ch a pter
”
, .
Further development of nota tion ca u sed the rounded b (at first

mea ning our B fla t) to be used as a Sign for any fla t The Germa ns
-
.
still spea k of our B fla t as B ; an d as they mistook the squa re B for

-
an H they use the la tter letter to design a te our B n a tura l

, The - .
squ are B ga ve rise to the sign for any na tura l The sharp was a t .
first a cross an d is still ca lled so in Germa ny Origina lly it merely

, .
neu tra lized a fla t b u t soon it assumed its present significa nce The
,
.
b ar line was intr odu ced early in the seventeenth century an d the
-
,
grouping of notes just before the eighteenth .

IV
THE M IN S T RE L KN I G HT S
THE Minnesing ers (love-poets ) of Germa ny are sa id to h ave begun

their career u nder H ederi ck B arba rossa , in the la st ha lf of the
twelfth century B u t the fir st of their nu mber Henry of Veldig is
.
, ,
the au thor of a poem l am enting the deca dence of the Minnesinger s ’
art; so we are forced to consider its rea l origin as of a n earlier da te .
The Minnesingers were m instrel knights su ch as Wa gner pictured ,

“
in his opera Ta nnhau ser There is sa id to ha ve been a n a ctua l
”
.
tourna m ent of song on the Wartburg as in Wa gner s opera ; an d the ,

’
names tha t he u sed were rea l The Sua b ia n Cou rt was the centre of
.
the Minnesinger s art an d the Sua b ian la ngua ge was u sed thou gh
’
, ,
the minstr el poets ca me from a llpa rts of the em pire So highly was .
their position ra ted tha t nobles an d princes were prou d to be known

as Min nesingers .
As m a y be j u dged from the na me ma ny of the poems of these ,
knightly minstr els were love songs Som e of them were idea l in their
-
.
pur ity of sentim ent while others were less lofty in style Exa mples
, .
of the form er cl ass are found in the works of Henry of Meissen con ,
sidered the la st of the Minnesingers He beca me so noted for his.
hom a ge to the nobler qua lities of woma nhood tha t he was given the
name of H au enlob or Pra ise ofWomen an d when his funera l
”
,
- -
took pla ce numbers of high born la dies followed to his open gra ve
,
-
,
an d ea ch cas t a flower into it u ntil it was overflowing with blossoms .
In their more pe rsona l loves ongs the Germa ns did not u sua l , ly
go to the sa me lengths as the m ore ardent Tr ou ba dours of Fra nce .
Yet there mu st ha ve been some degree of a morou s a dventur e an d ,
the la tter is reflected in the so ca lled Wachtlieder (wa tch songs ) In

- -
.
these a knight m a y plea d with a wa tchman for secret a dmitta n ce to

a ca stle ; or the wa tchma n m a y warn the knight of impending da nger
or discovery .
Su ch songs were allset to music and su ng by the knights who, ,
would a ccompany themselves on a small harp .

The school of epic poetry corresponding with th a t of the Trou
,
veres in Fra n ce is represented by su ch works as the Nib elung en

,
“
Lied or the Parsifa l of Wolfra m von Eschenba ch
”
,
”
.
From this pe riod a lso come ma ny short proverbs and epigrams .
Am ong these were couplets ; su ch as

The kin g m ust die,
And so m ust I .
There were a lso sage bits of a dvice ; su ch as Never bo rrow trouble ,
or Don t set the wolf to gu ard the sheep

’
.
The a rt of the Minnesingers displa yed itself a lso in fa bles a n d

brief a llegorica l stories There were ma ny historica l ta les too
. .
A short bit of verse is qu oted here (ascribed to Frederick II ) to

Show wha t was considered of excellence a t the time It runs thus .
ik e
Il a ca valier Fran ces ,
An d a on i an da m e
C a tal
The c ourtesy ofthe Gen oese,
An d C astil
ian di gnity ;
The Provence songs , my ea rs to please ,
An d the dan ce ofthe Tr evisa n ;

The gra cefulf orm ofthe Arra g on ese,
An d the pea rlofthe Jul i an ;
ish f ace an d han ds to
An E n g l see,
An d a p a ge ofTusc a n y
”
.
The freedom of thought a n d speech permitted by the House of

Sua b ia did much to encoura ge poetry an dmu sic B u t with the down .
fa ll of tha t house in the year 12 56 the Church rega ined power and
, , ,
the current of free thou ght beca m e diverted into an art whose chief
a im was to ma ke para ph ra ses of the Scriptures in b a d Germa n or ,
worse La tin .
The Meistersingers (ma ster singers ) who followed the Minne

-
,
singers were not the equa l of their predecesso rs in poetic inspira tion
, .
Their na me m ay ha ve come from the fact tha t a Min nesinger who

was not of noble birth was ca lled a Meiste r ; b u t it is a lso simila r to
the na m e given to the lea ders in a llthe gu ilds The Meistersingers .
flourished in the grea t and growing cities and were tra despeople ,
ra ther th a n nobles Aga in we find Wa gner giving a wonderfu lly

.
fa ithfu l picture of ea rly ti m es in his opera (mu sic dra ma he ca lled -

,
it) Die Meistersinger von Niirnb erg Nuremberg was an impor

.
tant centre for these humble but earnest poet musicia ns and was -
,
THE MINSTREL KNIGHTS 33
a lso the home of Ha ns Sa chs whose excellen t pla ys a nd farces repre

,
sent the best work of this period The cha ra cters in Wa gner s .
’
libretto (which he wrote himself an d which is now a textbook in ,
Germa n schools ) were rea l in their da y an d their na m es m a y be ,
fou nd in the old records The pictur e of pe tty rules is als o entirely
.
c orrect f or the Meistersinge rs classified their poetic an d m u sica l

,
methods in a very strict an d detai led fashion This a dherence to .
ru les interfer ed se riou sly with free inspira tion for in their tr ia ls of ,
“
skill there was a lwa ys a hidden marker (as in the opera ) to keep
”
,
a reco rd of an y technica l mista kes So far as we know the Meister .

,
singer movement origina ted soon a fter the year 1300 a t Ma yence , .
It flourished u ntil 16 00 a fter which it beca me u nim porta nt The

, .
las t Meistersing er society th a t of Ulm was not disba nded u ntil

, ,
183 9 a n d its la st su rviving m em be r lived until 187 6 The Meister

, .
singer m usic had little rea l effect It m a y ha ve influ enced the cho .
ra les of the Reforma tion b u t these were f ar str onger in ch ara cter
, .
“
Except for a few of the tu nes or tones which Wa gner used so
”
, ,
wonderfully in his opera it is wholly ou t of da te

, .
The Tr ou ba dours a n d in som e sense the Tr ou veres (both words

,
“
mea ning finders or ”
are considered to h a ve devel
oped their art from Moorish m odels as fou nd in Spa in or a t the ,
C ru sa des or in various other wa ys Some Celtic a n dancient Roma n

, .
influ ences m a y ha ve pla yed their part b u t if so it was a su bo rdina te ,
one The styles of song the instruments a n d even som e of the

.
, ,
na mes Show a Moo rish origin

, .
The first of the Tro u ba dour s is held to ha ve been Willia m I X ,
Cou nt of Poitou an d Du ke of Ac qu ita in e He ha d som e influ ence on .
“
Engla nd a s well as on Fra nce for his war cry of St George was ,
"
- .
a dopted by Engl a nd as well as his gra n ddau ghter Elea nor of

,
Ac qu i ta in e who married Henr y II The leopar d cr est of the ea rly

, .
English kings was a nother lega cy from Willia m of Poitou This .
pionee r died in 1127 .
The poetry of the Trou b a dours was written in the so ca lled -
“ ” “
La ng ue d oc in which the word oc mea ning yes distin
” ’
,
”
, ,
g ui shed it from the northern French La ngu e d oi l an d the Ita lia n

” ’
,
“
Lingua di si The poems were of variou s forms thou gh in genera l
”
.
,
those of the Proven ca l Trou b adours were short while those of the ,
nor thern Trouveres were long stories simila r to epics .

The Verse was a short form of free style thoug h it might consis t of ,
seven cou plets The Cha nson a lso was free in sty le b u t usua lly
. ,
divided into sta nza s The Sonnet too was free the term signifying
.
, , ,
lyric or song withou t any of the la ter division into rhym ed lines
, , .
The Cou plet or Sta nza was a genera l cla ss of verse signifying love
, , ,
songs in contra st to other su bjects The Pla nh was a dirge with ten .
,
or twelve sylla bles in a line ; u su a lly it mour ned a lost friend or lover ,
thou gh someti m es it trea ted of more pu blic ca la mities The Tenson .

,
or Contention was a dia logu e in verse in which the two p arties

, ,
a lterna ted their sta nza s using the sa me rhymes th a t oc curred in the
,
fir st one The Tourna ment consisted of sta nza s given in turn by

.
more tha n two pa rticipa nts The Sirvente or Pa squ ina de free in .
, ,
metre was a war song or else an ou tburst of sa tire a ga inst som e

,
-
,
enemy The Sixtine ha d six sta nza s of six lines ea ch with no rhym es
.
,
in the first one b u t with ea ch of the la ter sta nza s u sing the end
,
words of the lines in the first b u t in different order The Disco rd , .
was a free poem in irregu l ar form often u sing severa l l a ngua ges ,
in succession The Pa storelle or pa stora l p oem usua lly with short

.
, ,
lines consisted of a dia log ue between the Tr ou ba dour a nd a shep

,
herdess or shepherd ; it often began with a description of the scene ,
a n d genera lly displa yed a ch arming Simplicity of style The Sere .
na de from sera or evening was an evening love song while the

, , ,
-
,
Au ba de from alba mea ning da wn was a morning song of the sa me

, , ,
“
chara cter often resem bling in sentim ent Sha kespea re s H ark
,
’
,
hark the la rk The B a lla d was a somewha t longer form telling a

,
”
.
,
story ; a n d ma ny of the Tr ouvere epics are evidently sets of ba lla ds

joined together The Novel was a short poem in free style recou nt
.
ing som e a m orou s a dventure The Roma nce was the na me given to .
the la rger epic narra tives in which the northern French poets ex
celled ; a n d ma ny of these are still in exi stence The cu stom of a dding .
an en voi a t the close of a poe m ar ose fr o m the fa ct tha t the Tr ou b a
dours did not a lwa ys sing their own songs so tha t they sometim es ,
needed a n envoi to Show thei r reta iners a nd minstrels for whom the
poe m was intended or even how it shou ld be su ng , .
The Tr ou ba dour was u su a lly of noble blood and sometim es even ,
of roya l sta tion as with Richa r d C ceur de Lion Only a very few
,
- - .
mu sicia ns of ordinary birth were a ble to lift themselves from the

ra nks of the Jong leurs or minstrels and be rec ognized as Trou b a
, ,
THE MINSTREL KNIG HTS 35
dours . The Trou ba dour needed resour ces to ena ble him to enterta in
a n d to keep a su ffi cient nu mber of minstrels Wh en spring ca me .
,
a fte r a winte r varied by martia l exer cises a n d m u sica l co m position ,
he wou ld issu e forth a t the hea d of his reta iners pe rhaps to visit ,
some neighbo ring ca stle There he wou ld be enterta in ed sum p tu

.
ousl ,y while his followers pl a yed a n d sa ng his new songs Occas ion .
a lly he wou ld ta ke a ha rp fr om one of them an d give a rendering of
so m e song himself ; b u t this was usua lly in a small ga thering a n dnot ,
often in a crowded h a ll .
The m u sic of the Trou ba dours an d Trou veres was su fficiently

refin ed in style an d a t the sa me time popular in sp irit Best known
, .
now as a com poser is Adam de la H a le ca lled the H unchba ck of,
Arras who lived from 12 40 to 12 87 He prod u ced a m ong other

, .
,
“
mus ica l pla ys the Jeu de Robin et Ma rion which is nothing less
,
”
,
th a n a n early com ic O pera Robin is a boa stfulshepherd su itor who

.
tells the shepherdess M ar ion he is a fra id of nothing ; b u t when a

noblema n com es to pa y her u nwelcome a tten tions Robin tu rns ou t ,
to be a coward a n d is received ba ck only on su ffera nce The m u sic

, .
to this little farce is pleas ingly flu ent in style B u t most of the poet.
co m posers were content to produ ce the words an d mu sic of single

songs .
As the Tr ou ba dours a lwa ys chose a la dy as the object of their

devotions their poetr y was often m ore personal th a n th at of their
,
Germ a n brethren ; an das the la dy was often a ma rried woma n there ,
was mu ch m or e cha nce f or jea lou sy a n d tra gedy .
Thu s Willia m C a b esta ing brought u p in the cas tle of Rou ssillon
, ,
on receiving encoura gem ent from M argherita the wife of its lord , ,
bega n to pa y poetic an d other a ttentions to her When so m e of their .
secret meetin gs arou sed the su sp icion of the ca stle s lord B aron ’
,
Ra ymond he ta xed Ca b esta ing with being in love The l a tter s

, .
’
poems p roved this b u t C a b esta in g prete nded tha t it was La dy

,
Agnes sister of Margherita who had given him her love As Agnes
, , .
was keen enou gh to see the tru th she ca l m ed Ra ymond s su spicions

’
,
or a tim e by p retending tha t C a b esta in g s sta tem ent was co rr ect

’
f .
B u t the rea l lovers grew m ore imprudent in their a ction s u ntil ,
fina lly Ma rgherita was ras h enou gh to ha ve her idol write a poem
a sse rting his love f or her a lone The baron s su spicions of certa in
’
.
g ossip be ing thus confir med he led C a b esta ing outside the castle
,
an d sta bbed him to dea th Tea ring the heart out of the body he
.
,
took it to the ca stle cook ordering him to prepar e it a n d serve it to

,
M argherita The cook did so thinkin g the hea rt was th a t of a deer ;

.
,
an d the l a dy a te it with the sa m e idea a n dpra ised its deliciou s fl a vor, .
Ra ym ond then expla ined to her wha t her mea l ha d been an dshowed ,
her the he a d of the m an whose hea rt she ha d j ust ea ten She fa inted .
“
a wa y ; b u t on r ecovering she sa id ,Yes bar ba ria n I ha ve fou nd, , ,
tha t mea t so delica te an d bea u tiful tha t for fear I m a y ever lose the ,
ta ste of it I will ea t no more as long as I live Ra ymond drew his

,
”
.
sword a n d rushed a t her in a nger ; whereu pon she fled a n d j u mped ,
to dea th from the ca stle wa lls ra ther th a n let herself be killed by him .
B u t not a l ll a dies were so i m pru dent Th u s M ar ie de Venta dour .

,
noted for her wisdom an d good ch ara cter as well as her bea u ty once ,
found herself the ta rget of too pronou nced a ttention from the a dven
turous Ga u cel m Fa idit who was sta ying a t her ca stle As she fe ar ed
, .
his evi l an d sa rca stic tong ue she reso rted to stra ta gem to get rid of
,
him She took counsel with a friend M a d a me de Mal

. a m ort who , ,
a greed to a ct as dir ected Then she refu sed Gau celm s a ttentions ’
.
definitely He departed in anger b u t ha dgone only a little way when

.
,
a messenger over took him a n d a sked whether he preferr ed a little
bir d in the ha nd or a crane flying high in the a ir His curiosity was .
so much ar oused th a t he let himself be led ba ck an d was ta ken to ,
M a da me de Ma lam ort This la dy exp la ined th a t she was the bir d

.
in h a nd while M arie who would not respond to him was the u n a t

, , ,
~
e cran e flying high in a ir

ta in a b l Ga u celm then a greed to tra nsfer
.
his devotion an dwas as ked in return to ta ke forma l lea ve of M a rie s

,
’
af fections This he did in a dignified poem far gentler tha n m ight

.
,
otherwise ha ve been expected B u twhen the poem was ma de known

.
,
he fou nd tha t Ma da m e de Ma la m ort grew su ddenly cold to his devo

tion a n d withdrew a llsembla nce of encoura gem ent B u t mu ch as
, .
he was cha grined it was too l a te for him to indu lge in a ny sarca sm
,
a t M arie s expense Incidenta lly Fa idit was well known as a poet

’
.
, ,
a n d was p a tr onized by King Ri ch ar d of Engla nd f or whose dea th ,
he wrote a m ost tou chin g Pla nh or dirge , .
B u t tru e love so m etimes ra n smoothly Ra m bau d de Va queiras .

,
who was br ou ght u p in the home of the M arqu is of Montferra t soon ,
beca m e devoted to his m a ster s sister Bea trix del C ara t She was
’
.
a n a thletic bea uty ; a n d once when her b rother a ccidenta lly left a
,
38 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KN OWLED GE
dressed himself in a wolf s hide a nd ha d his friends a nd reta iners
’
bring dogs to hu nt him The hunt was by no mea ns a farce for he

.
,
kept on running u ntil the dogs ca u ght him a nd fas tened their teeth
in him He was rescu ed in time an d no dou bt cured by his la dy
. ,
love to whose honor he proba bly considered his wou nds a grea t
,
tribu te .
More tou ching is the story of Willia m de l a Tour He married a .
gir l of low degree beca u se of her cha rms an dloved her dea rly After , .
her untimely dea th he ga ve o rders tha t her tomb shou ld be so b ui lt

,
tha t it cou ld be opened a t will When this was done he wou ld open .
,
the tomb every night an d converse with her body im a gining tha t it ,
was a live La ter on he ca me to know th a t she was dea d b u t believed

.
,
tha t she wou ld rise a ga in if he sa id pra yers enough which he gal ,
la n tly undertook to do .
“
The so ca lled Courts of Love were presided over by la dies of
-
ra nk su ch as Q u een Elea no r or the Countess of Ch a mpa gne

, , These .
courts in which a nu mbe r of women a ided in discu ss ion decided

, ,
upon qu estions of a morou s etiqu ette Thus a certa in kn ight had .
loved a la dy fr om girlh ood ; an d d ur ing her younger d a ys she had

extra cted the promise tha t the knight shou ld kiss her every time he
ca me to see her When grown up she denied him the privilege sa y
.
,
ing tha t she ha d been too young to understa nd wha t the p romise
wou ld involve He then brought the ma tter before a court of love
.
,
which decided in his fa vor .
Another ca se tried before Queen Elea nor ha d to do with a la dy

, ,
who a ccepted a knight s gifts but rebu ffed his a ttentions Elea nor
’
.
ga ve the verdict for the knight an d sa id th a t the la dy should ha ve,
refused his gifts or given him ba ck something of equ a l va lu e .
Of much interest a lso are the so ca lled Essenham ens or poems

”
-
,
on ma nners and cu stoms intended for tra ining in etiqu ette One
,
.
su ch is by Am a neius des Esca s It begins by telling how a la dy of .
position a t som e grea t court sou ght ou t the poet for a dvice He
, ,
.
told her a t first th a t she mu st know ten times as mu ch as he did ; but

a pparently he overca me his scru ples f or he l a unched into a long ,
“
discourse of Wha t to dos a n d ”
- - He trea ted su ch per
sona l su bjects as wa shing care of teeth ca re of nails an d dressing
, , , ,
as well as modest pe rsona l bear ing a n d co u rtly discourse Incident .
a lly women s a ccomplishments were then held to be c ookin g sewing

’
, , ,
THE MINSTREL K NIG HTS 39
su rgery a nd chess the first two helping her to oversee an d a d m in

, ,
ister a hou sehold of reta iners while the la st two were for the ca r e ,
a n d a mu sement of noble visito rs A Ger m a n etiqu ette book of this .
tim e a sserts tha t when a m an enters a room the women shou ld rise , ,
an d rema in sta nding until he sits down .
With a d escription of the Jong leurs we are b rought ba ck from a

long digression to the su bject of m usica l progress While the Trou .
b a dours confined themselves chiefly to co m position the J ong l eurs ,
beca me proficient on a llthe instruments of their tim e These were .
fa irly nu m erou s ; a n d we find one minstrel cla im ing (in the Bodleia n
“
ma nuscript ) I ca n pla y the lu te the V iolin the pipe the ba gpipe
, , , , ,
the syrinx the ha rp the gigu e the gittern the symphony the psa l
, , , , ,
tery the orga nistrum the rega ls the ta bo ur a n d the rote Of

”
, .
, , ,
these the gig ue was a sma ll high pitched Viol ca lled a fter its Ger ,
-
,
“
m an n a m e Ge ige ; the g itte rn was a gu ita r stru ng with ca tg ut
”
the sym phony (Ita lia n za m pogna ) was a form of bag pipe ; the rega ls
,
was a tiny folding orga n the ta bor a ta mbo urine a n d the rote (old
, ,
Celtic cr wth) a sm a ll squa re harp The orga nistrum from its descrip
, .
,
ti ons seems to be the prototype of the modern ha nd orga n The

,
- .
play er turned a wheel a n d cou ld depress by keys a ny of the str ings

,
on the instrument thu s ma king them sound by b ringi ng them

,
a ga inst the revolving wheel Certa in so ca lled mecha nical Violins .

-
use the sa me idea to da y Other instru ments of the time were the
- .
flu te tru mpet fla geolet sa ckbu t (trom bone) sha l m or sha wm

, , , ,
(cl ar inet ) rebeck (a bowed ma ndolin derived fr om the Ara bia n

,
Reha b ) a nd m arine tr umpet (ha ving merely a sing le long s tring

, ,
mu ch like tha t of a Violoncello ) On a llthese the Jong leurs were .

,
possessed of mu ch skill .
At first the Jongleurs were the pa id mu sica l reta iners of the

Trou ba dours Girard Ca la nson for exa m ple ga ve to his Jongleurs
.
, ,
the following instru ctions : Lea rn to a ct well to spea k well an d to , ,
extem porise rhymes well Learn to invent clever an da mu sing ga m es.
to plea se people Lea rn to pla y on the ta bour the cymbals an d the

.
, ,
ba gpipe Learn to throw an d ca tch little a pples on the point of

.
knives Lea rn to imita te the song of bir ds with your voices to pre
. ,
tend to ma ke an a tta ck on a ca stle as if besieging it to j u mp throu gh ,
four hoops to pla y on the cita lland ma ndore to perform on the

, ,
cl on corde a n d the guita r f or they are d elig htf u l to al

l Lea rn how
,
.
40 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDG E
to str ing the viol with seventeen chords to sound the bells to pla y , ,
the ha rp an d to compose a jig tha t sha llenliven the sou nd of the

,
psaltery From this it will be seen tha t the modern j u ggler is the
.
old Jongleur with only a pa rtia l cha nge of occu pa tion The cita ll .
(citole ) was a box like form of the psa ltery an d the ma ndore a
-
,
variety of guitar .
The Trou ba dours were pra ctica lly destr oyed in the war of the
Albigenses a war preceded by ma ny pa squina des th a t exposed ,
fau lts both in the pleasure loving a dherents of the new creed an d the
-
a bsolu tion pedd ling au tho rities a t Rome The war itself was a con
-
.
sta nt triumph for Rome under the lea dership of Simon de Mont
,
fort ; and ma ny of the ca ptured cities witnessed the bur ning of their
citizens a live by hu ndreds Even Pedro of Aragon met defea t when
.
he ca me to a id his Pr oven ca l friends .
B u t wha tever the r ights an d wr ongs were the killing off of so ,

-
ma ny Tr ou ba dours was a serious set ba ck to cu ltiva tion in its a llied-
forms of litera ture an d mu sic They had been the composers while
.
,
their performing reta iners were merely the pu blishers of their com
positions as Petrarch sa id The art of the J ong leurs when no longer
, .
,
ba cked by the inspira tion of their ma sters soon began to deteriora te , .
Their sta tus a n d their enterta in m ents grew to be su ch tha t they

a ttra cted only the coa rsest au dien ces They beca me wa ndering .
minstrels earning a preca riou s living by a mu sing people in the

,
market pl a ces Yet girls an d women sometimes beca me J ong leuses

-
.
,
as the term was We rea d th a t Willi a m the Conqu er or rewar ded his
.
Jong leuse Adeline with a n esta te In la ter times these fem inine per
.
“
formers led a wa ndering life a n d were known as glee ma idens
,
”
-
.
But a t first they held honored positions a nd showed themselves

gifted enou gh For exa mple the ma ny Roma nces of M arie de
.
,
fi an ce Jongleu se of Willi a m Longsword (son of Henry III ) are

, ,
now held to ha ve rare va lu e an d kept as mu ch prized trea sures

,
-
in the B ritish Mu seu m They inclu de versions of the Ar thuria n

.
legends as well as others of prime importa nce B u t on the whole

, .
,
the Jong leurs ma le a n d fema le were persons of no respecta ble

, ,
position .
The cha ng e from well bo rn poets to pa id enterta iners took p la ce

-
in Germa ny a lso There was no Vi olent war in tha t coun try b u t the
.
,
a ltera tion ca me just as surely if more gra dua lly There were evi .
THE MINSTREL KNIGHTS 41
dentl
y Germa n musicia ns of the Jong leur type in the Sua b ian times ;
f
or there exists an old song which ru ns
, ,
Kin g Ru dol ph is a w orthy kin g

Al lp ra ise to him b e b rou g ht!
He lik es to hea r the m instrels play an d Si n g ,
B u t a f ter tha t he g ives them n au ght.
Thu s in Germa ny too the nobler com poser ga ve wa y to the pa id

, ,
mu sicia n ; an d for ma ny yea rs even extending down to the nine

,
teen th cen tu ry the m u sicia n was regarded an d trea ted as a hired

,
u nderling if not an a ctu a l outla w

, .
V
THE S C HOOLS or C OUN T E R P O IN T
IT has a lrea dy been sta ted tha t Engl and held the lea d in music for
ma ny centuries The fa m ou s song Su mer is icu m en in which
.
”
,
sou nds remarka bly fresh an d bea utifu l even to modern cars prob ,
“
a bly d a tes ba ck to the year 12 15 if not ea rlier This was a six , .
men s song b u t two of the voices sa ng a drone ba ss The other

’ ”
, .
four however comma nd interest ; for they follow in one a nother s

, ,
’
footsteps with the strict ca nonic imita tion tha t is fou nd in the songs
“
known as rou nds ”
.
Soon a fter the ear liest English development ca me a Fr ench school .
This mu st ha ve been in the thirteenth century for by 132 5 we find ,
Jea n de M uris in his Specu lu m Musicae la menting the departure

,
”
,
of the good old times and regrettin g th a t the composers ha d lost the
,
ins pira tion shown in the preceding genera tion This seems to be a .
com m on com pla in t ; an d it has a fa miliar ring even to da y - .
These ea rly schools were in part an ou tcome of the ch a nson

not tha t of the Tr ou ba dours b u t the people s song tha t was p opu
,
’
,
lar thr ou gh a l
lof western E ur ope Sometimes these part songs were.
-
“
in the strict form Shown by Su mer is icu m en in ; b u t more often
”
they were fa irly free in their part writing While the Trou ba dour - .
mu sic when not in unison has its melody in the u pper part in
, , ,
a ccord a nce with modern ideas there grew u p in early d a ys the cus
,
tom a lrea dy mentioned of h a ving the melody held by the tenor

, ,
“
voice The word tenor comes from the La tin ten ere to hold
.
”
, .
The chief melody ta ken by the tenor was ca lled the can tus firm us
, ,
(fixed song ) or often simply the ca ntus A second part a dded a bove
, . ,
this melody and sun g with it was ca lled the disca nt Other pa rts
, .
were a dded a bove or below these two a nd ca lled from their position
—
,
“
either bass or alto wor ds tha t m eant low or high The term ”
.
“
treble signifying a third pa rt was som etimes u sed for a voice
”
, ,
“ “
a bove the disca nt The word sopra no mea ning a bove was
” ”
.
, ,
introduced la ter on when the melody was given to the u pper part
,
.
C A NO N, f
rom n
an a cient MS in
. the Bri ti l
h Muf
c um .
Sum er i - c um cn
Cuc - cu
c ue
g roweth f
ed a nd bloweth m ed and
Su m er
cw “
0 3 16 ! Su m er I! i u c u n cu
w el i
ltngs the c ue- «u
fins cu e — cu
Cu c —cu
G roweth f
ed a nd bl
owc th
never Sum er i —
- cu In c n
cued
CUM — C “
THE SCH OOLS OF COUNTERPO INT 47
The f
olowi ng f
l eem s to be
i
the true m port o the f words.
G roweth f
ed a nd bl
o weth .
Sum m er i s a o
com in
g m,
L ou dfing c uckow.
G roweth feed,
And b loweth m ead,
And f pringeth the wood new.

Ewe b leateth af te r l
am b ;
L oweth a fter cal, cow f

u m IIOCk am th’
Su m er I -c u - m e n. B uc kevertcdi ,
Merry fing c uckow .
W ellfin f lthou cuckow,

Nor hou ever. ne
et w.
Paris was still a ctive in the fourteenth century ; and the part song -
sty le was gra dua lly developed by Jehan n ot Lescurelan d Gu illa ume
de Ma ch au a s well as by C esaris Ta pissier Carmen an d Henricus
, , , ,
de Zeela ndia in a la ter genera tion These na mes ca rry little im port
.
now ; b u t su ch com posers proba bly with others living in the Nether
,
la nds brou ght a bou t a gra dua l cha nge from the popu lar style to
,
polyphony .
The term polyphony refers to mu sic written definitely in vari

ous p arts or voi ces
, Hom ophony which arose in the seventeenth
.
,
centur y denotes a m elody su ppo rted by chords a n d harm ony

, .
Cou nte rpoint m ea ning mu ch the sa m e as polyphony was derived

, ,
from the phra se pu nctu m contra pu nc tu m the pu nctu m being a n old ,
note na me a n d the phra se mea n ing note a ga inst note The contra
-
, .
pu nta l forms are trea ted in a la ter cha pter .
The strength of the popu lar infl u ence is shown by the com mon
use of secu lar m elodies for the ca ntus in variou s parts of the mas s .
These melodies were u sed by the composers beca u se the people

knew the tu nes a n d the work cou ld be more rea dily com prehended
,
by them or more ea sily performed So cu stoma ry did this become

, .
tha t the tenors often sa ng the words of the orig ina l song instea d of
the mass We should be decidedly surprised ifour chur ch tenors
.
S hou ld tr oll forth We won t go hom e till m orning with the rest
,
’
,
of the choir wrea thing sa cr ed words around tha t tu ne ; b u t custom

sa nctions everything a nd such use of popular melodies la sted for
,
over a century in the ea rly Netherla nd da ys .
Certa in songs beca m e fa vorites for use in sa cred works Th u s it .
seemed to be a point of honor for ea ch com poser to write a t lea st one

“ “
ma ss u sing the tu ne ca lled L Hom m e Arm é ; while Se la fa ce a y
” ’
pa le was not far behind it in popula rity So m etimes old pla in so n g .

-
(Gregoria n ) tu nes were us ed ; a n d as these were sa cred origina lly ,
they seem a ppropria te enough . A
The chief forms u sed were the ma ss the mote t the ma driga l a n d , , ,
the ca non to which Ita ly a dded the frottol

, a or ba lla d The ma ss is , .
described in the cha pter on voca l forms The motet was a sa cred .
pa rt song of contra pu nta l ch ara cter the na me being derived eithe r

-
,
from m ot referring to the sa cred word or fro m m otus mea ning

, , ,
movement as the parts a llmoved contra pu nta lly The ma driga l

, .
was mu ch the sa me in style u sua lly with from three to six p arts
, ,
an d a lwa ys u na cco m pa nied ; b u t very often the melody did not sta y
wholly in one voice being distribu ted in sepa ra te phra ses a mong
,
variou s pa r ts The deriva tion of the n a me is dou btf u l Some

. .
as cribe it to m adre referring to the Virgin Ma ry b u t the wor ds of

, ,
the ma driga l were often secu lar This was one of the ea rliest forms
.
used by the contra pu nta l com posers though spora dic ca nons of ,
ea rlier da te ha ve bee n fou nd The ca non as a lrea dy implied is a

.
, ,
piece in which the sa me melody is u sed in ea ch voice but the ,
voices enter in succes sion so tha t the melody is ma de to serve as its

,
own a ccompa nim ent Thu s a rou nd is a ca non thoug h there are
.
, ,
ma ny ca nons tha t are not rou nds Variou s ca nons are illustra ted in .
the section on mu sica l form in this work These pieces were a ll

, .
su ng withou t a ccom pa nim ent a t first thou gh the orga n gra dua lly ,
ca m e into use with the ma ss Certa in of the ea rly ca nons were

.
“
known as fu ga s (fu gu es ) b u t they were not rea l exa m ples of the
”
,
l a ter fu gu e which is a na lyzed in connection with m u sica l fo rm

,
.
The Netherla nd school shows as its first grea t exponent Willia m

D u fa y Like ma ny of the ea rly com posers he bega n as a choir boy
.
,
-
,
a n d grew u p to hold impo rta nt ch ur ch positions He wr ote poly .
phonic songs for Ita lia n weddings a nd stu died a t the Pa pa l Cha pel,
.
Returning to church work in Belgium he beca me kn own and hon ,

TH E SCH OOLS OF COUN TERPOINT 49
ored throughou t E ur ope His existin g works inclu de ma sses motets

.
, ,
a n d ch a nsons cru de enou gh by our sta ndar ds b u t conta ining the ,
Another composer of this period was Gilles Binchois who died a t ,
Lille in 14 6 0 The writer Tin ctor sa id Binchois s na m e wou ld

.
’
endure forever b u t very few of his works rema in in existence

”
, .
Still others of this period were Petru s de Dom art Philippe Caron , ,
Vincent Fau g u es An thony B usn ois Eloy an d Va n Ghizeg hem

, _ , , .
The r ea l lea der however a ppea r ed in England in the person of

, , ,
John Du n sta ble Born a t D u nsta ble living in England a n d dying

.
, ,
a t London in 14 53 he is qu oted by the Fr ench poet M ar tin l

, e Fra nc
as the m odel u pon which D u fa y a n d Binchois ba sed their m u sic .
By 144 0 he was known as far a wa y as the Tyrol His m otets an d .
ma driga ls are now to be fou nd in ma ny Continen ta l lib raries where ,
works of h istoric va lu e are too often left to la ngu ish in hidden ma nu

scripts Ma ny writers ca ll him the first con tra p u ntist ; an d there is
.
no dou bt th a t he led the wa y f or the school th a t ar o se in the Nether
la nds As Engla nd an d North Fra nce were politica lly u nited it is

.
,
possible tha t Du nsta ble borr owed som ething from the French com
posers ; b u t the freshness of his style bears witness to his own gen ius ,
a n d m a kes it see m pr ob a ble tha t E n gl ish mu sic ha d developed

“
stea dily from the da ys of Sumer is icu m en in ”
.
The next develop m ent in the Nether la nds ca m e in the sha pe of

increa sed skill Under the lea d of Jea n de Okeghem an d Ja cob
.
Obrecht (or Hobrecht ) it beca m e cu stoma ry for com posers to use

“
the u tm ost skill in writing pu zzle ca nons The so ca lled cra b .
-
ca non consisted of a melody in one voice while a nother voice sa ng

”
,
the sa me melody ba ckwards for a ccom paniment Som etim es one .
voice wou ld sin g the m elody from the beginning while others started ,
in the m iddle an d went both wa ys For su ch work the melody was .

,
som etim es written only once a n d a few wor ds pu t with it to show

,
wha t the different voices shou ld do A fa vorite ca tch ph rase was .

-
“
ou t of light d ar kness or vi c e versa referring to the o u tlined note
”
, ,
s ,
(introdu ced by D uf a y ) as light a n d the solidly written notes as ,

-
dark This wou ld be equ iva len t to our directing a sin ger to use
.
quarter notes instea d of ha lves or ha lves instea d of qua r ters There

-
,
.
were m a ny su ch directing phrases used which a re now wholly obscur e

in mea ning .
This set of composers covered a wide ra nge of territory Okeghem .
was bo rn a t Antwerp a n d beca me a ctive in Paris where three kings

, ,
in su ccession were gla d to e m ploy his services His ma sses motets .

, ,
an d ch a nsons show grea t skill a n d mastery of techniqu e a n d cau sed ,

“
him to be ca lled the Prin ce of Music Obrec ht worked in Antwerp
”
.
,
as did a lso Ja cques B arb irea u Antonius Wyng aerde Jea n Regis
, , ,
Philippon de Bourges and others The Netherla nds m u sicia ns work

, .
ing in Ita ly inclu ded Gu illau me Guarneri Ga sp ar Weerb ecke and , ,
Alexa nder Agricola Germa ny ha d her own compose rs su ch as

.
,
Tha u g ott E u genius a n d Hein rich Finck ; while Spa in produced

Fra ncisco de Pefialosa .
This second Netherla nds grou p devoted itself too mu ch to the

technica l side of mu sic Yet it rendered grea t service to the ca use
.
of music by its development an d ma stery of certa in techn ica l meth

ods Its mu sic was not wha t we shou ld ca ll pleasing The a ttention
. .
pa id to intrica cies often ca used bea u ty an d expressive power to be

lost in curiou s fea ts of polyphony The texts were frequ ently trea ted
.
with little respect ; single wor ds were sometimes spun ou t till they
lost their sense an d little a ttention was pa id to ma king the mu sic
,
as a whole su it the wor ds B u t some of the works of this time are

.
I m media tely following this set of composers is another grou p ,
tha t ca rried mu sic over in to the sixteenth century The new lea der .
was J osqu in des Prés ; an d under his guida nce mu sic was a ga in given
rea l expressive bea uty Yet he was not lac king in techniqu e or con
.
“
trol of resources for we find Luther sa ying of him Josqu in rules
, ,
the notes while others are ruled by them The archa ic styles of
, .
the preceding century were now repla ced by a more fluent ma nner ,
much better a ble to express emotion .
Josq u in was bo rn a bou t 144 5 in H a ina u lt and died in 152 1 He

, ,
.
held severa l importa nt court posts a t Florence a n d elsewhere and , ,
beca me a lea der in the Pa pa l Cha pel The year 1500 fou nd him in .
Paris as a choirma ster Very ma ny of his works are still in existence

. ,
an d they Show not only technica l skill b u t rea l tona l bea uty a n d a ,
delica te fitness to their text Josqu in exercised a grea t infl uence

.
upon his su ccessors .
Others of this period were Pierre de la Rue of Picardy wh ose , ,
man uscripts were treasured highly ; Antoine B rum el of Fla nders , ,

THE SC H OOLS OF COUNTERPOIN T 51
a master of techniqu e ; Loyset Com pere a Flemish composer of ,
roma ntic gifts ; a n d the less known men n a m ed Jeh a n Cou sin ,
G u illa u m e C respelJea n Prioris Jea n Verb onn et an d Noel B aulduin

, , , .
At this time the ca u se of music received grea t a id from the art

of printing Before 1500 mu sicalma nuscripts were usua lly dra fted
.
,
a n dillumin a ted by ha nd in the monasteries or other centr es of lear n

,
ing The forma tion of the first book printing firm G u tenberg and
.
-
,
Fa ust took pla ce in 14 51 In 1476 Ulrich H ahn tried to print m usic

,
.
,
a t Rom e an d five yea rs la te r JOrg B esier of Wii rzb u rg an d Otta vio

, , ,
Scotto of Venice ma de sim ilar efforts B u t in these ca ses only the

, , .
com para tively sim ple pl a in song was a ttem pted a n d sepa ra te -
,
impressions were ma de for the staf f an d the notes Petru cci of .

,
Fossom brone working a t Venice was the first to print a llvarieties

, ,
of mu sic no ma tter how intr ica te In 14 98 he secured a monopoly

,
.
,
of the mu sic printing in tha t city a nd from 1501 onward he pu b

-
,
lished ma ny va l ua ble collections Oeg l in bega n pu blishing a t Augs .
burg in 1507 a n d Scheffer did the sa me a t M ayence before 1512

, .
The first to invent a one impression method printing both sta ff -
a n d notes was Pierre Ha u l tin in 152 5 who se types were u sed b y , ,
Atta ignan t of Par is in 1527 Another cha nge ca me in 153 0 when

, , .
,
B riard of Avignon repl aced the dia mond hea ded notes with the
, ,
-
rou nded forms tha t we use to da y Mu sic printing by types soon -

.
-
beca me a n importa nt indus try At present however its use is .

, ,
limited ; for by far the larger p art of our m usic is printed from en
The presence of certa in Netherla nds masters in Ita ly led to the

forma tion of two distinct schools there tha t of Venice and tha t of
Rom e The prom inence of Venice was du e to Adrian Willa ert who
.
,
was choru s mas te r a t St M ark s u ntil a fter 1550 Born a t B ruges

’
-
. .
before 14 9 0 he stu died wi th Josqu in to su ch effec t tha t when he

, ,
went to Rom e he hea rd one of his own motets su ng and a scribed to

his ma ster He showed a tendency to extend still further the style
.
of his tea cher while keeping u p a llthe Ski ll in techniqu e Thus

, .
,
besides masses motets an d ma drigals by Willa ert we ha ve a lso

, , ,
some freer pa rt songs an d instrumenta l ricerca ri The la tter term

-
.
“
signifies research a nd was u sed to designa te pieces in which the
”
,
compose r sought to show his ma stery over intrica cie s .
The Venetian school included m any fa mous na mes Jachet de .

B uu s was evidently a Netherla ndia n Visitor Another Netherla nder .
,
Cipri a n de Rore wrote m usic of rich charm and bega n to use eb ro

, ,
ma tic a n d ha rmonic effects freely Gioseffo Z arlino is now best .
known by his books Anniba le Pa dova no represented the gr owi n g

.
tendency towar d orga n pieces a field which was well exploited by

Clau dio Merulo Andrea Ga brieli and Giova nni Ga brieli There
, , .
were other Veneti an ma sters a n d not a few in neighboring cities

, ,
a fa m ou s na me being Animu ccia Under these mu sic bega n to ta ke

.
,
on those chara cteristics tha t ma de the Ita lia n com posers preem inent
through two centuries .
The school of Venetia n contra pu ntists na tura lly did not think of
ha rm ony as a bra nch of stu dy All throu gh the contra pu nta l period
.
,
mu sic was regar ded as consisting of p arts or voices tha t flowed on , ,
together Under Okeghem these voices were a llowed to flow in the

.
most discorda nt fa shion if the desired form dema nded it B u t from .
Josqu in on we find a consta ntly increasing a ttention p a id to the

,
expressive qu alities of the m u sic Althou gh the la ter contra punta l

.
composers still considered m u sic as consisting of parts they gra du ,
a lly a pp ro a ched a melodic style with h a rm onies not ra dica lly differ
,
ent from our own The introdu ction of the harmonic idea as a prin
.
e da tes fr om the end of the fifteenth centu ry when Peri C a ccini

c ip l , , ,
a n d others u sed it in the earliest opera s B u t it wou ld not ha ve ta ken .
su ch a firm hold as it did if the tim es ha d not been ripe for it While .
the ma sses motets ma driga ls a nd ca nons were kept as par t m u sic

, , ,
-
,
the ri cercari a n d cha nsons were often freely h armonic in style With .
the a dvent of opera the contra pu nta l style gra dua lly disa ppea red ;
,
a n d chor ds bega n to be stu died f or their forma tion indepe ndently ,
of their occurrence in part mu sic This ga ve rise to the sa ying tha t

-
.
“
Of old mu sic was horizonta l ; now it is vertica l The old idea of
,
”
.
interwoven p arts certa inly ga ve mu sic a horizonta l a spect .
In Germany there was a development para llel to tha t of the

,
Venetia n school exem plified in part by Heinrich Isaa c B u t Sa xony

, .
su pplemented the Protesta nt Reforma tion by developing a new

school of mu sic in the Lu thera n chora les The style of these is shown .
“
by Ein feste B urg a scribed to Lu ther b u t pr oba bly written by
”
, ,
one of his friends The rugged Vita lity of these chora les led to a fu r
.
ther expa nsion of Germ a n mu sic long a fter the Ita lia n c ontra pu nt
ists ha dpassed a wa y Such men as Dietrich Ammerba ch Schr oeter
.
, , ,
these two formed a culmina tion of his school ; an d the dea th of both
in the sa me year 1594 is held to mar k the close of the contra pu ntal
, ,
epoch As a matter of fa ct motets a n d ma dr iga ls were com posed

.
,
freely u ntil fifty yea rs a fterward ; b u t opera an d instru m enta l m u sic

drew pu blic a ttention a wa y from the older schools so the sta tem ent ,
is fa ir enou gh .
Orla ndo di La sso was born a t Mons in 1530 or 153 2 thou gh some ,
give the da te as 152 0 The old Netherla ndia n n ame was som etimes
.
written La ssu s while his na tive city knew him as Rola nd Dela ttre
, .
He sa ng in a chur ch choir a t Mons when eight years old ; an d his

voi ce was so a ttra ctive th a t it is sa id he was twice kidna pped for
other institu tions It is sure tha t he was ta ken to Ita ly for he spent
.
,
mu ch of his you th there His earliest existing work is a set of ma dri

.
ga ls pu blished a t Venice in 1552 In his you nger yea rs he seems to .
ha ve devoted himself la rgely to secu lar mu sic ; b u t by 1563 we find

him pu blishing a sa cred collection a n d continu ing in tha t field His , .
secu l ar mu sic shows the most freedom a nd ea se of construction In .
this he a voided the so ca lled Flemish tr icks or devices of ingenu

-
”
,
ity a dopting instea d a style of simplicity a n d directness

, .
In 1556 or 1557 Di La sso a ccepted a post with D u ke Albert V of

,
B a va ri a ; a n d for the rest of his life he m a de M u nich his pe rma nent

hom e B u t he tra velled considera bly being the recipient of ma ny
.
,
honors a nd a ttentions from high dignita ries inclu ding the B e nch ,
King and the Pope In Munich he still produ ced som e pieces of sec
.
ular an d even hu morou s ch ara cter ; b u t his sa cred works were of

, ,
grea ter importa nce Most prominent a mong them was a set of
.
“
Seven Peni tentia l Psa lms which are still to be fou nd in the Roya l ,
Sta te Libra ry a t M u nich in fu ll glory of m orocco an d silver with il

, ,
u m in a ted text This set conta ins the composer s portra it an d was ’
l . ,
prepa red for him by the D u ke s order as a mark of respect These ’

, .
psa lm s were written before 156 5; a n d tha t da te disproves the cla im

th a t they were comp osed to soothe the rem orse of Charles I X a fter
the M a ssa cre of St B artholomew B u t they were importa nt enou gh
. .
to h a ve com e to th a t monarch s a ttention The historian Am bros ’

.
“
considered tha t these psa lms a n d Pa lestrin a s M a ss of Pope ,
’
M ar cellus were the two most im porta nt m usica l produ ctions of

,
the sixteenth centur y .
Di La sso was a very prolific composer producing a bou t two thou ,

DI LA SSO
P AL E STRINA
THE SCH OOLS OF COUNTERPOINT 55
sa nd works These showed grea t versa tility for they inclu ded m a d
.
,
s love songs h u m or ou s songs a n d even drinkin g songs as well

ri ga l ,
-
, ,
-
,
as sa cred wor ks of severa l so rts A sta tue of him in Mons testifies .

, ,
to his fa me After his bur ia l in M unich he was given an epita ph con

.
sisting of a bright pu n on his name

f‘
Hie il
le est Lassus, l
assu m q ui recrea t orhem .
This m a y be tra nsla ted Here lies wea ry he who a wea ry world , , ,
“
refreshed ; b u t the La tin f or the first weary coincides with the
” ”
composer s na me ’
.
In Ita l y the sa cred sta ndar d was u pheld by Pa lestr ina Giova nni
, .
Pierlu igi da Pa lestrina received his last na m e from the vi lla ge where
he was born the da te being proba bly 1524 He ca me to Rom e in
, .
154 0 where he is sa id to ha ve won fa vor by his voice After return

, .
ing to his na tive town where he married and lived as orga nist he
, ,
a ppea red a ga in a t Rome in 1551 as m a ste r of the boys in the Va tica n ,
Cha pel At this tim e he beca m e known as a com poser by pu blishing

.
a set of four a n d five voiced ma sses -

.
These were very welcom e beca u se u p to their a ppea ra nce the ,
Church ha d been forced to depend a lm ost wholly u pon Flemish

com posers Pope Ju liu s III then ma de Pa lestr ina a singer in the
.
Pa pa l Choir an exceptiona l honor since its mem bers were su p ,
posed to be celiba tes Under Pau l IV Pa lestr ina was ru led ou t; b u t

.
,
he a fterwa rds received the post of m u sica l director a t the La tera n ,
which ena bled him to live an d to su pport his fa mily D uring six .
yea rs a t the La tera n Pa lestrina wrote som e four voiced la m enta

,
-
“ “
tions a nota ble eight voiced C ru x Fi delis an d the fam ou s Im
,
”
-
,
r
p po eri a
”
or rep,r o a ches of Ch r ist to his ene m ies the co m poser s ’
best work a ccording to Mendelssohn

, .
In 156 1 Pa lestri na beca me dir ecto r a t the chur ch of Sa nta M ari a

,
M a ggiore While there it is sta ted an event ha ppened th a t ma de

.
, ,
him known a n d respected by a l lC a tholics H a be r] his best bio .

,
gra pher does not give the story ; b u t B a ini does It seems a ccording
,
.
,
to B a ini tha t the Cou ncil of Trent disgu sted with the secu lar songs
, ,
an d words woven into the Flem ish mas ses thou ght of exclu ding ,
music from the service A commission of ca rdina ls took u p the m a t

.
ter with so m e of the p a p a l singe rs ; a n d as a resu lt Pa lestrina was

c ommissioned to wr ite a ma ss tha t shou ld show whether mu sic cou ld
be ma de dignified enough for sa cred use Unwilling to trust the is .
sue to one wo rk P a lestrin a wrote thr ee ; a n d one of these the

, M a ss ,
of Pope M arcellus was so bea u tifu l tha t the Cou ncil a t once decided
”
,
in fa vor of reta ining mu sic This story however is doubted by

.
, ,
many .
Pa lestrina now received frequent honors b u t little profit The , .
p a pa l copyist wrote the notes of the su ccessfu l mass in a larger size

tha n usua l ; Pope Piu s IV excla im ed tha t su ch must be the mu sic of
the a ngels ; while Philip II on receiving a copy of these ma sses an d
,
finding them dedica ted to him sent in return nothing but his th anks
, .
Yet Pa lestr ina was not withou t friends a mong the cardina ls who ,
m a y h a ve helped him in ma ny wa ys The su ccess of his ma ss won .
him a new post tha t of com poser to the Pa pa l Ch a pel He ha d .
his moments of popu la r trium ph too In 1575 no less tha n fifteen , .

,
hundred of his fellow to wnsmen entered Rom e in three grou ps a nd ,
sa ng the works of their beloved com poser while he himself ma rch ed

a t the hea d a n d directed the p r oceedings .
Pa lestr ina was a lso choir lea der a t St Peter s an d tea cher in the
-
.
’
,
importa nt m u sic school of his friend Nan in i He continu ed a ctive .
until shortly before his dea th which occurred in 1594 four months
, ,
before tha t of Di Lasso .
Pa lestrina s mu sic has been divided into three periods In the

’
.
first he led the voices independently withou t mu ch a ttention to

, ,
harmony In the second he p a id more a ttention to good harmonic

.
,
effects b u t in consequ ence led the voices a wkwardly In the thir d

, .
period he Showed excellence in both deta ils Na tura lly his la ter
, .
“
works are his best ; b u t the Improperia fa lling in the second
”
,
period shows a chora le like strength tha t is very impressive

,
-
.
Pa lestrina brou ght the old school of pure cou nterpoint to its cul
min a tion He disca rded chroma tics an d kept to the strict G regoria n
.
,
modes as a tenet of religion He took care a lso to ma ke his mu sic

.
emphasize the wor ds p roperly His com positions m a y be less p opu .
la r in style th a n those of his grea t Flem ish contemporary b u t they ,
are m ore lofty in conception There is a certa in la ck of rhythm in

.
Pa lestr ina s works which ma kes them sou nd stra ng e to modern

’
,
ea rs ; b u t the devotee of B a ch will soon learn to a pprecia te the

Simplicity a n d nobility of the ear lier mas te r Among other things .
,
“
Pa lestr ina has been ca lled the Homer of mu sic ; and there is a
”
THE SC HOOLS OF COUNTERPOINT 57
sta teliness of style in his works which ma kes the title very a p
propr ie te
.
The year 1594 was marked a lso by the com position of the first
“
Florentine opera D afne The new work was definitely in the
, .
”
harmonic style ; an d from tha t da te onward cou n terpoint was gra d

,
ual ly repl a ced by a simpler a n d more dra ma tic u ttera nce

.
VI
THE H AR M O N I C S TY L E
THE textbooks u su a lly dwell on the year 1600 as the da te of the

beginning of opera In tha t year a set of Florentine mu sicia ns con
.
,
sisting of Jac 0 po Peri Giu lio C a ccini a n d o thers b rought ou t Peri s

, , ,
’
E uridice em bodyi ng dra ma tic principles as they understood them

”
,
a fte r stu dying the old G reek d ra ma Sometimes Peri s earlier work ’
.
,
“
D afne is ca lled the first opera B u t as a ma tter of fa ct Ita ly
”
, .
,
ha d witnessed wha t was p ra ctica lly an opera over a centu ry ear lier
tha n th a t da te an dha dseen the development of a tenta tive opera tic
,
school .
Mediaeva l dra ma consisted of mystery pla ys mira cle pla ys and , ,
mora lities The mysteries were pla ys representing Biblica l stories

. .
The mira cle pla ys trea ted the lives of the sa ints an d m a y be sa id ,
to have inclu ded the pa ssion pla y dea ling with the life an d cru ci ,
fixi on of Chr ist The moralities were a llegories of a mora l or religiou s

.
“
sort such as the pla y of Everyma n recently revived by a n Eng
,
”
,
“
lish compa ny In Sou th Fra nce the Fete de lAne introdu ced an
.
” ’
element of comedy .
Ita ly however developed the secu lar dra ma which flourished

, , ,
first a t M a ntu a In 1472 when the C ardina l Fra ncesco Gonza ga

.
,
retur ned to M a ntua fr o m Bologna we find the form er pl a ce witness ,

“
ing wha t m a y fa irly b e considered the first opera La Fa vol a di
O rfeo by Angelo Polizia ni The plot begins among shepherds
,
”
. .
When O rpheu s enters he is told of E u ridice s dea th a n d determ ines

,
’
,
to seek her a m ong the sha des as in the mythica l story He wins her , .
from Plu to loses her by looking ba ck in defia nce of his a gr eement

, ,
an d is stopped by Tisiphone fr o m trying to find her a ga in His ra il .
ings then incense the maena ds who drive him off the sta ge an d sl a y ,
him This is set to mu sic co nsisting of solos dia logu es a n d choru ses
.
, , ,
which su ggest the frottola the ca rniva l songs a nd the old ba lla ta or
, , ,
da nce song The solo par ts were arra nged in the ma nner developed
-
.
by the l u te pla yers who would Sing one part of a polyphonic com
-
,
conta ining a solo ma driga l b u t both with tha t exception consisting
, , ,
of mu sic sung in a llthe parts On this occa sion a song by Au rora was
.
a ccom p a nied by gravi cem ba l o (primitive p rec ur so r of the pi a no ) ,
orga n flu te h a rp a nd a l arge Viol ; while the Song of Night was set

, , ,
with four trom bones to produ ce a gra ve a nd mela ncholy effect .
In 1554 B ec ca ri of Ferrara b rou ght ou t IlSa g rific io a pa stora l

, , , ,
pla y which ha d for one chara cter a high priest who sa ng to his lyr e
, ,
b u t did not in other wa ys a dopt the lyric form The choru ses in this .
,
“ “
as in L ol io s Aretu sa (1571) an d Arg enti s Sfortun a to were
’ ” ” ’
l ,
trea ted contra pu nta lly .
Among other occa sions the marria ge of Gra nd D u ke Ferdina nd

,
a t Florence in 158 9 seems of interest beca u se the mem bers of the ,
Florentine coterie a bove mentioned took part in produ cing mu sic al

i nterm ezzi given between the a cts of a pla y The fi rst
“
The Har .
,
mony of the Spheres was by Emilio del C a va liere who a fterwa rds
”
, ,
prod u ced the first ora torio Next by Luca Marenzio ca me the con
.
, ,
test between the Muses and the Pierides the singers a ccom pa nied ,
by lu tes a n d Viols while the j u dges ha d harps a nd lyr es in a ddition

f or suppor t Next ca me a pictu re of Apollo sla ying the Python
.
,
with som e fea tures of a ba llet pa ntomime a su ccess as gre a t as

-
,
the others b u t a ra ther ta me a ffa ir when compared with the old

,
G reek tone picture of the sam e event Another of these pl a ylets

- .
Showed Arion s a dventur es a nd incl u ded a solo su ng by him with

’
,
harp a ccom pa nim ent A picture of hea ven an d hell by Ca ccin i

.
offered som e strong instrum enta l effects La st ca m e an a ntiphona l .
bit between three grou ps of M u ses with da nces interspersed , .
The varied chara cter of these short works shows tha t reform was
impending The ma driga l pla ys seemed dom ina nt b u t ha d the
.
,
inherent wea kn ess tha t they did not present the text clear ly In .
g eniou s a ttem pts were m a de to re m edy this trou ble Strig gi o writing ,
excellent opera tic comedies a n d O ra zio Vecchi even ha ving the

,
dia logu e spoken while singers behind the scenes kept u p a b a ck

grou nd of ma driga ls B u t it rema ined for the Florentine coterie to
.
esta blish the tru e principle of opera the solo style of singing with ,
the mu sic a imed to reflect the emotions of the text instea d of being ,
merely a skilled but irreleva nt piec e of contra pu nta l composition .
The reformers found a little trou ble a wa iting them in a nother

sha pe .Where a t first the spirit of opera was sa crificed to the com
THE HARMONIC STYLE 61
poser s ingenu ity now it met with a nother obsta cle in the sha pe of
’
,
the singer s desire for displa y The early works of the Floren tine
’
.
grou p in 1600 a nd la ter were decla ma tory in sty le an d a lm ost like

, , ,
“
wha t is now known as m elos or m elodic recita tive The ins tru
”
.
,
menta l m u sic was now definitely harmonic a n d su bor dina te to the ,
sense of the words ; in a pri m itive fashion to be sure b u t with as , ,
mu ch of artistic idea l as Glu ck an d Wa gner showed in la ter tim es

when bringing opera ba ck to its tru e m ission Yet even in the first .
of the Florentine works now exta nt p rodu ced in

the singer Vittoria Archilei is sa id to ha ve enlivened the occas ion by
“
introdu c ing lu nghi gi ri e gru ppi long rou la des and em bellish
ments su ch as Rossini a n d his school u sed in la ter da ys which
, ,
obscure the dra m a tic effect in order to let the Singer displa y her
powers Thu s began a disa greement th a t has not been settled even
.
,
in the present Artis tic idea s shou ld ru le b u t the pu blic too often
.
,
dema nds m ere vocal disp la y ; a n d the singers know it from Pa tti ,
a n d Melb a down .
Opera soon broa dened its scope an d in the hands of Monteverde ,
beca m e a pu blic a m u sem ent In 16 37 a pu blic opera hou se was .

,
-
bu ilt in Venice in which his la ter works were produ ced One of his
, .
earliest opera s prod u ced a t Ma ntu a in 16 08 ) shows an

orchestra far beyond th a t of his predecessors It consisted of two .
harpsichords two b a ss viols ten tenor viols on e dou ble harp two
, , , ,
sm a ll French violins two large gu itars two wooden organs three

, , ,
vi ole da ga m ba four trom bones one rega l two cornetti (wooden

, , ,
pipes ) one treble fl u te one clarion and three tr umpets with mu tes
, , , .
It will thu s be seen tha t Monteverde wa s an instru m enta l pioneer

the Richard Strau ss of his ti m e Like Stra u ss he was fond of experi .
,
m en tin g with new orchestra l colors ; an d he or igin a ted the Viol a n d

Violin p i zzi ca to or pl u cking of the str ing a n d the trem ol
,
o or ra pid , ,
repetition of a tone Mon tever de s ca r ee r with th a t of his su ccessors

’
.
,
Rossi Cesti an d Ca va lli brou ght opera down to the year 16 75

, , ,
.
Specta cu lar effects were m u ch sought a fter For Cesti s I1Pom o .

’
d Oro given a t Vienn a in 16 6 6 a specia l thea tre with r oo m f

'
,
or , ,
fifteen hu ndred was constru cted in the cour tyard of the ca stle
,
.
“
According to Pra tt the s cenery inclu ded la ndsca pes an d a har bo r
1
,
view the open sea with tr itons the nether world an d the Olympia n
, , ,
1 The H istory fMusi c

o .
hea ven ea ch with its respective divinities ; a nd the nu m ber of char

,
a cters was bewildering In the prologu e a ppea red the personified

.
divisions of the E m pire Spa in Au stria H u ngary Bohem ia Ger , , , , ,
ma ny Ita ly even A m erica ! There were five a cts an d Sixty seven

,
-
scenes The cost of produ ction was sa id to be

. tha lers ”
.
Venice rem a ined a n ope ra centr e for som e tim e the na mes of ,
Ferrari Sa rtorio an dLegrenzi being only a few of its ma ny celebri

, ,
ties B u t before the end of the century the sceptre passed to Na ples
.
, ,
owing to the work of Alessa ndro Sca rla tti He was a Sicilian ha ving .
,
been born a t Tra pa ni in 16 59 He composed an im m ense number of .
sa cred wo r ks inclu ding two hu ndr ed m a sses B u t he b eca me bette r

, .
known by his opera s which nu mbered over a hundred Abou t one

, .
thir d of these are still in existence His orchestra l writing was excel .
lent an d his them es fu ll of vigor an d charm He did mu ch to esta b

, .
li sh the da capo ar ia in which the first p art returns to close the piece
, .
His overtu res consisting of a slow section between two qu ick ones
, ,
beca me very popu lar He a lso wrote ha rpsichord or spinet works

.
tha t are still perform ed by pia nists .
O ra torio arose from St Philip Neri s pra ctice of ha ving music .
given in the ora tory of his chur ch The tra nsition from other sa cred .
works to ora torio was proba bly gra dua l In 1600 ca me C a va liere s .
’
“
R a ppresenta zione di a nima e di corpo whi ch is considered the ,
first ora torio thou gh it m a y ha ve been one of a set of sim ilar works
, .
It shows the infl u ence of the mora lity pla ys It has a bou t ninety .
numbers inclu ding recita tives solos choru ses part songs an d an
, , , ,
-
,
instrumenta l intermezzo The a ccompa nim ent is for graoi cem balo .
,
la rge lu te dou ble lyr e an dtwo fl u tes with a Violin to a idthe sopra no
, , , .
C arissim i did a wa y with the old proced ur e of ha ving ora torio

given in costu me He repla ced the sa cred opera or pla y idea by
.
ora torio as we know it in its concer t form He also a dhered strictly .
to Biblica l su bjects trea ting others in wha t were pra ctica lly ca n
,
ta ta s Nearly allthe Ita lia n composers who ca me j ust a fter Caris

.
sim i tri ed their ha nd a t ora torio ; b u t their work was not very dis
tin c tive Most p r ominent a mong them were Alessa nd r o Sca rla tti
.
a nd Stra della b u t even their ora to rios did not ha ve the perma nent
,
va lu e tha t Ha ndel was soon to give to the form .
Stra della m a y be cited as an insta nce of the wa y in which false

a necdotes thrive in the musica l wo rld There is a well known and .
-
THE HARMONIC STYL E 63
exp ressive song tha t has been known as Stra della s Pra yer The ’
.
story tellers asser ted tha t Stra della was in love with a noble Roman
-
la dy who retu rned his love ; tha t her brother was incensed an dhired
, ,
a ssa ssins to kill the a spiring m u sicia n ; a n d th a t these a ssa ssins ,
wa iting ou tside Stra della s church to mu rder him were so m oved

’
,
“
when he sa ng the Pra yer tha t instea d of a tta ck ing him they
”
warned him an d ga ve him m oney to get a wa y The story sou nds .
a little excessive as it sta nds ; b u t resea rch has sho wn th a t the

“
Pra yer in qu estion was not by Stra della a t all a n d was not writ
”
,
ten u ntil a fter his dea th .
In Fra nce opera developed from the ba llet In 158 1 B a l

’
, taza rin i s .
,
Ba llet com iqu e de la reine a ttra cted mu ch notice Under Henry .
IV a bou t eighty ballets were given a t the cou rt Ca mbert sta rted
, .
prod u cing opera s in 1659 b u t he was soon oversha dowed b y Lu lly

, .
Jea n B a ptiste Lu lly born a t Florence in 163 3 was ta ken to Paris

, ,
by the Du c de Gu ise At first a kitchen scu llion Lu lly ra pidly bet

.
,
tered his position by his Violin pla ying E n tering the p riva te ba nd
-
.
of Lou is XIV he soon beca me its lea der a n d ma de it very efficient

, , .
Fro m 16 53 he was court com poser prod u cing m a ny su ccessfu l b a l

,
lets Nearly twenty years la ter he bega n the series of a bou t fiftee n
.
operas tha t m a de him famous He ha d a hand in developing the.
French overtu re form which consists of a slow m ovem ent followed

,
by a qu ick one an d som etim es ending with a nother slow section

, .
In Germa ny the so ca lled Si ngspi elwas of ra ther ela stic cha ra cter
- .
It inclu ded the solos a n d p art son gs tha t were so popu la r with the
-
Germa n people a long with a certa in minim u m of spoken dia logu e

, .
Not far different from this type were the first Ge rma n opera s ,
“ “
Sc hii tz s D a fne in 1627 a n d Sta den s Seelewig in 1644 The
’ ” ’
.
, , ,
rea l a dva nce ca me with the opening of the H a m bu rg Opera Hou se -

,
in 1678 Reinha rd Keiser soon becam e the lea der of this enterprise
. ,
writing over one hu ndr ed a n d sixteen operas Other com posers of .
the school were Ku sser the violinist Strungk an d Joha nn Theile

, ,
.
The opera s tended towar d disp la y a n d som etim es beca me very ,
specta cu la r thr ou gh intri ca te sta ge a pplia nces .
Engla nd ha d something in the na ture of opera in 1656 when The ,
Siege of Rhodes was com posed by five na tive musicia ns B u t the

”
.
chief English form of th a t tim e was the mas qu e This was ta ken .
fr om Ita lia n models in the sixteenth century but ma de into some ,

thing more origina l by the grea t Eliza betha n poets The ma sque .
was pra ctica lly a priva te thea trica l representa tion in which mem ,
bers of cu ltiva ted society ena cted some mythologica l or fa ncifu l plot ,
with poetic wor ds inte rspe rsed with d a ncing singing an d even inci , ,
denta l pieces The a ctors were more or less disgu ised as the name
.
,
of su ch m u sica l pla ys wou ld indica te Mas qu es were forbidden by .
the Pu rita ns b u t re vived a fter the restora tion of Charles II Yet

, .
the Com m onwea lth cou ld not ha ve been Violently opposed to the
form as the Pu rita n poet Milton inclu ded it in his works
, .
The mu sic to these poetic a ffa irs was written by the most gifted
com posers of the time Among these were C a mpion La nier La wes
.
, , ,
B a nister an d Pelh a m H u mfrey ; b u t grea ter th an allwas Henry

,
Pur cell H u m frey ha d investiga ted Lu lly s work a t Pa ris an d

.
’
,
brou ght ba ck idea s a bout opera Purcell ma de use of these an d.

,
wrote a nu m ber of rea l opera s in a ddition to the cu stomary masqu es .
Purcell is reckoned by m any as Engl a nd s grea test com poser ’

.
Dou btless this title is fa ir enou gh thou gh D unsta ble was m ore ,
widely known in his da y Purcell was one of the short lived geniu ses
.
-
,
for he died a t the a g e of thi rty seven in 16 74 It is sa id th a t his

-
, .
dea th was ca used in pa rt by his being locked ou t of his hou se in the

cold after a ra ther riotou s night with boon com pa nions ; b u t he was
prob a bly as stea dy going as was expected a t tha t time His ma squ es
-
.
“
a n d ope ras together nu m ber a bou t fo rty Of the l a tter K ing .
,
”
Arthur with D ryden s words is considered the grea test These
,
’
, .
opera s are not now given a lthough The Faery Q u een was
,
r ecently revived in London as a cu riosity .
The na me of Pu rcell b rings into notice a lso the developm ent of

instru menta l mu sic The Ita lia ns were the pioneers in this field
. .
All through the seventeenth century there was a consta ntly in crea s
ing repertoire of su ch music The perfecting of the violin an d the
.
developm ent of the ha rpsichord spinet an d cla vichord did m u ch

, ,
to bring this a bou t The widesp rea d a doption of the harmonic style
.
was a second i m po rta nt fa ctor The growth of the old d a nces was
.
a nother incentive to the com posers .
The English Vi rgina l school previously mentioned seemed not to

, ,
develop into a nything definite in spite of the strikingly modern

,
effects of som e of its music B u t it m a y ha ve ha d a n influ ence on

.
Purcell Whether he followed this or his cherished Ita lia n models

.
,
THE HARMONIC STYLE 65
it is certa in tha t he pr odu ced instrumenta l music of the most va lu

a ble ch ara cter . His sona tas for variou s com bina tions of instrum ents
are not often hear d a t p resent b u t they are none the less wonder
,
fully a ttra ctive In recent years Arnold Dolm etsch a n d others h a ve

.
given concerts of old mu sic on the old instr um ents In these the va .
ri ety of h a rpsichor d effects (du e to the m a ny peda ls ) combines m ost
excellentl y with the qu iet pla intive swee tness of the Viols an d ea rly
,
wood wind instrum ents Under su ch conditions the seventeenth

- .
century m u sic shows a co m bina tion of earnestness an d gra ce a n d ,

“
seem s to ha ve a sweet rea sona bleness tha t is of the u tm ost charm .
M a ny of the early ins tr umenta l com posers a re deem ed ha rdly worthy

of m en tion except in the largest histories ; b u t the musica l a ntiqu ar y
knows the worth of their prod u ctions In listening to these works the .
stu dent does not ha ve to lea rn an y forgotten or obsolete m ethods of

expression He will a cknowledge too tha t su ch u nfor ced an d spon
.
, ,
ta neous m u sic is rea lly more pleas ing to the a u ditor th a n ma ny of

the contem porary experim ents in a bstru se harm ony .
Germ a ny was perha ps a little b a ckward in instrumenta l develop

ment ; b u t it ha d som e m as ters especia lly in the doma in of the organ
, .
Froberger Kerll M u ffa t an d Pa chelbel are good exa mples the la st

, , , ,
three com ing near the end of the seventeenth centu ry Froberger .
was f or a time impe ria l o rg a nist an d cl a vecinist a t Vienna On a .
trip to Engla nd he was wrecked a n d robbed an d ha d a hard time ,
persu ading any one of his identity Fina lly he ma na ged to get a .
chance a t an organ Here he was overhea rd by a l a dy who ha d

.
stu died with him on the Continent ; an d She recognized him by the
b ri llia nce of his performa nce Charles II then took him into fa vor
. .
He pu t his reminiscences of a llthis into a com ica l little tone pic -
tur e of a Cha nnel tr ip even intr od u cing su ggestions of sea sickness

, .
His wor ks consist of brillia nt tocca tas ca pr i cci os an d secu la r su ites, , .
Kerl la lso wr ote for ha rpsichord as well as o rga n ; a n d his solid style
is sa id to foresha dow tha t of B a ch .
The stu dent who wish es to go m ore m inu tely into the early epochs
will find m a ny other c om posers of this period described in Pra tt s ’
“ “
History ; while the Oxford History an d Ambr os are the grea t
” ”
au tho rities f or the contr a pu nta l ma ste rs After 17 00 the develop .
ment of m usic ca me throu gh individu a ls ra ther tha n sch ools a n d ,
the story of music be comes largely a n a ccount of the grea t composers .

S OON after the end of the Middle Ages lea st as early as , a nd a t
1550 we m a y find m ention of a Thur ingia n fa mily of mu sicia ns

,
na med B a ch H a ns B a ch of Wec hmar the first prom inent mu sicia n

.
, ,
in a long line lived in the sixteenth century His son Veit died in
, .
“
16 19 Of Veit s two sons H a ns ca lled The Pla ye r died in 162 6
’ ”
.
, , , .
H a ns ha d thr ee sons of whom Christoph was the second Chris

, .
toph s second son Johann Ambrosiu s who lived a t Eisena ch ha d

’
, , ,
three sons in his turn ; a nd the you ngest of these was the grea t
Joha nn Seba stia n Ba ch There were ma ny other B a chs the descend
.
,
a nts of the origina l H a ns nu m ber ing a bo u t four hu nd r ed in th ree
centur ies B u t a mong them a llJoha nn Sebastia n sta nds preeminent

.
,
as a wor ld geniu s f-
ar a bove even his most gifted so n s
, .
Joha nn (or John ) Seba stian B a ch was born a t Eisena ch in 16 85 .
His p arents died soon after his birth an d he was brou ght u p b y his ,
brother Joha nn Christoph an organist in a little Villa ge near Weim ar , .
The youngster soon displa yed mu sica l a bility The elder brother .
,
som ewha t of a ma rtinet forba de his protégé s u sing certa in m a nu

,
’
scripts ; whereu pon the you ng enthu sia st copied them secretly by
moonlight thereby la ying a t lea st a partia l fou nda tion for the blind
,
ness with which he was a fflicted in la ter life A choir position in .
Lii n eb urg ena bled him to ha ve a c c ess to a l arge mu sica l libra ry His .
violin pla ying won him a post a t Weimar b u t in 1704 he bega n his
-
,
rea l ca r eer by becoming town orga nist a t Arnsta dt .
In ea rlier years he ha d hear d Reinken pla y an d from Am sta dt he ,
went to Lii b eck to listen to B u xtehu de B a ch was mu ch influ enced .
by them an d became a devotee of a lltha t was best in the old contra

,
pu nta l style This as a lr ea dy described is a system of writing in

.
, ,
parts th a t flow a long side by side instea d of u sing a m elody su p ,
po rted by chords Som etimes these parts are com para tively free ;
.
in certa in cas es however (described in the section on mu sica l form )

, ,
they mu st obey very strict a n d intrica te ru les B a ch not only ma de .
his music conform to the ru les but did it with a freedom an d ski ll ,
th a t a llowed him to keep his mu sic a stonishingly fresh an d interest
ing The orga n was the scene of ma ny an im provisa tion by him in
.
,
which m a sterly com ma nd of m u sica l structu re an d design was u nited

with remarka ble expressive power It is sa id tha t he cou ld im provise .
a n i n trica te fu gu e with mor e ea se tha n ma ny lesser com pose rs wou ld
show in extem por ising a sim ple fa nta sie .
At Mii hlhausen Ba ch m et a n d m a rr ied his cou sin M ari a B arbara

, .
He was a m a n who held fa mily life in the highest reverence like ,
som e noble pa triar ch of old After his first wife s dea th he m arried.
’
the singer Anna Wii lken He had twenty children in a ll; an das most
.
of them were tra ined by him we m ay be sure th a t there was m u ch ,
concerted mu sic in the B a ch hou sehold With su ch a lar ge fam ily .

,
it was a l m ost inevita ble tha t B a ch shou ld su ffer poverty He often .
ha d to see m u ch less gifted mu sicia ns chosen over his hea d to fill

lu cra tive posts ; b u t he bore a llhis trou bles with a cheerfu l optim ism
th a t ga ve wa y to a nger only when an y one spoke slightingly of m u sic
in his hea ring .
B a ch s next position was th a t of cou rt orga nist to the D u ke of

’
Weim ar In tha t pla ce he developed his powers by still fu rther pra e

.
tice a nd the stu dy of more mu sic inclu ding the early Ita lian com
, ,
positions He beca me known as a tea cher a n d bega n to write some

.
,
of the fu gu es su ites an d Lu thera n ca nta ta s tha t ha ve ma de his

, ,
n a me i m m orta l .
Under the Prince of Anha lt Cothen (from 17 17 to he ha d -
no good orga n within rea ch b u t devoted himself to other instru ,
ments inclu ding the cla vichord a nd ha rpsichord Here he composed

, .
“
the first p ar t of his fa m ou s Well Tem pered Cla vichord a set of ”
-
,
wonderfu l fu gu es These introdu ced the system of twelve equa l

.
“
se m itones to repla ce the so ca lled sca le of na ture which ha d been
,
”
-
,
used u p to 1700 Here too he wrote con certos an d other instru

.
, ,
menta l mu sic .
B a ch s next position took him to Leipsic as orga nist of the

’
,
Thom a s Chur ch a n d musica l director in the Thom a s School Here .
he rem a ined until his dea th in 1750 His Leipsic years br ou ght him .
honor a nd glory even if wea lth seemed fa r a wa y He com posed

, . ,
ta u ght pla yed a nd lived ou t his a dmira ble domestic ca reer in a wa y

, ,
tha t must ha ve won him some ha ppiness even if his life was u n ,
eventful for the most part .

BAC H 71
In 174 7 , his fam e indu ced Frederick the Grea t to send him an
invita tion to com e to Potsda m His son C ar l Philipp E m a nu el B a ch.
held a perm a nent m u sica l post a t Frederick s court an d a t la st the ’

,
old m a n consented to go When he arrived Fr ederick spra ng u p

.
,
“
from su pper sa ying Old B a ch is here a n d has tened to receive
, ,
”
,
the distingu ished Visitor B a ch pla yed on the Ki ng s new pianos

.
’
b u t sa id th a t he preferred the cla vichor d a n d held the pia no fitted ,
only for light rondos or varia tions Then he improvised a four .
voiced (four part ) fu gu e on a su bject given by the King a n d he

-
,
“
a fterwar ds el a bora ted it into a six voiced work f or his Art of -
Fugu e After he left Frederick sent him a sum of m oney ; b u t it

”
.
,
was em bezzled before it rea ched its destina tion .
This trip m a y ha ve hastened B a c h s las t illnesses His eyes none ’

.
,
“
too str ong were overta sked by his engra ving the pla tes for the Art
,
of Fugu e which poverty forced him to do for himself Opera tions

,
”
.
were su cceeded by blindness ; an d a su dden retu rn of sight was only

a p rel u de to the fit of a poplexy tha t killed him .
The nu mber of B a ch s works is enorm ou s The large recent edi

’
.
ti on by the B a ch Society inclu des over fifty siza ble volu m es His .
comm a ndin g gen iu s was not fu lly rea lized during his life an d for ,
more th a n a centu ry a fter his dea th m ost of his works rem a ined in
manu script When Mendel ssohn and others bega n to u nearth them
.
,
a nu m ber of these m a nu scripts were lost B u t a mong tho se tha t .
rem a in are exa m ples of ma ny forms from the short chora l to the ,
grea t orchestra l su ite or the la rge voca l orchestra l Pa ssion -

.
Among the orga n works are nea rly a score of long prelu des and
fu gu es ; a few toccatas; a nd ma ny chora l prelu des an d fa ntas ias -
.
For cl a vichor d a lone a n d now su ita ble f, or the pia no a re the ,
forty eight prelu des an dfu g ues of the Well Tem pered Cla vichor d
-
”
-
.
E a ch of its two volumes has one prelu de an d fu gue in ea ch on e of the

twenty four possible keys twelve m a jor an d twelve m inor The old
-
,
.
“
G reek sca le of Pyth a goras the sca le of na tu re bas ed on m a the
”
, ,
m a tica linterva ls did not ha ve twelve equ a l se m itones b u t in cl u ded

, ,
tones of two different sizes an d kept the fla ts a n d sharps m u ch

,
nearer to their notes tha n a t presen t In the old syste m for exa mple .
, ,
C sha rp was lower tha n D fla t This sca le did not a llow m u ch m od u

- -
.
la tion so it was a ltered slightly to wha t was known in the seven

,
“
teen th centu ry as mea n tem perament B u t by 169 1 Werek
”
.
,
meister and others a dvoca ted the equa l semitone system ; a ndB a ch s -
’
grea t collection of fu gues of which the fir st volum e was com pleted

,
in 1722 ga ve it perm a nence B a ch s other cla vier works in cl u de

,
.
’
“
twelve su ites ma ny inventions a n d sm a ller works The M u sica l
, ,
“
Offering (174 7) a nd The Art of Fu gu e
” ”
while he wrote
a lso a bou t a dozen concer tos for one or more cla viers (key bo ar d
The hearer who is u nfam iliar with music will u sua lly find himself
u nenlightened when listening to his first B a ch fu g u e B u t if he per .
severes a n d lear ns to understa nd the bea u ties of the contra p u nta l

,
style he will open for him self a vas t trea sur e hous e of mu sica l enjoy
,
-
ment The B a ch fu gu es are farthest a wa y from the stu dent s na t

.
’
ura l bent an d more u nlike popu lar m u sic tha n an y other works
, ,
now in the repertoire In developing a ta ste for most of the cla ssics
.
,
the stu dent learns tha t tinkling tunes are not a ne cessity a n d th a t ,
the generalperva ding tu nefu lness of a cla ssica l piece m a y be trea ted
in better wa ys an d with far more variety tha n a hard a nd fast tune
, ,
- -
in conventiona l sections of monotonou sly equ a l length B u t the .
stu dent still seeks for bits of melodiou s work su pported by chords , ,
su ch as he is a ccu sto m ed to .
In the fu gu e the listener must ta ke a still more ra dica l step He

, .
mu st give u p hu nting for melody su pported by chords an d in pla ce ,
of tha t he m u st ima gine a mu sica l method in which there are var iou s
“
parts (ca lled voice s ) pr oceeding together In harmonic writing
”
.
,
the chords su pport the melody j u st as the piers of a bridge u phold

its su perstru ctu re B u t in cou nterpoint the different p arts are inte r
.
,
woven to form a whole more in the wa y th a t stra nds are wou nd to

,
ma ke u p a rope or colored threa ds interwoven to form a delica te

,
ta pestry .
The chief possibility of importa nce in cou nterpoint is th a t of imi

ta tion A phra se or them e or figure which is used in one voice
.
, , , ,
m a y be repea ted in a nother in such a wa y as to give b a l a nce an d

,
contra st to the work in which it occur s By repea ting the motive .
judiciously the composer evolves a n a ctu a l mu sica l design To

,
.
those who are train ed to a ppr ec ia te the contra punta l works this ,
sense of design or perception of gra cefu l stru cture is a ma tter of

, ,
keen delight The fugu e is the most intrica te of a llthe contra p unta l
.
d esig ns In it the whole work is pra ctica lly developed ou t of a single

.
BACH 73
them e ca lled the su bject Su ch a su bject shou ld a lwa ys be short

, .
an d stri king so tha t the hearer m a y g ra sp it a t once

, At first the .
su bject is echoed a n d reé choed by the different voices in well b a l ,

-
an ced a n d o r de r ly su ccession Then follow variou s pa ssa ges bu ilt

.
ou t of the su bject In some of these it is u sed in pa rt as a n a eco m

.
pa nim en t f or itsel f while in others certa in figures or fra gm ents

,
ta ken from it are em ployed to bu ild u p a ppa rently new effects .
As an insta nce of the wa y in which B a ch cou ld rea rra nge a n d

develop the briefest of them es the rea der is referred to the fifth ,
“
fu gu e in volu m e II of the Cla vichord set In this the first nine
”
.
notes form the su bject The figur e of the la st four notes in the
.
su bject is used to bu ild u p episodes ; an d the rea der m a y a m use

him self by ta king a pencil an d seeing how ma ny a ppea ra nces of
this figur e he ca n ma rk or pick ou t in the entire fu gu e Further .
deta ils of this an d other fu gues will be fou nd in the las t cha pter
on m u sica l form .
Ba ch s ch am ber works inclu de concerted pieces for var iou s com

’
b in a tions of solo i nstru ments He wrote a ls o sona ta s an d other works

.
f or Violin fl u te or vi ol a da ga m ba (la rge cello like Viol ) with cl a vier

’
-
, , , ,
as well as si m il ar pieces f or Violin vi ol a p om p osa (large Viol a ) or , ,
’
cello a lone On e of the most fa m ou s Vi olin pieces in the repertoir e
.
is the chacor me f or the solo instru m ent ta ken fr om one of the B a ch

, ,
sona ta s This chacon n e has becom e a sort of test piece for grea t
.
pla yers .
B a ch s orchestra l works inclu de suites overtu r es an d va riou s

’
, ,
concertos Among the l a tter the so ca lled B ra ndenburg concertos

.
,
-
are still fa vo rites wi th the pu blic These an d the su ites a re very .
strong an d dir ect in their effect a n d clearly m elodiou s in spite of ,
their som ewha t contra punta l stru cture The D m a jor su ite has a .
-
wonderfu lly fine overture fu ll of bea u tifu l ha rm onies ; a broa dly

,
effective a ir ; an d a striking ga votte The gem of the B m in or su ite .

-
,
“
which com es next in popu la rity is the exqu isite B a din erie in ”
, ,
which a solo flu te is m a de to ca rry on a n inim ita bly delightfu l

di a logu e with the orchestra B u t it is hardly fa ir to m a ke specia l
.
cita tions for B a ch s orchestra l works are a lm ost a llhighl y interest

,
’
ing They do not a im to be str ongly dra m a tic b u t they flow a long
.
,
with ca l m dignity or ea sy gra ce or com pelling enthu sias m ,

, ,
B a ch wrote a grea t m a ny secu lar ca nta ta s serena des an d other , ,

voca l works Among the form er are two hum or ous ones a Pea s
.
a nts C a nta ta showing som e of the tr ia ls of cou ntr y life an d a

’ ”
, ,
Coffee C an ta ta in which a wilfu l girl is held ba ck from a fternoon

,
coffee parties wi th their a ttenda nt gossip only by the promise of

-
, ,
h a ving a hu sba nd given to her .
Amon g the voca l works are m a ny motets ca nta ta s etc for use , ,
in the Lu thera n service These comprise a bo u t two thirds of five

.
co m plete sets of works for the entire ch ur ch yea r .
B a ch com posed a lso five la rge ma sses a nu m ber of sma ller ones , ,
a n d two Ma gn ific a ts More importa nt th a n these however are the

.
, ,
five Passions (of which two are lost a n d one dou btfu l ) the long six ,
“
pa rt Chr istm a s O ra torio an d sim ilar works for E a ster a n d
”
,
“
Ascension The St M a tthew Pa ssion the most famou s of the
.
”
.
,
sa cred works is stillperformed with som e frequ ency It conta ins

, .
ma ny grea t tou ches su ch as the shou ts of the crowd to free B ara b

,
b a s the pictur e of the tra m pling footsteps of the m ob a n d the grea t

, ,
fina l choru s of sorrow Of the other works the Chr istma s Ora torio
.
,
is best known by its pastora le which fig ur es on ma ny orchestra l ,
progra mmes when Christmas is a pproa ching .
In spite of the grea t va ri ety of form s u sed by B a ch ther e are cer ,
ta in very definite qua lities common to a llhis music .
First of a ll as alrea dy sta ted his works are bu ilt wholly or partly
, ,
on the contra pu nta l system Even in his most clea rly melodiou s .
com positions su ch as the orchestra l su ites there is som e contra

, ,
pu nta l im ita tion ; an d there is a lmost a lwa ys part wr iting which -

,
constitu tes counterpoint in its sim plest form .
B a ch was a ma ster of rhyth m All his pieces a ppea l to us by their .
clea rness of a ccent a nd stea diness of flow This is one of the points .
th a t ma ke his fu g u es so grea t for their stra ightforward rhythm ,
a llows the va riou s p ar ts to com e clear ly to the a u ditor s ea r There ’

.
is no m onotony a bou t it no la ck of variety in rhythm ; b u t the style

,
is a lwa ys clea n cu t a n d never confu sed

-
, .
The third qu a lity to be noted in B a ch s m u sic is the bea u ty an d ’
orig ina lity of his harmonies They do not glow with the impression
.
ism of the m odern scor e m a sters ; b u t they too a re clea r a n d clea n

-
, ,
cu t or blended into one a nother with the m ost exqu isite delica cy
, .
“
B a ch did not try to tea r pa ssion to ta tters in the exa ggera ted
”
,
fas hi on of certa in la ter composers ; b u t he cou ld Show an emotiona l

BACH 75
power tha t ha s proved to be deeply ef fec tive even if somewha t ,
repressed a n d qu iet .
Incide n ta lly it m u st not be cla im ed from the last para gra ph th a t

,
B a ch strove for the harm onic style AS a m a tter of fa ct he a lwa ys .

,
held to cou nterpoint He su mmed u p an d perfected the style of his

.
predecessors His im provisa tions grew fa m ou s beca u se of their

.
wonderfu l contra pu ntalintrica cy When he pla yed for Reinken the .

,
l a tter then a n old m an grew devou tly tha nkfu l tha t the art of the
, ,
past was thu s nobly cherished in defia nce of conditions which were ,
even then changing .
Of B a ch s sons the eldest Wilhelm Fr iedema nn was a n erra tic

’
, , ,
b u t highly gifted com pose r whose orchestra l works show a wi ld ,
power th a t was remarka ble for a time so long before Beethoven .
C ar l Philipp Ema nu el fou nd tim e when not com posing sona ta s or ,
a cco m pa nying the fl u te of Frederick the Grea t to wr ite a nota ble ,
“
wor k on The Tru e Art of Pia no Pla ying Joha nn Christia n b e
” -
.
ca me fa m ou s in London wrote symphonies an dhelped to popularize

, ,
the ea rly pian os besides com posing curiou s little tone pictures su ch
,
-
,
as The B a ttle of Rossba ch B a ttle piec es ha ve been popu lar with

”
.
-
the com posers an d in this one we see the usu a l devices marching
,
of tr oops tru m pet fa nfares the ra ttle of m u sketry deep notes giv
, , ,
ing the boo m ing of ca nnon a n d so on In this piece the cries of the
, .
“
wounded are present being m isprinted into Les lAm en da tions des
,
’
Blessés All this m a y h a ve earned m oney It was infinitely below

. .
the lofty earnestness of his fa ther s work ; b u t a fter the fa ther s ’ ’
dea th poverty m a de his fa m ily separa te in their sea r ch for su ste

,
na nce Descendan ts of the grea t B a ch kept the line in existence

.
until 184 6 when the fa mily beca m e extinct

, .
Among the pioneers in the sona ta which beca me importa nt as a ,
form u nderlying ma ny m odern works Dom enico Sca r la tti was one ,
of the earliest The sona ta form is descri bed in a cha pter of its own
.
,
in the m u sica l form section Here it m a y be sta ted th a t one of the

-
.
chief ideas of the form in cla ssica l tim es was its a da pta bility for good
contras t in styles of them es The sona ta s of Sca rla tti are little more
.
tha n da nce fa nta sia s a n d they were frequ ently written in one m ove
-
,
ment wher e the la ter son a ta ha d three or four Sca rla tti s pia no
,
.
’
work is mention ed in the article on fa m ou s pia nists in this volu m e , .
He com posed opera s b u t was best known in connection with the

,
76 THE B OOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLED G E
h arpsichord It was he who wrote the so ca lled ca t fu gue u sing
.
-
,
as his su bject the notes pla yed by a pet ca t as it stal ked a long his
keyboard B u t he is best known for his harmonic work hi s primi
.
,
tive sona ta s helping to perpetu a te the hom ophonic style .
Para disi a n d G a lu ppi were two Ita lia ns who produ ced some
wha t more a mbitiou s sona tas In their works the sona ta ha d more
.
tha n one movem ent The chief m ovem ent ha d two contra sted
.
themes then a so ca lled develop m ent th a t bega n with the chief

,
-
them e an d a reca pitu la tion beginning with the second theme B u t

, .
the form ha d not yet become wholly definite in sha pe Another .
Ita lia n dese rving mention is Sa mmartini who wr ote sona ta s a n d ,
symphonies tha t foresh a dowed those of H a ydn .
B a ch s sona tas showed a gras p of the possibilities of them a tic con

’
tras t B u t his devotion to contra pu nta l exp ression prevented these

.
works from b ecom ing models for the harmonic composers in spite ,
of B a ch s grea tness His contem pora ry Kuh nau was more in line
’
.
with the su bsequ ent developments B u t if B a ch s sona tas took no

.
’
part in the evolu tion of the form those of his son Car l Philipp
,
Ema nu el were decidedly more produ ctive of resu lts It was the .
la tter composer who led the wa y to the rea l beginning of the sona ta ;
an d one of his wor ks co m ing to H a ydn s a tte ntion showed the la te r
’
, ,
geniu s the possibilities of the new form .
B a ch ha d no grea t su ccessor in the field of a ctual chur ch service -
music Ka rl Heinrich Grau n was the lea der of a German grou p He

. .
“
is known by his ora torio The Dea th of Jesu s certa in nu m bers
, ,
of which are still occa siona lly heard in concert In Ita ly Pa dre Mar .
tini Pergolesi and Jom m elli deserve mention for their church works
, ,
b u t nearly a llthe early Ita lia n opera composers tried their ha nd a t

sa cred m usic also .
In the cla vier field Fra n c ois Cou perin an d Jea n Philippe Ra mea u
,
developed a n a ttra ctive French school of harpsichord (or spinet)

works Where the Ita lia ns ha d prod u ced sona ta s a n d su ites these
. ,
two and their followers wr ote ma ny light b u t pleas ing tone pictures -
.
GEORG FRIEDRICH H AND EL (whose las t na me was afterwards
a n glici zed to H a ndel ) was born a t H a lle in 168 5 As this was the , .
year of B a ch s birth these two pioneers h a ve som etim es been ca lled

’
,
“
the Sia m ese Twins of M u sic B u t the resem bla nce between them
”
.
is not close enou gh to j ustify the title Both were com posers an d .
,
both wr ote in a m or e or less contra pu nta l style ; b u t H a ndel strove

for dr a m a tic eflec t a n d em ph a sized h armony Where B a ch su mmed
'
.
,
u p the glories of the p as t H a ndel foresha dowed those of the fu ture

,
.
D uring childhood H a ndel showed a n early devotion to m usic

, .
Fi nding him self discoura ged he is sa id to ha ve u sed a clavichord

,
in the garret of his hou se u pon which he cou ld pra ctise in secret
, .
When seven yea rs old he a sked to be ta ken with his fa ther on a Visit
,
which the la tter was phyi ng to the Du ke of Saxe Weissenfels This - .
the fa ther refu sed a ltogether B u t when the carri age ha d gone a
.
little wa y it was fou nd th a t the you n gster ha d run a fter it a n d was

, ,
clinging on behind His persistence ca u sed him to be ta ken a long

.
,
with perha ps decisive results u pon his ca reer ; for the D u ke on hear ,
ing him pla y a dvised his fa ther earn estly to let the boy devote him
,
self to the m u sic tha t he loved so irresistibly H a ndel was therefore .
pu t u nder a good tea cher by na me Za cha u ; an d four yea rs la ter he

,
was ta ken to Berlin a s a p ro d igy .
After a u niversity cour se with organist work a t H a lle H a ndel

, , ,
entered u pon an im porta nt pha se of his ca r ee r by becoming a Vi olin

ist in Keiser s orchestra a t the H amburg Opera Hou se Here he
’
-
.
beca m e intima te with Ma ttheson .
The first incident in this friendship was a trip to Lu beck The .
pa ir went thither in search of the post of city organist The old .
B u xtehu de who ha d held the post for ma ny yea rs was a bou t to

, ,
reti re ; b u t he ha d m a de it a condition th a t his su c cessor shou ld marry
his da u ghter After looking over the situ a tion (an d the la dy in the
.
ca se ) the two young aspira nts withdrew from the contest

, .
H a ndel soon beca me known as a composer starting his opera tic ,
“
ca reer in 1704 with Al m ira an d produ cing a Pa ssion in the sa me
”
, ,
year He a lso a tta ined a higher ra nk in the orchestra ; for when

.
Keise r was once u nexpectedly a bsent H a ndel stepped into the ,
va ca nt pl a ce a n d beca m e the condu ctor This position he held with

,
.
firm control ; b u t it brou ght him into a nother episode with Ma t

theson which might h a ve p roved fa ta l
,
H a ndel refu sed to let .
Ma ttheson lea d parts of a n opera which the la tter ha dwr itten ; a n d

a fter the pe rform a nce the compose r was so a ngered tha t he boxed
the arbitrary condu ctor s ears The two d rew swords a t once an d
’
.
,
bega n a du el Ma ttheson broke throu gh H a ndel s gu ard b u t fortu

.
’
, ,
n a tely for the wo rld his wea pon sna pped a ga inst a la rge button on
,
H a ndel s coa t ’
.
After three yea rs or so a t H a mburg H a ndel betook him self to ,
Ita ly There he ha d the keyboa rd du el with Scarla tti tha t is men

.
tioned in the ch a pter on fa mou s pia nists in this book He tra velled , .
a bou t receiving honors in Florence Venice Rom e a n d Na ples

, , , , .
He ma de his ope ras con form to Ita lia n sta ndards which were even ,
then becom ing conventiona l .
On returning to Germa ny H a ndel a ccepted a post with the ,
Elector of H a nover He ha d lea ve to tra vel an d went to London

.
, ,
“
where his Rina ldo ma de a hit in 17 11 He liked London so well .
th a t on a second Visit he decided to sta y in spite of the fa ct tha t his ,
lea ve of a bsence ha d expired It was therefore a decided surprise .

, ,
to him when his former electora l ma ster was ca lled to London to

su cceed Q u een Anne as George I of Engla nd H a ndel kept in hiding .
for a time At length a friend ga ve him a ch a nce of reinsta ting him

.
self in fa vor a n d he su m moned his mu sica l geniu s to his a id The

, .
King was to give a wa ter p a rty u pon the Tha mes As the p rocession
-
.
floa ted a long the river a n u nknown boa t drew near to the roya l
,
barge The occu pa nts of the stra nge boa t pl a yed some new an d
.
very bea u tifu l mu sic This in a ccorda nce with the pla n formed
.
, ,
ca u ght the King s a ttention a nd ca u sed him to investiga te When

’
,
.
he fou nd tha t this a ttra ctive surprise was the work of his old ser
va nt H a ndel he a t once a sked the composer a boa rd the roya l boa t
, ,
a n d pardoned him The com position known as the Wa ter Music ”

.
, ,
is still heard occa siona lly in orchestra l concerts .
H a ndel then received roya l pensions For some years too he .

, ,
HANDEL 79
was in the pa y of the rich D u ke of Cha ndos under whom he com ,

“
posed his fir st ora torio Es ther in 172 0
”
, , .
In tha t year an opera com pany was form ed with Ha ndel an d the ,
Ita lian Bononcini as directo rs This com pa ny las ted for eight years .
,
b u t in a l
lexcept the first of these there was bitter str ife between the
two directors M a ny p artisa ns took sides an d the politica l p arties
.
,
even beca me involved to sa y nothing of the fier ce riva lry a m ong the
,
singers It was this bickerin g which brou ght the sopra n os C uzzoni
.
an d Fa ustina to blows It a lso led Dea n Swift to write the rhymes

.
,
Som e p ared to B on on c ini

sa y , com ,
Tha t Mynh eer H a n dels b u t a n inn y ;

’
O thers a ver tha t he to H a n del

,
Is scarc ely fit to hol d a ca n dl

e;
Stran g e al f eren ce should b e

lthi s di f
Twixt Tweedl edu m an d Tw eedl edee
’
.
The riva lry continu ed a fter the compa ny ha d broken u p in riotou s

dispu te ; for H a ndel considered it right to sta rt a com pa ny of his
own an d pr odu ce his own operas which im m edia tely ca u sed his
, ,
opponents to sta rt a nother com pa ny Bonon cini fa iled to please in .

,
spite of the ba cki ng of the M arlborou ghs ; b u t after his rela pse into
obscu rity Porpora H as se a n d others were ca lled to repla ce him
, , , .
As a r esu lt both com pa nies los t m on ey a n d fina ll y fa iled

, , .
B u t this fa ilur e proved a blessing to mu sic f or it m a de H a ndel ,
“
turn definitely to the ora tori o form After pr odu cin g Sa u l ”
.
,
“
Isra el in Egypt a n d sim il ar works he b r ou ght ou t his m a ster
”
, ,
piece The Messia h in 1742 Thi s is a work tha t still sta nds a t
,
”
, .
the hea d of the repertoire nea rly two centur ies a fter it was written
, .
It Shows most a d m ira bly its composer s sure tou ch var ied power of
’
,
u ttera nce a n d contr ol of str ong dra ma tic effect

, This work a lone .
was enou gh to win H a ndel a las ting r enown For ten years a fter .
pr od u cin g it he continu ed writing ora torios b u t he never qu ite ,
equa lled it a ga in Like B a ch H a ndel beca m e blind in his la st yea rs ;

.
,
b u t he bore the a fli ic ti on with equa nim ity a n d continu ed his ac tiv ,
i ty in m u sic He died in 1759

. .
H a ndel was a hard a nd qu ick worker His grea t Messia h took .
him only a bo u t three weeks to write The inspir ing na ture of the .
su bject m u st ha ve helped him to com pose ra pidly for he sta ted tha t ,
“
when he bega n the H a llelu j ah choru s it seem ed as if allHea ven
”
,
an d Ea rth were lying open to his ga ze H andel sometimes a dopted .
the them es of others an d som e critics ha ve christened him the

,
grea t robber ; b u t the percenta ge of pla giar ized work is so infinitely

”
sm a ll in com pa rison with the com poser s own a chievem ents th a t

,
’
,
it ca nnot cou nt a ga inst him Yet it is tru e tha t he did sometim es .
a dopt a them e fro m other co m pose rs m u ch as he tra nsferr ed the m es ,
“
from his own ea rly wor ks into la ter ones His song La sci a ch io .
’
“
pia nga figures origina lly as a sa raba nde in his first opera Alm ira ”
, .
When repr oa ched with stea ling a m elody from a certa in composer ,
H a ndel once replied Tha t pig does n t know wha t to do with su ch

,
’
a tu ne This gives a clu e to the fa ct th a t while a short melody

”
.
might be borrowed its trea tment an d development were the com

,
poser s own ; a nd he b ea u tified wha tever he a pp ropria ted

’
.
H a ndel was blu ff and hea rty in chara cter ra ther arbitrary as ,
was necessa ry f or an opera ma n a ge r b u t a lwa ys honest a n d even , ,
generou s He ha d a trem endou s a ppetite a n d is shown in ca rica ture

.
,
wi th a hog s hea d sitting before a n o rga n deco ra ted with sa u sa ges

’
, ,
ha m a n d other solid foods He never marr ied Once he a spired to

, . .
win a you ng la dy s ha nd ; b u t her fa ther resented the a ttentions of a

’
“
mere fiddler La ter when H a ndel grew fam ou s the fa ther inti
”
.
, ,
ma ted tha t he wou ld withd ra w his opposition ; b u t by tha t time the

com poser s ardor ha d cooled
’
.
H a ndel s opera s soon dr opped ou t of the repertoire They were

’
.
cas t in the conventiona l m ou ld of the time a n d grew moribu nd even ,
before Glu ck s reforms intr odu ced higher artistic idea ls The Han
’
.
delia n operas were nearly a llbas ed on legendary su bjects u su a lly ,
mythologica l There were a lwa ys three a cts The nu mber of char

. .
a c ters was p rescr ibe d six or seven of a cer ta in kind bei n g a lwa ys
,
expected E a ch of these chara cters ha d to h a ve a fixed nu m ber of

.
a ppeara nces in concerted or solo wo rk a n d the l a tter consisted of ,
a r i a s of p r escr ibed ch ara cte r These opera s were tremendou sly pop
.
“
ular in their da y the heroine s costu m e in Rodelin da being
,
” ’
a dopted as a n a tion a l u nifo rm of yo u th a n d bea u ty B u t the system .
was too conventiona l to la st .
Yet if H a ndel did not try to be a reformer in opera he a t least ,
i m bu ed his works with the strength of his own geniu s M a ny single .
nu mbers from these opera s are Very mu ch a live to da y even thou gh -

,
the operas themselves are buried His dra ma tic power of exp ression .
tha t ca me m a ny deca des a fter his dea th O ra torio u nlike opera .
, ,
was not fette red by tra ditiona l or conventiona l ru les so H a ndel ,
cou ld ma ke of it a lltha t his geniu s perm itted His su ccess in this .
form led to an English cu lt of ora torio a n d ca nta ta th a t is still in a

flour ishin g sta te even if it has not produ ced mas ter works H a ndel
,
-
.
wrote for imm edia te success If his works la ck the deeper qua lities
.
a n d the m ore involved intellectu a lity of B a ch they wer e f ar mo re ,
directly effective in their da y ; a n d they deserve a lltheir renown .
H a ndel experi m ented with the orchestra trying ou t lu tes harps , , ,
a nd ea r ly C l ar inets His introdu ction of horns arou sed mu ch eriti

.
c ism As condu ctor the com poser often led his work by pla ying a t
.
,
the harpsichor d or orga n He thu s filled ou t h armonies which were

.
left in a more ru dimentary sta te in the written score It has there .
fore been fou nd necessary for la ter mu sicia ns to fill in the scorin g of
certa in works by H a ndel the chief exam ples being two V ersions of
,
“
the Messia h one arranged by Mozart and the other by Robert
”
,
Fra nz .
Of the H a m burg school of opera both Ma ttheson and Telema nn ,
ou tlived H a ndel The form er wrote few works with mu ch effort

.
,
while the la tter com posed freely b u t ra ther su perficia lly Other , .
Germa n cities soon followed H am bu rg s lea d ; an d ope ra s by G rau p ’
n er StOl
, zel G ra u n a n d their kind wer e hear d in D armsta dt B res
, , ,
la u Pra gu e Berlin a n d other pl a ces

, , Frederick the G rea t fa mous
, .
,
as a p a tr on of mu sic was a lso a compo ser writing the opera

,
IlRe , ,
”
Pa store .
Ita lia n opera brought to its climax of popu l arity by Alessa ndro
,
Sca rla tti was carried on by ma ny composers Antonio Lotti won

, .
su ccess in ma ny fields a t Venice Domenico Scarla tti wr ote severa l .
dra ma tic works ; while M a ncini Sarri an d Fa go kept the school in , ,
a ctivity Porpora wrote nea rly fifty opera s b u t was best known a s
.
,
a singing tea cher The nam es of Feo Dura nte Leo an d the artist
.
, , ,
D a Vinci are somewha t more importa nt an d bring opera to the ,
middle of the eighteenth century ; b u t none of their sta ge works sur

vi ved f or long The old operas were compara tively simple in stru e
.
tur e an d as a resu lt they were produ ced by hundreds

, .
Two compose rs of a l a te r genera tion who beca me known in ope ra

were Nicola Jom m el li in Ita ly and J ohann Adolph H a sse in
, , ,
Ge rmany .
HANDEL 83
A school of light opera ha d its rise in Na ples Pergolesi known by .

,
expressive church wor ks won a trem en dou s su ccess with the com edy
,
“
L a Se rva Pa dr ona L og rosc in o who followed him developed
”
.
, ,
gran d ensem bles a t the ends of his a cts Ga lu ppi who is a postr o .
,
“
phized in on e of B rowning s poe m s wrote the Tocca ta tha t
’ ”
,
B rowning describes an d other orga n wor ks b u t was better known

, ,
“
by his ma ny opera s the light ones ea rning him the title of the
,
fa ther of op era bufia ’

.
Flench opera of
‘
fered C a mpra a n d Destou ches b u t was m o re a bly ,
rep resented by Jea n Philippe Ra mea u His works gra du a lly re .
pla ced those of Lu lly from which they did not d iffer ra dica lly
, ,
a lthou gh he was m o re gifted m u sica lly Ra mea u beca me known .
by a n early trea tise on harm ony It wa s this com poser who once .
sa id Mu sic is dea d m ea nin g tha t a bou t a llpossible com bina tions

,
”
,
of tone ha d been worked ou t an d nothing new cou ld be fou nd B u t

, .
since then m us ic has been pretty lively for a corpse as the long list ,
of su b sequ ent m asters will Show .
Jea n Ja cqu es Rou sseau the philosopher was a nother well known
, ,
-
“
opera com poser of the tim e His Devin du Villa ge m a de a grea t
”
.
“
su ccess while his la ter Pygm a lion la id the founda tions of m elo
,
”
dra ma Rou ssea u championed the Ita lia n com pany tha t ca me to
.
Par is with Ita lia n Singers a n d operas The resultin g dispu te b e .
tween the u pholders of French an d of Ita lia n sta ndards was kn own
as the Gu erre des B u ffon s After an a crimoniou s strug gle Fr ench
”
.
,
op e ra com i qu e won the a scenda ncy .
It m u st not be su pposed th a t forgotten operas are nec essaril y

wea k or u n m u sica l Rou ssea u s works are very tu nefu l Reviva ls
.
’
.
of dram a tic works b y Ra mea u Pu rcell a n d others show th a t these , ,
com posers wrote good m u sic even if their opera s are cas t in a n ,
ar ch a ic m ou ld The sa me is tru e of the Ita lia ns of whom Lotti

.
,
a n d the Sca r l a ttis were rea ll y gifted m u sicia ns If the Sca rl a tti .
Ope ra s a r e on the shelf the pia no repertoire still conta in s a nu m be r

,
of pieces by both the elder an d you nger Sca rla tti Those who hear d .
Pa derewski s ea r ly progra m m es will rem em be r th a t they a l m ost

’
a l wa ys bega n with a selection from these com positions In the .
violin field Kreisler an d Ysa ye have won remarka ble su ccesses with
,
the works of su ch early com posers as Cou perin Vita li Pug nan i , , ,
Viva ldi an d others of the sort ; while the compositions of Ta rtini

,
are often pl a yed Musica l ch a nges are sometimes an a ffa ir of manner
.
ra ther th a n m a tte r ; a n d the mu sic of the l a te sixteenth a n d early
seventeenth centuries often shows the rarest bea uty when it has ,
once been unea rthed from the d ust of ages .
Engla nd did not follow H a ndel s lea d in opera but even during
’
,
hi s life developed a school resembling the Germa n Si ngspi el a n d ,
known as the balla d opera In this a number of songs were strung

-
.
together on a threa d of dialogue to ma ke an a mus ing or sa tirica l

,
“
work The first exa m ple of this form was the Begga r s Opera
.
” ’
,
the m u sic com posed and arra nged by Pepus ch The work ha d a .
grea t su ccess As Ga y wrote the words an d Rich produ ced the

.
a ffa ir (in it was sa id to ha ve ma de Ga y rich an d Rich ga y .
“
Henry Carey sometim es considered the composer of God sa ve
,
the King was a nother writer of ba lla d opera s He ridiculed the

,
-
.
bombastic sty le of certa in Ita lia n operas and sa tirized it very ef

,
f
ec tivel
y .
Of a la ter da te was Thom as Augustine Ar ne now kn own by hi s ,
da inty settings of certa in lyrics from Shakespea re s pl a ys Ar ne ’

.
wrote ora torios opera s masqu es a nd other dra ma tic works He

, , , .
was the com poser of the popu l ar English song R ule B rita nnia , .
In spite of the geniu s of Purcell and H andel which kept English ,
opera a b rea st of th a t in other cou ntries d uring their lives Engla nd ,
did not infl u ence the development of opera The ba lla d ope ra was .
-
not high enou gh in aim to inspire imita tion in other cou ntries More .
over it soon changed its chara cter a nd grew into the over sen ti
, ,
-
menta l affair tha t retarded musical progress in E ngland until quite

recently .
Eurydice B u t there were many dra ma tic tou ches in the opera
.
,
su ch as the barking of Cerberus the thr ea tening refu sa l of the ,
Fu ries to a id Orpheus or the fina l loss of E urydice Glu ck was de

, .
vel op in g the ide a tha t opera tic mu sic should not be a set of mea n
ing less melodies but Shou ld b ring out the d ra ma tic possibilities of
,
the text The Viennese public were somewha t bewildered a t fir st

.
,
b u t fin a lly a ccepted the new wo rk .
“
Glu ck continued wi th Alceste on a nother of the C a lza b igi ,
librettos This work brought ou t in 1767 was not a popu la r su ccess

.
, , ,
because of the gloomy na tur e of its subject .
“
Paride ed Elena with a nother Ca lza b igi text a ppe ared in 1770
”
, , .
It showed a remar ka ble contr ol of roma ntic lyr icism a nd conta ined ,
many strong bits of solo work By this time Glu ck ha d bu ilt u p a .
considera ble a pprecia tion of his works a t Vien na though there were ,
a dverse critics a lso La ter he met with the sa me experience in

.
,
It not u ntil 1774 tha t his first Parisia n work was brou ght
was
“
ou t . This opera Iphigenie en Au lide (Ra cine ) was not one of
, ,
the best in the new style a lthou gh it has a n effective overture The
, .
incom petence of the performers an d the ma china tions of enemies

dela yed the produ ction cons idera bly ; an d in the end its a ppeara nce
was du e l argely to the effo rts of M arie Antoinette Tha t u n f ortu .
na te qu een ha d kn own Glu ck during her gir lhood a t Vienna a n d in ,
Paris She beca me a n enthu sia stic pa troness of his works Jea n .
Ja cqu es Rou ssea u himself a gifted com poser was a nother ardent
, ,
su pporter of Glu ck B u t there were man y opponents who were not

.
,
only rea dy to use carica tur e a n d para gra ph but wou ld a ctua lly ,
fight d u els over the merits of the new ope ras .
“
Glu ck s next work was Arm ide which was given in 1777 It
’ ”
’
.
,
was b a sed on a n old Q u ina u lt text which ha d been set by Lu lly .
This opera showed mu ch roma ntic bea u ty thou gh it did not suc ,
oecd a t once .
In the mean time Glu ck s opponents ha d ra llied ar ou nd the

’
,
Ita lia n Piccini who represented the old school of m elliflu ous b u t
,
mea ningless tu nes Fina lly it was suggested tha t the riva l composers
.
shou ld set the sa me libretto Iphigenie en Ta uride a n d this they

”
,
a greed to do Glu ck finished his setting very qu ickly b u t ha d to

.
,
wa it some time for tha t of Piccini The two were fin a lly performed .
G LU C K H AY D N
TH E M O Z A RT F AMI LY
Gl u ck dropped the old French overture form an d a dopted tha t ,
of the p relu de or introdu ction lea ding directly into the pla y While
,
.
his la ter overtures were worthy cla ssica l compositions the descrip ,
ti ve na ture of their themes was ma de to conform with the scenes

tha t would follow The old ru les a bou t the necessa ry kinds a n d
.
nu mbers of arias were entirely disca rded This meant th a t the poet .
ha d a freer ha nd to produ ce something of litera ry an d dra ma tic

merit The mu sic was considered as following the text an d em pha
. ,
sizing the emotion brought out by the dra ma tic situa tion .
The orchestra too was given more importa nt work th a n merely

, ,
su pporting the voices or indu lging in occa sional short pas sa ges It .
beca m e a n integra l pa rt of the dra ma tic scheme The tou ches men .
tion ed a bove in Orpheu s (the barking of Cerberu s an d the gruff

a nger of the Fur ies) ar e only a few of ma ny th a t m a y be fou nd in the
“
score In Iphigenie en Tau ride a re fou nd wild tone pictures of
.
”
-
barbarou s Scythia n revelry or gloom y mu tterings to a ccompa ny

,
“
the exhau stion of Orestes The other opera s in the grea t six Show
.
”
equ ally Skilfu l instrumenta l tou ches .
Works of this sort were far more im porta nt tha n the conventiona l
strings of melody tha t earlier writers ha d thrown off by the hu n
dred The com poser cou ld not toss them off with the slight a ttention
.
demanded by works of the former school ; instea d he ha d to stu dy ,
his text an d chara cters a n d pu t into the mu sic rea l exp ressive
,
power an d dra ma tic force The performers too ha d to u ndersta nd

.
, ,
the a im s of the new system before they cou ld do their work prop
erly The pu blic ha d to be edu ca ted u p to entirely new sta ndar ds
.
,
as was the ca se with Wa gner s mu sic in l a ter years Opera was

’
.
cha nged from a n enterta ining variety concert to a true art work ;
- -
a n d it was inevita ble tha t some who u nderstood the form er shou ld
be u n able to learn to a pprecia te the la tter The progress ma de by .
Glu ck in the direction of dra ma tic strength is shown by the fa ct th a t

his la ter works are occa siona lly gi ven even to da y a lm ost a century -
,
a nd a h a lf a fter their crea tion Glu ck did not disca rd lyr icism b u t
.
,
u sed it as a mea ns f or dr a m a tic exp r ession instea d of an excuse f

,or
the displa y of singers His r eforms clear ed the wa y for modern opera
.
,
in spite of the fa ct tha t Rossin i reverted to the type of florid a n d

mea ning less voca lism .
Nicolo Piccini who sometimes misspelled his own name as Niccolo

,
GLUCK 89
Pi cc inn i , wa sone of a flourishing school tha t had its hea dquarters

a t Na ples He was not withou t his meed of deserved fame ; for he
.
entered into com petition with Logr osc in o an d su ppla nted the la tter ,
in the field of com i c opera His co m m a nd of m elody was grea t an d

.
,
he Showed an a dmira ble mas tery of concerted fin a les He was r ea lly .
a n unwillin g riva l of Glu ck He fu lfilled the commissions given to

.
him b u t fina lly a cknowledg ed his riva l s grea tn ess with a bsolu te
,
’
fra nkness After the la tter s dea th Piccini even tried to collect
.
’
,
fu nds for an a nnua l concert of Glu ck s works Piccini wrote over ’

.
one hu ndred a nd thir ty operas some of which served as models for,
Moza rt in the la tter s earlier yea rs ’

.
Antonio Sa cchin i was a fisher boy whose gifts were discovered by -

,
Dura nte He wr ote com ic operas for Na ples an d showed a popula r

.
,
freshness of style tha t m a de him a riva l of Piccini He com posed .
a lso for o r chestra an d f

or cla vier .
Tom mas o Tra etta sa w his operas produ ced in su ch various cities
as Vienna Par ma Ven ice London an d St Petersburg He was
, , , , . .
first known as a church com poser He ha d good idea s of dra m a tic .
va lu es and even foresha dowed som e of Glu ck s reform s

,
’
.
Other opera composers of this time were Pietro Gug lielm i who ,
was a ble to riva l Cimarosa a n d Pa isiello ; Joha nn Christia n B a ch ,
who wrote operas in M ila n an d London ; a n d Joha nn Gottlieb Nau

ma nn who won fa me in Ge rmany Denmark and Sweden
, , , .
—
Giova nni Pa isiello (1741 18 16 ) wrote ma ny sym phonies an d
qua rtets b u t was best known by his operas His works showed
, .
mu ch sponta neous m elody an d his accom pa niments were often

,
orig inala n d inge niou s His operas are som etim es strongl y dra m a tic
.
,
b u t m ore O ften piqua nt an d ch arm ing in sty le He com posed a t the .
Ru ss ian Cou rt for eight yea rs a n d a fterwa rds beca m e a fa vorite

,
“
of Na poleon a t Paris His B ar ber of Seville was very popu lar
.
”
,
or some tim e p reven ted Rossini s wor k on the sa me su bject

’
and f
from becom ing well known

Domenico Cimarosa (174 9 —
.
1801) was a lmost as gifted as Mozart

in opera He soon beca me a com petitor of Pa isiello an d a fterwards
. ,
su c ceeded the la tter a t St Pete rsburg This period was followed

. .
by further su c cesses in Vienna an d Ita ly Cim ar osa was very popu .
“
lar a nd received high sa l aries His best wor k is
,
I1 M a tr imonio
.
Segreto prod u ced a t Vienn a in 1792 ; b u t many of his other works

”
,
were almost as grea t The da inty lightness of Moza rt s operas ha d
.
’
its rise in the works of Piccini Pa isiello an d Cim arosa

, , .
Giu seppe Sa rti worked in Ita ly Denm ark a n d St Petersburg In

, , . .
the last na med pla ce he wr ote mu ch sa cr ed m u sic He was the

- .
a u thor of a n extra ordina ry a tta ck on Mozart s qu artets

’
—
.
Ka rl Ditters von Dittersdo f ( 7 179 9 ) com posed many

r 1 3 9
qu artets som e concertos a n d over a hu ndred sym phonies He
, , .
wrote ora torios too b u t was best known by his comic opera s of
, ,
which Doktor u n d Apotheker still holds the boards in Ge rm a ny

”
.
In Pa ris Pierr e Monta n Berton produ ced a few opera s of his own
,
before becom in g a Glu ck partisa n .
H an cois D an ica n Phil idor the chess expert was a nother Pari
-
, ,
sia n opera com poser He was best known in comic opera a n d won
- .
,
mu ch su ccess with his concerted nu mbers trios qu artets etc

Pierre Alexa ndr e Monsig ny (1729—
.
, ,
18 17 ) devoted himself to
com ic opera when forty yea rs old He showed some dra ma tic in .
stin ct b u t l a cked technica l skill

,
.
André E rnest Modeste G t y ( r e r 1741 — 1813 ) was a conte m porar y

an d su ccessor of Monsig n y whom he eclipsed in fa m e
, G retry .
showed a m arked a bility to ha ndle mu sica l decla ma tion a certa in ,
gift of m el ody an dan excellent dra ma tic su ccess He beca me known

,
.
“ ” “
by su ch comedies as Z em ire et Azor Le Ta bleau Parla nt a n d
”
, ,
“
L Am a n t Ja lou se a n d ente r ed the seriou s field with Rich ard
’ ”
,
C oeur de Lion An ari a from the l ast na med entitled 0 Rich ard
- -
”
.
-
, ,
0 mon roi is still a popu la r solo nu m ber G retr y s opera s were

” ’
.
,
orchestra ted very thinly so th a t the la ter composers ha ve some

,
tim es fou nd it a dvisa ble to enrich their a ccom pa nim ent These .
works are not now given except as curiosities ; b u t ma ny indivi du a l

,
songs ta ken from them are still effective nu m bers in the concert
singer s repertoire The opera s as a whole la ck the var iety a n d
’
.
dra ma tic force tha t conte m po ra ry au diences dem a nd ; b u t th a t is

no b ar to the enjoyment of short selections from their pa ges .
At twenty Ha ydn ha d written his first ma ss a n d one of the comic
, ,
O pe ra s th a t h a ve been lost since th a t time Three yea rs la ter he .
prod u ced his first string quartet Soon his early sona ta s ga ined the.
notice of aristocra cy Cou ntess Thu n brought him a set of fa shion

.
a ble p u pils an d indu ced Cou nt Morzin to eng a ge him as p riva te

,
orchestra l dir ector In tha t position he com posed many str ing
.
quartets an d a t last tried his h and a t a symphony in 1759

, , .
A year la ter H a ydn married with unfortun a te resu lts He had

, .
been in love with the younger daug hter of a wig ma ker named -
Ke l ler an d ha d tried to win her h a nd ; but she was deeply religiou s

, ,
a n d a t l a st disa ppointed him by becoming a nun The fa ther then .
su ggested tha t H a ydn should marry her elder sister ; a nd the com
poser fin a lly did so The result was most unha ppy for the obliging
.
Ha ydn ; his wife beca m e selfishly extrava ga nt an d pr oved to be a ,
consumma te Vira go .
In 176 1 H a ydn was a ppointed second conductor to Prin ce

,
Anton Esterha zy When tha t pa tron of mu sic died his successor

.
, ,
Pr ince Nichola s ma de H a ydn first condu ctor with a reas ona ble
, ,
sa lary ; and H a ydn sta yed in this position until his ma ster s dea th ’
,
in 179 0 .
The first contra ct with Prince An ton Showed tha t musicia ns in

, ,
those da ys were pra ctica lly servants The composer was dir ected .
to b e str ictly tempera te an d to a void an y coarseness in ea ting dress

, , ,
or ma nners ; while he was a ddr essed as in the contemptuous

”
Er ,
third person reserved for un derlings .
“
Bu t in Spite of a l lthis the composer lived h appily ever a fter
, .
He was mas ter of a band of sixteen musicia ns to sa y nothing of ,
singers in a ddition ; he ha d time to compose as mu ch as he wished

a n d he bega n to receive money f or the sa le of his wo rks which were ,
consta ntly growing in public a pprecia tion He rema ined in seclusion .
mostly writing the ma ny symphonies an d string qu artets th a t ha ve

,
ma de him fa mou s a n d tha t earned him meda ls rings a n d other

, , ,
testimonia ls during his life He might h a ve finished his car eer in

.
this fa shion ; but in 1790 his pa tron died an d his orchestra was dis ,
banded .
H a ydn was now a ble to tra vel freely ; an d an English ma nager

na med Sa lomon indu ced him to Visit London In tha t ca pita l he .
received the highest honors The six symphonies tha t he ha d com

.
HAYD N 93
posed for B ritish perform an ce m et with an enth usiastic reception ;

the Prince of Wa les enterta ined him for three da ys ; Oxford ga ve
him an honora r y d octor s deg ree ; a n d fas hiona ble pu p ils fl ocked to
’
him a t high prices .
By 17 92 he was b a ck in Vienna where the entire city delighted to ,
honor him At tha t time a you ng m an na m ed Beethoven ca me

.
to ta ke lessons of him a t the ra te of twenty cents a n hour Ha ydn

, .
ra ther neglected the you ng m a n a t first pe rha ps beca u se he was ,
u sed to higher ra tes After a tim e Beethoven grew so independent

.
,
in dem ea nor as well as com position th a t H a ydn christened him ,
“
the Grea t Mogul ”
.
H a ydn took six more symphonies to London in 1794 On thi .

s
tr ip he was invited to sta y a t Windsor C astle ; b u t he preferred to

return to Vienn a .
The E n glish enth u siasm for God sa ve the Ki ng cau sed Ha ydn
to decide u pon writing the Au stria n Na tiona l Hym n Su ch deliber .
a te a ttem pts to p r odu c e n a tiona l m u sic are a lm os t a lwa ys fa il ures ;
b u t in this ca se the song pr oved a grea t su ccess .
London influ enced him still further by its ora torio mu sic espe ,
ci a l
ly th a t of H a ndel ; a n d H a ydn determ ined to ente r this field a lso .
“
His first effort The C rea tion m et with mu ch su ccess a t Vienn a
, ,
an d elsewhere a n d is still a fa vorite with ora to rio societi es

, H a ydn .
,
like H andel felt th a t his gifts were the resu lt of divin e inspira tion ;
,
“
a n d this was sho wn a t a pe rform a nce of The Crea tion which”
,
“
took pl a ce shortly before his dea th At the words Let there be ‘
light —an d there was light a striking change from m inor to

.
,
’ ”
, ,
ma jor occurs On th a t da y na tur e a ided the effect ; for while the

.
da y ha d been overca st the sun burst forth a t these wor ds The

, .
a u ditors wer e th ri lled by this coincidence ; a n d the a ged com poser

“
arose in excitement an d excl a imed pointing to hea ven It a ll
, , ,
ca m e from there ”
.
“
The Crea tion was followed by The Sea sons b u t the dru dg
ery of com position u nited to the fervor of cr ea tive wor k wea ken ed
, ,
the com poser considera bly He spent his la st years in com p ara tive .
ina ctivity and died a t Vienna in 1809 While he was on his dea th
, .
bed Na poleon s forces were bomba rding the city His serva nts were
,
’
.
terrified b u t he rea ssured them by sa ying Y ou are sa fe with

, ,
Ha ydn ”
D uring the sa me bomb ardment Beethoven took to a
.
,
cellar not from an y la ck of bra very b u t beca u se of fear tha t the ,
noise of the gu ns wou ld ru in his a lrea dy im pa ired hea ring When .

'
the city was ta ken som e of the Fr ench of ,

fi ce rs bor e testimony to
H a ydn s fa m e by Vis iting him on his dea thbed an d a ttending his

’
,
funera l .
H a ydn is now known by his sym phonies his sona ta s and the two , ,
works in ora torio form B u t he was very Versa tile a n d a ttem pted
.
,
a l m ost everythi n g except o rga n pieces His voca l works inclu de .
ma sses opera s an d songs The opera s are pra ctica lly a ll lost
, ,
.
,
thou gh rem nants of some are discovered now a n d then Once Ha ydn .
thou ght tha t his chief mission wou ld be the com posing of opera s ;
b u t he grew into orchestra l work Among his songs su ch a d a inty .
,
“
lyr ic as My m other bids me bind my h a ir proves tha t he cou ld
”
write voca l m u sic with the most charming gra ce Bra hms resusc i .
ta ted a chora le them e by H a ydn as a su bject f or var ia tions ; b u t too
ma ny of the ea rlier com poser s voca l works h a ve been a llowed to ’
l apse into u ndeserved oblivion .
The orchestra of H a ydn was somewha t va ri a ble It consisted of .
the u su a l string par ts with the var ia tion occurr ing in the wind in
,
strum en ts The form er were divided into first a n d second violins

.
,
Violas cellos a n d contra ba sses as a t p resent The la tter ra nged

,
’
, , .
from O boes a n d horns u p to a fa irly full list of wood wind an d bras s -
instru m ents thou gh mostly withou t Clarinets The la ter cla ssica l
,
.
orchestra as developed from the H a ydn m odel by Beethoven ha d

, ,
fou r wood wind p arts an d three bra ss par ts the form er bein g flu tes
-
, ,
O boes cl a rinets a n d b a ssoons while the l a tter wer e horns tru mpets
, , , , ,
a n d a t the l a st tr ombones The kettled ru ms com pleted the list ;

, .
a n d H a ydn s n a i ve use of a lou d kettled ru m str oke in the Surprise

’
symphony was very effective in i ts da y .
H a ydn s severa l hu ndred instru m enta l works inclu de about one

’
hu ndred an d twenty five symphonies thirty trios seventy seven

-
, ,
-
string qu artets a bou t one hundred pieces for variou s ch a mber com
,
b ina tions thirty one concertos f

, or var io u s instru m ents an d a bo u t
-
,
fifty sona ta s or other works for cla vier In H a ydn s time the cla vi er .
’
(keyed instrument ) still referred to the cl a vichord or h arpsichord .
The piano ha d been invented in 1711 b u t it did not become rea lly ,
popu lar until Beethoven turned the sca le in its fa vor by wr iting
mus ic tha t was too powerfu l for the earlier instruments The best .
cha rm of refreshing directness At the time of their composition .
,
they were of va lu e as pioneer work in the or chestra l field Even .
Beethoven followed the H a ydn models a t first .
If H a ydn s sym phonies are sti ll hear d on their own merits the
’
,
sa me is dou bly tru e of his str ing quartets In these his clea r sty le .
a n d ca lm serenity are very mu ch in pla ce ; so th a t they still remain
models of their school The slow movem ents are perha ps a little .
, ,
too dra gging for m odern sta ndar ds b u t a pa rt fr om th a t point these ,
quar tets hold their own eas ily a ga inst nea rly a llla ter works in the
sam e form .
Ha ydn s brother Micha el beca me noted as a church composer but

’
,
he was a good orchestra l writer a lso He composed over two dozen .
sym phoni es an d severa l ch amber works ; b u t he kept most of these

,
in ma nu script an d th u s fa iled to ha ve a ny grea t infl u ence

, .
The sym phony received an ea rly development a t the ha nds of

the Ma nnheim grou p of violinists Joha nn Sta m itz was the pioneer .
of this grou p wri ting nearly fifty sym phonies before his early dea th
,
in 1757 These sym phonies figured fr equ ently on early progra mmes
.
in the United Sta tes which are a dmira bly described by Osca r G, .
Sonn eck in his Early Concert Life in America Other sym phon ists
”
.
of the M a nnheim grou p inclu ded Fra nz Xa ver Richter Anton ,
Fil tz Ch risti a n C a nna b ich Igna z Holzba u er Eichne r Toeschi

, , , , ,
Beck Ka rl Stam itz an d Anton Sta m itz All these men composed
, , .
sym phonies a nd ma de the growing form known in ma ny different

,
pla ces Others from different citi es were Schwindl Wa genseil

.
, , , ,
Wa nhal Pichl Roessler Wran itzky Pleyel an d Wolf M a ny of

, , , , , .
their works were known an d hea rd in the eighteenth century pro -
“
grammes of our own cou ntry an d the celebra ted Wran itzky as ”
, ,
he was ca lled was a t one time held as a riva l of H a ydn

, .
More importa nt in symphonic development was Fra n c ois Joseph

Gossec who was known a t Paris as a n ope ra com pose r His sym
, .
phoni es and string quartets showed rea l va lu e

—
.
Luigi Bocche inir was an Ita lia n symphonist ra ther a lonely
figure for Ita ly soon reverted wholly to opera of a popu l ar var iety
, ,
a n d let Ge rma ny develop the cla ssica l school un a ided He com .
posed some symphonies a nd very ma ny ch a mber works .
Dittersdorf worked in this field a lso producing a bout fifty sym ,

HAYD N 97
Leopold Hoffmann wrote church mu sic in Vienna an da t the sa me

,
time composed su ch clever orchestra l works th a t he is sa id to ha ve

delayed the recognition of Ha ydn s genius for some tim e H a ydn
’
.
,
however showed more virility than ma ny of his contemporaries so

, ,
tha t their works are now little kno wn .

WOLFGANG AMADEUS M OZART com poser by the gra ce of God , ,
was born a t Sa lzburg on Ja nu ary 27 1756 His fu ll n a me was , .
Joha nn Chrysostom Wolfga ng Theophilu s Mozart His fa ther .

,
Leopold was a m usicia n of som e sta nd ing in the service of the loca l
, ,
a r chbishop Wolfga ng s sister M aria Ann a was given piano lessons

’
.
a t hom e when seven years old a n d a fte rwar ds beca me a fa m ou s ,
perform er At her ea rly lessons her little brother was grea tly ca p
.
tiva ted by the bea u ty of the cla vier tones an d tried to rea ch u p to ,
the keyboard His extreme mu sica l sensitiveness was shown a lso

.
by the sma ll size an d u nu sua l sha pe of his a ura l pa ssa ges His ears .
were so delica tely bu ilt tha t the soun d of a tru mpet wou ld send him
into spas ms of terror .
The boy bega n to compose little pieces when only four years old ;
an d a t the a g e of six he was discovered ha r d a t work over the mu ch
blotted ma nuscript of a cla vier con certo His fa ther ha ppy a t fin d .

,
ing the son so gifted bega n to tra in him ca refu lly fr om his ear liest
,
yea rs Soon Wolfga ng beca me proficient a t the keyboard a n d was

.
,
ta ken on tours with his sister The two child prodigies won mu ch .
-
a ttention even fr om the E m p r ess M ar ia Theresa

, On a la ter trip .
to London the boy perform ed a t sight some difficu lt pieces by Ba ch

, ,
a n d ga ined renown by i m p r ovising He soon beca me still further .
noted by pla ying his own pieces .
Returning to Sa lzburg a t twelve yea rs of a g e he wrote the opera ,
“
B astien et B astienn e At Vienna he com posed La Finta Sem
”
.
b u t his you th prevented its performa nce A trip to Ita ly

”
pl ice
, .
,
however p roved more su ccessfu l Mozart s Ita lia n tra vels (b e

, .
’
tween 1770 an d 1773 ) resu lted in consta nt ova tions His new .
1
“ “
operas Mitrida te a nd Lu cio Silla were a ppla u ded to the echo
,
” ”
,
by Milan a u diences The Pope ga ve him the sa me order of knight

.
For an a cc ou n t of one ofhis disp l perform an ces pter “ m

ay , see the cha So e
Fam ous Pi an ists ,
"
in this volu m e
.
the Glu ck Piccini contest held pu blic a tten tion He declined a

- .
“
small position in the roya l orchestra sa yi ng tha t whoever enter ed
,
”
the roya l service was forgotten a t Paris He might ha ve worked .
up in the French ca pita l as Lu lly did a centur y ea rlier ; b u t a p

p are n tly he did not a pp r ove of Pa risi a n sta ndards Afte r the dea th .
of his mother who ha d been with him he returned to Sa lzbur g

, , ,
where the miserly prela te Hieronymu s ha d a t la st begun to give

, ,
a gru dgin g a pprecia tion There he beca me concert mas ter with a -
. ,
salary of five hundred florins still a mea gre a mou nt thou gh a t ,
tha t time money had more purcha sing power th a n a t present Of .
“
his Paris sta y Mozart had written home If I were where people
, ,
ha d ea rs to hear hea rts to feel a n d even a sma ll degree of percep

, ,
ti on and tas te I cou ld la ugh a t everything ; b u t rea lly as f

,
ar as ,
mu sic is concerned I am livi ng a mong mere brute beas ts Mozart s

,
”
.
’
grea ter compositions were still in the fu ture so Paris was not to be ,
W holly condemned .
In 178 1 Mozar t composed Idomeneo for the Mu nich Carnival

, .
This work was a n a dvance over its predecessors a n d an improve ,
ment over the Cimar osa Piccini style Its su ccess ma de Moza rt
-
.
devote himself largely to opera though he composed chur ch mu sic

,
“
a nd instrum enta l works a lso Idomeneo was no longer an imita
”
.
tion b u t displ ayed fu lly the melodic fl u ency d ra ma tic grasp and
, , ,
power in handling voices tha t beca me so marked in his la ter operas .
“
In the ensu ing year Vienna heard his Abd u ction fr om the Se ra
,
glio which brou ght opera in Germa n to a high sta te of excellence

”
, .
The old Si ngspi elwas a ra ther elastic a ffa ir Reich ardt ha d ma de it .
a spoken dra ma with mu si c in the un i m porta nt p ar ts while Benda ,
cha nged it into a melod ra ma with words spoken a ga inst an accom

,
pa n im en t Moza rt revived the old idea a n d let the importa nt p arts

.
,
be su ng while only the most unimporta nt episodes were spoken

, .
The E m peror thou ght the work conta ined too ma ny notes ; b u t ”
“
Moza rt retorted tha t there were just enough for the su bject .
Mea nwhile Mozart s position in the Archbishop s entou rage was

’ ’
tha t of an a bsolu te underling Dining with the serva nts he was

.
,
su bjected to allsorts of indigniti es by his stra ngely hostile mas ter ,
a n d was often b ra nded with su ch insu lting titles as Lum p La u s

”
,
bu be or G assenbube
”
,
”
words tha t are h ard to tra nsla te b u t ,
“ ” “ “ ”
are a bout on a par with our churl varlet or guttersnipe
”
, , .
MOZART 10 1
At last the situ a tion beca me u nbea ra ble a nd Mozart presented his ,
resigna tion ; where u pon the Ar chbishop o rder ed his steward to kick
the com poser downsta irs which was done .
Thou gh Mozart suffered enough from poverty a fter th a t event ,
he was never a ga in su bjected to contumely .
H a vi ng lost Aloysia Weber he turned to her sister Consta nce , ,
whom he married in 1782 The two loved ea ch other truly enou gh

.
,
b u t he earned little m oney while she was a poo r ma n a ger Yet their
, .
cheerfu lness was u nfa iling ; an d a visitor once fou nd the cou ple da nc
ing to keep warm when they ha d no fu el and no ca sh to b u y it .
Consta n ce ou tlived her husband by more tha n fifty years dying ,
in 1842 .
Moza r t s poverty seem ed as mu ch a ma tter of loya lty as any

’
thing else He might ha ve done well if he ha d sta yed in Paris ; Lon

.
don which welcom ed Ha ydn wou ld pretty surely ha ve enriched

, ,
Moza rt a lso ; while he declined a libera l offer of the King of Prussia ,
to sta y in the ill pa id servi ce of the E m peror of Austria

-
.
He continu ed his opera tic work with severa l com edi es su ch as ,
” “ “
L Oca del Ca iro
’
Lo Sposo Delu so and the Germa n Schau
,
”
,
B u t these were soon forgotten f or his l a ter m as ter

”
spiel direktor .
,
works were a t ha nd .
“
The M arria ge of Figaro produ ced in 1786 conta ins little of
, ,
the politica l su ggestion of the comedy by Bea u march a is b u t is ,
ra ther a n intensely exhil ara ting bit of dra m a tic a n d m u sica l humor .
The plot dea ls with the love of Fi garo va let an d fa cto of cou nt ,
Alma viva for Su za nna the ma id of the cou ntess The cou nt s
, , .
’
pronou nced a dm ira tion for Su za nna is m a de into a m ea ns of dis

c om fi ting him The others sta rt to trick him by dressing the page
.
Cheru bino in Su za nna s clothes an d a fterwards the ma squ era de

’
,
is ma de m ore effective by ha ving Suza nna a n d the cou ntess ex

cha nge dresses The cou nt then ma kes exa ggera ted dec la ra tions
.
to a su pposed Suza nna who is rea lly his own wife The cou nt is a lso .
tormented by Fi gar o s a ttentions to the su pposed cou ntess The

’
.
fina l u nveiling brings a bou t the count s discom fitur e Figaro s m ar ’

,
’
riag e a n d a genera l reconcilia tion

, .
The m u sic to this viva ciou s comedy is su perla tively delightfu l ,
and conta ins ma ny of Moza r t s very best voca l nu m bers Some of

’
.
the most a ttra ctive selections are Fi garo s bright du et with Su za nna ’
,
102 TH E BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE s !
his ha lfhu morou s defiance to the count Se vu ol ba llare

- his
inimita bly com ic lesson in soldiery to Cheru bino who is to be sent ,
“
off to the army in disgra ce Cherub in o s love song ( Voi che ,
’
-
“
the bea u tifu l a ir of regret sung by the cou ntess ( Dove
a n d S u za nna s ca ptiva ting encoura gement of the cou nt
’
“Deh vieni non B u t it is a tha nkless ta sk to cite single

( ,
nu m bers for the com plete score is overfl owmg with delightfu l mu si
,
ca lh u m or The overture too is a gem of tona l brightness

. , , .
“Don Giov nni ” pr odu ced in 1787 a chieved a nother grea t s

a , uc ,
cess It dea ls with the car eer of a tota lly wild an d licentiou s noble
.
m a n who inva des the r oom of a certa in Donn a Ann a is discovered

, ,
by her fa ther Don Pedr o an d kills him to esca pe u nrecognized He

, , .
continu es his am or ou s career by la yi ng siege to Zerlina a pea sa nt ,
girl who is a bou t to m arr y Masetto Don Giovanni ca ptiva tes her .
,
b u t is thwarted by Donn a Ann a a n d her betrothed Don Otta vio , ,
who com e with Elvira a form er conqu est of the a dventur er s Don
,
’
.
Giova nni next excha nges costu mes wi th his serva nt Leporello a nd ,
p ays cour t to Elvi ra s m a id while Le porello gets a bea ting from

’
Masetto who thinks him Don Giovanni Then the dissolu te noble
, .
m an sneers a t Don Pedr o s sta tu e He is su rp rised to find the sta tu e

’
.
a nswerin g his invita tion to su p together ; a n d the clima x comes when
the sta tu e does a ctua lly enter the ba nqu et room an d dra g the -
crim ina l down to perdition .
“
Here as in Fi garo there is a profu sion of melody Leporello s
,
”
, .
’
“
famou s ca ta logu e ar ia is a rollicking list of his master s conqu ests ’
.
“ “
Zerlina s B a tti ba tti a nd Vedra i car ino are gem s of lyricism
’ ”
,
”
.
“
Don Giova nni s du et with Zerlin a Rea ch me thy ha nd is an
’
, ,
other ofm a ny fa mou s selectionsfrom this work The ensem bles are .
adm ira ble ; a n d Gou nod sa id of the tr io between Don Giova nn i ,
Le porello an d Donna Elvira tha t if a llcom positions b u t this were

, ,
destr oyed our mu sic cou ld be evolved a ga in from i t While su ch

, .
pra ise is exa ggera ted there is no dou bt tha t Mozart showed a won
,
derf u lgra sp of the s i tu a tion in this a n d other concerted selections .
The overture it is sa id was wr itten dur ing the night befor e the per
, ,
form a n c e Moza rt worked a t the s core while Cons ta nce rega led him
.
with home m a de pun ch or tol

-
d him sto ries while he rested
, .
“
Don Giova nni has been upheld by the cla ssicists as the qu in
”
tessence of everything worthy One fa irly recent writer sai d of it; .

104 THE B OOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWL EDGE
their wa y B u t the libretto has been too grea t a han dica p a nd the
. ,
“
opera received few performa nces in comparison with Don Gio
Of the three dozen songs tha t Moza rt wrote a part from his ,
“ ”
opera s the m ost fam ou s is the tender Violet Moza rt com posed
,
.
fifteen m a sses though he proba bly wrote very little of the one known
,
as his twelfth Su ch mista kes ha ve often arisen from the careless

. ,
“
ness of composers or pu blishers Thu s Schu bert s Adieu is pr ob ”
.
’
“ ” “
a bly not by him ; Weber s La st Thought or Las t Wa ltz was
’
, ,
not his a t a llb u t sent to him by Reissig er ; while Beethoven s Fare

,
’
well to the Piano (a publisher s title ) was written before he com

” ’
posed som e of his grea test piano sona ta s .
In a ddition to ma sses Mozart wrote motets and ca nta tas for

,
voices .
His pia no music is best represented by his two hand sona tas -
.
These which are seventeen in nu mber show a clearness of form th a t

, ,
ma kes them va lu a ble to the tea cher Some of them are dra ma tic .
“
enou gh the Fantasia an d sona ta being especia lly powerfu l
, .
Moza rt composed a lso five four ha nd sona tas an d seventeen orga n -

,
sona ta s .
His cha mber mu sic which is still prized for its union of clearness
,
with flu ency and a proper a mou nt of expression is hea ded by ,
twenty six stri ng qu artets These are su pplemented by qu intets

- .
,
many vi olin an d pia no sona tas a n d concertos for piano an d variou s

- -
,
other single or multiple instruments A concerto is a concert piece .

-
,
usua lly in three movements to displa y one or more instruments ; ,
a n d it m a y ha ve either pian o or or chestra l a ccom p a niment Modern .
composers ha ve ma de it a three movement symphony with a thr ea d -
of solo work running through it .
The exa mple of H a ydn and others led Moza rt into the symphonic
fi eld a lso Of his symphonies which nu mber nearly fifty the last
.
, ,
three which he wrote in 1788 toward the close of his l ife are de
, , ,
“
cidedl y the grea test These consist of the so ca lled
. Ju piter Sym -
” “
phony the Clarinet Symphony in which th a t instru ment was
,
”
,
first brou ght into the symphonic orchestra and the tenderly bea u ti ,
f ulsym phony in G Minor .
Mozart like Ha ydn echoed the style of his time by ma king his
, ,
symphonies clear and fluent Where H aydn showed viva city how .
,
MOZART 10 5
ever Moza rt relied more on smoothness Yet in his three last sym
, .
phon ies Mozart showed a surprising vigor

, .
In 179 1 the yea r of Mozar t s de a th he wr ote his famo u s Re

’
, ,
qu iem .His illness was u pon him a nd he ha d a presentiment th a t ,
he was com posing for his own fu nera l There were other unu su a l .
deta ils a bou t the work too A mysterious stranger clothed in bla ck
, .
, ,
visited him to give him the com m ission for the work a nd to name ,
a da te when he wou ld come f or the fini shed co m position He re .
turned ou time b u t Mozart ha d been bu sy with other things the

, ,
work was u nfinished a n d the stra nger extended the time to still
,
a nother d a te Mozart it is sa id bega n to brood over the ma tter

.
, , .
Ultim a tely he grew to consider the stra nger a messenger from the
other world sent to a nnou nce his dea th He ha d wha t was ca lled
, .
a m ili ary fever ; b u t he bega n to believe a lso th a t some one ha d

“
poisoned him He died before com pleting the Requ iem an d
.
”
,
directed his pu pil Sii ssm a yer to finish the work for him ; so tha t now
it is not definitely known which parts of the com position were
Sii ssm a yer s a dditions
’
.
The mystery of the stra nger in bl a ck was a fterwards expla ined .
He was a certa in Leu tg eb steward of Cou nt von Wa llsegg an d was

, ,
sent in secrec y beca u se his master wished to get hold of the Re

qu iem and pu blish it as his own
”
.
Mozart was a most delightfu l persona lity being lively fascina t , ,
ing an d a versa tile ta lker He was full of droll hu mor b u t a t the

, .
,
sa me tim e gifted with keen a n d a ccura te j u dgm ent If he was ra ther .
too ea sy going to a chieve wea lth he a t lea st bore poverty with

-
,
cheerfulness He was fond of va rious a m u sements a ndoften thou ght

.
,
ou t his themes while pl a y ing billiar ds .
His bur ia l pl ace is not even known The da y of his funera l was
-
.
stormy a nd his coffin was hu rried into a pu blic gra ve So m e yea rs

,
.
la ter his a dm irers wished to give him a monu m ent ; b u t as the gra ve
had been em ptied a n d u sed over a ga in the co m poser s rema ins are
’
,
not benea th the m em oria l th a t was fina lly erected to his memory
in the large centra l cem ete ry of Vienna .
The Si ngspi el which infl u enced Mozart to some extent was

, ,
ca rried on by su ch men as Joha nn Ada m Hiller Joha nn André , ,
Joha nn Abra m Peter Schu lz Joha nn Schenk Ferdina nd Ka u er , , ,
a n d others Owing to the loose structure of their mu sica l pla ys

. ,
106 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWL EDGE
many of their songs bécain e popu lar as separa te numbers andearned ,
them repu ta tions as song com posers Schu lz beca me fa mou s for his
- .
“
collection of Lieder im Volkston Joha nn Haffner who lived .
’
u ntil 183 3 wrote in a style rese m bling Glu ck s a n d exerted a grea t

’
, ,
infl u en ce in Sweden .
Antonio Sa lieri was a pu pil of Glu ck an d ma de a Parisia n suc ,
“
cess with the opera L es Dan ai des ”
He wrote a fterwards for .
Vienna where he was in som e sense a riva l of Mozart It is sa id

,
.
tha t he prevented the proper recognition of Mozar t a t the im peria l

court ; a n d those who a ccepted Mozart s idea tha t he was poisoned ’
held Sa lier i r esponsible B u t tha t idea has a bsolu tely no evidence

.
to su pport it .
There were m any pia nist composers in Moza rt s da y In Vienna -

’
.
were Fra nz Duschek Anton Eberl a nd Joh a nn Nepomu k H u mmel

, , ,
the last being Moza rt s pu pil for a tim e The school tha t followed
’
.
the fa mou s Mu zio Clem enti inclu ded Beethoven in its ra nks ; while
others of this grou p were Dussek M u eller C ra mer Woelfl an d , , , ,
Pr in ce Lou is Ferdina nd Hii llm a ndel Lou is Adam an d Steib elt

.
, ,
were identified with Paris Nea rly allof these men composed some.
thing for their instrum ent .
English song pla ys were written by Sa muel Arnold and William

-
Ja ckson ; b u t Charles D ib din beca me mu ch grea ter th a n either .
D ib din s ma ny mu sica l pla ys were often on mari tim e su bjects or

’
,
“
a t leas t conta ined his fa mou s sea songs su ch as The Token ”
-
, ,
“
Tom Bowling etc They were most inspir ing to their a u ditors ;
”
.
,
an d it is sa id th a t Dibdin s songs were worth ten thou sa nd men to

’
the E n glish na vy .
Among other English composers Mich a el Arne son of Thom a s , ,
A Arne produ ced nine operas Thomas Linley com posed a dozen of
.
, .
these song pl a ys an d wrote a lso m a ny gra cefu l songs His son was
-
, .
a person a l friend of Moz ar t Others who worked in the voca l field .
were Willia m Shield Ja mes Hook Thoma s C a rter Mich a el Kelly

, , , ,
a n d Willia m Reeve Stephen Stora ce the violinist was a nother

.
, ,
Si ngsm elcomposer a n d a close friend of Moza rt

’
, .
English music of th a t tim e ca me to inclu de ca tc hes a n d glees .
The glee was sim ply a part song often u na ccompa nied an d in -
, ,
spite of its na me it was not necessarily lively or mi rthful The .
ca tch was a song tha t depended for its point u pon some comica lity
B EE THOVE N
LUDWIG B EETHOVEN was born a t Bonn proba bly on De

VAN ,
cem b er 16 1770
,
There is some dou bt a bou t the da y while Bee
. ,
thoven himself used to a sse rt tha t his birth year was 1772 He was -
.
of Belgia n descent his grandfa ther having come from Antwerp to

,
the Electora l Cha pel a t Bonn in 1733 His fa ther was a singer in .
the ch a pel His mother was of low degree being the dau ghter of a
.
,
cook ; b u t she was mu ch more usefu l in the hou sehold th an her

shiftless husba nd .
Mozart s p recocity an d childish su ccess served as an exa mple

’
which other fathers desired to see their sons em u la te This was the .
ca se in the Beethoven fa mily as well as in Weber s B u t Beethoven

,
’
.
sca rcely a chilfl ody ; a n d his fa ther was certa inly not the
to develop one The fa ther was dissipa ted and worthless a n d
.
,
his efforts to tra in the child were irreg ular an d severe With a boon .
companion na med Pfeiffer he wou ld rout out the youn gster a t a ll

,
hours of the da y or night and force him roughly to the keyboa rd

, .
Visitors som etim es sa w him shedding tears a t the piano ; an d it is a

wonder th a t his fa ther s harshn ess did not d rive him to ha te m usic
’
.
He did pla y in pu blic when eight yea rs old and he com posed a t ,
ten ; b u t he was not the money ma king p rodigy th a t his indigent -
fa ther desired .
At twelve Beethoven began ta kin g lessons of his first good tea cher ,
the com torga nist Neefe Tha t worthy ped a gogu e ga ve his pu pil an
'
, .
excellent tra ining in B a ch s works and inspired him with a rea l love
’
,
of good music At this time he composed some early sona ta s an d

.
,
a n a dmira ble two voiced fu gu e -

In the next year the you ng Bee .
thoven beca me cem ba list a t the thea tre lea ding the o rchestra from ,
the keyboar d in the u sua l fashion of the time A year la ter he was .
ma de a ssista nt orga nist .
In 1787 the Elector sent Beethoven to Vienna for a time There .
he met Mozart who was astounded a t his power of improvisa tion

, ,
B EET H O VEN
110 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL ‘
KNO WLED GE
Yet in spi te of a llthese ec centric ities he ma de m H

nen ds ,
a mong the nobility an d kept them thr ou gh life ,

They mu st ha ve .
r ecognized not only his c omm a n ding g enm s b u tt he m na te ng hrl

rty r
of his chara cter Though p ra ctica lly u ned u ca ted except in mu sic
.
,
he built for himself a na tura l religion an d had broa d idea ls of

“M "
,
huma n b rotherhood .
First a m ong these friends ca me Cou nt Wa ldstein an d the B reu

n ing s a t Bonn
,
He ta u ght mu sic to Eleonora von B reu ning a n d a t
.
,
the sa me tim e his conta ct with her an d her cu ltiva ted fa mily rem
edied some of the defects of his ed u ca tion In Vienna he was known .
a n d liked by su ch p eople as the Lichn owsky s Pr ince Lobkowitz , ,
sky a n d even ma ny members of the r oyalfa milies

, .
Beethoven was love though somehow he -

,
never got as far a s marria ge Perha ps it wou ld h a ve been better for

.
him if he ha d tied the Gor dia n kn ot of ma trimony ; for he wou ld

h ave been looked a fter an d possibly kept a live some extra years
, ,
to give the world more m a ster works His first idol (or idea l ) was -
.
Eleonora von B reu ning Following her ca me a long list inclu ding
.
,
Cou ntess E rdody B abette de Keg levics B ar oness Ertm a nn Bet

, , ,
tin a von B renta no Cou ntess Giu lietta Gu icciardi an d Ama lia See
, ,
ba ld When Beethoven died three letters were fou nd in his desk

.
, ,
written by him a n d conta ining the most impassioned devotion

, .
“
It is not a bsolu tely sur e which la dy was the Im morta l Beloved ”
th a t they m entioned ; b u t Cou ntess Gu icciardi was a lm ost certa mly

the person for whom they were mea nt She was a pu pil of Beethoven .
,
an d a t times he grew irrita ble enou gh over her pla ying in spite of his ,
love She a fterwards married Cou nt G a llenberg

. .
The thr ee periods of Beethoven s work extended a pproxima tely ’
from 179 5 to 1802 from then to 18 14 a nd from tha t year to his

, ,
dea th in 182 7 It was in 179 5 tha t he bega n his a ctua l list of pu b

, .
lished works He was one of the fir st to la bel his co m positions wi th

.
O pu s nu mbers An opu s is simply a work or a g rou p of works pu b

.
lished together If a com pose r issu es a piece withou t an y opus nurn

.
__
her it is u sua lly a sign tha t he considers this work u nim portant .
Beethoven s early compositions are left withou t num bers his Op 1

’
,
.
being three pia no tri os pu blished in 1795 while his Op 2 consisted , .
of his first thr ee pia no sona ta s .

BEETHOVEN 111
After a tri p to Nur emberg Pra gu e and Berlin Bee thoven settled
, , ,
down to c om position as his life work Other pr od u ctions of his

-
.
“
first period consisted of the scena Adela i de a septet six str ing
”
, ,
quartets fifteen sona tas in a ll the Fi rst Sym phony the mu sic to
, , ,
“
the ba llet Pr om etheus an d the ora torio The Mou nt of Olives
”
,
”
.
After these works were written he felt dea fness gron u pon him .
By 1802 this worried him so mu ch th a t he fear ed for his sa nity He .
described his condition in a letter to his brothers th a t is known as

his will ; yet even in tha t despa iring docu m ent he showed a deter
mina tion to defy the blows of fa te .
It is in the m u sic of his first period th a t Beethoven shows the in

flu en ce of H a ydn B u t where H a ydn an d Mozart ha d som etim es
.
ma de m u sic a m a tter of pa ssing enterta inmen t to their a u ditors

°
Beethoven let it echo the noble sentim ents a n d aspira tions tha t
seethed W ithin his own intense na tu re Even in the first peri od .
,
Beethoven s m u sic showed a power an d intensity of expression th a t

’
was f ar a bove a nything th a t his contem poraries co u ld b r ing fo rth .
The first of his pia no sona ta s is b ased on the H a ydn form thou gh ,
h a ving four m ovem ents ; yet H a ydn could never in the world ha ve
equ a led its trem endou s strength which su gg ests a you ng gia nt tug
,
ging a t his fetters There are ma ny reminis cences of H a ydn in som e

of the other works —someti m es in parts of the string qu a rtets b u t
.
especia lly in the brisk an d lively fina le of the First Symphony .
On the whole thou gh Beethoven showed a vigor an d a dra ma tic

, ,
intensity tha t must h a ve seem ed like a revela tion a fter the light
genia lity of H aydn and the sm oothness of Mozart .
The second period was astonishingly brillia nt an d during its ,
twelve years Beethoven pour ed forth a consta nt str ea m of grea t

mas terpieces The dozen piano sona tas of this tim e inclu ded the
.
“ “
intense Wa ldstein an d Appas siona ta sona tas The noble
” ”
.
“
Kreu tzer Son a ta f or violin a n d the fa m ou s son a ta in A f
”
, or
’
cello ca me ea rly in this period The Kreu tzer Sona ta dedica ted
,
.
”
,
to the violinist of tha t na me m a y be cited especia lly as a wonderfu l

,
exa m ple of pure bea u ty in m u sic ; for Tolstoy sa w fit to rea d into it

certa in debased mea nings tha t cou ld only ha ve existed in his own
,
mind The stri ng quartets of this period inclu de the three th a t are
.
dedica ted to Ra su m owsky The so ca lled triple concerto with

.
-
,
pia no a ppea r ed in 1804 The fourth pia no concerto (with orches tra
, .
,
of course ) ca me ou t in 1805 and the fifth in 1809 While the la tter , .
was being given once in Vienna the French soldiers under Na po ,
“
leon were in the city ; and an off i cer on hea r ing it ca lled it the , ,
E m peror a mong concertos ”

a na me tha t has clung to it since .
In this period ca me the overtur es entitled Coriola nu s ”

Egmont ”
, ,
“ “
The Ruins of Athens an d King Stephen The chief voca l
”
, .
“
works were the ma ss in C the ca nta ta Der Glorreiche Augen ,
blick and the opera Fidelio The Second Symphony belongs to

”
,
”
.
the first period in style its suave hymn like slow movement a ga in
'
-
, , ,
sug gesting H aydn Bu t with the Thir d Sym phony (1804 ) Bee
.
thoven foun d a freer a n d mor e viri le uttera nce The Fo ur th Sym .
phony ca me two yea rs la ter the Fifth and Sixth in 1808 an d the , ,
Seventh an d Eighth in 1812 .
In sp ea king of Beethoven s symphonies one m a y exh au st allthe ’

,
a djectives in the dictionar y an d sca rcely do j u stice to these grea t
works They are minu tely described in Sir George Grove s book
.
’
“
entitled Beethoven s Nine Symphonies ”’
They are not a ll of .
equa l va lu e The story goes tha t a pu pil a sked how ma n y sym

.
,
“ ” “
phonies Beethoven wrote a nswered Three Wha t were they
, , .
inquir ed the su rprised tea cher ; whereu pon the pu pil responded ,
“
The Thir d the Fifth a nd the Ninth Those three are certa inly
,
”
, ‘
.
the grea test b ii t the Sixth an d Seventh are hardly below them in
'
fi
'
valu e When Wilhelm Gericke former lea der of the Boston Sym
.
,
phony O rchestra was a sked which one ofBee thoven s symphoni es

,
’
“
he preferred he replied Alwa ys the one I ha ve pla yed las t
, ,
”
.
To describe them a t length wou ld dema nd a book ; and their

glories ca n only be briefly outlined here .
No . . Starts with a n adagi o introdu ction which

1 1st m ovem ent .
a rou sed cr iticism by not beginning in the tonic key The sona ta .
al legro has a first theme b u ilt of a rhythmic thr ee noted figur e the -
,
a c c ent co m ing on the thir d note ; a melodious tribu ta ry a nd second

them e in H a ydn s style ; a n d an expressive closing theme with little
,
’
downward drops a fter a pparent ca denc es Development a n d re .
ca pitula tion of themes follow as is proper in the sona ta a llegro move ,

-
ment .
2 d m ovem en t An a nda nte with exp ressive song like themes

.
-
.
3 d m ovem en t A tr emendou sly virile minu et with tri o full of

.
,
4th m ovem ent . A brig ht rondo in H aydn s cheerful style ’

.
114 THE BOOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWLEDGE
ma jor Themes development reca pitu la tion and coda bu ilt almost
. , , ,
wholly from the first four noted figure trea ted in var iou s wa ys -
, .
This rhythm (three eighth notes followed by an accented note ) was -
sa id to ha ve been su ggested by a noctu rna l reveller pou nding on a

door for a dmission ; b u t Beethoven ga ve it a better significa nce by
“ ”
sa ying Thu s Fa te knocks a t the d oor The coda in this move
,
.
ment especia lly powerful The whole movement intensely effective . .
2 d m ovem en t An a nda n te b u ilt ou t of two short them es the first

.
, ,
being song like while the second has a fa nfare chara cter The con
-
, .
sum m a te art of Beethoven is shown by the skill and bea u ty with

which he ha ndles these them es ma king their simple harmonies seem ,
as perfectly b a la nced a n d as inevita bly right as if they were the very

“
music of the spheres ”
.
3 d m ovem ent A mysteriou sly ef fective scherzo in which the hea vy

.
,
four note rhythm of the first movem ent recurs The tri o in ra pid
-
.
, ,
rushi ng style forms a good contra st

, M u ch contra b ass work A . .
soft b u t impressive tra nsition pa ssa ge lea ds directly into the fina le .
4th m ovem en t A gra ndly tri u m ph a nt a l

. egr o with reminiscences
l ,
of the mys teriou s schem e for a middle p art .
No . 6 .P astor alSym phon y The first

grea t progra mme work in .
mu sica l historyfT oFe-pi ctu re of life in

the cou ntry
'
Ist m ovem ent Cheerfu l i m p r essions on going to the co u ntry The

. .
first sixteen b ars give a theme from p arts of which the rest of the
movem ent is bu ilt All rhythm ic lively a n d cheerfu l in chara cter
.
, , .
“
2 d m ovem en t Anda nte entitled By the B rook A tone pictur e
”
-
. .
,
of gently ripplin g wa ter va ried by bird ca lls ,

-
.
3 d m ovem en t Joyou s ga thering of the pea sa nts Themes of lively

. .
rustic ch ara cter A pea sa nts d a nce in which a n old b a ssoonist joins
’
.
,
in wi th b a ttered instru ment (see chapter on the bassoon ) Recur .
rence of opening theme Approa ch a n d brea king of a storm with

.
,
instru m enta l suggestions of rising wind thu nder etc Tha nksgiving , , .
a fte r the end of the stor m Pra ctically a five movement symphony .
-
with the l ast three joined together .
No . 7 . Very rhyth m ic Sometimes ca lled the a potheosis of the

.
d ance .
1st m ovem ent A slow introdu ction with runs an d broa d chords
.
, .
The a llegro begins with a wa ltz like theme of most pleas ing chara cter ; -
the sa me rhythm being carried throu gh the second theme an d the

closing them e .
2 d m ovem ent M arked a llegr etto b u t rea lly the slow movement of
.
,
the symphony A most wonderfu l use of the rhythm shown by a

.
qu arter note two eighths an d two more quarters This rhythm is

-
, , .
ca rried entirely through the movement The chor ds a t first corre .

BEETHOVEN 115
sp on d to this rhythm an d a bipa rti te theme (with second h a lf re

,
pea ted) in minor is worked u p to a grea t clim a x A side section in

-
.
,
m a jor br ings in to the u pper p ar t a n in finitely m elodiou s them e with

,
tri plet a c com pa nim en t while the ba ss continu es the form er rhythm
, .
The fir st them e returns worked ou t in very ela bora ted a n d effec

,
tive cou nterpoint The side section an d a suggestion of the origina l

.
-
them e then end the movement .
3 d m ovem en t Scher zo is here repl a ced by presto thou gh the form

.
,
is kept the sa m e M ysteriou s cha tteri ng them es are a lterna ted with
.
,
a sim ple b u t rhythm ic trio .
4th m ovem ent A tre m endous ly ra pid rondo of brusqu e a n d lively

.
,
ch ara cter .
No . Light a n d short in com parison with the thr ee preceding

8 .
ones b u t very hum orou s bright an d plea sa nt Th is a n d the Seven th

, , , .
Sym phon y were inspired p artly by the enlivening influ ence exerted
on Beethoven b y Am alia Seeb ald .
1st m ovem en t No intr odu c tion Themes cheerfu l ha ving a lmost

. .
,
the chara cter of a slow wa ltz .
2 d m ovem en t A light d a in ty a l . egr etto scherza ndo with themes

l , ,
tossed a bou t a n d m im icked in hu m or ous fashion .
3 d m ovem en t Tem po di m en uetto Like a pl a yfulm inu et in style

. . .
4th m ovem ent Al l egr etto vi vace Lively ch a tte ring them es in even
. .
,
No . The ChoralSym phon y intr odu cing voices in the fin a le A

9 .
, .
tona l pictu re of world struggles followed by h um a n brotherhood

-
.
1st m ovem en t E m pty fifths an d four ths serving as a n in tr odu c

.
,
tion lea d directly into the w ildly str ong first them e The secon d
, .
them e is m ore tender in chara cter a n d in the con tra stin g m a jor ,
m ode ; while the closing them e is short After develop m ent an d .
reca pitula tion the coda en ding in a gra nd clima x lets the so m b re
, , ,
m ood of the first them e p reva il .
2 dm ovem ent .
s id to ese ble
a r m
tin n ed throu gh
3 d m ovem en t .
typify the best sentiments of hum a nity .
however are scarcely so striking as the SI

,
4th m ovem ent At first in some sense a review of preceding move

.
ments Wild them es from the first and second movem ent ar e re
.
b u ked by ste rn pa ssa ges on the contra b ass ; a su ggestion of the

Ma gi c dies awa y pla intively ; then the contra b ass brea ks into the
impressive theme th a t is su ng afterward to the words of Schiller s ,
’
Ode to Joy The inner mea ning of allthis is th a t hu ma n stri ving
.
( the first thr ee m ove m ents ) is to be r epl a ced by u niversa l br o ther
hood shown by the sentim ents of the song

,
.
The Ninth Sym phony belongs to Beethoven s third period in ’

,
which he ga ve u p pia no performa nces beca u se he was entirely dea f .
“
Other works of this period were the grea t Missa Solem n is the ,
last five pia no sona tas an d the la st of his stri ng quartets These
, .
show a disca rding of the forms tha t he used in su ch powerfu l style

in hi s second period The sona ta s are more like free rha psodies an d
.
,
the Ninth Symphony a n a ppr oa ch towar d the modern ton e picture -
idea Towar d the end Beethoven sa id tha t a llhe ha d written was

. ,
as nothing b eside wh a t he was pl a nning ; a n d we m a y concl u de th a t
if he ha d lived he wou ld h a ve given us grea t orchestra l ca nvases as ,
broa dly ou tlined as those of Liszt with perha ps even more va lu a ble ,
them a tic ma teria l .
In 18 15 Beethoven s brother C asp ar died lea ving the composer

’
, ,
with the charge of a nephew La wsu its with the boy s mother fol
.
’
lowed ; and the boy himself gave Beethoven mu ch tr ou ble The .
you ng ward of the com poser has u sua lly been ra ted as a bla ck sheep ,
beca use of some esca pa des th a t troubled his u ncle ; b u t the nephew
fina lly went into the army a n d afterward settled down as a good
,
citizen Beethoven s arbitrary wa ys no dou bt ca used a t least a

.
’
part of wh a tever friction a r ose He l a vished a ffection on the nephew

.
,
b u t perha ps showed too little self contr ol f or a r ea lly go od -
guardia n .
Beethoven loved the open a ir an d used to walk a bou t frequ ently , .
On these wa lks he wou ld often stop to note down themes in some one
of his many sketch b ooks The difference between the themes of the
-
.
notebooks and their fina l form in his published wor ks is often re

marka ble and proved tha t Beethoven possessed the ca pa city for
,
ta king pains tha t C ar lyle ca lls geniu s B u t he ha d inspira tion a lso . .
Sometimes he wou ld become so a bsorbed in his themes as to block

tra ffic or cu t his friends At times when he wa ndered far afield
, .
, ,
the au thorities wou ld look with su spicion on su ch an eccentr ic

stra nger ; an d once he was arrested as a va gra nt Bu t he was sa fe .
from tr ou ble in one fa vorite spot a tree in Sch onbrunn whose ,
forked b ranches formed a na tura l sea t .
B eethoven ha d no fixed position Once he thought of becoming .

118 THE BOO K OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
sona tas five cello sona tas one horn son a ta five tri os sixteen str ing
,
’
, , ,
quartets two qu intets two sextets one septet and two octets
, , , , .
His com positions are nearly alla live tod a y b u t the symphoni es , ,
overtu res pia no son a tas a n d string qua rtets receive more p er
, ,
forrn a n ces a t p resent th a n his other wo r ks Of the over tures tha t .

,
“ “
to Egmont is perha ps the most intensely powerfu l W ith Corio
”
,
“
la nu s a good second ; b u t the three Leonora overtur es espec ia lly
”
,
the third are also str ongly dra ma tic The ea rly str ing quar tets are
,
.
grea t W hile the las t few show the u tter brea dth of Beethoven s
,
’
fina l style The pia no sona ta s are nearly allfa mous solo selections
. .
“
Best a mong the ea rly ones are the first thr ee a n d the Pa thétique ”
,
the la tter being fu ll of tre mendou sly strong contra sts and grea t
possibilities The well beloved Moonlight Sona ta is not r ea lly
.
-
”
a moonlight a ffa ir One of the weir d stories tha t are sometimes

.
sa ddled u pon a n innocent work sta tes tha t Beethoven wa ndering in ,
a forest ca me upon a hou se enter ed to find it fil

, led by a socia l
,
ga thering a n d improvised this work with the moonlight strea ming

,
over the keyboar d In reality he com posed the work in his stu dy
.
, ,
“
an d entitl ed it Sona ta quas i una fa nta sia An other fa lse story .
“
a rises from the n a me of the piece entitled Far ewell to the Pia no ”
.
This piece was not Beethoven s las t for the pia no a nd his own title
’
,
“
or it was Thou ghts on Departure Of the la ter sona tas the
”
f .
,
“ “
Wa ldstein a n d Appassiona ta are grea t W hile the las t five are
” ”
,
freer in form b u t gra ndly ef ,

fective .
“
The opera Fidelio dea ls with the misfortunes of Floresta n a
”
,
Spa nish noblema n who has been su ppla nted a nd imprisoned by

Piza rro Floresta n s wife Le onora disguises herself as a youth under
.
’
,
the na me of Fidelio an d enters Pizarro 5 employment as assi sta nt

,
’
to Rocco his j a iler Piza rro lea rning of the governor Ferdina nd s
, .
,
’
a pp r oa ch decides to kill Floresta n ; b u t a t the crucia l moment

,
Le onora prevents him from sta bbing his victim by flou rishing a
p istol Ju st a t this moment the governor s trumpet ca ll is hea rd
.
’
-
from withou t ; a n d when th a t officia l lea rns the truth he ba nishes ,
Pi zarr o a nd restores Floresta n to a llhe had lost The music is .
somewha t sy m phonic a cco rding to modern sta ndards b u t stron gly ,
dra ma tic Fidelio s ou tburst of indigna tion

.
’
fol
lowed by the smooth ari a Komm Hof fnung is a fa vorite conce rt
”
, ,
selection ; while the second ac t as a W hole is a marvel of intensity .

BEETHOVEN 119
B u t the pu ely orchestra l Beethoven was the grea test a fter a l

r
, l .
In trea ting the instru m ents Beethoven brought ou t their ca pa b ili

,
ties in the fu llest m easure Th ose tha t ea rlier composers ha d held

.
u nimpor ta nt were often ra ised by him to a position of pr ominence .
He thou ght orchestra lly an d his la st five sona ta s seem like sym
,
phonic rha psodies for pia no .
His them es were a lmost a lwa ys fraught with the most intense
feeling and significa nce Their vigor is u nexa mpled a n d the ir depth
.
,
of mu sica l expression rem ar ka ble When the works of severa l dif

.
feren t composers a re p ra ctised consta ntl y some of them seem to

,
wea r threa dba re a fter a short tim e ; b u t Beethoven s works never

’
grow sta le They arou se consta nt a dmira tion for their str ength an d
.
,
mark their com pose r as p ri m us i nter p ares a lea der a mong the
musica l Tita ns who have tried to sca le Olympu s .
SC HUB E RT
FRANZ PETER S CHUB ERT was u ndou btedly the most sp onta neous
of com posers Melodies occurred to him with the most a ma zi ng
.
ra pidity a n d his short life was one contin u a l ou tpour ing of com
,
positions He seldom revised his work being in this respect the

.
,
“
opposite of Beethoven B u t he ga ve forth his na tive wood notes
.
-
wild in a n inexhaustible str ea m Even Mozart his only rivalin

”
.
,
this respect was certa inly behind him in melodic and h armonic
,
Schu bert was born on Ja nua ry 31 1797 in the large fa mily of , ,
a poo r schoolm as ter a t Lichtenth a l a su b urb of Vienn a His home

, .
l ife was restri cted by poverty b u t his fa ther an d his elder brothers
,
Ignaz and Ferdina nd were devoted to mu sic which Fra nz soon found ,
to be a congenia l a tmosp here He received his earliest ins tru ction

.
a t home with the a ddition of some l essons from Holzer the loca l
, ,
choir lea der Sch u bert s na tura l geniu s ha d evidently begun to

-
.
’
make itself ma nifest ; for Holzer sa id He seems to ha ve known ln ,
stinctively wh a tever I tri ed to tea ch him ”

.
Soon after he rea ched the a g e of eleven he was tra nsferr ed to the
choir school (Konvi kt Schule) of the imperi al ch a pel in Vienna W here
- -
,
he sta yed until 18 13 There he ha d some chances to develop him

.
self su ch as hearing occa siona l operas or pla ying in the school

, ,
orchestra of which he beca me first violin an d a ssista nt condu ctor

, .
The pl a ying a t home too grew to a larger sca le and the domestic
, , ,
performa nces sometim es inclu ded symphonies as well as quartets .
He bega n to com pose a lso In tha t bra nch he was handica pped a t
.
first by an unusua l situ a tion the l a ck of money to buy mu sic

pa per For tuna tely the situa tion was disc overed by an older an d
.
ri cher student who generously bou ght the needed su pplies Schu
, .
bert s poverty was shown in a nother wa y ; for the students were none
’
too well fed receiving only two mea ls a da y an d a letter exists in

, ,
which Fra nz begged his brother for extra Kreutzers (pennies) to b u y

a llowance for them He was a lso a ble to intr odu ce Schu bert to cer
.
ta in va lu a ble friends su ch as the baritone Vogl With Vogl or Von

,
.
Schober the com poser ma de severa l very plea sa nt va ca tion tri ps .
Another friend of this little grou p was the poet M a yrhofer whose ,
mela ncholy disposition mu st have been cheered by Schu bert s gen ’
ia lity Fr om this beginning there ca me u ltima tely a fa ir ly large

.
circle of poets pa inters a n d mu sicians inclu ding La chn er Schwind

, , , , ,
Spau n an d other nota bles They were a somewha t Bohem ian lot
,
.
,
lea ding a ra ther shiftless life ; b u t they ma de it a life of a t leas t some

ha ppiness In its wa y the circle was a lm ost commu nistic If one
. .
ha d money al lsh ared it with him a n d d ra nk ch a mp a gne u ntil a

, ,
renewed fin a ncia l deficit for ced them b a ck to sim pler pota tions .
Once when Schu bert sold a grou p of songs to a pu blisher he took

, ,
the coterie to hear the grea t violinist Pa ga nini a t over two dollars ,
a ticket H a ts coa ts an d other articles of clothin g were a ppr op ri a ted

.
, ,
whenever needed an d any one ma king a visit arra yed himself in the
,
best of this borr owed plu ma ge Du ring a week of pover ty Sc hu bert .

,
once missed his wooden specta cle ca se After a hunt he fou nd th a t .

,
Schwind too poor a t the time to b uy a pipe ha d filled the ca se with

, ,
tob a cco bored a hole in it and inser ted a stem a t which he was
, , ,
pu fli ng contentedly .
Schu bert was recognized as the lea der of the Bohemia n ga therings ;
an d they were ca lled Schu b ertia des in his honor All the membe rs
”
.
,
of the cliqu e were a ctive in some pha se of ar tistic work When a

newcom er was intr odu ced Schu bert invaria bly a sked Kann er , ,
“
was?
”
This qu estion which mea nt Can he do a nything fina lly
, ,
beca me Schu bert s own nickna me ’

.
In 18 18 a ch a nge ca me in the sha pe of a cha nce to tea ch a t the

, ,
Hunga ria n esta te of Cou nt Joha nn Esterha zy There he must ha ve .
become a cqu a inted with the gypsy mu sic which is echoed in so ,
ma ny of his own grea t works Unlike Beethoven he did not im press . ,
the aristocra cy He felt ill a t ea se when with them an d m ore a t

.
,
home a mong the serva nts B u t this did not prevent him from fa lling .
in love with the Cou nt s you nger da ughter C aroline on a la ter ’

, ,
visit His pa ssion was sincere if hopeless It has been sta ted th a t
.
, .
once when C aroline a sked why he dedica ted nothing to her he

, ,
“
replied All tha t I ever did is dedica ted to y ou
,
”
.
Schubert s rema rka ble ra pidity in comp osition is a ttested by

’
12 4 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
b u t did not get into close tou ch with them ; and Beethoven did not
r ecognize Sch u be r t s gr ea tness u ntil he exa m ined some of the
’
you nger m a n s works while on his own dea thbed In similar fas hion
’
.
,
Sch u be rt fou nd it har d to trea t of bus iness ma tters an d beca me a ,
prey to the a var ice of his pu blishers Thu s Dia belli bou ght a large .
nu mber of Schu bert songs for a bou t ten florin s a piece ; while he ma de
over twenty seven thousa nd florin s from a single one of these The
-
,
Wanderer In 182 6 when the su pply seem ed to exceed the de

.
,
ma nd Schu bert sold som e of the songs in the famou s Winterreise

,
”
set for twenty cents a piece .
After a ttending Beethoven s fu nera l in 182 7 Schu bert proposed a

’
toas t to the next grea t com poser who would die not knowing th a t it ,
was to be hi m s elf .
Schu ber t s friends often reproa ched him wi th ca relessness in com

’
position ; an d toward the close of his life their words took effect .
He showed m ore than usu a l care in writing his gre a t symphony in

C an d revised the m a n u scr ipt considera bly After tha t he even
, .
decided to ta ke lessons in coun terpoint feeling th a t the Skilfu l ,
h a ndling of voices (par ts ) a n d figure trea tment wou ld give a dded

strength to his works He ha d plan ned the course wi th Sechter but
.
,
he died before he cou ld sta rt it Towar d the end of the yea r 182 8 he .
was a tta cked by a su dden dista ste f or food which soon ch a nged into ,
a fever of the typh u s sort si m il ar to the one th a t ca rried of

, fMoza rt .
Schu bert s friends did not a t fir st rea lize the seriou s n a ture of his
’
illness ; b u t even if they ha d known their best efforts wou ld pr ob ,
a bly h a ve been ins u fficient to sa ve a constitu tion wo rn ou t by irreg
u l ar living Schu bert died on November 19 182 8 when less tha n

.
, ,
thirty two yea rs old

-
.
The epita ph on Schu bert by the poet Gri llparzer sta tes very, , ,
j u stly ,
Fa te has buri ed here

A ri c h p ossessi on b u t y et g rea ter p rom ise
, .
Schu bert was by na tu re a song com poser and a llhis works even -
, ,
the or chestra l ones ch arm u s by their wea lth of sponta neou s melody ;
,
b u t if he ha d ca rried ou t his pl a ns of stu dy a n d u nited the solid ,
va lu e of contra pun tal kn owledge with the melodic bea u ty of his

works there is no telling to wha t heights he might or might not h a ve
,
risen As it was he ea rned a pla ce a mong the world s masters a t

.
,
’
SCHUBERT 125
thirty one an a ge a t which Beethoven ha d not yet finished the

-
fir st period in his a ctivity an d Wa gner had written only one of the ,
opera s th a t were destined to m a ke him fa m ou s In person Schu bert .

,
was shor t stou t a n d rou nd shoul

,
der ed with a chu bby fa ce a pa sty
,
-
, ,
com plexion (du e to poo r food ) thick bla ck ha ir an d a lert eyes , , ,
whi ch were unfortu n a tely near sighted He spent his mornings in -

.
com position which with him was little more th a n the copying of
,
works a lrea dy com pleted in m enta l vision .
Sch u bert s opera s are now forgotten for the most p art He wrote
’
.
qu ite a nu mber of them b u t the librettos were often poor a n d his , ,
style was lyrica l ra ther tha n strongly drama tic Best kn own a mong .
“
his opera tic com positi ons are the overture a nd entr actes of Rosa ’
mu nde ”
.
Two of Schu bert s ten sym phonies ha ve sur vived in the repertoire
’
of the present —the Unfinished Sym phony a nd the one in C , .
The form er consists of two rem arka bly em otiona l an d exp ressive
m ovem ents the opening one being in the sona ta a l
,
egro form of a
l ~
first m ovem ent while the second is a ca l m b u t richly expressive slow

,
movem ent The warm feeling of the first m ovem ent a n d the rich
.
ha rm onies of the second m a ke this work a bsolu tely su i generi s a

verita ble lyric a mong symphonies The C ma jor wor k is b ased on .
-
la rger p roportions The br oa dly developed them es of its first m ove

.
ment the fiery gypsy chara cter of its secon d the lyric b rightness
, ,
of its scherzo an d the tri u m pha nt glory of its fina le are fa m iliar to
,
ma ny concert goers This work m a y not ha ve the as tonishing depth

-
.
of exp ression th a t Beethoven showed sa y in the fin ely wrou ght ,
slow m ovem ent of his Seventh Symphony ; b u t the Schu ber t com
position charms u s none the less by its wea lth of melody an d the
cha nging bea u ty of its harmonies .
Schu bert s other works inclu de twenty exp ressive string qu artets
’
a n d cha mber m u sic f or variou s co m bin a tions His two dozen pia no .
sona tas are ra ther long a n d diffu se for a form tha t shou ld be power
ful ra ther tha n lyri ca l His ma ny shorter piano pieces a voiding .
,
this defect a re often very su ccessfu l They consist of da nces

, .
,
marches i m prom ptu s m om ents m usica ls a n d so on His sa cred

, , , .
prod u ctions consist of six mas ses two sa cred ca nta tas (inclu ding ,
“
Mir ia m s Song of ’
a n d a nu m ber of motets a n d hymns ,
some qu ite ela bora te For voice he wrote a lso a bou t sixty part
.
s ongs ; b u t he is best k nown by his solo songs which number between ,
six an d seven hu ndred .
Schu bert s songs brought into existence the highly poetic a n d ex

’
pressive style of lyric known as the Germa n L ied The I/ted is a com
'
p le te wo r k th a t conta ins the m a ximum of ar tistic cr ea tion in the

minimum of spa ce The Dia lm a y be compar ed to a gem in m usic
.
,
while the longer sym phony or overtur e r esembles ra ther a la rge

“ “
decora tive fresco Su ch songs as Sch u bert s ErlKi ng or The
.
” ’
-
,
Wa nderer conta in vivid bits of the most widely different styles

, ,
welded into an artistic whole with the utmost skill and delica cy .
The sa me variety is shown in the other songs when they are ta ken
as a whole thou gh often a single song m a y be devoted to a specia l
,
“
style Thu s the Schone Mii llerin cycle depicting the love of a
.
”
,
rustic swa in f or the miller s d a u ghter an d his jea lo u sy of the gr een

’
,
cl a d hu nter who su ppla nts him in her a ffections is perva ded by ,
su ggestions of mill str ea m an d forest a lthough its various n u mbers

-
,
differ a mong themselves in chara cter Songs like Die Allma cht or ”
.
Au fenth alt dem a nd br ea dth or power Others a ga in like Die

”
.
,
Post or Das Fischerm adchen are lyric melodies of swingy

,
”
,
“
enth usia sm or compelling charm Some nu mbers in the Winter .
reise a n d elsewhere are settings of a pparently unmusica l su bjects

”
,
done in su ch a clever wa y th a t the a ccom pa niment proves effective

a fte r a ll In setting e m otiona l subjects Sch u ber t did not qu ite
.
,
r ea ch to the depth of Schum a nn ; b u t he showed the wa y f or the
la tter and surpa ssed him in the variety of uses to which he pu t his
,
lyric a bility .
There ha d been song composers before Schu bert su ch as Schu lz -

, ,
Zelter a nd others B u t where their work was primitive or experi

, .
menta l Schu bert s represents a fu ll artistic fru ition

,
’
.
With Schu bert as a song composer two other men h a ve been -
classed Robert Schu ma nn an d Robert Fra nz The former will , .

l
be tr ea ted u nder his own na me ; b u t H a nz s work m a y well be de ’
scribed here .
Robert Fra nz was born in 1815 a t H a lle where he lived with , , ,
short exceptions u ntil his dea th in 1892 Gifted with mu sica l ta ste
, .
a t a n early a g e he enjoyed grea tly the chora l singing th a t took

,
The f a m il
y n am e was Kna uth, b u t his f ather chan ged it to Fran z, b y roy al
perm i ssi on .
XIV
W E B E R AND RO MAN TIC ISM
C ARL M ARIA VON WE B ER was born a t E u tin in 1786 He was a .
cousin of the Constance Weber who marr ied Mozart His fa ther had .
been the loca l choir ma ster a nd condu ctor for some years an d ,
ha d hoped f or a chil d prodigy a m ong his oflspring The children of

-
.
his first wife showed only a m ea gre a mou nt of ta lent ; so th a t when

the you ng Carl brou ght forth a j u venile composition the fa ther ,
bega n to think th a t his hopes might be rea lized He did not hesi .
ta te to falsify his son s ag e wishing thu s to dra w a ttention to a

’
,
new child pr odigy B u t he was not su ch a well equipped tea cher as

-
.
-
Leopold Mozart an d his son was not nea rly so precocious as the
,
young Mozart .
Weber s fa ther was restless as well as versa tile The family bega n
’
.
a long pe riod of wa ndering when C ar l was only a yea r old Vienna .

,
C a ssel Meiningen Nuremberg an d m a ny other pla ces were visited

, , ,
in search of thea tri ca l or other employment ; a n d it is only a slight

exa ggera ti on to sa y tha t Weber grew u p behind the scenes .
Weber s tra ining was desu ltory thou gh he ha d som e lessons from
’
,
Mich a el Ha ydn a t Sa lzburg At Munich u nder Ka lcher the boy

.
, ,
“
prod u ced his first opera Die Ma cht der Liebe Weber s fa ther
,
”
.
’
grew interested a t this ti m e in the lithogra phic work of his friend

Senefelder an d thou ght of giving u p mu sic ; b u t he did not ca rry ou t
,
“
his design In Freiburg Weber prod u ced Das Waldm adchen
.
,
” ’
“ “
which was a fterwards rewr itten as Sylva na Next ca me Peter .
Schmoll which was still imma ture a n d ha d little more su ccess

”
, ,
th an its two predecesso rs .
After stu dy with Abt Vogler who helped him mu ch Weber he , ,

“
ca me Ka pellm eister a t B resla u There he wrote the ope ra Rii b e .
za hl now u nfortu na tely lost There too he a ccidenta lly ru ined his
,
”
.
, ,
a ttra ctive voice by sipping a t a gl as s of his fa ther s nitr ic a cid which

’
,
he mistook for wine Unlike the Irishma n in the a necdote who

.
,
merely sta ted tha t he ha d never ta sted tha t bra nd before Weber ”
,
WEBER AND ROMANTICISM 12 9
fell to the floor u nconscious a nd did not recover his hea lth for a ,
long tim e .
At Stu ttgart Weber entered into the fast court life tha t flourished
,
under Duke Lu dwig of Wii rtem b erg There he was dra wn into va ri .
ous k inds of ga y ety a n d dissip a tion a n d beca me one of a coteri e ,

“
known by the pleas ing title of Fau st s Descent into Hell As ” ’
.
secreta ry to the D u ke Weber r eceived so m e of the wra th th a t his

,
du ca l m a ster ha darou sed in King Frederick ; an dhe ma de the brea ch

irrepara ble by directing to the ch amber of th a t roya l gossip a n old
la dy who was as ki ng for the cour t washerwom a n As a result .
,
Weber was b a nished when one of his serva nts secretly negotia ted a
loan by promising a cour t a ppointment in return for it an a ct
of which the com poser was wholly ignora nt .
B u t this b a nish m ent was of good influ en ce f or a more or derly life ,
was com ing At D armsta dt there was renew ed work with Abt
.
Vogler who sa id of Weber and Meyerbeer th a t they wou ld express

,
his ar tistic principles for him At this tim e ca me Weber s first rea l .
’
“
success in opera the one a c t com edy Ab u H as sa n -
.
Still m ore condu cive to good effects was Weber s marriage with ’
C aroline Brandt She ma de him give u p the wild as socia tes and
.
h abits of his Stu ttgart da ys a n d lea d a more orderly a n d indu stri

,
ous life before she would consent to the marriage In a fter life she
, .
continu ed to be his good a ngel .
It was dur ing his sta y as condu ctor in Dresden th a t he star ted
com posing the wor ks th a t h a ve ma de him most famou s His opera .
W Prec iosa
‘ ”
belongs to this period b u t his fa me rests chiefly on ,
“ ” “
three g rea t sta ge works D er Freischutz E uryan the and
”
, ,
“
Oberon ”
.
The plot of Der Freischu tz is bas ed on the old legend of a

demon who gives hu ntsmen m a gic bu llets in excha nge for their
sou ls The dem on s na me is Za miel an d the hu ntsma n Ka spar is
.
’
,
in his power Ka spar who mu st furnish a new victim to prolong his

.
,
own lea se of life be g uiles to Z a m i els glen a you ng h u ntsma n na m ed

’
,
Max who loves Aga tha dau ghter of the chief huntsma n Ku no
, , .
As Ku no is a bou t to retire Max wishes to su cceed him for Aga th a s

, ,
’
sa ke Max is m a de to sh oot ba dly in the prelim inary contest which

.
,
impels him to get the ma gic bu llets With these he shoots perfectly .
,
b u t the l ast one which was to do Z a m i els bidd ing a i m s itself

’
, ,
at Aga tha Deflec ted by a sa cred wrea th it kills Kaspa r instea d

. , .
Za miel is sa tisfied with this victim whereu pon Ma x confesses and is ,
This work is j ustly considered as the founda tion of the roma ntic
school in Ge rm a n opera The school derived its name pa rtly from
.
its su bjects and pa rtly from its methods of trea ting them The
,
.
classic mythologica l texts of the Meta sta sio sort were now repla ced
by legendary lore or historica l pa gea n tr y The music was based
, .
largely on the folk song style -

.
Weber s opera conta ins ma ny exa mples of the simple bea uty th a t
’
pervades the Germa n Volkslted Artificia lities were ba nished in a

'
sm ooth flow of music th a t ma de a strong popular a ppea l Su ch num .
bers as the horn qua rtet in the overtur e or the close of Aga tha s ,
’
pra yer are exa ctly in the style of the Germ a n folk mu sic Su ch
,
-
.
mu sic as this in connection with the brisk hu nting choruses a n d the

,
-
impressive inca nta tions must ha ve exerted a str ong a ppea l when
,
contrasted with some of the conventiona lities th a t ha d preceded it .
The entire Germa n na tion went wild over the work After a Vienna .
“
performa nce Weber wrote Grea ter enth u siasm there ca nnot be
, , ,
a nd it is scarcely possible to rise higher th a n this To God a lone .
the pra ise ! ”
“
Pr eciosa was ba sed on a Spa nish gypsy su bject and had no ,
na tiona l im port Die D rei Pintos a comedy written a t this ti me

.
”
, ,
was left unfinished an d not pe rformed u ntil a fter the composer s

’
dea th.
“
Eurya nthe Weber s second grea t success was ha ndica pped
,
’
,
by a mixed a nd poor libretto Count Adolar pra ising the virtu e of .

,
Eur ya nthe his betr othed is told by Lysia rt a rejected su itor th a t

, , , ,
she ca n be ma de fa ithless Lysia rt a ided by E u ryanthe s ma id .

,
’
Egl antine obta ins a ring and learns a secret a bou t Adolar s sister
,
’
Emma bo th of which seem to com prom ise E ur yanthe by showing

,
her to be on confidentia l terms with him Adolar ince nsed dra gs .

, ,
her to the wilderness to ki ll her an d lea ves her a live only beca u se ,
she sa ves him fr om a serpent Retu rning Adolar is told by Eg lan .

,
tine tha t she com promised Eurya nthe ou t of jea lousy Lysiart sta bs .
Egla ntine and is led of f to puni sh m ent ; while E urya nthe who ,
has been fou nd an d sa ved by the kin g is r estored to the repent ,
a n t Adola r The music of this work was again of high ra nk ; a n d

.
Freischutz by th ree years it did not ca use a ny na tiona l feeling or

, ,
serve to fou nd a school .
Spohr studied the violin during boyhood a n d won some a ttention ,
by writing a concerto a t the a g e of fourteen By fur ther stu dy and .

,
the hear ing of grea t artists he developed himself into a lea ding
,
violinist of a broa d an d solid school tha t su perseded the Pa risia n

,
coterie of Rode a nd Kreu tzer He was a ctive a lso as an opera con.
du ctor an d Weber helped him to becom e court choirma ster a t

,
C a ssel where he rema in ed for ma ny years He married the h arpist

,
.
Dorette Scheidler an d composed ma ny harp and violin du ets for

,
- -
her a n d himself .
Spohr s works consist of nine symphonies inclu ding the fa mous

’
,
Consecra tion of Tones ; fifteen violin concertos a n d other works

”
,
of the sort ; much cha mber mu sic ; ten opera s in a ll; a nd severa l
“ “
ora torios su ch as C a lvary an d The La st Ju dgment Ma ny of
,
” ”
.
these works ha ve reta ined their popu l arity ; b u t they are a lm ost all
marked by Spohr s pecu liar ma nnerisms He wrote in a very mod u
’
.
la tory style sometim es so chroma tic as to seem a rtificia l

,
He has .
been likened to a m a n who on wishing to enter a hou se will not wa lk

, ,
thr ou gh the front door b u t dodges around the corners an d fina lly
, ,
j u mps in thr ough some unexpected window Yet mu ch of his mu sic .
is effective for he was a good contra puntist an d a fa ir ma ster of

,
orchestra tion .
Peter von Win ter and Joseph Weigl a nteda ted the roma ntic
school a t lea st by their operas They form a link be tween the
, .
Mozar t Sa lieri period an d the school th a t followed Weber Winter s

- .
’
“ “
Unterbrochene Opferfest and Weig ls Schweizerfam ilie were
” ” ’
their best works Others of this intermedia te period were Fri e

.
dri ch Hi m mel a n d Ign a z von Seyfried Himmel beca me known as a .
pia nist b u t wrote severa l opera s tr ea ti ng r om a ntic su bjects in Die

, ,
“
Sylphen an d Der Kobold Seyfried a pu pil of Mozar t H a ydn
” ”
.
, , ,
“
a n d Winter tr ea ted su ch effective topics as Die Dru iden a n d
”
,
“
D er Wu nderma nn a m Rheinfa ll E rnst Theodor Hoffma nn the
”
.
,
“ ”
fa mou s wri ter produ ced a num ber of opera s of which Undine
, , ,
his best work was given in 18 16 From a l

, lthis it m a y be seen th a t
.
variou s Germa n composers were working toward the romantic

school ; b u t Weber was the first to give the school a consciou s exist
ence and a firm founda tion on German folk music
,
-
.
WEBER AND ROMANTICISM 133
The chief su ccessor of Weber in the roma ntic school was Heinrich
M arschner (179 5 After some years as a boy prodigy he met -
,
B eethoven and began to settle down to composition He beca me

, .
a ssocia ted with Weber a t D resden Of his fifteen operas the most
.
,
“ ” “ “
famou s were The Va mpire H ans Heiling an d Tem plar an d
,
”
,
“
Jewess the las t being bas ed on the story of Ivan hoe Marschn er
”
, .
beca m e known a lso by his cha mber works piano mu sic and songs , , .
His su ccess in trea ting scenes of homely simplicity or su perna tura l

weirdness was not far behind tha t of Weber himse lf Bo th men in .
flu en ced Wa gner .
Ada lber t von Gyrowetz is almost forgotten to da y thou gh he -

,
lived from the time of Mozart to the middle of the nine teenth cen
tury He produ ced stage works a fter Weber b u t his chief suc
.
,
“
cesses ca me with Der Au genar zt in 18 11 an d Robert in 18 13
” ”
.
He composed sym phonies cha mber works and sona ta s wi th grea t

, ,
fa cility .
Peter Joseph von Lindpain tner a nother pu pil of Winter b eca me

, ,
“ “
known by The Va mpire produ ced in 182 9 an d the la ter Lich
”
, ,
ten stein With him m a y be mentioned Poissl Blu m Kuhla u the

.
, ,
flu tist a n d Schn yder von War tensee

, .
” “
Ka rl Gottlieb Reissig er won fa me by his Y el va Die Felsen ,
“
Tura ndot which were given soon a fter Weber s
” ”
m ii hl and
’
e, ,
“
dea th He wrote ten mas ses an d the ora torio D a vid as well as
.
, ,
cha m ber works an d light piano pieces .
Konra din Kr eu tzer com posed songs pia no piec es a n d cha mber , ,
works b u t was best known b y his opera s Most su ccessfu l a mong the
, .
“ “
la tter were The Spendth rift an d The C amp before Grana da
” ”
,
both of which are still performed in Germa ny .
Gu sta v Albert Lortzing ha d a ra ther u nsettled you th mu ch as ,
Weber did Lortzing was a tenor of som e renown a n d his opera s

.
,
show a very pra ctica l and ea sy lea ding of the voices Most su ccessfu l .
“ “
a m ong them were Die beiden Schii tzen the hu morou s Czar
”
,
” “ ” “ ” “ ”
und Zim merma nn H a ns Sa chs
, Der Wil dschii tz
, Undine , ,
“
D er Wa ffenschm ied A posthumous work Regina was
”
a nd .
, ,
given in 189 9 with fa ir su ccess .
Other na mes deserving mention are Reuling Titl Netzer an d , , ,
Nicola i .
The work of allthese men is now la rgely relega ted to the pa st .

134 THE BOO K OF MUS ICAL KNOWLEDGE
Even the Weber Opera s are not often hea rd ou tside of Germany .
Their merits were su ch as to win them immense popu la rity in their

da y ; b u t the sta ndards of the present dema nd more a dva nced l ib ret
tos an d more spicily dra ma tic mu sic Bu t if the romantic opera s are
.
mostly off the sta ge they still conta in much tha t is of va lu e for the
,
concer t pla tform In ma ny ca ses their composers were gifted enou gh ;

.
b u t they ca st their ma te ria l in a form th a t is now held a ntiqua ted

.
Works by Weber a nd Spohr are still to be fou nd on the dra ma tic

sta ge and are fa irly fami liar on concert progra mmes Weber is
, .
especia lly rem em bered for the excellence of the over tur es to his
three grea t opera s B u t a p a rt from them the school is little kn own
.
now Popu lar ta ste however is not necessarily a sa fe g uide ; a nd

.
, ,
the work th a t was done by the roma ntic school shou ld not be for
gotten or underestima ted .
13 6 THE BOOK OF MUS ICAL K NOWLEDGE
St M a tthew Pa ssion an d soon he orga nized a performa nce of the

. ,
work which took pla ce a t Leipsic This did mu ch toward bri nging
,
.
lof B a ch s m u sic into renewed a ttention Mendelssohn was a

’
al .
zea lou s devotee of B a ch ; an d his own music shows the earlier m as

ter s infl u ence
’
.
Soon a fter this Mendelssohn ma de his first tri p to the B ritish

,
Isles Hi journey to Scotla nd was especia lly produ ctive of resu lts ;
.
s
a n d its effects are seen in m a ny of his compositions bo th l arge a n d ,
sma ll He composed m a ny songs in the Sc otc h sty le which he

.
,
seemed a ble to as simila te wi th more su cces s tha n other Continenta l

“ ” “
composers ; while his Hebrides Overtu re (sometimes ca lled Fin
ga l s C a ve a nd the Sc otch Symphony show the infl u ence of tha t
’
Northern l and on his la rger works When he first visited Finga l s .

’
C a ve an d sa w the sea swishin g a ga inst the ma jestic basalt columns

,
under a gra y sky he was so im pressed th a t the scene tra nsl a ted itself
,
into tones for him On the b a ck of an old envelope he scra wled a

.
them e of twenty mea sur es which he sent ba ck to his sister as a de ,
scription of the pla ce ; an d this theme was afterward u sed as the

“
opening of his Hebrides Overture Its minor lilt gives a wonder
”
.
fu lpicture of the wa ves echoing the rhythm of the wa velets over the ,
deeper bass of the larger surges in truly inim ita ble fashion .
B a ck in Germa ny Mendelssohn tri ed for positions in Berlin and

, ,
condu cted festivals in D usseldorf a nd elsewhere B u t his rea l home .
was Leipsic There he beca me condu cto r of the Gewa ndh au s Or

.
chestra a n d lived in the most pleasa nt a n d usefu l a ctivity

, It was .
dur ing this period th a t he performed for the first time Schu be rt s ’
grea t sym phony in C which Sch u ma nn ha d discovered a t Vienn a

,
.
Mendelssohn s charming persona lity was now winning him ma ny

’
friends He was full of m a gnetism an d liveliness besides being ki nd

.
,
a n d ta ctf u l He was ea ger to do fa vors for others an d consta ntly

.
,
a ctive in their beh a lf In his dom estic circle he was full of ga yety
.
,
a n d this sometimes showed itself in a mus ica l wa y After his sister .
married the painter Hensel Mendelssohn composed the ca nta ta ,

“
Son and Stra nger for a domestic festival Hensel was very un
”
.
musica l so Mendelssohn tem pered the wind to the shorn la mb by

,
giving him a part consisting of a single note repea ted whenever ,
necessary Even then Hensel fa iled to hit the note correctly ; and
.
,
the little pa rty b urst in to a storm of merriment a t his expense .

MENDELSSOHN 13 7
Mendelssohn himself m arried Cecile Jeanrenau d whom he met ,
a t Fra nkfu rt She was the da u ghter of a Swiss clergym a n Five

. .
children resu lted from this u nion .
A tri p to Ita ly was followed by the com position of the Ita lia n Sym
phony ; b u t this was not so chara c teristic as the Scotch work .
As a condu ctor Mendelssohn was su nny a n d cheerfu l in his rea d

,
ings b u t not deep His style m a y be shown by his sta te m ent th a t

, .
too slow a tem po was inferna l The bright ra pid chara cter of his
”
.
,
own works shows tha t he was m ost a t home in tha t vein and not ,
su ccessfu l in h andling dra m a tic pa ssa ges In his com positions for .
orchestra he a voided the dra ma tic vein for the most part His chief .
work in th a t field the Ru y Blas Overtur e is not ra ted as a grea t

”
, ,
su ccess This overtur e was the occa sion of a ra pid piece of work on his
.
part It was wa nted for a certa in concert b u t he dela yed writing it

.
,
u ntil onl y a sho r t time was left Then he com pleted the work in two
.
da ys filling in ea ch mea sure for a llthe instru m enta l parts before

,
proceeding to the next Com posers usua lly m a ke it a pra ctice to

.
write ou t the string parts first with only the most im por ta nt m elo ,
dies in the other instru ments The missing parts are filled in la st. .
This m ethod is mu ch easier tha n the one Mendelssohn a dopted for

the occa sion .
At Leipsic Mendelssohn composed a long series of importa nt

,
“
works There were pia no pieces of mu ch va lu e ; the ora torio St
. .
Pa u l g iven in E ngl and as well as Germa ny ; the violin concerto

,
”
,
which is still one of the few grea t exa mples of its kind ; a n dthe effec
tive sym phonic ca nta ta known as the Hym n of Pra ise His a c tiv
”
.
ity in beha lf of tea ching resulted in the fou nding of the grea t Leipsic
Conserva tory .
His las t large work the ora torio Elij a h was condu cted by him
, ,
a t Birmingh a m in 184 6 a n d won a trem endou s su ccess , .
In connection with this wor k Mendelssohn ha d a narrow esca pe ,
from pla gi arism When he first wrote the solo O rest in the Lord
.
”
, ,
he set it note for note to Leeves tu ne of the Scotch song known

,
’
“
as Au ld Robin Gra y Composers a lwa ys h ave m a ny them es in
.
mind a nd in Beethoven s ca se these them es were tra nsferred to note

,
’
books Mendelssohn had evidently heard the Scotch song but ha d

.
,
forgotten its identity a nd he ca m e to regard it as one of his own

,
melodies When the work was shown to his English friend Horsley
.
,
the la tter sent Mendelssohn a copy of the song in qu estion ; where
upon the composer a ltered the nu mber by writing the bea u tifu l
melody now u sed .
The work of writing Elij ah was somewha t wea ring to Mendels

sohn He pla nned a com plete revision of the ora torio while hu nting
.
,
up su ita ble text for a nother work Chri stus In the midst of this
”
, .
tas k he received word th a t his sister Fa nny had died There ha d .
a lwa ys been the closest rel a tionship between them ; a n d when Men
del ssohn hea rd the news he fell in a fa int This shock in com bina
, .
,
tion with the extra work tha t he was doing proved too mu ch for his ,
delica te constitu tion ; and he never recovered his hea lth He died in .
184 7 .
Mendelssohn was by a llodds the most unequ a l of the grea t com

posers His works seem to show th a t it is b u t a step from the su b
.
lime to the com m onpl a ce if not the ridicu lou s Some of his com
, .
positions arou se the liveliest a dmira tion an d wonder while others ,
disa ppoint allrea lly mu si ca l hearers by their trite simplicity .
This strang e condition of things m a y be expla ined by the fa ct th a t

Mendelssohn wrote too mu ch He a dopted as his motto the phra se
.
,
Nu l i nea mea ning th a t no da y shou ld pa ss wi thou t its

a di es si ne l
l ,
line a t leas t of mu sic While su ch consta nt a ctivity was pra ise

, , .
worthy in its wa y the com poser cou ld not c ount u pon the presence
,
of his highest inspira tion If genius were only a ca pa city for ta king
.
pa ins then Mendelssohn su rely earned the title B u t in mu sic one

, .
expects mor e th a n m ere work ; it mu st be wor k of an inspir ed so rt ,
revea ling grea t idea s an d br oa dening the hearer s menta l or emo ’
tionalvision before we a d m it tha t its co m poser is a genius Some of

, .
Mendelssohn s mu sic sta nds the test ; but not all

’
.
“
The so ca lled Songs without Wor ds for pia no show tra ces of
-
”
, ,
the wea ker and more convention al Mendelssohn These are short .
piano pi eces of mu ch da intiness a n d ch arm in their way They a lso .
show a most ski lfu l ha ndling of compara tively simple forms so tha t ,
the stu dent will find them of mu ch interest a nd va l u e B u t here and .
there is a tra ce of conventiona lity in their melodies which ma kes ,
them seem too simple an d su ga ry The same defect is fou nd more .
frequ ently a mong the composer s shorter voca l works Ma ny of his’

.
songs are d a intily gra cefu l or sweetly melodiou s ; but some of them
,
are merely fluent without being grea t .

its pictu re of monotony followed by fa voring winds and a tri u m ,
pha nt reception in port is ra ther ta me in contra st with recent works , .
Mendelssohn wrote mu ch chamber mu sic inclu ding stri ng quar ,
tets an d pian o tri os of grea t va lu e In su ch pieces he showed allthe .
requ isite skill in b a l a ncing an d inte rwea ving the p ar ts .
His chora l W orks however ha ve ma de Mendelssohn most widely

, ,
“
known The two ora torios a n d the H ym n of Pra ise meet with a
.
”
“
consta nt welcom e Fra gm ents of a n opera Die Lorelei show
.
”
, ,
some bea u ty ; b u t his ca nta ta s are far more effec tive Of these su ch .
,
“ “
works as the mu sic to Sophocles Antigone a n d (Edipus a t
” ’
Colonu s show a most solid a n d str ong h a ndling of the voices In

”
.
“
the sa cred field Mendelssohn com posed also the ca nta ta La uda
Sion settings of eight psa lms and many motets an d anthems
”
, , .
The chief of those who ca me under Mendelssohn s influ ence was ’
Niels Wilhelm G a de the D anish composer Born in 1817 Ga de , .

,
a chieved his first grea t su ccess in 1840 with the Ossian Overture
”
.
,
He spent five yea rs a t Leipsic an d beca me so devoted to the Men ,
del ssohn style a n d sta nd ar d tha t some critics h a ve nickn a med him
“
Mrs Mendelssohn Yet his works h a ve enough origina lity in
.
”
.
them Even if not so char a cteristic as Grieg G a de still shows some

.
,
Sca ndina via n tra its in his mu sic a llied to a poetic roma nticism He , .
beca me known by his a ttra ctive ca nta ta s su ch as The C ru sa ders ”

, ,
“ ” “ ” “
Coma la Psyche , The Messa ge of Spring etc He composed
”
, , .
a lso s ymphonies overtu res a violin concerto ch a mber mu sic pia no

, , , ,
pieces an d songs B u t ou tside of his own country his works are

,
.
not often hea rd .
H a rtmann whose da u ghter G a de married deser ves mention as a

, ,
pioneer in D a nish mu sic H artma nn was mu ch influ enced by Spohr .
a t first The H artma nn symphonies an d overtures are pra ctica lly

.
on the shelf He a chieved more su ccess with his four operas and
.
,
sma ller works for voice or pia no .
Another member of this Da nish coterie was E rik Sib on i wh ose ,
symphonies chora l works a n d cha mber music show Mendelssohn s

, ,
’
Ferdina nd Hiller (18 11—

8 5) was known in variou s fields He com .
posed opera s ora torios orchestra l works cha mber music pia no
, , , ,
pieces etc These were marked by technica l skill a n d ha d a fair

, .
,
share of exp ressive power But as a whole they la ck the vigor of .

l ND ELSSOHN 14 1
deep origin ali ty They are in part wha t is known as Ka pellmeister

.
mu sik , th a t is mu sic of only the a vera ge rou tine excellence tha t

,
an orchestra l lea der wou ld be expected to show
Willia m Sterndale Bennett (18 16—

.
75) was a n intima te friend of

Mendelssohn who beca me fa mou s as a pia nist His works were .
chiefly for his instrument They displa y so m e skill and a few a n a lo .

,
gies with Chopin b u t they la ck a deep a ppea l Bennett composed

, .
“
a lso a n ora to rio The Woma n of Sa maria a nd a pa stora l The
”
, , ,
Ma y Q u een ”
.
Moritz Ha u ptma nn was a Mendelssohn protégé who was bes t

known by his writings The sa me is tru e of E rnst Richter though .
,
“
the la tter com posed instru menta l works a n d the ora torio The
Redeem er ”
.
Ignaz Moscheles the pia nist beca me a nother of the Leipsic group
, , .
His compositions are piano solos or concertos .
Ferdinand D a vid the violinist who was ma de concert master of

, ,
-
the Gewandha us Orchestra composed mu ch for vi olin b u t wrote , ,
a lso in the l arger forms .
Ju liu s Rietz was a cellist who assisted Mendelssohn a t Dii ssel

’
dorf He co m posed overtures sym phonies an d smaller works

.
, , .
Karl Reinecke was a Mendelssohn pu pil who beca m e well known

to ma ny Am erica ns as a tea cher of com posi tion He condu cted the .
Leipsic Orchestra for thirty five yea rs following Mendelssohn s -

,
’
sta ndar ds As com poser he wrote sym phonies overtures concertos

.
, , ,
cha mber wor ks a n d ma ny sma ller pieces His Nu t cra cker a nd

, .
-
Mouse Ki ng mu sic is a charming exa mple of mock heroic fa iry

”
- -
mu sic .
S alom on Ja da ssohn whose works on h armony and counterpoint,
h ave ca u sed hard l a bor for many music stu dents was a nother versa ,
tile com poser He wrote orchestra l an d ch a mber works b u t his most

.
,
interesting produ ctions a re his sets of ca nons an dother contra pu nta l

“
pieces His skill in writing ca nons earned him the nickn ame of the
.
musica l Krupp .
ra —
F nz La chner (1803 90) was of more impo rta nce in his da y He .
“
knew Bee thoven a n d was a prominent mem ber of the Schu bert
,
ia des . He was a ctive as a condu ctor a t Vienna and Munich He .
wrote symphonies cha mber mu sic ora torios an d opera s including

, , , ,
” “
Ca tar ina C om aro and Benvenuto Cellini ”
B u t he is best .
14 2 THE BOOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWLEDGE
known because of his orchestra l su ites The old su ites of B a ch s da y
.
’
were sets of d ances In La chner s hands the su ite beca me a set of

.
’
movements not u nlike those of the sym phony b u t somewha t more,
informa l in style One of these su i tes conta ins a well known mar ch
.
-
a n d a n a dmi ra ble orchestra l fu gue .
Wilhelm Tau bert was a nother Mendelssohn disciple His compo .
sitions incl u de sym phonies, overtures cha m ber works an d inci

, ,
denta l mu sic to variou s pla ys.
With the exception of La chner a llof these men were more or less
,
dir ectly influ enced by Mendelssohn La chner was a conserva tive

.
whose works pla ced him in line with the others La chner was so .
opposed to the freedom of the growing Wa gneria n movement tha t

he gra du a lly withdrew from composition a fter 186 5 All these men .
worked a long the lines of fa irly stri ct form They did not a lwa ys
.
displa y deep inspira tion ; b u t they possessed the learning a nd skill

dema nded by the cla ssica l style an d in ma ny insta nces their works
,
were suf fi ciently grea t to win an d hold public esteem .

b ringing forth ma ny bea u tifu l works Schumann then bega n the .
theoretica l stu dies th a t he had previou sly held in su ch contem pt ;

a n d the mista kes in his ea rly h armony exercises p r ove th a t he was in
need of tra ining .
Soon a fter these events S chuma nn entered the critica l field fou nd ,
“ ”
ing the pa per known as the Neu e Zeitschr ift ftir Musik This .
“New Pa pe r on M usic ” is still flour ishing At first it fu lfilled a va l .
na ble mission ; for the fetters of cla ssicism were being disca rded by
the freer sc hool of roma nticists of which Schuma nn himself was a,
lea der The grea tn ess of the cla ssica l ma sters rema ined un dirnm ed;
.
b u t Schu ma nn a n d his comra des were rea dy to give du e a pprec ia

tion to new s tyles a n d prevent the old form s from becom ing a clog
,
on origin a lity Thu s while Mendelssohn composed with one eye on

.
the p ast Schu ma nn looked more to the fu ture Of Chopin he wrote

, .
,
“
H a ts of
f gentlem en ! A geniu s ! He spoke of the pia no sona tas
,
”
“
of B ra hms as veiled symphonies a term th a t has been u sed ,
to describe the las t five sona tas of Beethoven He a lso knew and .
He ha d a lrea dy begun composing and was getting kn own as a ,
wri ter of pia no pieces These ra nged from his vari a tions in honor of
.
Frau lein Abegg which u sed the letters of her na me as a mu sica l

,
them e to the varied an d a ttra ctive grou p of little tone pictures

,
-
known as the Carniva l The la tter written in 183 5 was dedica ted
”
.
, ,
to E rnestine von Fricken a fellow pu pil of his to whom he was mu ch

,
devoted a t the time Her na tive village of Asch was hinted a t a ga in

.
a n d a ga in in the work by the use of the notes A Es (E fla t) C an d

, ,
-
, ,
H (our B n a tu ra l ) The pieces consist of little ba llroom pictures

-
.
,
“ ” “ ” “ “
su ch as the Pr omena de Va lse Aveu or Reconn a issance ;
”
,
”
, ,
hints a t masqu era ders su ch as Arlequ in Pierrot or Colombine ; an d

, , ,
even tona l descriptions of rea l chara cters su ch as Chopin or Chia ,
rina the la tter being Clara Wieck who a fterwards beca me his wife
, , .
Schuma nn s courtship of Clara Wieck an d their su bsequ ent devo

’
,
tion to ea ch other ha ve been so minu tely descr ibed tha t ma ny peo

,
ple believe she was his only love B u t his thoughts were evidently .
“
elsewhere when he wrote the C arnival His a dmira tion was so
”
.
p ronounced tha t E rnestine von Ifii cken a fterwards co m pla ined of

his desertion and a cted as thoug h a brea ch ofpro m ise suit wou ld
,
- -
be in order .
146 THE BOO K OF MUS ICAL KNOWLEDGE
Life He wr ote a lso his joyou s First Sym phon y a tr iumphant

. ,
work of mu ch bea u ty .
In 1842 he was busy a t his cha mber mu sic an d in the next yea r ,
he bega n his larger voca l com positions Afte r this he su ffered a n er .
vous brea kdown from overwork Moving from Leipsic to D resden .

,
where he gra dua lly recovered he beca me intim a te with Hiller an d , ,
grew to know Wa gner He gra du a lly resu med his own work fin ish
.
,
“
ing the opera Genoveva and his Fa us t C a nta ta A tri p to
” ”
.
D usseldorf resu lted in his beau tifu l Rhine Symphony the third of ,
his four though perhaps the ma nuscript of the fourth was complete d
,
a t a n earlier d a te .
In 1853 the com pose r s menta l ma l a dy took fr esh hold u pon him
’
.
He a ttended spiritu a list mee tings an d insisted tha t Beethoven was ,
tryin g to com m unica te with him by knocks in the rhythm of the

figure th a t begins the Fi fth Symphony He continua lly hear d the .
note A sou nd ing in his ear s an d he thou ght tha t certa in themes were
brou ght to him by spirits One of these them es which he wrote .
,
down was u sed by B ra hms in the varia tions tha t end with a funera l
,
march Feeling th a t his rea son was going Schu ma nn tri ed to dr own
.
,
himself The las t two yea rs of his life were pas sed in an a sylum a t
.
Endenich He died in 18 56 . .
The roma nce a ndpoe try of Schuma nn s na tu re showed themselves ’
most a d m ira bly in his mu sic B u t in pla ce of the excessive emotion .
of Chopin Schu ma nn s works usua lly show a hea rty hea lthy en thu
,
’
,
siasm th a t ca rrie ltheir au dito rs by sto rm Les s skilled in tec h

s al .
niqu e tha n Mendelssohn an d much less gifted in counterpoint he , ,
showed a far deeper an d m ore vita l inspira tion His works seem to .
com bine earnest thou ghtfu lness an d depth of feeling with a joyou s
“
strength In his reviews an d in the Carnival Schuma nn dis
.
”
, ,
ting u ished two sides of his chara cter the drea my a n d poetic na tu re ,
being na m ed E usebius while his more im pa tient a n d fiery side was

,
ca lled Floresta n A j u dicia l blend of the two he chris tened Meister

.
Ra ro The distinction is one tha t does not a pply to Schuma nn s

.
’
works except in a few ca ses .
The depth a n d power of Schu ma nn s music was not a t first a ppre ’
c ia ted Liszt to be sure ca lled him

.
, the grea test mu sic thinker since
,
Beethoven Wa gner however sa id pa tr onizingly tha t Schuma nn

.
, ,
“
ha d a tendency toward grea tness ”
Mendelssohn did not a ppre .
14 7
cia te Schu ma nn properly though the two were associa ted for a time ,
in Leipsic The pu blic especia lly the English pu blic u nderstood

.
, ,
Mendelssohn s gra ce an dskill but was slow in com prehending the ex

’
,
pressive warmth of Sch u ma nn Chorley was noticea bly bitter a ga inst .
“
Schu ma nn spea ki ng of his mu sic as the broken crockery school
,
” - .
Mendelssohn hi m self mu st be held so m ewha t to bla me for Chorley s ’
a b u se . A word wou ld ha ve stopped it b u t Mendelssohn did not ,
utter th a t word .
Among the best of Schu ma nn s pia no works are the Pa pillons ’

,
“
a tocca ta the C arniva l the Fan tasiestii cke three sona ta s a
” ”
, , , ,
“ “
set of Novelettes a nd the grea t vari a tions known as the E tu des
”
,
sym phoniqu es He wrote ma ny short pieces su ch as the Kinder

.
”
,
“
scen en
”
conta ining the fa miliar Trau m erei His ch amber mu sic
,
”
.
inclu des a g rea t piano qu artet an d qu intet thr ee tri os two violin , ,
sona ta s a n d ma ny other pieces for solo instru ment with pia no His
, .
longer voca l works inclu de the opera Genoveva (with a bea u tifu l
”
“ ” “ ” “
overtu re ) the ca nta ta Fa u st
, Para dise an d the Peri The , ,
Pilgrim a ge of the R ose etc In this field a lso is his charmi ng , .
Manfred which is p artly melodra m a tic A m elod ra m a as a l

”
, .
,
rea d y expl ai n ed consists ofspoken wor ds a ga inst a m u sica l b a ck

,
grou nd In thi s ca se there is only one rea der who recites many
.
,
of the selections chosen from Byron s poe m B u t it is possible to ’

.
ha ve variou s cha ra cters a n d to give a ctu a l spoken pla ys in this

,
form .
Schu m a nn s songs are in ma ny cases the most enthu sias tic ou t

’
pouring of emotiona l warmth Less varied in style tha n Schu bert s .

’
,
they stri ke a fu ller note of feeling There are a lmost two hu ndred .
“
a n d fifty of them va rying fr om the melting lyricis m of Woma n s ’
,
Love an d L ife to the m ore narra tive vein of su ch ba ll a ds as

”
“ “
Blondel s Song or The Two Grena diers So inten se is their
’”
,
”
.
emotion tha t in ma ny ca ses they seem to pu lsa te with the wa rmth

of life itself .
The Schuma nn sym phonies thou gh not a l wa ys well orchestra ted , ,
are glor iou sly spiri ted wor ks The first of them has a rushing . ,
r hythm i c first m ovem ent a c ontem pl a tive slow m ovem ent a , , ,
strong bru squ e scherzo an d a fina le tha t a lter na tes with strong
, ,
chor ds a ra pid cha ttering them e of rare brightness The Second

, .
Symphony has a slow broa d intr od u ction followed by ra pid chord

, ,
themes ; a qu iet slow movement ; a str ongly ru shing scherzo ; a nd a
finale fu ll of gra nd chord ef fects The Thir d or Rhenish S ymphony
.
, ,
ha s a tri u mpha ntly joyou s first movement ; a scherzo like movem ent -
th a t is redolent of ha l fhu mor ous Rhine wine songs ; a slow move

- -
ment of exp ressive ch arm ; a church servi ce suggesting Cologne

C a thed ra l ; a n d a varied a nima ted chord fina le representing the
,
-
,
plea sant intercour se of the people a fter the service The Four th .
Symphony strikes a new note for Schu ma nn varying str ong m inor ,
efl ec ts with exotic o rienta lism Its fir st movement a fter a str ik ing

'
.
,
introd u ction has minor them es of a lmost wild power with a con
, ,
trasted middle p art in m a jor a n d a gloriou sly tri u mph a nt cod a ; the
,
slow movem ent seems O rienta l in its odd h armonies and la ngu or ou s
style ; the third movement is aga in a bru squ e scherzo ; while the
fin a le in spite of some conventiona l moments brings renewed sug
, ,
gestions of power .
Schu ma nn s influ ence has been very grea t While Mendelssohn

’
.
excelled him in popu la rity dur ing their lives time has b rou ght a n ,
a pp r ecia tion of Schu m a nn s str ength of exp ression His music has
’
.
been a n insp ira ti on to ma ny composers not only in his own c oun try , ,
b u t in Sca ndina vi a an d R u ssi a a lso He has come in f or some a buse

.
a t the h a nds of the extr e m e Fr ench modernists ; b u t as they r ely too
mu ch on an u ltra refined delica cy of ef

-
fect it is evident th a t they do ,
not u ndersta nd the va lu e of his music and do not a pprecia te the ,
qu a lities of em otiona l brea dth an d vigor th a t perva de it .
The most prominent na me a ssoc ia ted with Schu ma nn s is th a t of ’
Robert Volkm ann (18 15 who ca me to Le ipsic in 1836 an d stu d ,
ied with Schu m a nn Volkm a nn ta ught a t Pra gu e a n d Pesth the

.
,
a tmospher e of the l a tte r pl a ce giving some of his works a H u nga r i a n
gypsy fla vor He composed symphonies overtures str ing seren a des

.
, ,
-
,
ch a mbe r mu sic a n d various voca l works His overture to Richar d

, .
III has enjoyed a fa ir a mou nt of pop u l ar ity B u t it conta ins a

”
.
“
decided a na chronism in the sh a pe of the tune The C a mpbel ls are
,
A Scotch tune ha rdly fits an English ba ttle field b u t when -
one remembers tha t the tu ne in qu estion was composed a hu ndred

yea rs or so a fter the b a ttle of Bosworth Field the melody begins to ,
seem decidedly ou t of pla ce B u t this blunder does not detra ct fr om

.
the dra ma tic power of the work .
Friedrich Kiel (182 1— 85) lived in Berlin but followed the lea der ,
to ta ke lessons of Sc hu mann b u t was prevented by ill hea lth He
, .
was a lwa ys poor a n d was tr ou bled by consu mption which fin a lly

, ,
ca rried him off Jensen was a n enthusiast who cou ld hardly stop
.
when he star ted to pla y over the world s ma sterpieces for himself ’
.
As a resu lt he pai d for long sessions of Wa gner s musi c by ma ny

’
hours of pa in Jensen composed lar ge works such as the posthumous

.
,
“
ope ra Tura ndot the ca nta ta Jephtha s D a u ghter an d a
”
,
” ’
,
“
Gau dea m u s set to Scheffel s words His songs are gems of the
” ’
.
Li ed school an d show a warmth of feeling mu ch like th a t of Schu

,
ma nn His pian o works are very bea u tifu l a nd flu ent thou gh not
.
,
“
vigorou s The charming B ride Song one of his best known
.
” -
,
-
pieces is one of a set of four ha nd mu sic which inclu des a lso a

,
-
,
“
wedding m a ch a da nce like Reigen an d a nocturne
r
,
”
-
, .
C arl B a n ck was a nother song composer who followed Schu ma nn .
B a nck s works are u n assu ming in sty le b u t their gra ce an d charm is

’
,
“
well shown b y su ch a lyri c gem as his Ab endreigen ”
.
Fra nz Abt thou gh not belonging to the Schu ma nn school de

, ,
serves mention a s being a com poser of more popular vein His songs .
do not rea ch the hig hest level b u t they show a fl u ent smoothness
,
tha t ma kes them widely known .
Other song com posers who shou ld be na med here are Edward
August Grell Karl C u rschma nn Friedrich Kiicken Ka rl Eckert
, , , ,
a nd Joseph Dessa uer .

IT is not every composer who ca n ha ve two centennia ls of his
bir th celebra ted in two su ccessive yea rs ; but Frederic Chopin
,
a chieved this seemingly i m possible fea t Ma ny au thorities give the .
da te of his birth as March 1 1809 So m e however inclu din g one or

, .
, ,
two who ou ght to h a ve known a bou t it pla ce the event in 18 10 The ,

.
la tter da te is proba bly right .
Chopin was born a t Zelazowa Wola nea r Warsa w His fa ther was , .
French an d his mother Polish From them he seemed to inherit a

, .
combina tion of Parisia n gra ce an d elegance with Polish intensity

a n d pa tri otis m He was one of four children two of his sisters b e
.
,
coming well known writers His fa ther was a su ccessful priva te

-
.
school tea cher who im parted an a tmosphere of cu ltiva tion to the

,
family life .
Chopin a t first showed an a version to the pia no After a time .

,
however he took lessons under a Bohem ian tea cher na med Z ywn y
, .
These lessons m u st ha ve been excellent for they cured him of his ,
dista ste and en a bled him to a ppea r in pu blic when nine years old
, .
“
Pola nd idolized him an d Warsa w ca lled him the new Mozar t
, .
Ca ta la ni hea rd his pla ying when he was ten an d ga ve him a wa tch ,
while the Czar of Ru ssia su pplemented this gift wi th a diamond ring .
Entering the Lyceu m where he beca me known for hig h spirits

,
and d ra ma tic ta lent he stu died co m position with Joseph Elsner a n d

, ,
profited grea tly by the lessons In 182 6 he issu ed his first pu blished
.
work which he ha d pr eceded by several da nces in m a nu script In

, .
the next year he finished his stu dies and entered a n a ctive musica l ,
ca reer .
At this time he was a grea t a dmirer of the bea utifu l Warsa w

sopra no nam ed Consta ntia Gla dkowska He dedica ted som e of his .
works to her a nd sta ted tha t she had inspired the a d a gio of his F
,
minor concerto Bu t in spite of his feelings the cou ple parted qu ietly
.
,
enou gh with conventiona l phras es when he set of

, fto strange lands ,
.
He ha d pla yed in Vienna with som e su ccess ; a n d in 1830 a fter three ,
grea t farewell concerts a t War sa w he star ted on a longer tour He

, .
“
spoke of this tri p as going to the United Sta tes via Pari s But ”
.
when we consider how primitive the Am erica n conditions were a t

tha t tim e it was no dou bt fortuna te for the composer th a t he never
,
got beyond the French ca pita l He tra velled slowly th rough variou s
.
Germ an cities At Stu ttgart he learned th a t the rebellion of his

.
cou ntrymen ha d fa iled an d Warsa w ha d been ta ken by the Rus

,
srans .
At Paris his artistic gifts an d aristocra tic wa ys soon brou ght him
into conta ct wi th the best circles He was welcomed by a llthe grea t
.
mu sicia ns from the a ged Cherubini to the you ng Liszt He beca me

, .
very fashiona ble as a tea cher an dcharged high prices for his lessons
, .
As he met with some rivalry on the p art of Ka lkbrenner he decided ,
to smooth it over by ta king some lessons of the la tter artist B u t .
when he ga ve a concert ea rly in 183 2 Mendelssohn sa id of him

, , ,
“
Chopin is worth twenty Ka lkb renn ers B u t he did not continu e
”
.
his pu blic a ppeara nces for long In a few years his growing wea kness
.
interfered with them ; and the cool reception a ccorded to his second
concerto ma de him ta ke a dislike to the concert r oom .
As a pianist Chopin showed a llthe delica cy th a t one would ha ve

,
expected from a m an of his tempera ment His fortissimos were far .
less powerfu l tha n those of the a vera ge pla yer to sa y nothing of ,
Liszt His gra da tions of power were thu s k ept in a fa ir ly lim ited
.
range He was not entirely successfu l as an interp reter of other men s

.
’
works B u t when it ca me to pla ying his own he was unr ivalled His
.
,
.
delica te nua nces of exp ression ga ve to his performances the u tm ost

charm He was an a bsolu te ma ster of ru ba to
. the giving of ch ar ,
a cter to a melody by p rolonging some notes a t the expense of others ,
withou t disturbing the rhythm as a whole Sometimes for a mu se .

,
ment Chopin would sit down a t the keybo ard an d ra ttle of

, fa piece
mecha nically as a sort of burlesque ; b u t this procedure was reserved
,
for his intima tes .
La te in 183 6 Chopin met the authoress George Sand (M a d ame

D u devant ) with whom he lived in close connection for over ten
,
yea rs Two yea rs a fter their meeting they pas sed a winter a t
.
M a jorca described in one of Ma d ame Du deva nt s books After

,
’
.
tha t they sta yed either a t Paris or a t Noha nt In M ajorca Chopin .

CHOPIN 153
fell ill an d la id the fou nda tions of the consu m ption th a t carried him
,
off in a fter yea rs Ma dam e D u deva nt was ra ther a rbitrary while he

.
,
was se n sitive a n d irrita ble ; so it is a wonder tha t their intima c y

la sted for so long When it was fina lly ended by her in 1847 she
.
, ,
“
pu t him into one of her novels Lu crezia Floria n i where he figures
”
, ,
as Pr ince Kar ol .
Chopin returned a lone to his Paris quarters B ack in his old rooms .
,
he bega n to im provise a t the pia no The excitem ent a n d frenzy to .
which he was a prey led him to think tha t he sa w visions The n ob il .
ity of his na tive Pola nd see m ed to ma rch before him in r eview as if ,
going in to ba ttle He grew so a fra id of his own menta l sta te tha t

.
he ru shed from the room an d was foun d la ter wa ndering a bou t the
,
Par is streets B u t the them es tha t echoed his vision rema ined in
.
his m ind It is sa id th a t they were sha ped by him into the grea t
.
A fla t Polona ise ; b u t proba bly it was the A m ajor Polona ise

- -
.
The revolu tion of 1848 fou nd him in Engla nd where he ma de ,
severa l priva te a ppea ra nces Retu rning to Paris he died there in

.
,
1849 He was given a n impressive fu nera l a t the M a deleine Follow

. .
in g the Polish m ilitary custom of being bur ied in u niform he was ,
interred in his concert clothes .
Chopin s m usic is mostly for pia no Unlike the other grea t m as

’
.
ters he confined his efforts a lm ost wholly to this single bra nch of
,
mu sic His concertos and da nces with orchestra are pra ctica lly
.
pia no works with an instru m enta l a ccom pa niment His pia no trio .
a n d cello sona ta ar e not a m ong his best wo rks His songs are some
’
.
“
tim es lightly joyou s like Were I a bir dling b u t in som e insta nces
,
”
,
they are tinged with wild power Anything connected with his .
na tive la nd moved Chopin to the depths of his heart An exa mple is .
“
fou nd in the song Poland s Dirge which is a gloomy threnody of
” ’
,
the strongest intensity .
In his pi a no works as a whole Chopin intr od u ced the idea of ,
em bellishments an d refinem ents not in their seventeenth centu ry ,

-
forms b u t as episodes or connecting links in the melodic stru cture

, .
Little ru ns or p a ssa ges of severa l gra ce notes together ta ke their

,
-
,
pla ce in the design of the piece and give it an exqu isite ch arm With
, .
Chopin everything must be ma de poeti c an d fu ll of feeling This .
resul t is a tta ined in part by the proper use of rubato and ped als and ,
for the rest by in terp reting a n d exp ressing the sentiment th a t glo ws
in the music itself Chopin has been ca lled with j u stice the poet of
.
the pia no ”
.
With Chopin music was a ma tter of emotion a lmost wholly He

,
.
did not devote himself to the learned ela bora tion of figur es or b a lan c
ing of the stri cter forms With him m u sic was a lwa ys to be free
.
,
pla stic a nd expressive Emotion was the chief thing with him
,
.
,
whether it proved to be drea my an d la ngu orou s or fiery and heroic .
“
Field noting this excess of emotion spoke of Chopin as a talent
, ,
or the sick roo m B u t Chopin is not u sually morbid His senti

”
f - . .
ment is not sentimenta lity his feminine qua lities not effemina te , .
His p a thos an d intensity are Po l ish his etherea l delica cy French in ,
style .
Perha ps the most splendid of Chopin s works is the grea t A fla t ’

-
Polona ise The title marks it as one of the sta tely dances of
.
Pol and origin a ting when the nobles p ara ded before John Sobieski
,
a fter his victo ry over the Tu rks Chopin s work which is his Op 53 ’
. .
, ,
is known as the Heroic Polona ise an d dema nds a pia nist of the
”
,
first ra nk for its interpreta tion The work is both impa ssioned an d .
ma jestic an d its br oa d swee ps of expressive power ma ke the m u

,
si ca l a u ditor lo se himself in a dmira tion Of the dozen or more .
polona ises by Chopin tha t in F sharp minor Op 44 is a nother grea t

,
-
, .
,
“
work ; while the Milita ry Polona ise in A is shor ter but im pet
”
, , ,
u ousl y enthu sia stic .
Com para ble with the polona ise for excellence is the sona ta Op , .
3 5 in B fla t minor The work consists of four movements

,
-
. an ,
opening a llegro a scherzo the wellkn own fu nera l march and a

, ,
-
,
short b u t ra pid fina le In the tru e sense of the wor d the work is not
.
a good sona ta ; it does not a im to em ploy figure trea tm ent a n d de
vel opm ent as its chief r esour ce B u t it is wonder fu lly bea u tifu l . .
The melodic and expressive themes of the first two movements form
an a dmira ble foilto the sombre gloom of the fu nera l mar ch The .
la tter is even more widely known tha n the so na ta as a whole ; though

“
the prim a n d forma l Mendelssohn sa id of the march I a bhor it ”
, .
The u nrest of the fina le is a fitting close for the work .
In point of nu mbers the ma zurka seems to ha ve been Chopin s

,
’
fa vorite form He wrote over fifty of these da nces The ma zurka

. .
,
or m asurek is a popu l ar Polish d a nce which Chopin mu st h a ve seen

, ,
often in the countr y It was in time and was often a ccented by a

.
,
something oi a tria l for him He wrote severa l hu ndr ed short pia no .
pieces of variou s sorts ba lla des noctur nes étu des a n d so on

, , , , .
John Field who sneered a t Chopin did not differ so grea tly in
, ,
style from the Polish ma ster He wr ote severa l concertos a nd a .

,
nu m ber of solo pieces but is best known now by his nocturn es for
,
pia no These are fu ll of delica te sentim ent and seemed to fore

. ,
sha dow the m ore pa ssiona te outpourings of Chopin .
Ka lkb ren ner s use of a g uide b ar to su pport the wrist is men

’
tioned in the cha pter on Fa mou s Pia nists in this volume His
”
.
,
conceit was somewha t excessive and Chopin s tak ing lessons of him ,
’
resu lted fr om his ra ther b ra zen offer to te a ch the Polish performer .
Ka lkbrenner wrote flu ent concertos sona ta s and other works a nd , , ,
pla yed wi th sm oo thness These men wi th Czerny Moscheles .

, , ,
Tom aschek a n d other ma sters of still earlier d a te b ro u ght pi a no

, ,
pla ying to a high level B u t the works of Chopin were the first tha t
.
showed the fu ll ca p a bilities of the instru ment in emotional expres

sron .
The pia nists who flourished in the middle of la st century (see

“
ch apter on Fa mou s Pian ists ) inclu ded su ch fa mous names as
”
Hensel t Herz Tha lberg an d Dreyschock

, , Henselt p ra ctised f
or
, .
large str etches an d devised exercises for tha t purpose He com

, .
posed a concerto a nu mber of études and other solos Tha lberg

, , .
ha d grea t te chniqu e b u t devoted h imself largely to sa lon mu sic

, .
D reyschock pla yed his own pieces f or the most pa rt an d they were ,
showy ra ther tha n deep Herz too wrote an d pla yed works tha t .
, ,
were brillia nt b u t sh a llow , .
The term sa lon music in its strict sense implies music suited for , ,
the dra wing room It signifies a lso mu sic tha t is not of the highest
-
.
type re quir ing seriou s a ttention but is aimed merely to please in

, ,
a mor e or less superfici a l ma nner This is not equiva lent to sa ying .
tha t sa lon m u sic is nec essarily trashy It does however la ck the . , ,
depth a nd earnestness of the master works Sa lon pieces are not .
necessarily ea sy to compose ; and in ma ny ca ses they show mu ch

skill an d dexterity or rea l expressive power A nu mber of sa lon
, .
music composers are now mentioned .
Albeniz who died in 18 55 was a ctive a t Ma drid for ma ny years

, , .
Le yb a ch who was an orga nist a t Tou louse beca me kn own by his

, ,
nocturnes of which the fifth is still widely popular Litolff the well
, .
,
CHOPIN 157
known pu blisher wrote some sa lon mu sic b u t attempted a lso con

, ,
certos a n d other la rge forms Bovy so m etim es writin g as Lysb erg

.
, ,
b eca me famou s a t Geneva Alka n (Morha ng es) beca me known a t

.
Pa ris by hi s étu des a n d other works Ja cqu es Blumentha l was pian .
ist to Qu een Victori a Gob b a erts com posed ma ny light short pieces
.
,
a t B ru ssels E u gene Ketterer beca me known by his popu lar da nces

. .
In our own cou ntry Lo u is Morea u Gottscha lk deserves mention

, .
Born a t New Orlea ns in 182 9 he proba bly inherited musica l tas te ,
from his Creole mother Stu dying in Paris an d elsewhere he soon

.
,
beca me known as a pia nist But his fa me rests chiefly on his com
.
positions which are light in a wa y b u t very ch ara cteristic an d effec

, ,
tive in su ggesting their titles His B ambo u la reprodu ces the tur
”
.
“
moil of tha t Negr o da nce His B a na nier an d Sa va ne h a ve an
.
” ”
inimita ble sou thern fla vor His B a njo echoes the sou nds of the
”
.
pla nta tion darkies very da intily Ojos C reolas disp la ys a roma n
”
.
tic style The Last Hope is a pa thetic picture inspired by a

.
”
mother s dea th j ust before the desir ed return of an a bsent son

’
.
“
Ossia n consists of two richly poetic bits of b ardic u ttera nce
”
.
These m a y well serve as a typ e of sa lon music There is here none of .
the development of the sona ta or the studied intri ca cy of the fu gu e

, .
Instea d there are light b u t pleas ing melodies an d ha rp like sweeps

, , ,
-
of rich ha rmony .
On the whole however sa lon music covers a mu ltitude of sins

, , .
While it m a y inclu de works of interest a n d val u e it offers room also ,
to the ta wdry effects of ma ny com monpla ce pieces or the conven ,
tiona ltrivi a lity of popu l ar d an ces Stri ctly spea k ing ma ny of the .
,
grea t com posers ha ve written salon pieces The shorter bits of Bee .
“ “
thoven su ch as the Six B a ga telles or the Tr au m erei of Schu
” ”
, ,
ma nn or some of the melodic bits of Schu bert show the simplicity

, ,
of style an d the popu lar a ppea l tha t is a ch ara cteristic of sa lon mu sic .
Yet if a com p oser uses nothing higher tha n th a t style he ca n hardly ,
be reckoned as a mas ter .

X VIII
ITAL IAN O P E RA
WHILE Germa ny ha d a dded to the earlier names of B a ch and

H a ndel the more recent ones of H a ydn Mozart Beethoven Schu , , ,
bert an d Weber Ita ly produ ced no genius of the first ra nk A cer

, , .
ta in deca dence ha d begu n to show itself in Ita lia n mu sic The works .
of the Sca rla ttis Lotti or even Cimarosa no longer a ppea l ed to the
, , ,
people of Ita ly a n d pu blic ta ste in th a t country bega n to be sa tisfied

,
with som ething far simpler in style It was this deca dence of Italia n .
tas te tha t led Von B ulow to rema rk Ita ly was the cra dle of mu sic , ,
a n d rem a ined the cra dle Instea d of keeping a b rea st of Ger

”
.
m a n cl as sica l development Ita ly shu t her ea rs to the geniu ses of the

,
north and tu rned her a ttention to a school of bright b u t ra ther

,
trivia l melody This musica l isola tion las ted until within a few
.
deca des .
Gioa chino Antonio Rossini who led the movement towar d this ,
popu la r style of opera was born a t Pesaro in 1792 His fa ther was
, .
town tr u mpeter a n d his mother a ba ker s da u ghter He stu died

,
’
.
singing an d horn pla ying a t home Entering the conserva tory a t

-
.
15 he took u p counterpoint u nder M a ttei ; b u t he ha d no pa tien ce

,
with su ch serious work an d ga ve it u p as soon as he ha d developed

,
his fa cility in the lighter vein He stu died the music of Ha ydn an d
.
“
Mozart u ntil he was nickna med the little Germa n ; b u t he imi
”
fa ted their or chestra tion a n d fl u ency ra ther tha n the worth of their
style .
Rossini wrote his fir st sta ge work for Venice in 18 10 This was ,

.
followed by an op era bufia a t Bologna a nd an op era seri a a t Rome ,

.
His car eer was now a bu sy one For the next ten years he brou ght .
ou t no less th a n thir ty ope ra s in such diverse cities as Rom e Venice

, , ,
“
Na ples Mila n a n d Lisbon His first work of any va lu e was Ta n
, , .
credi given in 1813 D uring this period he composed a lso his

”
, .
“
B arber of Seville brought out a t Rome in 18 15 This bright
”
, ,
.
comedy which has done more th an any other opera to keep his name
,
c ism . B u t in
country where the pu blic a ppla u ded only a ta wdry
a
a n dconvention a l style of melody ther e was no incentive f or the com ,
poser to develop himself beyond tha t level The im provement th a t .
Rossini ma de in Paris shows very definitely tha t he was ca pa ble of

higher things tha n the conventiona l singing concerts which form -
most of his sta ge wor ks .
Rossini like H andel was not a bove a dapting themes from others
, , .
Like H a ndel in a nother respect he tra nsferred ma ny pieces from his ,
own ear ly works In a conversa tion a bou t his mass Rossini once
.
,
bega n to expla in where its num bers ha d been borrowed ; an d the list
“
ra nged a l lthe wa y from Aurelia no to Semira mide
” ”
.
The op era seria or trag ic opera was the most conventiona l af, fa ir ,
i m a gina ble The ina nities of this school ga ve rise to the remark
.
,
Wh a tever is too silly to be spoken m a y be su ng In op era seri a no

”
.
a ttention was p a id to the p rinciples of dra ma ti c fi tness which Glu ck ,
ha d evolved While the fo rm was not so rigid as in the d a ys of

.
H a ndel it was still a ma tter of certa in conventiona l solos an densem

,
bles a n d a grea t dea l of bravu ra displa y The sopra no ha d to ha ve

, .
her scen a often a m a d scene in which she was a llowed to indu lge in
, ,
al lkinds of tri l ls ru ns an d voca l disp la y She was a lmost a lwa ys

, , .
in love with the tenor a n d pur su ed by the b a ss For some reas on , .
the ba ss singer was u sua lly ca st as a villa in who wished to win the ,
sopra no s regar d b u t cou ld think of no better method tha n persec u t

’
,
ing her Wa gner broke thr ou gh this stereotyped custom a nd ga ve

.
,
“
the hero s part to a b a sso in his Flying D u tchma n
’ ”
.
In comedy a more na tura l tone preva iled The opera bufia for
,
.
’
,
some reas on was u nh a mpered by tra ditions a nd grew into spon ta

, ,
meou s excellence Its dra ma tic stru cture was a dmira ble its music
.
,
su ita ble .
Vincenzo Bellini (1801— 35) was the son of an orga nist a t C a ta nia ,
from whom the boy took his fir st lessons When he rea ched the a g e .
of eighteen a p a tr on sent him to Na ples where he stu died for severa l

, ,
years He wr ote a number of student works inclu ding a sym phony

.
,
a n d his fir st ope ra He pa id a ttention to both German an d Ita lia n

.
models and was especia lly inter ested in Pergolesi The opera
,
.
ma na ger B arba j a sa w th a t the young m a n was rea lly gifted a nd ,
a t length bega n to order opera s from him

“
II Pira ta (1827 was
”
.
a grea t su ccess though the fa vora ble result was p rob a bly due to
,
ITAL IAN OPERA 16 1
Ru b in i s singing in the chief part At present an opera is regarded

’
.
,
as a n art wor k in which the composer mu st do so m ething wor th

-
whi le so th a t a single singer cou ld not now m a ke a poor work su c

,
oec d. B u t the Ita lia ns of a century ag o cared f or little beyond
sm ooth melodies well su ng .
Of Bellini s dozen or so of operas three beca me far better known

’
,
“ ” “ “
tha n the rest These three were Norma
. I Purita ni
”
and La , ,
Som n am b u l a The first is b a sed on a D rui dic su bject an d has a

.
,
su fficiently dra m a tic li bretto Its mu sic is flu ent an d not la cking in .

,
effects of rea l br ea dth Most fa mous a mong its nu mbers is Norma s

.
’
“
grea t solo of pra yer and renu ncia tion C as ta Diva ”
I Purita ni
”
, .
dea ls with C romwell s tim es a lthou gh its conventiona l story of love

’
,
a n d jea lou sy is h ardly Purita nica l This work allowed a tr em endou s .
“
su ccess to be m a de by the so ca lled Pu rita ni qu artet of singers
”
-
,
G risi Ru bini Tambur ini a n d La b la che For ma ny years they kept

, , , .
“
the work before the pu blic a t Paris La Som nam b ula tr ea ts a ”
.
Scribe libretto dea ling with com plica tions tha t resu lt from the sleep
,
“
wa lking of its heroine Amina Her final ou tb urst of joy Ah non
, .
, ,
giu nge is a nother grea t fa vorite wi th soloists

”
, .
Bellini did not enter the field of comic opera an d in his tra gedies ,
he did not show the versa tility of Rossini B u t if he la cked som e of .
the brillia nce of his riva l he a toned for it by brea dth of effect His
,
.
melodies are often tenderly pa thetic in style with m u ch sincerity , ,
a n d occas ion a lly b r oa d sweeps of feeling When the sta ndards of the .
da y are kept in mind it wil l be seen th a t Bellini s opera s showed ’

,
considera ble tra gic solemnity .
Ga eta no Donizetti (1797—184 8) was born a t Bergamo He re .
c eived early tra ining fr om M a yr a n d M a ttei For a time he entered .
the army to a void being forced into the law B u t he soon b ega n to
, .
“
com pose operas and in 182 2 his Zora ide de Gra na da procur ed
,
”
him an honora ble disch arge .
The fir st ten or twelve yea rs of his work were devoted to ra ther

fra nk im ita tions of Rossini withou t mu ch indivi duality By 1830 ,
.
Donizetti ha d com posed a bou t thirty opera s thou gh none of them ,

“
showed grea t m erit B u t with Anna Bolena (183 2 ) his more
”
.
distinctive period be ga n .
The works by which Donizetti is best known are three tra gedies
“ ” “
a nd thr ee comedies The former are Lu crezia Borgia
. Lu cia di ,
La mmerm oor a nd Linda di Cha m ou nix while the la tter con

, ,
“ ” “ “
sist of La Fille du Regi m ent Don Pa squa le a nd L Eli sir
,
”
,
’
d Am ore
’
.
”
The tragedies ha ve a llthe fa u lts of their sc hool While their bril .
lia nt solos ca ptiva ted the au diences of their da y their mu sic is now ,
seen to ha ve no especia l d ra ma tic mea ning These tra gedies like .

,
those of Rossini s ea rlier styles show not the fa intest a pproa ch to

’
,
the rea l dra ma tic possibilities of opera as exploited by Glu ck They

, .
are merely grou ps of singa ble m elodies with little or no connection ,
between them an d the dra ma tic situa tion or the sense of the words .
Their ra ther disconnected numbers ha ve been likened to a string of

separa te pearls ; but even the single gems were not of the fir st wa ter
when com par ed with those ma de in Germa ny .
In the comedies far better conditions preva il The mu sic is not

, .
only tu nefu l b u t bri ghtly hu m orou s in chara cter a n d well su ited to

, ,
“
the needs of the different situa tions La Fille du Regim ent has
.
”
for its her o a Tyrolese pea sa nt n a med Tonio who enters the r egi
, ,
ment to win the love of its pretty vi va ndrére M arie Adopted by the
'
.
,
regiment when a fou ndling M arie finds tha t she is the dau ghter of a
,
marqu ise who carries her home ; b u t Tonio becoming colonel tra ces
, , ,
M arie a n d fina lly wins her Don Pas qua le dea ls with a n old m an
,
.
”
of tha t na me who wishes to cu t off his nephew s expecta tions by ’
ma king a second m arria ge The nephew E rnest persu a des his

.
, ,
sweetheart Norina to try to ca ptiva te the elderly wooer She charms .
him a t first b u t a fter a mock marria ge she pretends to turn sh rew

,
ish andextra va gan t Don Pa squ a le is ma de to ha te the idea of m ar

.
“
ria g e before he is told th a t the wedding was not rea l L Elisir
’
.
d Am ore trea ts the story of a love potion bou ght from a conj uror
’ ”
by the villa ger Nem orino With the a id of this a nd va riou s events
.
, ,
he su cceeds in win ning his swee theart in spite of the fa scina tions of
,
a visiting sergea nt .
The viva city a n d charm of the mu sic in these comedies wins high
pra ise even now No a llowa nce need be m a de in their fa vor beca use
.
of cha nging sta ndar ds ; they hold their own to da y with scarcely less -
vigor tha n when they were first pr odu ced While the tra gedies of .
the Ita lia n school seem thin an d inartistic the comedies are still ,
m odels in their p articu lar line .
A number of composers were a ctive a t the b eginning of Rossini s

Th ose who began a ctivity toward the middle of the century in

cluded Fra ncesco Chiaromonte Antonio Ca gnoni the double— bass , ,
virtu oso B ottesini Fra ncesco Sehira Giorgio Miceli C arlotta

, , ,
Ferra ri and the still la ter Pietro Pla ta nia an d Filippo Mar chetti
,
.
Gree ce was represented by Spiro Sa mara and his su ccessor Theo

us Sa kel
phil larin es .
The two br others Luigi and Federi co Ricci wrote together a t

“
times and ma de a grea t su ccess with their joint work C rispino
,
e la Comare given a t Venice in 1850

”
, .
Antonio Carlos Gomez the B ra zilia n was a member of this , ,
school though coming a little a fter it in point of time Fr om 1870

, .
“ ” “
on he won a ttention with his 11Gua ra ny Sa lva tor Rosa and
”
, ,
“
M ar ia Tu dor ”
.
Contemporary with Gomez was Amilca r e Ponchielli who stu died ,
“
a n d composed a t Mil an His best work is La Gioconda a ta le of
”
.
,
the love a n d self sa crifice of a poor street singer This holds its pla ce
-
.
in the repertoir e to da y -
.
Arrigo Boi to born in 1842 has won fa me as an a dmira ble lib ret
, ,
tist f or Verdi In 1868 Boi to finished his own excellent opera

.
,
“ “
Mefistofele ”
Com ing a fter Gounod s Fa ust it dif
. fers from
’
,
tha t work in trea ting both parts of Goethe s grea t poem The first ’
.
scene shows the Pr ologue in Hea ven with Mephistopheles ga ining ,
the Lor d s perm ission to tempt Fa ust Then comes the first a ct on
’
.
,
a squar e in Fra nkfort a n d in Fa u st s la bora tory The second a c t

’
.
,
inclu des the garden scene an d the Witches Sa bb a th on the B r ocken ’

.
The thir d a ct consists of the prison scene with Fau st returning to ,
find his Margueri te dyi ng The four th a ct shows the Cla ssica l Sa b
.
b a th on the ba nks of the Peneus An epilogu e shows Fa u st in his

, .
la bora tory an d brings in his ultima te sa lva tion throu gh the ha ppi
,
ness he fou nd in working for others .
The mu sic to this grea t work pla ces it in a more modern ca tegory
th a n the da te of its completion wou ld indica te While the m a jor ity .
of Ita lia n composers still followed Rossini or the early Verdi Boi to ,
bla zed a new pa th for himself and b a sed his wor k on the tru e princi
,
“
ples of modern opera When given with a dequ a te forces Mefisto
.
,
fele is tremendou sly effective The choruses of the Cheru bim a n d

”
. ,
the voice of the Lord from behind the clou ds give the prologu e a ,
“
surprising ma jesty The first a ct inclu des Mephisto s grea t solo Son
.
’
ITALIAN OPERA 16 5
10 spirito The ga rden sc ene is plea sing enough the witches revel
.
,
’
wildly effective and the prison du et rea lly bea u tifu l In the fou rth
, .
a c t Helen of Tr oy ha s a powerfu l a n d dra ma tic solo ; while the epi
logu e with its struggle between the powers of good a n d evil su sta ins
, ,
the dra ma tic interest well Boi to has not yet produ ced a su ccessor
.
to this work thou gh his Nero has been a nnou nced ma ny times
,
”
.
The rea l Ita lia n lea der however was Giu seppe Verdi He was
, , .
born a t Le Roncole on October 10 18 13 the sa m e year tha t sa w

, ,
Wa g ner s birth Verdi s love for mus 1c was displa yed a t an early a ge
’
.
’
.
When a seven year old choir boy he beca me so a bsorb ed in listen ing
- - -
,
to the o rga n tha t he forgot to ha nd the holy wa ter to the p riest A .
kindly mu sicia n C a va letti repa ired a n old spinet which he ga ve

, , ,
to Ver di s fa ther beca u se the you ngster pla yed so well

’
.
After studying with the loca l orga nist Verdi went to the town of ,
B u sseto where other friends helped him He was a ided especia lly
, .
by the rich mercha nt B arezzi who ena bled him to study with Provesi ,
a n d a fterwar d sent the you ng m a n to the Mil a n Conser va tory .
There a sur prise was in store ; for Verdi was rejected by the Mila n
tea cher Eas ily There are severa l a necdotes telling how he revenged
, .
him self a fterwar d by ou tdoing the conser va tory stu dents in fu ga l

a n d ca nonic writing These however are pr ob a bl y fa lse ; for even in
.
, ,
his grea t Ma nzoni Requ iem Verdi ra ther a voided cou nterpoint
”
, .
Verdi stu died with La vigna a nd was certa inly earnest a nd diligent ,
enou gh ; for we soon find the m erch a nt pa tr on a llowing his dau ghter -
to m a rry the you ng com po ser before the l a tter ha d ma de a na me for ,
him self .
Verdi s first opera Oberto di San Bonifa cio was produ ced a t
’
, ,
Mila n in 18 39 This su cceeded so well th a t the ma na ger Merelli

.
, ,
ga ve Verdi a contra ct for thr ee more opera s The first of these was .
“
the comedy Un Giom o di Regno While he was a t work u pon it
”
.
,
his wife an d his two children died Under these cir cu msta nces he .
was har dly in the mood f or comedy ; a n d it is not sur p ri sing to rea d
tha t the work fa iled Verdi was so u tterly ca st down tha t he thought
.
of giving u p composition ; b u t Merelli fina lly persua ded him to

continu e .
The composer s next work was Na bu cco a nother success The

’
, .
sopra no who ha d the chief part Giu seppin a Strepponi a fterward , ,
beca me Verdi s second wife and lived until 1898

’
, .
16 6 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL K NOWLEDGE
Other works which Verdi com posed a t this period inclu de I Lom
” “ ” “ ” “ ” “
ba rdi ,
E rna ni I Du e Foscari, Giova nna d Arco Ma c ,
’
,
” “ “
beth ”
, I M a sn a dieri Lu isa Miller a n d severa l more E m a ni
,
”
, .
has la ste d better th a n the others B a sed on Victor H u go s pla y it

’
.
,
trea ts a story of roma ntic power with su fficiently popu lar mu sic .
At this tim e Verdi u nderstood nothing higher th a n the style of

melodic tra gedy intr od u ced by Rossini ; b u t his m elodies even thou gh ,
not a imed to echo the sense of the words were m u ch str onger tha n ,
those of Rossini .
“
Un B a llo in M aschera which belongs to a l a ter period shows
, ,
how lightly the libretto of an opera was regar ded Verdi s early .
’
librettists Solera an d Pia ve were verita ble sl a ves a t the beck of

, , ,
“
com poser or ma na ger In their h a nds M a cbeth beca me so com
.
”
m onp l a c e th a t Sha kespea re wou ld h ardly h a ve r ecog nized it Bu t .
“
in the B a llo in M aschera (Ma sked B a ll ) the incongruities in
”
creas ed a t every turn The libretto dea lt with the a ssa ssina tion of a
.
king a t the ma squ era de When the au thorities forba de this as too
.
revol u tion ary Verdi ma de the sc ribe ch a nge the king into the Du ke
,
of Ma ntua This was not enou gh to sa tisfy the police ; so Verdi next
.
ma de a ra dica l cha nge by a lteri ng the vi ctim into the Governor of

Boston ”
One hardly im a gines the old Boston Purita ns giving
.
mas ked ba lls When the tenor M ario fou nd the costu me of the ru ler
.
too pla in he a ltered it into tha t of a Spa nish ca va lier

, .
Verdi a t one time a tta ined a pec u liar politica l significa nce beca use ,
“
of the letters of his na me They stood for Vittorio E m a nu ele Re
.
,
d Ita lia a n d the you ng pa tr iots who shou ted Viva Verdi were
’ ”
in rea lity cheering the idea of a u nited Ita ly .
In 1849 Ver di entered u pon a new period in his growth To this .
” “ “
belong Rigoletto IlTrova to re
”
an d
, La Tra vi a ta
”
,
.
“
Rigoletto the first of the three has a plot dea ling with the
”
, ,
intrigues of the D u ke of Ma ntu a His court jester Rigoletto has .

, ,
a ided hi m in a n a mor ou s a dventu re a n d the friends of the vi ctim ,
r evenge themselves by b ringing Rigoletto s d au ghter Gild a to the

’
du ke The jester then hir es an a ssa ssin who lures the du ke to a

.
,
lonely house B u t the a ssa ssin s sister fa lling in love with the du ke
.
’
, ,
persuades her brother to su bstitu te a nother victim in or der to earn

Rigoletto s money To cure Gilda of her love for the du ke Rigoletto
’
. ,
b rings her to see that ruler s a ttentions to M a ddalena Gilda fear ’

.
,
16 8 TH E BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
LaTra via ta was fou nded on D u m as C ami lle with the hero ,
ine na med Violetta a n d her lover Alfr edo She lea ves him beca use .
his fa ther sa ys she will inj ur e his pr ospects ; a n d he thinks her fa lse .
After a meeting a t a Pa ris ball he learns the tru th b u t only in time , ,
to find her dying The most fa mous selections from the score of
.
“
this work are Violetta s expressive Ah fors e lui an d the fa ther s
” ’
, ,
’
description of hom e in Di Provenza ilm ar At the first perform

”
.
a nce the size of the sop ra no ma de the oper a a fa il

, ure ; for when the
three hu ndr ed pou nd singer Dona telli sta ted th a t she was dying of
- -
consu mption the a u dience burst into l aughter

, .
Meanwhile Wa gner s doctrines had been gra dua lly bec oming ’
known even in Ita ly Verdi a lwa ys discl aimed being influ enced by
, .
Wa gner b u t this a ssertion though true in the letter is not true

, , ,
in the spirit Verdi m a y not h a ve tried to imita te Wa gner s style

.
’
,
b u t the Germa n mas ter led him to wr ite opera s th a t wer e f ar more
like the Germ an mu sic dra ma s tha n his earlier works -

.
“ “
Don C arlos a n d La Forz a del D estino showed Verdi s new
” ” ’
tendency ; b u t it rea ched a mu ch grea ter perfection with Ai da ”

,
given a t C a iro in 187 1 .
“
Ai da on a plot provided by the Egyp tia n Khedive who or
, ,
dered the work dea ls with a story la id in a ncient Egypt At the

, .
cour t Ai da a beau tifu l Ethiopia n hosta ge fa lls in love with the offi
, , ,
cer Rh a d a mes who retur ns her love Rh a da mes is a ppointed lea der
, .
of the force th a t is to fight the Ethiopia n king whose d au ghter is ,
Ai da though her ca ptors do not know of the rela tionship The

, .
Pr incess Amneris who herself loves Rha da mes discovers Ai da s

, ,
’
feelings by questioning her Rha da mes brings ba ck the Ethiopian .
king Amona sr o as a ca ptive ; an d he warns Ai da not to betra y his

, ,
identity On the island of Philae Ai da forced by her fa ther learns

.
, , ,
from Rha da mes the rou te of the next expedition Amona sr o then .
discloses himself and tries to persua de Rha da mes to flee with him
,
an d Ai d a While Rh a d a mes is hesita ti ng the high priest of a nea r b y

.
,
-
temple brought by Amneris discovers the trio Amona sr o esca pes

, , .
,
b u t Rha d a mes is held f

or j u dgment Amneris offers him freedom in .
exch a nge for love b u t he refuses He is sea led up in a su bterra nea n

, .
vau lt into which Ai da has ma de her way to die with him

, .
“
The music of Ai da is so fresh varied a nd forcefu l tha t the
”
, ,
opera is still one of the best dra wing cards in the entire repertoire .
ITALIAN OPERA 16 9
In this work Verdi deser te d the simplicity of Ita lia n tunes and pro ,
du ced a work whose rich harmonies an d rea lly expressive melodies

were far a bove a nything he ha d done before To ca ta logu e the m usi .
ca lexcellences of this opera wou ld a lmost mea n giving a description
of the entire score ; b u t a few of the chief nu mbers m a y be men

“
tioned In the first ac t Rh a d ames a r ia Celeste Ai da the chorus
” ’
. , ,
of a ccla ma tion when he is m a de lea der Ai da s tra gic Ritorna vi n ,

’
c itor
,
”
when her lover goes to fight her fa ther a nd the consecra tion ,
service in the tem ple are alla dmira ble The te m ple scene is b ased
, .
on a rea l Egyptia n m elody In the second a c t come the da nce of the

.
sla ve boys before Am neris her dia logu e with Ai da an d in a sep ara te
-
, ,
scene the return of the victorious army the las t being one of the ,
most sta tely scenes in the rea lm of opera The thir d ac t in cl u des .
Mda s foreboding la ment her du et with Rha da m es an d the clima x

’
, ,
of their discovery with Amona sr o The fourth act conta ins som e .
impressive priests mu sic well contrasted with the agita tion of

’
,
Amneris and in the dea th scene som e fervid sna tches of du et in

, ,
a dmira ble contra st with the temple servi c e going on a bove the
doomed lovers hea ds ’

.
For sixteen years Verdi rested u pon his wel l ea rned la urels Then -
.
“
he prod u ced the tra gedy Otello Boi to wrote the libretto an d .
,
a dded to it a cha i n of chorus es su ng by the Cyprus fishermen bea r

“
ing gifts to Desdem ona a n d a sa rdonic Credo of Ia go th a t even
,
”
“
Sha kespeari a ns a d m ire While this is not so popu lar as Ai da its
.
”
,
mu sic is intensely powerfu l a ndsha ped with a n eye for tragic effects
, .
“
Verdi set his own m u sic to the song Willow m enti oned by Des
”
,
dem ona ; b u t the old English tune which still exists wou ld h ave been , ,
more dir ectly expressive .
Six years la ter in 1893 Ver di brou ght ou t his las t opera Fa l
, , ,
a t Mila n Aga in Boi to was the librettist This time the pla y
. .
was a ltered only by the intr od u c tion of Fa lsta f fs disser ta tion on

’
honor ta ken from Henr y IV The libretto as a whole comes from

,
”
.
The Merry Wives of Windsor Fa lsta ffis ma de to meet his mis

”
.
a dventures both a t Fo rd s hou se a nd a t Herne s Oa k in a vein of

’ ’
, ,
light sarca sm set to the most delightfu lly ch a ttering mu sic As in .
“
the pla y allends ha ppily with Fenton s betr oth a l to Sweet Anne
, ,
’
Page .
XIX
C HE RUB IN I AND F R E N C H O P E RA
LUIGI C ARLO Z ENOB IO SALVATORE M ARIA C HERUB INI whose ,
na me beca me as fa m ou s as it was extensive was born a t Florence in ,
17 6 0 He was a t first tra in ed by his fa ther a harpsichord pla yer a t

.
,
a loca l thea tr e ; a n d a fterwar ds he took a thor ou gh course with Sa r ti .
His life divides itself na tu ra lly into thr ee periods first a short , ,
ca r eer in the conventiona l Ita lia n style ; second the lea dership of ,
opera com position a t Paris ; a n d las t a number of years as composer

,
of sa cr ed mu sic an d director of the Paris Conserva toire His lofty .
style ga ve point to the sa ying tha t he was an Ita lian who composed
Germa n mu sic in Fra nce .
In his first period Cheru bini mastered counterpoint and beca me

, ,
fa miliar with the sty le an d spiri t of the old Ita lia n ch urch mu sic .
After a sojourn in London the you ng composer ma de Paris his

,
home an d soon ca me u nder the cla ssic spell of Glu ck s la ter operas
,
’
.
“
Cheru bini himself composed an Ifig enie in Au lide which was "
,
given a t Turin in 1788 wi th mu ch su ccess .
“
His first Par isia n triu mph Demophon proved th a t he ha d
, ,
definitely disca rded the light Ita lia n sty le an d a dopted som ething ,
more str ongly dra ma tic Like Rossini he was inspired by the tra di
.
,
tions of the Parisia n sta ge ; b u t he soon rose to grea ter heights th a n

Rossini ever rea ched .
His next French su ccess Lodoiska was brought out in 179 1

,
'
,
.
This work ga ined for its com poser a n interna tiona l repu ta tion It .
a lso cas t into the sh a de the light mel odiou s tr ifles th a t were begin
ning to a ppear in Paris In la ter years the more su perficia l works

.
,
of Boieldieu an d Auber beca me typ ica l of Pa risia n ta ste It is on .
“
r ecord th a t when the former ha d won pl a u dits with his Ca li ph of
“
B a gda d Cheru bini sa id to him Are you not a sha med to enjoy
”
, ,
su ch an u ndeserved su c cass? Boieldieu then stu died with Cheru

”
bini with good resu lts In a llhis ca reer Cheru bini was a ra ther
.
ca ustic an d ca ptious individua l more fea red tha n loved ; b u t he used

,
CHERUB INI AND FRENCH OPERA 17 1
his critica l tongu e in defense of a high sta ndard of artistic principle .
“
The libretto of Lodoiska was ra ther wea k It dea lt with the
” '
efforts of the heroine s lover to rescu e her from a power fulriva l s

’ ’
ca stle a n d ended with a n a tta ck by Tarta rs th a t brought a bou t the

,
desired resu lt .
Three yea rs la ter ca m e Elisa b u t a far more i m porta nt wor k

“
a ppea red a fter a nother thr ee y ears in the sh a pe of Médée Its
”
, .
dig nity an d cla ssic power rendered it a mas terpiece It was not .
popu la r a t first beca u se it ha d a ra ther poor libretto which pla ced

, ,
the interest chiefly with the title role a n d because its m u sic was ,
ra ther too h armonic to su it the m a sses B u t it soon grew into popu .
C heru b in i best known opera was Lac Deu x Journées given in

’
s -
,
1800 This work dea ls with the fortunes of the Depu ty Arma nd
.
,
who has incurred the h a tr ed of M a zarin The Paris ga tes are .
gu arded b u t Arma nd esca pes in a ca sk of the wa ter carrier Mikeli

,
-
,
whose son he ha d helped on a p reviou s occa sion Once ou tside Ar .

,
ma nd is ca ptu r ed while defending his wife ; b u t a par don from the

qu een m a kes everything end ha ppily This opera is known in Ger .
“
m a ny as The Wa ter C arrier
”
-
.
The style of the m u sic to this work as was tru e of most of Cheru ,
bini s French produ ctions u nited a lofty dignity wi th rar e charm of

’
,
melody a n d expression His works with those of Glu ck a nd others

.
, ,
are often referr ed to as cla ssica l opera ; b u t an equ a lly good term
”
,
“
in C herub ini s ca se a t lea st wou ld be symphonic opera His
’
, .
scores show the worthiness in ma teri a l a n d the skill in its ha ndlin g

tha t we a ssocia te with the grea t orchestra l m a sters of Germ a ny .
C herub in i s over tures by which he is stillkn own on con c ert p r o

’
,
gra m m es ha ve allthe dignity an d power th a t we expect fr om the

,
“
sym phonic writers Especia lly excellent are the overtures to Les
.
“
Deu x Journées a nd to An acreon which followed the ea rli er ,
”
su ccess in three yea rs .
Cheru bini was often a t odds with Na poleon who perhaps did not ,
a pp r eci a te his mu sic a n d in a n y ca se did not a ppr ove of his inde

,
pendent a nd arbitra ry wa ys Cheru bini fin a lly fou nd it wise to lea ve

.
Par is for a tim e He went to Vienna and in 1806 brought ou t a t th a t

.
,
ca pita l his l as t grea t opera tic su cces s Fan iska This took Ger
”
, .
ma ny by storm ; an d Beethoven an d Ha ydn praised the work highly .

It is proba ble tha t Cherubini served as a model for Beethoven and ,
helped the Germa n ma s ter to develop the strength of expression

tha t he showed in the la ter part of his second period B u t soon Na .
p o leon c a me th un der i ng a t the ga tes of Vienn a a n d Che ru bini ha d

,
to move a ga in .
When the Bourbons returned to power Cherubini was once more ,
in fa vor a t Par is B u t his opera tic career was over As Roya l Choir
. .
master an d hea d of the Conserva toire he devoted himself to sa cred

,
mu sic His works in this field inclu de ma ny a dmira ble short com
.
positions ; b u t his fam e rests chiefly on his la rger produ ctions ,
consisting of eleven masses a n d two superb requ iems He cou ld .
compose in the pure ma nner of the Palestrina school and a lso show ,
a comm and of la ter h armonic exp ression a n d dra m a tic ins tru
menta tion He blended the old with the new in most a dm ira ble
.
fashion .
As dir ector of the Conserva toire he rema ined a ctive for many
,
years , in fa ct a lmost down to his dea th in 1842 He ruled with

, , .
a str ong h a nd His arbi trary decisions led him into severa l mis
.
ta kes ; for he rejected Liszt an d R u binstein and sneered a t Berlioz , .
B u t these were ra dica ls while he was a conserv a tive He showed a

, .
mas tery of his own field by writing an a dmira ble trea tise on counter
p oint .
Ritter wrote of Cherub ini s operas They will remain for the
’
,
earnest stu dent a clas sic source of exqu isite artistic enjoyment an d ,
serve as models of a perfect ma stery over the deepest resour ces a nd

“
mea ns th a t the rich field of m u sica l art presents Fétis sa id of Les
”
.
” “
deux Journées There is a copiou sness of melody
, b u t su ch is
the richness of the a ccom p an ying harmony and the brillia nt color ,
ing of the instru menta tion th a t the merit of the melody was not
“
a ppr ecia ted a t its j u st va l u e Mendelssohn wrote of Les Aben
.
c erra g es
”
one of the opera s th a t he could not su ff
, , i ciently pra ise
“
the sparkling fire the clever origina l phra sing a n d the u nusua l
, , ,
del ica cy an d refinement of the work ”

.
E tienne Nicholas Méhu l (1763 — 1817 ) was of French birth a n d ,
ca me u nder Glu ck s influ ence He pla yed the orga n when ten yea rs
’
.
old an d took u p sa cred composition soon after La ter on he went to

, .
Par is In spite of the disturbed sta te of the Revolu tionary politics

.
,
he soon bega n to ma ke hea dwa y as an opera composer starting in ,

174
'
THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE

As a lrea dy recorded Rossini 5 Willia m Tell belongs to the ,
school of P ar isia n gra nd opera .
Another com poser who participa ted in gra nd opera by a si ngle

work was Da niel Fra n c ois Esprit Au ber (1784 He was a
pu pil of Cheru bini wh ose infl u ence is shown in Au ber s early m asses
,
’
a n d ope ras By 182 0 Auber becam e known in connection with opéra

.
comiqu e which was rea lly his life work He a ssocia ted himself with
,
- .
E ugene Scribe an d set the la tter s bright libre ttos during a period
,
’
of forty years B u t in 182 8 he ma de a successfu l entry into the

.
Spontini field of historica l grand opera by the produ ction of ,
“
M asa niello som etim es kn own as La M u ette de Portici The
,
”
.
heroine Fenella is dumb She has been betra yed by D u ke Alphonso ;

, , .
b u t when her br other M asa niello lea ds a su ccessfu l rising she gener ,
ousl y ca u ses him to sp are the du ke a n d his betr othed Elvira Mea n , .
while the defea ted party assemble fresh forces and overcome the ,
people ; whereupon Ma saniello a fter a fit of m a dness is ki lled by , ,
his own com ra des and Fenella kills herself on Vesu vius The mus ic
, .
to this opera has ma ny bold an d origina l effects in spite of some ,

“
conventiona l passa ges Au ber s light operas inclu de Le M a c on
.
” ’
,
“ ” “ “
Fra Dia volo Le Cheva l de B ronze and Les Dia ma nts de la
, ,
Couronne ”
Fran c ois Adrien Boieldieu (1775—

.
1834 ) pr eceded Au ber a n d was ,
a pionee r in his style of light opera Boieldieu secured Parisian .
recognition as ea rly as 179 5 In 1800 he beca me a pi ano tea cher a t .
the Conserva toire He lear ned mu ch from Cheru bini an d Méhul

.
,
his a dvance showing in Ma Ta nte Aurore produ ced in 1803 His

”
, .
“ “
best wor ks inclu de Jea n de Paris ”
Le Petit Cha peron
Rou ge ”
an d his mas te rpiece La D a me Bl anche
”
“
The la st n a med opera is based on scenes from Scott s Monas tery
-
’
“
Gu y M annering
”
an d .
Henri Monta n Berton com posed nea rly fifty operas an d tau ght ,
”
com position a t the Conserva toire His best works were Le Délire . ,
“ “
Aline and Fran c oise de Foix He was a bitter opponent of
”
, .
Rossini .
Nicolo Isouard popula rly known as Nicolo was equ a lly a ctive in
, ,
” “ ”
O pe ra
. His most popu l ar works were Cendrillon Joc on de a nd , ,
“
Jca nnot et Colin His little melodies were simple enou gh b u t not
”
. ,
withou t artless p athos ; and concert singers still delve into his works
CHERUB INI AND FRENCH OPERA 175
for unfa miliar b u t gra cefu l sel ections He was ra ther less careful .
tha n Boieldieu ; an d jea lou sy of the la tter m ay ha ve been an incen

tive to the dissipa tion tha t ended his career .
Lu c de Persu is secu red a hear ing f or his operas a n d ba llets p artly
Rodolphe Kreu tzer the violinist pr odu ced opera s of a som ewha t
, ,
“
ea rlier da te bringing ou t a Lodoiska in 179 1
,
”
.
Charles Sim on Ca tel displa yed mu ch elegan ce of style b u t his ,
music was considered too lea rned for opera .
Giu seppe B lang ini a nd Giu seppe Ca trufo were Ita lia ns who
“
worked a t Paris The la tter s Felicie won so m e a ttention
.
’
.
Michele C arafa was a nother tra nspla nted Ita lia n He com posed .
Le Solita ire anda setting of Ma sa niello th a t preceded Au ber s

”
,
’
.
Contem porary with this sch ool of opera were the Portugu ese
“
M arcos An tonio Portoga llo com poser of Ferna ndo in Messico
,
”
,
a n d the Sp a ni ar d Ra mon C arn ic er whose best work was Colombo

,
.
Lou is Joseph Ferdina nd Hérold (179 1— 183 3 ) is best known by

“ “
M arie ”
Za mpa a n d Le Pr é a ux Cler cs
”
He showed som e richness of insp ira tion an d ga ve to the French ,
ba llet its vivid warm th of expression His last two grea t works won .
“
him a lm ost as mu ch renown as Weber a tta ined In Za m pa a ”
.
,
pira te of tha t name ca ptures a Sicilian mercha nt fal ls in love with ,
the prisoner s da ughter gives him freedom a t the price of her ha nd

’
, ,
a n d displ a ces her lover ; b u t a t the wedding feas t the sta tu e of a
you ng girl whom he ha d betra y ed cl ai m s Za m pa an d dra gs him of f ,

“
to the inferna l regions Le Pré a ux Clercs has its scene la id in
.
”
Na varre a nd is fu ll of intrigu es an d conspira cies

, .
Adolphe Adam (1803 56 ) represented light opera in a la ter gener

-
“
a tion He was best known by Le Postilion de Longj u meau His ”
. .
style marks a decline towar d trivia lity though he m a de som e con ,
sc ien tious efforts to enter the field of gra nd opera .
Albert Grisar was of Belgia n origin His works were poetic in a .
wa y b u t very light
, .
Flori m ond Ronger Alexa ndre Lecocq E mile Jonas an d Ja cqu es

, , ,
O ffen ba ch brought the school to a still lighter though brighter level , , .
B y their ti m e opé ra comi qu e ha dretr a ced its steps an d becom e a lm ost

like grand opera In fa ct even its nam e was cha nged an d it beca me
.
, ,
“ “
known as the drame lyriqu e Offenb ach s fantas tic opera The
”
.
’
Ta les OfHoffm ann was of a higher type tha n his other works It .
mak as the bizarre Germ a n writer Hoffm a nn the hero of some of hi s

own storias ea ch of which is presented in an ac t Hoffma nn is pur
,
.
su ed by ah evil principle tha t a lwa ys ma kes his love end unfortu

na tely Fin a.lly the muse O f
fe rs to co n sole him with f a me ; b u t he has
been dr inking an d is too coma tose to a ccept

,
.
Felicien Da vid a lso of a la ter genera tion beca me known by La

, ,
” “ “ ”
Perle du B résil Hercula neum a n d La lla Rookh B u t he
”
, , .
”
a chieved most fa me by his symphonic ode Le Désert which was a ,
pionee r work in u sing a rea l Orienta l style a nd suggestion .
Gra nd opera was continued in the preceding genera tion by Jacqu es

Fromenta l H a l evy (1799 A pu pil of Berton an d Cherubini ,
he followed Hérold a t first b u t soon worked on origi na l lines His

,
.
“
grea test opera tic su ccess ca me in 1835 with the tra gedy La Juive ,
“
a n d the comedy In La Ju ive the dis guised Prince
”
,
Leopold pa ys a ttentions to Ra chel su pp osed da ughter of the rich ,
Jew Elea zar She penetra tes the disgu ise ; a nd as the p rince is m ar
.
ried she denounces him The ca rdinal a t the court then excom m uni
, .
ca tes Le opold a nd he with R achel a n d Elea zar is thrown into

, , ,
prison The wronged princess tou ches Rachel s hea rt so th a t to

.
’
,
sa ve the prince she retracts her a ccusa tion Then she is thrown into .
a va t of boiling oil ; an d Elea zar e xpla ins tha t Ra chel was the ca rdi
na ls own d a ughter sa ved from a fir e dur ing inf a ncy

’
.
,
The last of the foreigners to dom ina te French gra nd opera was
Gia como Meyer beer whose na me was origina lly Ja kob Beer He
, .
was bo rn of Jewish p arents a t Ber lin in 17 91 a n d soon beca me a , ,
chi ld pr odigy After stu dying with Abt Vogler who ga ve him long
.
,
winded disserta tions on the fugu e Meyerbeer started his opera tic ,
“ “
career with Jephthah s Vow a lmost a n ora torio and Abime
” ’
, ,
”
lech Then the young m an set ou t for Ita ly where he won a tten
.
,
“
tion in spite of Rossini s fa me His C rocia to in Egitto written
’ ”
.
,
f or Venice in 1824 was a p remonition of fu ture tr iump hs

, Soon .
Meyerbeer made Paris his home a nd did not disda in to ta ke a thor ,
ou gh course of study with French masters .
“
In 183 1 Robert l e Dia ble his first grea t su ccess arou sed tr e
”
, , ,
m en dous enthusia sm In thi s wo rk Meyerbeer first disp la yed his

.
mastery of instrumenta l effects an d his dra ma tic power The scene , .
is laid in Sicily to which the daredevil Robert of Norma ndy has

,
betra ya l by friends lea d him to end a llby blowing up the p a la ce
where he resides This work is ra ther confu sed in its libretto b u t
. ,
the mus ic conta ins some scenes of gorgeou s pa gea ntry M ost effec .
“
tive is the lofty Corona tion M ar ch .
The overture a n d incidenta l mu sic to Stru ensee ca me in 184 6 .
Meyerbeer s l ast gra nd opera was dela yed in pro

’
,
du ction until a fter the composer s dea th in 1864 It dea ls with Va sco
’
, .
de Ga m a his sweethea rt Inez a riva l ofli cia lna med Don Pedro who
, ,
tr ies to stea l Va sco s new discoveries a trea cherou s sla ve Nelu sko
’
, ,
who wrecks the explorers a n d a generou s Africa n qu een Selika

, , ,
who loves Va sco b u t returns him to his own sweethea rt The mu sic
, .
to this wor k is less grandiose th a n th a t of the preceding opera s Its .
su a vi ty is in some degree a rea ction toward Rossini s methods ’

.
“
Meyerbeer ma de two tr ia ls of opéra comiqu e L Etoile du Nord .
’
is a story of Peter the G rea t an d his com pa nion C a therine a fter ,
war ds Empr ess ofRussia Dinora h or The Pardon a t Ploermel

.
”
,
”
,
dea ls with the fortu nes of two B reton pea sa nts Hoel an d Dinora h , ,
whose a dventures centr e a bou t bur ied treas ur e Neither work was .
a grea t su ccess
.
It has become the fa shion to a buse Meyer beer beca u se of his

thea tri ca l su perficiality Bu t it mu st be rem em bered tha t he
.
exis ted before the Wa gneria n standards ma de gra nd opera a rea l

a rt work
-
. In spite of excesses a nd concessions to pu blic ta ste ,
Meyerbeer showed a brea dth of conception a dra ma tic power an d , ,
a mas tery of scoring tha t kept some of his works on the ope ra tic
,
sta ge until within a very few years of the present Schu m a nn .
“
a ccu sed him of going over to the circu s b u t if he did so he carried
”
, ,
out his action su ccessfully .

B E RL IOZ AND OTH E R FREN C HME N
FRENCH com posers ha ve made their repu ta tion in opera for the ,
m ost p art B u t Be rlioz was a n exception to this rul

. e ; an d he won his
wa y into the ra nks of the lea ders by his grea t orchestra l works .
Hector Berlioz was born a t COte Sa int André near Lyons in - -

, ,
1803 His fa ther was a d octor a n d expected the son to follow in his
.
,
footsteps By 1822 the b oy was sent to a medica l school in Paris ;

.
b u t he soon bega n devotin g hi s tim e to the stu dy of scores particu ,
larl y those of Glu ck an d Beethoven In a short time there ca me a

.
definite brea ch between fa ther an d son the you ng m a n clinging to ,
mu sic As a resu lt he was thr own u pon his own resour ces ; an d he
.
,
sa ng in a thea tre choru s to ga in a livelihood .
His conserva tory stu dies were pursu ed u nder Lesu eur who was ,
a lmost the only tea cher not a nta gonistic to him Berlioz bega n to .
show his ra dica l tendencies a t the sta rt ; a nd Cheru bini on looking ,
a t so m e of the p u pil s wor k dismi ssed it with a n equ iva lent of the
’
,
“
sla ng phra se Nix versta y He was ca lled unfit to compete for
.
the P ri x de Rom e thou gh a fter many a ttem pts he rea ched th a t goa l
,
“ “
with his canta ta Sardana pale His Messe Solennelle the over
”
.
”
,
“ “
tures Wa verley a n d Les Fra ncs Ju ges an d a n opera were
”
,
a mon g his pr eviou s a ttempts a t fa me .
In the m ea n while he ha d seen a bea u tiful I rish a ctress named ,
H arriet Smithson an d fa llen deeply in love with her As a token of

, .
his feelings he produ ced the Symphonie Fa nta stiqu e This not
,
”
.
a ble wo r k consists of five m ove m ents pictur ing episodes in the life
,
of an artist In the first movem ent he sees his idea l a n d falls in love
.
,
with her ; a n d the fa ir one is typified by a definite theme B u t his .
love is u nrequ ited a ndhe seeks variou s scenes to help him forget her
, .
The second movement is a b a llroom picture with fra gments of da nce ,
music suggesting themselves an d being woven a bou t the theme of

,
“
the loved one The third movem ent In the Fields is a plea si ng
. , ,
rustic scene with a dia logue between a shepherd a nd a shepherdess

,
portra yed by English horn an d oboe A thu nderstorm arises ; and .
a fter it p a sses a tra gedy is suggested when the inquir ing stra ins of
,
the shepherd meet with no response except dista nt thu nder Mea n .
while the arti st in jea lou sy kills his sweetheart ; and the four th
, ,
movement depicts his march to execu tion Most composers would .
h a ve ended the work here ; b u t Berlioz a lwa ys fond of morbid sub ,
j ec ts
, a dded a fifth move m ent sho w ing the m ur de r er s r eception in ’
the inferna l regions There the Di es Irae is parodied and the theme
.
,
of the loved one tu rned into a rib ald waltz .
Another ou tcom e of the com poser s feelings m a y be seen in the ’
Romeo a n d Ju liet symphony which is bu ilt on a simila r large

”
,
pla n and carried ou t in the progra mme style

, .
Th e co m poser s devotion fin a lly pr oved a ccepta ble to Miss Smith

’
son ; b u t unfortu na tely it could not be sa id tha t they lived h a ppily

ever a fter An a ccident compelled her to lea ve the stage M a tters
. .
grew more an d more stra ined in the hou sehold u ntil a dispu te a bou t ,
the composer s tours ca u sed a separa tion He su pported her however

’
.
, ,
until her dea th A second ma rri age with M lle Recio was qu ieter
.
, .
,
in its raeults ; b u t disag eem ents ca me even here She was a singer .
,
a nd kept dem a nding pr ominent p arts in her h us b a nd s wo rks

’
even when she mu st ha ve known tha t the m i les wer e beyond her
p owe rs. Afte r her de a th her mothe r helped Berlioz considera bly
, .
At one time Berli oz took up wri ting as a stop g a p He has left - .
many criticisms and memoirs which are marked by an excellent ,
literary style .
Other grea t works by Berlioz inclu de the monodra ma Leli o ,

“ ” “ “
a nd the overtu res King Lear Rob Roy a n d The Corsa ir
”
.
, ,
These were followed by a nother im po rta nt progra mme symphony ,
Harold in Ita ly ba sed on parts of Byron s Childe H ar old By

”
,
’
.
this time the composer s fina ncia l condition bega n to mend A Re

’
.
qu iem brought him four thou sa nd fra ncs fr om the Government .
Pa ga nin i hea ring one of his symphonies presented him with twenty
, ,
thou sa nd fra ncs Beside these a mou nts he got ten thousa nd more
.
,
“
or his Symphonie Funebre et Triom pha le His foreign tri ps in
”
f .
,
Germa ny Austria an d Ru ssia were continu ou s tri u mphs Even

, , , .
Mendelssohn the conserva tive ga ve his works a fu ll ch a nce to be

, ,
heard ; thou gh Berlioz sa id a fterward tha t Mendelssohn s musica l ’
“
j udgment was a n a byss of su perficiality
”
.
position of m a sses On his return he spent some years in theologica l
.
stu dy b u t fina lly reverted to a m u sica l ca reer

,
.
“ “
His Messe Solennelle the Redem ption the Mors et Vita
”
, , ,
a n d other sa cr ed wor ks evidently r eflect the a tmosphere of his stu d
ies He tried the symphonic field a lso thou gh with little su ccess
. , .
“
His opera tic ca reer bega n with Sa pho which showed some ,
“
mus ica l richness b u t was u ndra ma tic Next ca me Ulysse in
,
”
.
,
which an a ttempt a t a n antiqu e style ca u sed som e monotony La .
Nonne Sa ngla nte was based on a story by Lewis entitled The

”
“
Monk ”
This was followed by a setting of Le Médecin m a lgré
.
lui,
”
which was effective enou gh in a way b u t withou t a ny rea l ,
comic spiri t .
“
Fa u st brou ght ou t in 1859 has been the composer s grea test
”
, ,
’
su ccess a n d one of the most cons ta nt triu mphs in the ann a ls of

,
opera It dea ls with the first part of Goethe s tra gedy a nd the Ger
.
’
,
“
ma ns som etimes ca ll it Ma rga rethe ”
In its first a ct Fa u st s .
,
’
thou ghts of su icide are interrupted by charming choru ses from ou t

side ; and when Mephistopheles rises a t his spell he a grees to sell his ,
sou l for plea sure a fter being shown a vision of Ma rgu erite The
,
.
next a ct shows a kerm esse in a pu blic pla ce Here Fa u st meets Ma r .
g uerite a n d Mephisto enterta ins the crowd u ntil his dra wing fla mes
, ,
from a spigot a long with wine ma kes them look as ka nce a t him The .
next scene shows Mar gu erite s ga rden with Mephisto pla cing jewels ’
,
by the flowers of her boyi sh a dmirer Siebel an d keeping the du enna ,
Martha ou t of the wa y while Fa ust m a kes su ccessfu l love to Mar

guerite In the fourth act soldiers return inclu ding Marguerite s
.
, ,
’
b rother Va lentine A mocki ng serena de arou ses Va lentine s ire a nd

.
’
,
in a du el Fa u st is tr ea cher ou sly a ided by Mephistopheles who kills ,
Va lentine an d ta kes Fau st a wa y in flight A chur ch scene shows the .
now despera te M ar gu erite u na ble to esca pe from remorse personi ,
fied by Mephistopheles In the la st a c t she is shown in pr ison ha v

. ,
ing becom e insa ne a n d killed the child of her betra ya l Fau st re .
turns to sa ve her b u t she dies and in spite of Mephisto s a ttempt

, ,
’
to cla im her sou l it is shown in a vision a scending to hea ven

,
.
“
The mu sic of Fa u st still ch arm s thou sa nds a t ea ch hearing It
”
.
has a bea u tifu l overture whi ch modern compose rs wou ld do well to

,
equa l if they cou ld The first ac t conta ins ch arming choru ses In
. .
“
the second act Mephisto s Golden C a lf song the wa ltz and the
,
” ’
, ,
BERLIO Z AND OTHER FRENCH MEN 183
popu lar exorcism of the evil spiri t are allhighly interesting in differ,
“ ” “
en t wa ys Siebel s Le parla te d am or The King of Thu le the
’ ” ’
.
, ,
“
Jewel Song an d the love du ets are effective parts of the char ming
”
,
garden scene which was held to be a wea k spot in the work before its
,
“
su ccess proved the fa lsity of this a ssu mption The Soldiers .
’
Choru s if fra nkly popu la r is a lso strongly effective a n d warms the

,
”
, ,
most h ypercritica l a loofness into rea l enthu siasm The chur ch mu sic .
is fu ll of power an d dignity The fina l act is short b u t its gra nd tr io

.
,
form s an effective voca l clim a x .
“
La Reine de Sa b a did not fu lfill expecta tions ; b u t Mireille
”
was su ccessful in a new direction The story is a Proven c a l idyl .
based on a work of the poet Mistra l Mir eille loves Vincent but her .
,
rich f a ther obj ects to him p referring the her ds m a n Ourrias

, On a .
pilgrima ge to a chur ch a t Cra u Mireille su ffers from a sunstroke, .
Her fa ther then tr ies to propitia te her by with dra wing his opposition
to Vincent ; whereu pon she speedily recovers The m u sic to this .
pastora l story has a char ming warmth of expression andcoloring the ,
shepherd s song in the thir d a ct being especia lly su ggestive of fra

’
grant m ea dow flowers .
“
Phil ém on et Ba u cis is a nother plea sing work in two a cts ,
L a Colombe was not a grea t su ccess while the la ter Cinq ,
“
M ars proved hasty a nd Polyeuc te mediocre B u t Rom éo et
”
,
”
.
Ju liette was a nother triu mph for the com poser Its mu sic has not
”
.
the m anifold bea u ties of the Fa u st score ; b u t it conta ins ma ny

”
popu lar numbers su ch as the wa ltz song Mercu tio s Q u een Ma b

, ,
’
song and the im pressive mea sures of Fri ar La urence

Ge orges Bizet (1838—
.
,
7 5) was one of the ma ny grea t composers

who were cu t Of fin their fou rth deca de The ma nifold be a u ties of .
“
his Carmen a nd the Arlésienne mu sic show tha t he ha d a grea t
career before him when his u ntimely dea th overtook him .
He won the P ri x de Rom e a nd in hi s sojour n there he br ou ght

,
“
forth the overtur e La Cha sse d Ossian and the sta ge works
” ’
“ “
Don Pr ocopio a nd La Gu zla de lEm ir Another early work
” ’
.
“ “
was Docteur Mira cle Vas co de Ga ma which followed was
.
, ,
“ “
more a mbitious Les Pé cheur s de Perles a n d Dj a m il
.
”
eh
”
were
a ttra ctive exa mples of O rienta l coloring som ewh a t in the style of ,
“ “
D a vid s Le D ésert These opera s a n d La Jolie Fille de Perth
’ ”
.
”
, ,
met with some su ccess b u t were not markedly popular

,
.
The music to Dau det s L Arlésienne has met with a better fa te’ ’
.
In this Bizet showed a llthe warmth of expression fou nd in Gou nod s

,
’
“Mi eille ” combined with a remar ka ble vigor a n d directness of ex

r ,
pression The many contra sted numbers ha ve been ma de into two

.
remarka bly a ttra ctive s u ites which contain some be a utif u l sa xo ,
phone pa ssa ges a charm ing a da gietto a broad intermezzo two

, , ,
da inty minuets a r ollicking farandole and other numbers

, , .
The opera C armen Bizet s grea test success is fou nded on

”
,
’
,
Mérim ée s story of th a t na me a ltered a n d ma de spicy for stage pur

’
,
poses C armen is a ca ptiva ting b u t wild gypsy who sta bs a com

. ,
pa nion a nd is arrested by the soldiers She begu iles one of them .

,
Don José to loosen her bonds so tha t she can esca pe In retu rn she
, .
,
da nces for him and enterta ins him a t Lillas Pas tia s inn She keeps ’
.
him beyond his tru m pet reca ll sa ves him from the officers who wish ,
to seize him as a deserter an d ta kes him to the retrea t of her smu g ,
gler frien ds There she grows tir ed of Don José for whom her feeling
.
,
mu st ha ve been only a p a ssing fa ncy ; a nd she finds tha t she rea lly
loves Esca millo the Torea dor who swa ggered so impressively a t the
,
inn Mea nwhile Mica el a who loved Don José in his na tive villa ge
.
, ,
comes to ta ke him a wa y to his mother s dea th bed He returns to ’

-
.
find C armen a pproa ching the Seville bu ll ring where Escamillo is to -

,
fight ; a n d when he finds tha t she has ca st him Off he sta bs her to ,
dea th .
The music to C armen is one long su ccession of a ttra ctive num

bers The overtu re consisting in p art of the march to the bu ll fight
.
,
-
,
is brillia nt an d spiri ted The first a ct conta ins C armen s sensu ou sly
.
’
“ “
beau tifu l H a b anera her gra cefu l Seg uedilla some ch arming
” ”
, ,
phra ses in connection with Mica ela a pleasing soldiers choru s a ,

’
,
b ur les qu e by wh istling street ga m ins an d a hu morou s scene of con ,
fus ion when the girls a lltry to give the ca pta in their version of Car
men s deed The second a ct conta ins some spirited d an ce mu sic
’
.
,
“
o s fa mou s Torea dor song C armen s gra cefu l d a nce for
”
Escam il
’
l
’
,
Don José (interwoven with the tru m pet reca ll ) a nd a d a inty smu g ,
glers qu intet The third a ct has a fortu ne telling scene som e bright
’
.
-
,
smu gglers mu sic a nd a smoothly melodiou s scena for Micaela ;

’
,
while the fou rth a ct gives a str ong contra st between the gl amour of
the march a nd the tra gedy of C armen s dea th In allthese nu mbers ’
.
there is a most sa tisfying directness of exp ression an d every theme ,

18 6 TH E BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLED GE
a nd Ferdina nd Poise were among those who worked in French opera
a t or a fter the m iddle of the l ast centu ry Fri edrich von Flotow who .
,
“
lived a t Par is is best known by his com edy M artha which con
,
”
,
ta ins som e sentim enta lity b u t mu ch liveliness an d charm a lso

, .
Felicien D a vid s operas ha ve been mentioned a lready His su c

’
.
cessor in the Aca demy Lou is E rnest Reyer showed a similar fond
, ,
“
ness for Orienta l coloring Reyer s Sigur d tr ea ted the sa me
”
.
’
“ “
su bj ect as Wa gner s Siegfried while his Sa la mmbo was based
” ’
,
on Flau bert s story of old C artha ginian tim es Ga ston Sa lva yre
’
.
,
a nother opera com p oser is u sua lly cl a ssed with Reyer , .
Léon Gastinelan d Loui s Defi es composed opera s b u t beca me ,
known in the orchestra l field a lso Victorin de Jon ciéres did the sa me .
a t a l a ter da te Edmond Mem brée an d Au guste Morel kept more

.
strictly to opera .
—
Leo D elibes (183 6 9 1) beca me well known through his b a llets ,
“ ” “ “
su ch as La Sou rce Coppelia an d Sylvi a
”
,
”
The mu sic to , .
these p antomines is varied an d effective showing a warm richness ,
well su ited to the dema nds of the form In opera his most noted .
,
“
work is La km é In th a t com position La km e dau ghter of a Hin
”
.
, ,
du priest is loved by a n English off

,
i cer Gera ld H er fa ther dis , .
covers the a ffa ir an d finds ou t who Gera ld is by m a king La kmesing

,
in the m arket pl a ce u ntil he betra ys himself The p riest then sta bs

- .
Gera ld ; b u t La km e sa ves him a nd nu rses him b a ck to hea lth in a ,
forest retrea t In the end he return s to his people ; while La kme de

.
,
ser ted poisons herself

, The mu sic is fu ll of the ch arm of delica cy
. .
“
La k m é s du et with her sla ve her Bell song in the market pl a ce
’ ”
-
, ,
the Orienta l ba llet music and her slu mber song over the sleeping
,
Gera ld are a mong the best pa ssa ges in the score This work wins .
su ccess by its gra ce in spite of the fa ct th a t it d oes not strive for the
,
wildly dra m atic scoring of rec ent deca des Another excellent Dé .
“
li b es opera is Le Roi la dit ” ’
.
With D elibes m a y be clas sed E rnest Gu iraud whose Picco ,
lino is a da inty comedy

”
.
Benj amin Godard was a devotee of Schuma nn He composed .
“
severa l symphonies an d a nu m ber of opera s of which La Viva n
, ,
diere was the most su ccessfu l He wrote a lso ma ny cha m ber works . ,
an d a nu mber of songs a n d pia no pieces of which Floria n s Song ” ’

,
a nd the pi a no solo
“
Au M a tin are wi dely known
”
.
LISZ T AND H IS C IRC L E
FRANZ LISZT was born in 1811 a t the sm a ll H u ngarian town of

,
Ra iding His fa ther a stewar d on one of the Esterha zy esta tes was
. , ,
a gifted m u sica l a m a te ur a n d tra ined the child so well th a t the l a tter

,
was a ble to perform in pu blic when nine years old His p recocity .
arou sed the interest of a group of noblemen who su bscribed a libera l ,
sum for his edu ca tion The story goes tha t Beethoven heard the
.
you ng Liszt a nd excl aimed He will ma ke my mu sic u nderstood by

, ,
posterity Liszt stu died u nder Czerny a n d others a t Vienna with

”
. ,
l a ter lessons a t Par is His early a mbition la y in the direction of

.
“
opera a n d his Operetta Don Sanche was p rodu ce d in 182 5
,
”
.
On the dea th of his fa ther he bega n to ma ke a living by mea ns of

pia no pla ying an dsoon grew fa mou s in this field He beca me a well
, .
known m em ber of the Par isian cliqu e tha t inclu ded H u go Lamar ,
tine George Sa nd Chopin Berlioz an d other celebrities In 1834

, , , , .
he m et the Cou ntess d Ag ou lt (known in litera ture as D a niel Stern )

’
,
with whom he beca me intim a tely connected In 1836 ca me a n old .
fashioned piano contest with Tha lberg in which Liszt was pl ainly ,
the victor .
In 183 9 Liszt began his long pia no tours in which he spoke of a

, ,
single concert as piano recita ls He fu lly rea lized his ambition to

”
.
becom e the Pa ga nini of the pia no ; an d his tr emendous techniqu e

has rema ined u nequa lled His p rofits increas ed grea tly ; an d he was
.
once a ble to give su bsta ntia l relief to flood sufferers in Pesth as well -
,
as a dding to a Beethoven monu ment fund In the mean .
time he revived his ch ildish mem ori es of Hungarian music and ,
echoed it in his pia no rha psodies .
Liszt was one of the first to a ssert the dignity of the musicia n s ’
position Beethoven ha dshown independence b u t it was the excep

.
,
tion in the epoch when su ch ma sters as Moza rt an d Ha ydn ha d to

put up with variou s slights The occa sion ar ose when one of Liszt s
.
’
princess friends a sked if he ha d done good bu siness on his l ast trip .

LIS ZT AND H IS CIRCLE 18 9
Liszt replied M ad ame I am in mu sic not bus iness Perhaps this

, , , .
was stra ining a point ; b u t Liszt s la te r career cer tai nly a dded new
’
lustre to the occu pa tion of the mu sician .
Liszt s pia no pieces conta in a large nu m be r of tra nscriptions

’
.
These show the u tmost vari ety ranging from old voca l works of
,
Arca del t to the art songs of Schu bert a n d the ope ras of Rossini or
-
,
from the orga n fu gues of B a ch to the sym phonies of Beethoven an d

the glowing orchestra l scores of Wa gner His or igina l pian o com po .
sitions incl u de the rh a psodies a n d other n a tiona l music ; but b eside
these they com prise ma ny pia no works of tremendou s brea dth a nd

stri king power su ch as the grea t single movement sona ta Liszt
,
- .
developed a sty le tha t has been ca lled the or chestra tion of the pi ano .
In his larger keyboar d com positions an d in the tra nscriptions a lso

, ,
one m a y find broa d sweeps of tone ; melodies su pported by the rich

est an d m ost com plica ted harmonies ; or stri kin g a ntiphonal effects ,
like those one might hear when pa rts of a n orchestra respond to one
“ “
a nother Su ch works as the Sermon to the Birds or St Francis
”
. .
,
walking on the Wa ter b ring ou t keyboard possibilities tha t were

”
,
u tterly u nsu spected by Liszt s p redecessors A nu m ber of his pieces

’
.
“
are grou ped together in the sets entitled Années de Pelerinage ”
.
In 184 9 Liszt was offered a court post a t Weimar which he ac

, ,
cep ted In th a t city bega n the most fa mo u s period of his caree r

. .
His tea ching ga thered ar ou nd him a circle of the grea test pi anists in
the world who looked u p to him as disciples do to a mas ter Not
, .
every one who was recom mended foun d himself a ble to enter the
ch armed cir cle M any an overpra ised you ng m a iden sent to play
.
,
“
for him was met by the sca r cely veil ed reb u ff
, Marry soon dea r , ,
child Once a poorly equ ipped ma le s tu dent hea rd him mu tter

.
”
,
“
This before me who ha ve so often hear d Ta usig ! Bu t if the stu
,
dent proved a ble enough to be a ccepted he entered into a verita ble ,
fa iryla nd of art Often the lessons term ina ted in social ga therings
.
,
where the lea ders pe rform ed or discu ssed new wor ks Frequ ently
, .
Liszt himself wou ld pla y ostensibly to show how certa in pa ssa ges
,
were to be ta ken Liszt was not a bsolu tely infa llible a n d once he
.
,
stru ck a wrong note in some cross ha nd work ; b u t he a toned for this

-
by da zzling his hearers with a series of the most brilliant pieces He .
was a ble to rea d a t sight with re m ar ka ble fa cility an d wou ld even ,
pla y a pi ano version of new scores set before him .

Liszt used his position as orchestra l lea der to bring ou t ma ny new
works Ra ff Schu bert Schu ma nn La ssen Cornelius Ru bins tein
.
, , , , , ,
a n d Wa gner were a m o n g those whom Liszt helped into p u blicity .
Liszt s larger com positions da te mostly from his Weimar sta y

’
.
They inclu de his grea t Fa u st sym phony two fa mous piano con certos , ,
a nd a bout a dozen i m porta nt symphonic poe m s Liszt rea lly devel .
oped the la tter form ; an dsu ch exa mples as Les Prelu des ”
Ta sso , ,
“ ” “
Die Idea le Ma zepp a an d others of the grou p p rove th a t ex
,
”
, ,
cept for Richar d Stra u ss his work in this field rema ins u nequ a lled .
Liszt s sym phonic poem s show a most str ongly expressive style a
’
mas sive ha ndling of the orchestra l for ces and a grea t amou nt of real ,
mu sicalbea uty They ma de their wa y very slowly an d only in the

.
,
most r ecent years has Liszt s grea tness as an orchestra l composer ’
been fa irly recognized Wa gner who was Liszt s son in la w once

.
,
’
- -
,
ca lled a ttention to a p a ssa ge he ha d borr owed fr om Liszt by sa ying , ,
a t a rehea rsa l Now pa pa here comes one of your themes Very

”
.
, , ,
“
good replied Liszt The pu blic will hear it now a t a ny ra te
”
, .
”
,
.
Disagre ements over Liszt s progressive policy ca u sed him to give’
up his Weimar post ; an d he settled in Rome There a f ter a broken .

,
enga gement to marry the Pr in cess of Sa yn Wittgenstein he began -

,
to stu dy f or the Church a n d ga ined the title of Abbé , He ha d .
a lrea dy p r odu ced the Graner M ass an d three psa lm settings ; b u t

”
in Rome he devoted himself still more to religiou s music His la ter .
“ ” “
W orks incl u de the ora to rios St Eliz a beth Christu s a nd the .
, ,
“
unfinished Sta nislau s as well as the H u ngarian Corona tion
”
,
M ass an da requ iem An organ mass was of la ter da te Other wor ks

. .
“
by Liszt inclu ded the symphonic poem From the C ra dle to the
“ ” “ “
Gra ve a n d the ca nta tas Die Glocken
”
, St Cecilia and Die
”
, .
,
Kreu zessta tionen

”
Liszt divi ded his time in la ter years between
.
Rome Weimar a nd Pesth His infl u ence as tea cher an d lea der wa s
, , .
still kept u p a nd he devoted ma ny efforts to the furthering of Wa g

,
ner s cau se He died in 1886 a t a B ayr eu th festiva l

’
.
,
.
While Wa gner brou ght opera to a new orchestra l sta ndar d Liszt ,
did the sa me with concert works His symphonic poems are very .
definitely written for modern instea d of cla ssica l or chestra These .
two men with Berlioz who modernized the progra mme symphony
, , ,
brou ght the large orchestra into exi s tence and illustra ted its ,
possibilities .
19 2 THE B OOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
Die Kriegsgefa ngene tr ea ts an episode Ofthe Troj a n War and ,
brings in Achilles victory over Hector and hi s love for B riseis

’
.
“ ” “ “
GOtz von Berlichingen D er Frem dling an d The Winter s
” ’
, ,
Ta le are still la ter opera s by Goldm ark ; while he recently su mmed

”
“
u p his mem o ries in the overture Aus meiner Jug endzeit His”
.
car eer r ea ching pra ctica lly to the present has been fu ll of honor
, ,
a nd cr owned by m a ny su ccesses He died in 19 15 . .
Joseph Joa chi m Ra ff was born a t Wii rttem b urg in 182 2 He was .
a t fir st a s chool tea cher b u t stu died mu sic p riva tely

-
,When he was .
twenty one Mendelssohn helped him to pu blish som e piano pieces

-
,
a n d begin a m u sica l caree r Two years la ter Liszt took the you ng
.
,
m an a long on a tour R aff then settled in Cologne as critic a n d com

.
,
poser He a im ed to ta ke free lessons from Mendelssohn to get com

.
,
missions from a Vienn a pu blisher an d to ha ve his opera King ,
Alfred given a t Stu ttgart B u t Mendelssohn died ; the pu blisher

”
.
Mec hetti died j u st before ma king an a greement with Raff ; and the
Stu ttgart m ana ger declined the opera Von B ulow then helped him .
to pu t other works before the pu blic In 1851 he bec a me Liszt s .

’
a ssista nt a t We im ar a n d he ar d his opera performed a t l a st

, .
Ra ff was very poor in his youn ger da ys He cou ld not afford a .
good metronome ; and the b roken down one tha t he used cau sed his -
works to seem too ra pid when played with more a ccu ra te metro
nom es He wrote a grea t dea l an d O ften pu blished ra ther mediocre
.
,
pieces in an effort to keep the wolf from the door Once he was .
arrested f or debt ; b u t Liszt a n d Dr Willia m M a son sa w to it th a t .
he was com forta ble With the pe ns ink an d music pa per tha t they
. , ,
-
provided an d the good food tha t they insisted u pon he was rea lly
, ,
more com for ta ble than in his own fruga l qu arters .
In 18 56 R a ff moved to Wiesba den ; an dsoon after this he married

, .
“
In 1863 his first sym phony The Fa therland won the pr ize in a , ,
“
Vienna competition Another opera D a me Kobold was per .
”
, ,
form ed a t Weimar R a ff soon beca me famou s thr ough other sym

.
“ “
phonies su ch as Im Wa lde an d Lenore D uring his l ast yea rs
,
” ”
.
he was director of a conserva tory in Fra nkfurt an dta u ght a nu mber ,
of America ns inclu ding Mac D owell He died in 1882

, . .
His works inclu de eleven symphonies four su ites nine overtures , , ,
a n ef fective pia no concerto a violin concerto a n o ra to rio seve ra l , , ,
c a nta ta s some ch ambe r music an d m a ny s m aller pieces

, They are , .
LIS Z T AND HIS C IRCLE 19 3
a l m ost a llremarka bly melodious R aff resem bl es S chu bert ra ther

.
tha n his benefa c tor Liszt an d shows little leaning toward m odem
,
ism In ma ny cas es Raffs m elodies are inef

.
’
fa bly sweet a n d ch arm
ing and their harmonies delightfu l There has been considera bl e
,
.
dispu te over Ra ff s position M an y hold tha t the too melodiou s

’
.
ch ara cter of his wor ks pl a ces him far down among the second ra ters -
,
B u t one m a y re m em ber the cou plet ,
“An d if his ar t as art ifice you sc ore,
Where ha v e you seen su c h art i fice before?

Admi tting that Raf fs works are extrem ely melodic in cha ra cter we
’
,
ca nnot ga insa y the fa ct tha t their m elody is of the best His well .
known ca va tina is b u t one of m a ny insta n ces tha t will prove the

point
Peter Corneliu s (1824 —
.
74 ) was born a t M a inz After some years .
of you thful tra ining he joined the Weimar circle an d heard his
, ,
“
B arber of B agda d given Tha t opera has for her o Nour eddin
”
.
,
who loves the daughter of the Ca di an d visits her He ta kes with , .
him the loqua ciou s an d irr esponsible b arber Ab u H as sa n who re , ,
ma ins ou tside Hea ring a ch ance ou tcry H a ssa n a t once ima gines
.
,
Noureddin is being a tta cked ; an d he ga thers a b a nd to inva de the

pla ce To esca pe from the Ca di s a nger Noureddin hides in a chest
.
’
, .
Fina lly the disturb a nce brings the C a liph on the scene ; a n d Noured
din rescu ed in a ha lf sm othered sta te is presented with the ha nd
,
-
,
of his a dor ed Marg ian a The m usic of this ra ther mixed work shows
.
decided power and not a little skill in hu m orou s orchestra tion The
, .
in terlu de of the m u ezzin ca ll and the hurly bur ly of the las t scene
,
-
,
wi ll sta nd co m p arison with the l a ter Wa gn er In fa ct this r ollick .

,
“
ing work ha d a direct infl u ence u pon Wa gner s Meistersinger ” ’
.
“ “
Cornelius composed also D er Cid a nd Gu nl od
”
Eduard La ssen (183 0—

.
19 04 ) was born a t Copenha gen a n d stu died ,

“
a t B ru ssels Liszt br ou ght ou t one of his opera s
. La ndgra f Lu dwigs ,
B rau tfa hrt in 18 58 When Liszt gave u p the contr ol a t Weimar

,
”
.
,
La ssen su cceeded him La ssen com posed two other opera s

.
“ “
Fra u enlob a n d Le C a ptif He wrote a lso symphonies over
” ”
.
,
tures ca nta ta s mu ch incidenta l music an d very bea u tifu l songs

, , , ,
“
su ch as It was a dream ”
.
H ans von B ronsart born a t Berlin in 183 0 was a Liszt piano pu pil
, , .
He composed a symphony the chora l symphony In the Alps and

”
, ,
194 TH E BOOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWL EDGE
other orchestra l works His wife Ingeborg (Stark ) von B ronsart

.
, ,
was a nother pia no pu pil of Li szt She co m posed severa l Ope ra s an d .
many pia no works .
To the Weimar circle belongs a lso Alexa nder Ritter (183 3

He com posed two comic operas an d severa l symphonic poem s b u t ,
is better known beca u se it was his influ ence th a t ma de Richar d

Strauss a dopt the progra mm e style of composition
Leopold Da mrosch (183 2 —
.
8 5) was a fa mou s violinist who com ,
posed violin con certos a symphony variou s canta tas and other
, , ,
works Before his dea th he exerted considera ble influ ence upon
.
Felix Draeseke born a t Coburg in 1835 became known throu gh

, ,
overtures sym phonies operas and cha mber music In his l a ter life
, , , .
he beca m e unu su a lly conserva tive

H a ns Gu ido von B ii low (1830—
.
9 4 ) ca me under Liszt s infl u ence

’
a t Weima r a n d Wa gner s a t Z urich He married Liszt s da u ghter

’ ’
.
Cosima who was afterwards divorced an d m arri ed to Wa gner Von

, .
ow was a fa m ou s pi a nist an d a thorou gh conducto r

B ii l It was his , .
orchestra a t Meiningen th a t once sta rted a progra mme withou t

, ,
a n y condu cto r when he was u n a vo i d a bly la te He tour ed America .
twice His program m es were a lwa ys chosen with a view to improving

.
popu lar ta ste His own compositions inclu de a few orchestra l works
.
,
some concert pieces for piano and ma ny tra nscriptions He ha d a , .
very ca u stic wit a nd som e of his remarks are qu oted elsewhere in

,
this volu me Once a chance a cqu a inta nce from some previous meet
.
“
ing stopped him on the street an dsa id I ll bet y ou don t rem ember , ,
’ ’
“
me Von B ulow insta ntly retorted Y ou ve won your bet and
”
.
”
,
’
,
pa ssed on Agai n in rehearsing his orchestra he once sa id to the

.
, ,
“
tru mpeter Th a t pa ssa ge is forte The trumpeter then blew his
,
”
.
“
hardest ; whereu pon the lea der repea ted I sa id forte Then the
”
,
.
trumpeter ma de a mighty effort a n d nearly blew his hea d off where ,
u pon the lea der expl a ined I sa id forte an d y ou ha ve been blowing

, ,
fortissi m o a llthe tim e ”

.
Kl in dworth an d Tau sig were other pu pils of Liszt who beca me

better known by their arra ngements tha n by their com position s .
Leschetizky the grea t piano tea cher was known also as a piano
, ,
composer in a b rillia nt b u t ra ther showy style Once B rah m s pa ss

, .
,
ing him as he worked a t his desk thou ght to tea se him an d sa id , , ,

XXII
FROM GLIN KA TO TSC HAIKOVSKY
M USIC in R u ssia has been a popu lar affa ir from time im rnem oria l .
In the Old pa ga n da ys minstr els of a llsorts were com mon When

, .
the land ca me under Byzantine infl u ence the na tive mu sic met wi th ,
official opposition b u t was never entirely rooted out When R u ssia

, .
beca me an em pire u nder the Roma nof fs its folk mu sic flourished ,
-
a ga in
. Poets sha ped into literary form the epics of its old legendary
cycles and crea ted innu mera ble su bjects su ita ble for mu sica l set
,
tings In the eighteenth centur y foreign composers a n d some n a

.
, ,
tive musicia ns bega n to give some a ttention to these ; while in the

,
nineteen th an importa nt R u ssia n school ca me into existence

, .
—
Fra ncesco Ar a j a (1700 6 7 was the first foreigner to bring R u ssia n
opera into being ; an d during his sta y a t St Petersbu rg he set several .
,
na tive subj ects G a l u ppi S a rti Pa isiello Cimarosa an d the Vene

.
, , , ,
tian C a vos were other prominent foreigners C a vos trea ted the su b .
j ec t of Iva n Susa n in a which Glin ka used la ter for his grea t popu l a r
,
su ccess E arly n a tive m usicians inclu ded Fomin Ma tin sky Pa

.
, ,
s
kievitch B eresovsk
,
B ortn iansky Verstovsky Al
y
,
a b iev a n d the
, , ,
“
Titov brothers Verstovsky won some su ccess with Ask old s
.
’
Tom b b u t none of these m en was gifted enou gh to fou nd a n a tional

,
school B or tniansky fa mou s for his Ru ssia n chur ch music confined

.
, ,
his opera tic ventures to Ita lia n an d French texts .
—
Micha el Iva novitch Glinka (1804 57) was born of a noble fam ily
a t St Pe tersb ur g
. B rou ght u p in pleasa nt socia l surrou ndin gs he
. ,
showed an intense devotion to mu sic b u t a t first was little more th an ,
an a m a teur He bega n to com pose short songs a nd pieces for a l a dy

.
friend His family ga ve him a musica l tra ining b u t thou ght his gift
.
,
s
merely a socia l as set It took a foreign tri p to develop his l a tent

.
powers He enjoyed Ita lia n opera a t Mila n b u t soon fou nd tha t its
.
,
idiom was not su ited to exp ress his Ru ssia n na tionalis m It was in .
Berlin tha t he O bta ined rea l benefit in stu dying with Siegfried Dehn
,
.
Tha t tea cher seeing tha t Glinka was both gifted an d i m p a tient of
,
FROM GLINKA TO TSCHAIKOVSKY 19 7
dru dgery wisely condensed his instru ction into five months and
, ,
ga ve the pu pil the chief points of harmony cou nterpoint fu gue a nd , , ,
orchestra tion This was so beneficial tha t Stassov sa id Glinka left

. ,
us a di letta n te a n d returned a m aestro He wou ld ha ve continu ed

,
”
.
his stu dies b u t the dea th of his fa ther reca lled him to Ru ssia
,
.
Glinka wrote some instru m enta l pieces a n d a nu m ber of sm a ller

“ ”
works b u t is best known by his two opera s Life for the Czar an d
, ,
“
an a n d Lu d m ill a The form er work brou ght ou t in 183 6 is
”
Russl .
, ,
considered the fou nda tion of the R u ssia n na tiona l school It did for .
“
Ru ssia wha t Weber s D er Freischutz did for Germ a ny by idea l
’
,
izin g the native folk m u sic into an artistic com position Where
-
.
earlier Ru ssia ns ha d m erely incorpora ted folk songs sometim es -

,
lea ving the sim ple a ccom panim ents u na ltered Glinka brou ght the ,
resources of the tra ined composer into a ction a n d ga ve the mu sic ,
rea l strength witho u t inj uring its ch ara cteristic fl a vor His u se of a .
melody tha t he ha d heard on the lips of a ca b driver ca u sed his -
“
O pera to be ca lled Musiqu e des cochers b u t the reproa ch is uh ,
j ust.
The plot of this work is la id in the seventeenth centu ry when ,
R u ssia was largely in the ha nds of the Poles The conqu erors decide .
to seize the newly elected cz ar Mich a el Rom anoff On their march , .
they order the peasa nt Iva n Susa nina to gu ide them B u t the la tter .
,
too loya l to betra y his ru ler secretly sends his son to warn the czar
, ,
a n d lea ds the Poles as tra y thou gh he knows he is thu s meeting

,
dea th The m usic is fu ll of Ru ssian tou ches even inclu ding chur ch
.
,
modes .
in ka s incidenta l mu sic to Prince Khol was followed

’
Gl om sky
“
by his second opera This work Russlan a n d Lu dmi lla is based
.
”
, ,
on a legend in which Russlan the fa vored one of three su itors is to

, , ,
wed Lu dm illa d au ghter of Prince Svietoza r Mea nwhile the wicked

, .
wiza rd Chern om or seeing Lu dm illa f a lls in love with her a nd car

, , ,
ries her of f fr om the wedding fea st The three su itors are sent to .
rescu e her a n d n a tura lly Ru ssl

, a n su cceeds One of his riva ls tri es .
to ga in the credit by thr owi ng the pa ir into a ma gic slumber ; b u t

,
Russl an a wa kes in tim e to u n m a sk the p retender The m u sic to this .
opera is of more solid an d learned style tha n Glinka s earlier work ’

.
It ca used mu ch discussion Stassov praising it while Serov ca lled it a

,
retr ogression .
Alexa nder Serg eivi tch Darg om iszky (18 13— 69 ) gained some in
stru ction fr om the exercise books tha t Glinka ha d filled when u nder
-
Dehn s tu ition thou gh he was a lrea dy p roficient in orchestra tion

’
, .
“
His first opera Esmera lda was ra ther light an d tr ivia l in style
,
”
, ,
“
though it pleas ed the pu blic The Triu mph of B a cchu s was re .
”
“
j e c ted a n,
d re m a ined u nknown for m a ny years The Roussa lka ”
.
(1 8 5 6 ) met with a bette r f a te tho u gh a t fir st it was too adva nced to

,
fin d mu ch fa vor with a pu blic tha t still cra ved Ita lian opera The .
Roussa l ki or wa ter nymphs who lie in wai t f

,
-
or the tra veller are ,
mai dens who h a ve been betra yed an d ha ve drowned themselves In .
the story (wri tten by Pu shkin ) a you ng prince fa lls in love with the
er s da u ghter Na ta sh a She a ccepts his devotion ; b u t when she
’
rrri ll .
learns tha t he has betra yed her to ma rry in his own ra nk she drowns , ,
herself becoming a Rou ssa lka The prince marries b u t does not live
, .
,
ha ppily Some yea rs la ter he is a t the mill which he visits out of re

.
,
morse The spiri t of Na tas ha s child a ppears to him While he hesi

.
’
.
ta tes the miller now cra zed pu shes him into the wa ter The mu sic
, , , .
to this opera is na tiona l in spi rit but is bright or dra ma tic where ,
inka s scores were more simply lyrica l

’
Gl .
“
Darg om iszky s l ast opera The Stone Gu est is b ased on the
’ ”
, ,
“
sa me su bject as Don Giovanni thou gh using P ushki n s version
”
,
’
.
It was u nfinished a t the com poser s dea th an d Rimsky Korsa kof f

’
,
-
fi lled in the or chestra tion In this work which is somewha t de

.
,
cl a ma tory words an d mu sic are welded in close u nion The na tional

, .
“
R u ssia ns a dmired it so mu ch tha t B a la kirev spoke of it as The
Gospel ”
Alexa nder Nichola ievi tch Serov (182 0—

.
71) becam e fa mous in crit

ic ism a t first defending Spontini an d the historica l opera in a wa y
,
th a t foresha dowed Wa gneri a n principles In la ter d a ys Serov an d .
“
Wa gner beca me qu ite intim a te a n d a pparently formed a mu tual ,
a dmira tion society Ser ov was over forty before he tri ed to clinch
”
.
his hold on the pu blic by composing an opera ; and he ha d to learn

m any of the technica lities of composition Under the circu msta nces . ,
“
the str ength of his work Ju dith is remarka ble It is not su btle
”
, , . ,
but h andles gorgeou s scenes in a broa d a lmost Wa gnerian m an ,
ner.
Serov s second work Rogneda was written fra nkly to fit the

’
, ,
public ta ste ; an d it su cceeded in its obj ect Its sensa tiona l stage .
2 00 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWL EDGE
a re still pl ayed by fa mou s pia nists the la ter ones riva lling the sym ,
phonies in popularity .
Ru bins tein com posed qu ite a l arge a mou nt of chamber mus ic .
Most pleasing to the pu blic is a stri ng qua rtet conta ining the so
ca lled M usic of the Sp heres ”
a very exp ressive a n d sa cch a rine
,
slow m ovement .
Ru bins tein s orchestra l andch a mber music shows so m e comm a nd

’
of orchestra tion and a richness of mu sica l effect a rising in ma ny

,
ca ses from his use of Orienta l fla vors His works are often gra ndiose .
,
b u t they do not a lwa ys show rea l inspira tion or su sta ined power .
Ru binstein s songs are a mong his best compositions In these

’
.
there is no need for lengthy exp ression an d in their b rief sp a ce the ,
com poser has often given us lyrics of un flagg ing inspira tion His .
“
dra ma tic streng th is shown in The As ra ; his melodic richness
”
“ “
a ppears in The D rea m ; while Golden a t my feet is a mu ch
” ”
a drn ired exa mple of O rienta lis m .
The pia no works inclu de a cou ple of sona tas b u t the shorter pieces
are m u ch be tter known R u binstein himself ma de many of these
.
fam iliar to his au diences ; b u t they ha ve held their pla ce a fter his
“
dea th The well known Melody in F verges a little toward the
.
-
”
commonpl a ce ; b u t his b arca roll es romances an d other works of the , ,
sort ar e sti ll in evidence on concert progra mmes .
Ru binstein devoted m u ch a ttention to the opera His first dra .
ma tic ef fort D m itri D onskoi met with only a fa ir reception ;

,
”
,
“
while Tom the FOO1 arou sed so little enthusias m tha t the com
”
“
poser withdr ew it Other early works were H a dji Ahrek and
.
”
-
The Siberia n H u nters ea ch in one a c t As Ru binstein ha d thu s

”
,
.
fa iled in Ru ssia n opera he devoted his a ttention to Germ any,

.
“
There he b rou ght ou t his Kinder der Heide ; a n d the sa m e cou n
”
“
try a ppl a u ded his Fera m ors His next efforts wer e in the field of
”
.
” “
sa cred opera an d resu lted in The Tower of B a bel
, The M a cca ,
“
bees a n d Par a dise Lost some of which resem bled ca nta ta s
”
,
”
,
.
Returning to the secu l ar field he next com pleted his best opera , ,
“
The Demon which was brou ght ou t a t St Petersburg This
,
. .
work b ased on a poem by Lermontov portra ys a species of Ru ssia n

, ,
“
Fau st Its hero is a morta l with c erta in demoni ac tendencies
”
.
, ,
who wishes to find cons ol a tion in love He pursu es Ta m ara the . ,
object of his affections even into the convent where she has ta ken
,
TH E BOOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWLEDGE
Ministry of Justice He never worked h ard a t this post however
.
, .
He a cqu i r ed the ha bit of chewi ng pa per when a t alla bstra cted .
Once while ta king a sta te docu ment to a certa in offi ce he met a

, ,
friend in the corridor ; an d th a t friend s conversa tion proved so inter

’
esting tha t Tscha ikovsky bit up most of the document before re

m em b eri ng his erra nd Fortu na tely he was a ble to ma k e a nother
.
At this ti m e he ha d variou s mus ic tea chers b u t none of them sus ,
pected his fu tur e grea tness He received no va l ua ble instru ction

.
until the conserva tory started Then he was thor ou ghly grou nded
.
in h armony and cou nterpoint and stu died form with Z aremba a nd
,
orchestra tion with Anton R u binstein .
Tscha ikovsky s tas tes were very vari a ble At th a t period he

’
.
placed Wa gner far below Serov and sa id th a t pia no an d orchestra

,
“
did not blend Now Serov is known as a second ra ter while
.
”
-
,
Wa gner s lea dership is a cknowledged ; a nd Tsch a ikovsky s own

’ ’
pia no concertos ar e a mong the very best At this time too he .

, ,
“
showed his own ra dica l tendencies in an overtur e entitl ed The
Storm which ca used a rea l storm when the conserva tory people
”
,
sa w it .
Tscha ikovsky fell deeply in love wi th the singer Désirée ArtOt ,
b u t did not ma rry her a fter a l l perh a ps not wishing to be the m a le

,
a ttend a nt of a tra velling sta r It wou ld ha ve been better f

. or him if
he ha d ma de this union ; for his own marri age occurring l a ter was , ,
most u nfortuna te A la dy whom he had met during gir lh ood a d

.
dressed a series of love letters to him He informed the la dy (An

- .
tonina Milyu kova ) tha t he ha d nothing beyond friendship to offer

b u t she was persistent a n d fina lly the composer fea r ed he might
,
ruin her life if he r efu sed her They were marri ed in 1877 b u t the
.
,
union soon proved u nha ppy Tscha ikovsky who was very nervou s
.
, ,
wou ld proba bly ha ve been driven into a prema tur e gra ve if an e arly
sep ara tion ha d not ta ken pl a ce .
Another woman was of far more beneficial infl u ence on his ca r eer .
This was Na deshda Filaretovn a von Meck the wife of a rich engin ,
eer. M u ch moved by Tschaikovsky s mu sic she ga ve him the gen ’

,
er ous su m of six thousa nd rou bles a nnua lly to a ll ow him to co m pose ,
u nh a mper ed by fin a nci a l cares She ma de it a condition th a t they

.
shou ld never meet ; an d even when a ttending the sa me concert they ,

FROM GLINKA TO TSCHAIKOVSKY 203
passed ea ch other as stra ngers B u t they corresponded an d the .

,
com poser sent her frequ ent a ccou nts of his musica l a ctivity .
A sta y a t Clarens on La ke Geneva was followed by a tri p to Ita ly

, ,
“
a n d va riou s other pl a ces In Vienna he fou nd Wa gner s Ring ’
.
ra ther tiresome a n d came to dislike the works of B ra hms

, The la t .
ter feeling was n a tu ra l enough f or the intellectua l B ra hms an d the ,
emoti ona l Tsch aikovsky were certa inly opposites in mu sic .
B a ck in Ru ssia Tschaikovsky settled a t Mai dan ovo where the

, ,
qu iet cou ntry li fe ga ve him rest Here he took long walks which .
,
often brought him musica l inspira tion The la st few years of his life .
were full of travel In 189 1 he even m a de a n America n tour receiv

.
,
ing mu ch a pprecia tion b u t meeting m a ny a nnoya nces a lso from ill

,
bred hotel employees He died of cholera brought a bou t by hi s

.
,
drinking a gl ass of u nfiltered wa ter a t a St Petersburg resta urant . .
Tscha ikovsky s mu sic marks him as a lea der in orchestra tion and
‘
,
in the best effects of the progra mme school His grea t symphonic .
poe m s show a most powerfulm astery over the instruments an dtheir

com bina tions .
In Ru ssia Tsch aikovsky is known as a prolific opera composer

, .
His first a ttempts however met with misfortune tha t was not u nde
, ,
“
served . The Voyevode was perform ed b u t cu t u p a fterwards
”
,
“
into separa te numbers Undine was rejected an d its music too
”
.
,
was dissected f “
or use in la ter wor ks Ma n dra gora ha d a wea k
”
.
libretto The com poser s first su ccess was The Op ri tchniki This
.
’ ”
.
received fourteen perform a n ces in a year ; b u t C u i ca lled it the work
of a schoolboy ignora nt of the needs of lyric d ra ma

, .
“
a the S m ith which won prizes in com petition has for its
”
Vaku l , ,
hero the son of a witch who bri ngs for his sweethea rt the shoes of
,
the empress dem anded as a pledge of love by tri cking and us ing the
, ,
dem on who is smitten with his mother The su bj ect is d ecidedly .
bizarre b u t has its moments of humor as well as drama tic power

, ,
a n d is set to good mu sic .
E u gene Onyegin Tscha ikovsky s best opera tr ea ts a story by

”
,
’
,
Pu shkin E u gene s friend Le nsky lovi ng a girl nam ed Olga pre

.
’
, ,
sents him to her fa mi ly Her sister Ta tia na fa lls in love with the .
stra nger b u t he sees in her only a country nobody a n d i gnores her

, ,
little a dva nces La ter rn life he finds her tra nsformed by marria ge
.
into the brillia nt Princess Grem in He then feels her spell a nd . ,

plea ds his love ; b u t in spite of her early longi ng for him she is a ble
to refu se his a dva nces and lea ve him in despa ir The music shows .
mu ch bea u ty of fee ling Ta tia na s scenes being especia lly tender,

’
.
“
Joa n of Arc was a wea k blend of Ita lian a nd Meyerbeer effects
”
.
M a zeppa prom pted C ui to sa y tha t Tscha ikovsky ha d su cceeded

”
“ “
in produ cing som ething worse even th a n Joa n of Are ”
The .
Sorceress was u ndram a tic the composer showi ng a tendency to

”
,
ma ke his score consist of com plete mu sica l forms The la ter one act .
-
“ “
Iola nthe was p rolix though occasiona lly exp ressive B u t The
”
, .
Q u een of Spa des proved a nother su ccess This work is based on a .
Pu shkin story of a you ng ga mbler who is told of thr ee su cces sful

car ds by the spiri t of a dea d cou ntess He wrns on two of them b u t .
,
the thir d cha nges to the qu een of spa des on which he loses every ,
thing A love story with the dau ghter of the cou ntess is a dded in
.
the libretto .
Tsch aik ovsky s incidenta l mu sic to The Snow Ma iden is very

’
“
good , mu ch better in fa ct th an tha t to H amlet ,
”
, .
“ ” “
He composed three ballets The La ke of Swa ns The Sleeping , ,
“
Beau ty an d Ca sse Noisette All of them show mu ch mu sica l
”
,
-
.
beau ty In the las t the sta ge ma na ger ca lled for the music in defi
.
,
nite am ou nts sixty four bar s of soft mu sic eight bars Oftinkling
,
-
,
mu sic as a Chr istmas tr ee lights u p twenty four b ars of lively m u sic

-
,
-
for the children s entra nce a n d so on ; b u t this did not seem to ha m

’
,
per the com poser s inspira tio n

’
.
Tschaikovsky s orchestralworks are rea lly mu ch grea ter th an his

’
operas a n d are known thr ou gh the civilized wor ld

, Of his six sym .
“
phonies the first is ca lled Winter D rea ms
,
”
The second was .
na tionalenough to win pra ise from C u i who disliked the com poser s ,
’
cosmopolita n ideas The th ird is more conventiona l being ba sed on

.
,
western E ur opea n models The fourth beginning a mu ch grea ter .

,
grou p depicts m a n s tr ou bles with fa te b u t ends in popu l ar festivity

,
’
,
.
The fifth com ing som e years la ter is a strongly effective work with
, , ,
very ch ara cteristic n a tiona l themes th a t recur in the different move

“
ments The sixth the Sym phonie Pa thétiqu e is m arked by the
.
,
”
,
most a stonishing expressive power Its first m ovem ent contrasts .
rugged wor k with a sad sweet them e typica l of tender mem o ries - .
Its sec ond movement in time shows an u ndertone of u nrest The

, ,
.
third movement culmin a tes in a stirring march suggestive of glory ; ,

of three string qu artets a sextet an da pian o trio His piano works
, , .
a nd songs are a lso a ttra ctive b u t not wellknown in America

, .
Tscha ikovsky ra nks with the foremost mas ters His handling of
.
the modern orchestra com bined with the str ongly em otiona l char
,
a cter of his them es ma ke his work as impor ta nt in its wa y as th a t

,
of Liszt or Berlioz His mu sic does not a lwa ys wear well for it
.
,
la cks the u nderlying intellect of B a ch or Bra hm s ; but its glories

are most mar ked in spite of a l
, lcri ti cism
.
XXIII
WAGNE R AND H IS RE FORMS
WILHELM R ICHARD WAGNER was born a t Leipsic on May 22 ,

”
18 13 After he beca me well known he o m itted the Wilhel m per
.
-
,
m a n en tly His
. m othe r widowed befo re
,
hi s bir th ma rri ed the a cto r ,
a n d artist Lu dwig Geyer the fa mily m oving s oon to D resden Some

,
.
ha ve thought th a t Geyer was rea lly Wa gner s fa ther thou gh the ’

,
evidence see ms a gainst the idea The little Richard was a spiri ted . ,
warm hearted boy with a ta ste for rea ding fa ir y ta les He showed
-
,
.
no m u sica l a ptitude a t first Geyer on hea ri n g him pick ou t a tun e

.
,
tha t hi s sister ha d pla yed asked himself Has he perha ps a ta lent

, , , ,
or m u sic ? B u t Geyer died before ha ving his qu estion a nswered

”
f .
It was not u ntil 1827 th a t a hearing of Beethoven s sym phonies and ’
Weber s operas aroused Richa rd s love of mu sic His stu dies with
’ ’
.
Theodor Weinlig a t Leipsic resu lted in the com position of sona tas
, , ,
overtures an d even a symphony in C ; b u t thase works were nearly

,
al lped a ntic a nd uninspired .
Wa gner s first libretto wri tten in his school da ys consisted of a

’
, ,
tra gic a ffa ir in which a llthe chara cters were killed a n d the la st a ct ,
“
carried on with their ghosts His fir st opera was The Fa iri es .
”
,
which he finished a t Wii rzb urg in 1834 In tha t work a prince who .
,
has married a fair y a n d lost her goes throu gh variou s tr ia ls in order

,
“
to rega in her At M a gdeburg he com pleted Das Liebesver bot
.
”
,
“
a setting of Measure for Mea sure in the Rossini sty le A further ”
.
position brought him to Riga where his condu cting showed him the ,
rea lly com monpla ce na tur e of the Ita lian opera of th a t epoch His .
next work Rienzi was bas ed on the su mptu ou s style tha t Meyer
,
”
,
b eer used The libretto shows a t first the Orsini Colonna bra wls
.
-
Adri an C olonna s love for Rienzi s sister Irene ; an d the popu lar
’ ’
revolt u nder Rienzi In the second a c t the nobles are par doned b u t
.
,
try to kill Rienzi a t the fe a st of reconcilia tion In the thir d a ct they .
rebel are defea ted a ga in a n d severa l incl u ding old Colonn a p u t to

, , , ,
dea th In the four th ac t Adri an ou t of revenge for his kinsma n

.
, ,
fom ents popu lar revolt ; Rienzi in a n impa ssioned speech rega ins , ,
the people s a llegia nce ; b u t the Pope s messengers excommu nica te

’ ’
him where u pon he is deser ted In the fifth ac t a fter a va in a ttem pt

,
.
,
to rega in his influ ence Rienzi retrea ts to the pa l a ce ; Adr ia n joins

,
him ou t of love f
,
or Irene ; an d the trio per ish when the people burn
the pa la ce This wor k su cceeded a n d Wa gner cou ld ha ve becom e

.
,
rich a n d fa mou s by contin u ing in i t s school ; b u t his artistic idea l
dr ove him to seek higher things .
Wa gner the ar tist a n d Wa gner the m a n were two widely different

beings In art he sou ght for the noblest sta ndards ; b u t in life he was
.
often m ea n a nd petty He m a de the fina ncia l loa ns of his friends

.
minister to his needs ; and he seemed to ta ke it for gran ted tha t he

cou ld be perm itted to dra w inspira tion from woma n s love no ma tter ’
,
where he fou nd it In M a gdebu rg he married Wilhelm ina (Minna )

.
Pla ner She was a you ng a ctress who ga ve u p her career for him a nd
.
,
helped him in the m ost pra ctica l wa ys a n d by the most pa tient ,
dru dgery This was especia lly tru e a t Paris where the pa ir went on
.
,
lea ving Riga The voya ge su ggested a sea su bject to Wa gner a nd

.
-
,
in Pa ris we find him beginning The Flying D u tchma n which first ,
showed som ething like his la ter style Some songs an d other works .
were of little pecu niary a id andproba bly Minn a s care and sa cri fices
,
’
were a llth a t sa ved him from sta rva tion Wa gner once sa id tha t he .
cou ld not be a Meister B a ch doing dru dgery in a sma ll post He

”
, .
recog nized his own geniu s ; b u t he ma de this an excuse for spongin g

on his friends in stea d of wor king u ntil he earned enou gh to let him
,
ca rry ou t his idea s Bu t his la ter mu sica l pla ns were so tita nic tha t
.
they cou ld not ha ve ma teria lized withou t the help of some wea lthy
pa tron .
A r eturn to D resden as Ka pellmeister b rou ght some ha ppy years

for Wa gner and f or Minn a too
, She wrote a fterwar d tha t his .
“Ta nnh au ser ” a nd “Loheng n ” were co m posed in her presence

ri
’
a n d while he was cherished by her ca r e She has been a ccu sed of not .
understa nding Wa gner s rea l grea tness a nd not giving him the
’
,
sp iritu a l compa nionship tha t was necessa ry for the development of

his highest ideas ; b u t the wom en who did give him su ch spiritua l
uplift m ight ha ve been too bu sy to do so if they ha d been obliged
to look a fter his physica l needs as pa tiently a n d as well as Minna
did This marria ge an d the su bsequ ent separa tion was not a ca se
.
, ,
b u t one ca nnot help feeling tha t a better trea tment of Minna would
not have interfered with his crea tive a bility She died in 1866 . .
Except for a Russian trip Wa gner ha d for two years been ca rrying,
on a n affa ir with Cosima da u ghter of Liszt an d wife of Von B ulow

, .
Afte r Min na s dea th he settled a t Trieb schen nea r Lu cerne a nd

’
, , ,
Cosima soon joined him there Four years la ter Von B iilow divorced .
,
his wife a n d Wa gner marri ed her Wa gner died in 1883 andshe has
, .
,
survived him for severa l deca des being a live in 19 15 She ga ve him , .
the spiri tua l com pa nionshi p tha t he desired .
Mea nwhile Wa gner ha d pla nned and in part completed the grea t , ,
“
works tha t were to ma ke his na me fa m ous His two su bjects B ar .
“ “
ba rossa a n d Wiela nd the S m ith were not used B u t The
” ”
.
Young Siegfried which he started in 1851 gra dua lly grew into
, ,
the grea t Trilogy (with prologue ) tha t we know as The Ring of the
Nibelu ngen The text was printed in 1853 The Rheingold was
”
.
”
.
“
finished in 1854 a nd The Va lkyri e by the end of the sa me year
,
”
.
“
The la tter was scored by April 1856 Then The Ring was l a id ”
, .
“ “
as ide f Trista n which was completed in 18 59 Die Meister
”
or , .
“
singer was pla nned in 1862 though not finished until 1867 Sieg
”
, .
fri ed was com posed in 1869 and scored in 187 1; while Die
”
,
GOtterdam m erun g was composed in 1870 an d the scoring finished

’
”
,
“ “
in 1874 Parsifal the sta ge consecra tion pla y was composed ”
- -
in 1878—
.
, ,
7 9 a n d sco red in 1882 The compose r died a t Venice on

, .
Februa ry 13 1883 , .
In one respect a t lea st tha t of the criticisms he received Wagner

, , ,
was fully j u stified in co m pla inin g The pu blic a t first fa iled to a ppre .
'
cia te the g rea tness of his mu sic Even composers were not a ble to .
do it fu ll j ustice It was ca lled a fter one of his p amphlets The

.
, ,
M usic of the Fu ture ; a n d u nder this title it was su bjected to a ll

”
kinds of ridicu le and a buse Even after it ha d ma de its wa y with the

.
“
public of ,fi cia ls Often intrigu ed a gai nst it Ju dith Ga utier in Wa g .
,
n er a t Home
“
”
describes a Rheingold performance at Munich
,
”
,
in which a fter the rehea rsa ls had been correct the fina l representa
, ,
tion was spoiled delibe ra tely by a ma nipu la tion of lights th a t kept ,
them sed u lously a wa y from the ra inbow bridge to Wa lha ll a an d by ,
other simila r tri cks .
In the last four deca des the grea tness of Wa gner has been recog
n ized . Even those who most disliked the m an were redu ced to
W A GNE R C A R IC A TURED AS A TT AC K I NG TH E H UMA N EA R
in spite of Hea ven itself for which bl asphemy he was doomed to sa il ,
forever Releas e will come only if a ma iden loves him enough to

.
sa crifice herself ; a n d once in seven years he m a y l and to seek her .
Fa ilure has m a de him gloomy ; b u t by showing his wea lth he obta ins
an d s pe rmission to woo the l a tte r s da u ghter Senta The second ’
D al
’
.
ac t shows Senta a mong a merry grou p of girls b u sy a t their spinning
wheels B u t she sta nds a p art gazing a t a picture of Vanderdec ken

.
, .
When teased a bou t her sa dness she tells his sto ry a nd sa ys she , ,
wou ld willingly sa ve him Her a dmirer E rik ca nnot a lter this mood . .
When D a l a nd b rings in the rea l D u tchma n she is a mazed ; b u t soon ,
she plights her troth to him The third a ct shows the sea men ma king .
merry by the harbor The D u tch m a n s sa ilors however do not join

.
’
, , .
When cha llenged their boa t glows in a su pern a tura l light a n d they
, ,
sing a weird song ta u nting their ca pta in with his many fa ilu res in
love Senta a ppears with E rik The l a tter a gain plea ds his love
. . .
The D u tchma n hearing this thinks Senta false to him an d sets sa il

, ,
to depart She tri es to rea ch his ship He tells every one of his iden
. .
tity so tha t she m ay be held b a ck ; b u t she pl u nges into the sea after
,
him redeeming him by her sa crifice

, .
The m u sic shows a rugged vigor well su ited to its su bject This .
strength combined with a rich h armonic an d melodic beau ty is

, ,
chara cteristic of allWa gner s l a ter work Especially a ttra ctive are ’
.
the spinning choru s Senta s dra m a tic b a lla d the tender them e tha t
,
’
,
portra ys her the sombre figure typifying the D u tchman a n d the

, ,
rollicking sa ilors mu sic The work shows a tendency toward Melos

’
.
,
the continu ou s melodic recita tive tha t Wa gner a fterwards used ,
instea d of single nu mbers .
“
Tannh auser shows the m instr el knight of th a t n ame revelling
”
in pleasu re in the Mou nt of Venu s B u t her ch arms p a ll and he . ,
retur ns to the upper wor ld In a p astora l va lley he hears the ch ant .

,
of p a ssing pilgrims La ndgra ve Herrrn ann hu nting finds him a n d

.
, , ,
brings him to the tourn ament of song a t his ca stle There Wolfra m .
von Eschenb a ch Wa lther von der Vogelweide an d others com

, ,
pete as they did in a ctu a l history Elisa beth is to a wa rd the prize

, . .
In his song Ta nnhauser incited by memory sings of Venus an d

, , , ,
sh ocks the a ssem bl a ge He rea lizes his sin an d dep arts to obta in
.
,
the Pope s forgiveness Elisa beth who loves him a wa its his return
’
.
, , ,
a nd wa tches the p a ssi ng pilgri m s f

or him Then Wolfram sings of .
WAGNER AND H IS REFORMS 2 13
his own hopeless love for her The Pope has told Tannhau ser th a t .
sooner shou ld his dea d sta ff pu t forth lea ves th an the knight be
forgiven The la tter re turning a ttempts to seek Venus aga in
.
, ,
.
A fu nera l pr ocession passes with the body of Elisa beth who has ,
died broken hear ted Ta nnhau ser sinks in dea th by her bier while
-
.
'
a ba nd of pilgrims bri ng the Pope s sta ff which has blossomed in

’
,
token of the knight s pardon ’

.
The Pilgri m s Chorus the brillia nt Venu sberg mu sic the songs in
’
, ,
the contest Elisa beth s Greeting to the H all the knights march
,
”
’
,
’
,
a nd Wolfra m s song of devotion are some of the mu sica l gems in the

’
score .
In Lohengrin Elsa of B ra b ant is charged with the murder of

,
her you ng b rother Prince Gottfried who has rea lly been bewitched
, ,
by the sorceress Or tru d The la tter s husba nd Telram u nd is rea dy

.
’
to a ppear a ga inst Elsa in ordea l of ba ttle ; b u t no one will fight for

her While the hera ld ca lls f
. or her defender Elsa recites a drea m of ,
a knight in shining armor who wou ld come as her ch am pion in a
boa t dra wn by a swa n Mea nwhile those a t the b a ck of the sta ge

.
see something a pproa ching It is rea lly Lohengrin on the river .

,
Scheldt an d Elsa s dr eam becom es a fact Loheng rin wins the fight
,
’
. .
He begs Elsa to be his bride b u t tel ls her a lso tha t he ca nnot rema in
,
with her un less she will refra in from asking his name The next ac t .
shows the ou tside of the pa la ce in which a wedding feas t is ta king ,
pl ace Ortru d an d Telra m un d discredited are hid ing ou tside Elsa

.
, , .
a ppe ars on a b a lcony an d O rtru d wins her pity by pretended hu m il

,
ity Da y dawns and the bridal procession com es to the chur ch It is

.
, .
sta rtled first by Telram u n d s em erging from hiding and a ga in by ’
Ortru d s cl aim ing prec edence over Elsa and ta u nting her with igno
’
ra nce of the b ridegroom s n a m e In the thir d ac t the b rida l choru s

’
.
,
greets Elsa an d Lohengrin in their apartm ent When left alone the .
,
p air express their love ; b u t Elsa s su sp icions are arou sed an d she ’
,
as ks Lohengrin s na me r am u n d b re a ks in to kill Lohengrin

’
Tel .
,
b u t drops dea d a t sight of the la tter s ma gic sword The scene then ’
.
ch anges to the grou nd by the river Scheldt Lohengrin expl a ins th a t .
he is a Knight of the Holy Gra il who ca n rema in on ea rth only ,
if u nknown Elsa is disconsola te ; b u t in p arting Lohengrin finds

.
him self a ble to disenchant her brother Gottfried who was rea lly ,
the swan .
The m u sic to this work stra ngely enou gh was a t first a tta cked as
, ,
u n m elodic B u t its m elodies h a ve a r ich h ar monic su pport th a t was

.
evi den tly too novel for the critics The B rida l Choru s is now known
.
everywhere The Prelu de is a shi m mering web of tona l richness

. .
The work is on e long str ea m of mu sica l bea u ty ; b u t especia lly a ttra e

tive ar e Elsa s drea m her b a lcony solil oqu y the processional mu sic
’
, , ,
“
Lohengrin s love song ( D ost thou not brea the with m e ) and his
’
-
”
The Trilogy consists of The Rhein gold “Sieg

The Va lkyri e
” ”
, ,
“
fri ed an d The Twilight of the Gods Its story is p artly told in
”
, .
“
variou s versions Of the Nib elun g en lied These with Trista n ”
.
, ,
“ “
The M as tersingers and Parsifa l are ca lled mu sic dra m as
” ”
, ,
-
instea d Ofopera s In these Wa gner developed his theories with some

.
fu lness In the first pla ce he insisted th a t a libretto shou ld be p oetic

.
, ,
a nd worthy He held also th a t the comp oser shou ld wri te his own
.
librettos Wa gner did this so well tha t The M astersingers is now

.
”
“
a te xtbook in the Ge rm a n schools In The R ing he wrote in a
”
.
brief strong fas hion pr egnant with exp ression an d well su ited to
, ,
m us icalsetting He insisted on the continu ou s style th a t he ca lled

.
Melos He held tha t the music shou ld alwa ys reflect a n d intens ify
.
the spiri t of the words or situ a tion ; an d this idea he carried ou t fa ith
“
fu lly He su mmed it u p well in the wor ds M u sic is Tru th He
.
”
, .
“
used a lso gu iding motives especia lly in The Ring These are
, .
short pregna nt phras es tha t illu stra te som e persona ge or event a nd

, ,
m a y be u sed afte rwar ds to su ggest th a t ch ara cter or event As will .
be seen the use of these m otives ena bles an orchestra litera lly to tell
,
a story in tones He discar ded ensem bles as being u nna tura l B u t

. .
ba ck of a lltheories was Wa gner s own mu sica l inspira tion His com

’
.
positions showed the possibilities of the rich modern orchestra as

a pplied to ope ra Liszt ha ndled the instruments equ a lly well b u t
. ,
in certa in opera tic scenes Wa gner s geniu s went far beyond tha t of’
Liszt Wa gner learned from Beethoven thou gh his idiom is va stly

.
,
different Wa gner m a y ra nk wi th Beethoven a n d B a ch in lea der

.
ship .
The Rheingold opens in the depths of the Rhine with the thr ee ,
Rhine D au ghters pl a ying as they gu ard the gold Alberich king of .

,
the Nibelu ngs (su bterra nea n Dwa rfs ) enters su dden l y At first he , .
is ch armed by the ma idens ; b u t on learning th a t he who renou nc es

2 16 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL IQ ‘IOWL ED GE
B ut in the fight H u nding is a llowed by Wota n to kill Sieg mu nd

,
thou gh Wota n then kills H u nding The thir d a c t shows a ga thering .
of the Va lkyries with B ru nhilde coming to esca pe from her fa ther

, ,
who is a ngered a t her disobedience The two a re left a lone a nd .

,
Wota n is p a cified b u t even a ga i nst his will he must pu nish B run

,
hilde He pu ts her into a ma gic sleep an d m a kes her the prize of the
. ,
first m a n who finds her ; b u t a t her requ est he surrou nds her with a
ma gic ring of fire thr ough which none b u t the bra vest m an ca n
,
penetra te .
Before Siegfried Sieglinde has died a nd Siegfried Siegmu nd s

, , ,
’
child is b rou ght u p by the Dwarf Mime who hopes the you ng m an
, ,
wi ll weld Siegmu nd s swo rd a nd sla y Fafner with it

’
.
Siegfri ed opens with Mime a t work over his forge an d the

”
,
boister ou s Siegfried being told the story of his birth Af ter M ime .
has a dia logu e with Wota n Siegf ried forges the swo rd su ccessfu lly
, .
The second a ct shows a forest gl a de where Siegfried muses on the ,
sylva n beau ty The dra gon a ppea rs a n d Siegfri ed kills him A

.
, .
taste of the blood which has spa ttered on Sieg fried s hand ena bles
,
’
him to rea d any one s thou ghts Learning thu s th a t Mime will try
’
.
to kill him an d ta ke the gold he kills Mime Gu ided by the birds , .

’
songs he goes to seek B ru nhilde In the thir d a c t Wota n tries to

, .
,
b ar the wa y b u t his spear is br oken by Siegfried s sword Siegfried

’
.
,
pierces the ring of fire a n d wins Bru nhilde s love ,

’
.
“
A prologue in Die GOtterdam m erung shows the Nom s or
”
,
Fa tes spinning the thr ea d of the Gods u ntil it brea ks Sieg fried
, .
now exchanges his ring for B ru nhilde s horse Grane and sta rts in ’
.
,
search of a dventures After an orchestra l interlu de the H a ll of the

.
,
Gib ichun g s on the Rhine is seen There Siegfried finds G u nther

, , .
a n d his sister G u tru ne with their ha lf b r other H a gen son of Albe -

,
rich H agen who knows ofthe ring wishes to get it He gives Sieg
.
, , .
fried a ma gic potion tha t ma kes the la tter forget B ru nhilde an d love
Gu tru ne Then he su ggests tha t Sieg fried shall get the r ing a n d
.
bring B ru nhilde to be Gun ther s bride which is done by Siegfried in ’

,
Gu nther s form In the second a ct Bru nhilde is overcome on seeing

’
.
,
Siegfried wear ing her ring and marrying Gu tru ne She a ccu ses him .
of treachery ; b u t the potion has m a de him forget the p as t Gu nther .

,
thinking himself betra yed joins H agen in plotting Siegfried s dea th

,
’
.
In the thir d a ct in a forest the Rhine D aughters b eg Sieg fried to

, ,
WAGNER AND H IS REFORMS 2 17
give them the rin g ; b u t he refuses in spite of their warning H agen ,

.
resto res Si egfried s m em ory by a second potion ; a n d when he has

’
told of B ru nhilde H a gensta bs him in the ba ck

, his one vulner ,
a ble spot . Another scene shows Gu tru ne a t the cas tle H agen sa ys .
Siegfried has been killed by a boar He cla im s the ring a nd sta bs .

,
Gu nther in order to get it B u t as he rea ches for it Siegfried s dea d

.
’
hand is ra i sed in warning B ru nhilde ha vi ng lear ned the tru th fr om

.
,
the Rhine Da u ghters irn m ola tes herself on Siegfried s fu nera l pyre
,
’
.
As H a gen tries to get the ring fr om the ashes the Rhi ne r ises a n d ,
engu lfs him the m a idens thu s recovering the ring Mea nwhile a
,
.
glow in the sky is seen ; Wa lha lla is in fl a m es the old Go ds perish , ,
an d hu m a nity ru les on ea r th .
The m u sic of this grea t epic is b est u nderstood by a close kn owl

edge of the words Withou t tha t some p as sa ges seem tediou s B ut
.
,
.
even to one who knows lit tle of the librettos the scores conta in ,
many or chestra l pa ssa ges of grea t bea u ty Su ch are the entra nce .
into Wa lhalla the Ride of the Va lkyries the Ma gic Fi re m us ic the

, , ,
Forest Rustling a nd the Rhine Jour ney B u t all the m u sic is

, .
“
strongly effective an d su its the words re m arka bly well In The
,
.
Rheingold are the rhythm i c stea dy pulsa tion of the river the
”
, ,
Rhine D au ghters a ttra ctive ca lls the odd rhythm of the Dwarfs
’
,
’
ham m ers and the hea vy footsteps of the Gia nts b eside the various
, ,
“
motives of the Go ds and the Walhalla mu sic In Die Wa lkiire ”
.
are the storm the love song of Siegmun d the Wotan Fricka scene
,
-
,
-
,
Siegm und s bra ve protection of Sieglinde the fight in the dar kness
’
, ,
a n d the wonderfu l scenes of the Va lkyri es a n d the M a gic Fir e In .
“
Siegfried a re tha t hero s forging of the swor d the m u rm urs of
” ’
,
the forest the fight with the dra gon an d the grea t du et a t the close
, , .
In Die GOtterdam m erun g the gu idin g m otives are bu ilt u p into

”
gra nd cli m a xes The use of these m otives m ay be shown by Sieg

.
fried s fu nera l m arch which pra ctica lly tells the story of his life in
’
,
to n es Another fa m ou s exam ple of their use is in the first ac t of

.
“
Die Walki i re Siegmu nd a lone by the hearth of his enem y is lost
”
.
, ,
in m u sin g The motives show tha t he b arely thinks of the storm ; he

.
re m em be rs Siegli n de a n d her kindness i n stea d Soon he grows ag i .
ta ted a n d fin a lly ca lls f

, or the swor d The firelight then fl ar es u p .
a n dr eflects on the sword hilt in the tr u nk of the tree a bou t which the
hu t is b u ilt ; whi le in the orchestra the sword motive is in te rwoven

with the motive of Wota n s com pa ct showing the au dience th a t the
’
,
prom ise of the swor d will be kept .
“T ist n n d Isolde ” opens on shipboar d King M ark ha d

r a a .
chosen as his bride the su bj u ga ted Irish princess I solde andha dsent ,
Trista n to be her escort Isolde wishes to die ; a nd she summons

.
Trista n (whom she ha tes beca u se he did not woo her for himself
on a former occa sion ) to drink a fa ta l dra u ght with her B u t her .
serva nt B ra ng a ene su bsti tu tes a love potion for the fa ta l dra u ght
, ,
-
,
an d the p a ir feel its effects In the second a c t a t King M ar k s castle ’

.
, ,
Trista n meets Isolde sec r etly a nd they sing of their love B u t his, .
enem y Melot brings the king on the scene an d woun ds Trista n

, , , ,
who is ta ken a wa y by his squ ire Kurwen al The third a ct shows .
Trista n sick an d delirious a t his ca stle in B ritta ny A shepherd sig .
n al s th a t a ship is a pp r o a ching Isolde enters Trista n dies a nd she

. .
,
sings his elegy a n d dies of love j ust as M ark s men from a second ,
’
,
ship force their wa y in M ark has learned of the potion an d is

, .
,
re a dy to p ar don the p a ir ; b u t he com es too l a te .
The mu sic of this work is intense in chara cter To some it seems .
monotonou s while others regard it as the very essence of Wa gner s

,
’
theories Ifthe text is followed closely the mu sic will be fou nd to

.
,
illus tra te it perfectly .
The M astersingers of Nurem berg opens in a church with the ,
knight Wa lther von Stolzing an d Eva dau ghter of the goldsmith ,
P og ner fa lling in love a t first sight Le arning th a t her h a nd is to

, .
be the pri ze in a m as tersing ing contest Wa lther wishes to enter the ,
ma sters gu ild The a pprentice D avid un der orders from Eva s

’
.
,
’
ma id M a gda lena tells him of their intrica te ru les He discards these

, . ,
however ; and he sings to the masters who ha ve ga thered a tri a l , ,
song th a t is free thou gh poetic enoug h A peda ntic riva l Beck

, . ,
messer cou nts him as fa iling ; an d only H a ns Sa chs a pprecia tes his
,
poetic gifts The opera is in som e sense au tobiogra phica l an d Wal

.
,
ther represents Wa gner whose gen iu s was not recognized by those

,
who cl u ng to old sta nd ar ds The second ac t shows the narr ow street

.
between Pogner s house a nd the cobbler shop of S a chs Eva a nd

’
.
Wa lther try to elope b u t S a chs working in the open a ir prevents

, , ,
them by his presence Beckmesser com es to serena de Eva b u t his

.
,
lu dicr ou s mu sic rea ches M a gda len a who has sa t a t the window ,
to persona te Eva while she met Wa lther Beckm esser pretends to .

holy spear with which Klingsor ha d wou nded him He ca n be cured
,
.
only by a tou ch of the spear The first scene is a rustic gla de where
.
,
the innocent Parsifa l sla ys one of the sa cr ed swa ns thinking no evil ,
of it The knight Gurnem anz ta kes him to the Gra il cas tle the scen
.
,
ery moving by in a p a nora ma u ntil the pa ir enter the ca stle h a ll .
There the Gra il service is held b u t Parsifal does not u ndersta nd it

, .
Gurnem a nz ha d hoped to find in him the guileless fool who was

”
to hea l Amfortas The second ac t shows Klingsor s magic garden

.
’
a nd its flower m a iden s Parsifal who has entered is tem pted by

.
, ,
Kundry ; b u t a t her kiss he recoils a n d ga ins the understa nding ,
th a t he ha d not possessed before His resistance to tempta tion over

.
c omes Kl ingsor ; he r ecovers the holy spear and the garden sinks ,
into ashes The third a ct ta kes place on Good Fri da y Parsifal is

. .
b aptized by Gurnem anz an d a nointed by Ku ndry the la tter being

, ,
now freed from Klingsor s spell and du ly penitent Aga in the scen
’
, .
ery moves u ntil the G ra il ca stle is re a ched This time Parsifa l knows .
wha t to do an d hea ls A m forta s with the spear being afterwards

, ,
ma de ki ng hi m self .
The mu sic is sometimes a li ttle spu n ou t b u t it has ma ny grea t -

,
beauties These inclu de the joyou s Parsifa l motive the Gra il ser
.
,
vice the a ttra ctive song of the flower ma idens Ku ndry s sensu ous
, ,
’
“
a ppea l the Good Fri da y spell and the fina l service
”
.
, ,
Wa gner com posed a few other works su ch as his drama tic Fau st ,
overture a n d severalmar ches Of the la tter the Ka iserma rsch

.
,
was f or Germ a ny a n d the

, Centennia l March for the Phil adelphia
“
Exposition B u t his opera tic marches su ch as the one in Tan n
.
,
“
hauser are mu ch worthier a ffa irs The Siegfried Idyl planned
”
,
”
.
,
as a sur prise for his wife Cosima a t Trieb schen is fu ll of bea u ty It ,

.
uses motives from the music dra ma but treats them in a new wa y
-
, .
XXIV
B RAH MS AND THE SY MP HO N ISTS
J OHANNES B RAHMS was born a t H a mburg in 1833 Son of a con .
tra b ass pl a yer the boy soon learned the ru diments of music thou gh
, ,
his fa ther s opposition made hi m work in secret a t first He prac

’
.
tised composing exercises an d vari a tions by himself f or a tim e ; b u t
u nder M arxsen his stu dies beca m e syste m a tic a n d thorou gh When .
fourteen B ra hms a ppea red pu blicly as pi anist a nd composer ; b u t

,
he wisely with drew from the ca reer of a pr odigy a nd studied qu ietly

for so m e years mo re He earned a preca riou s living by arra nging
.
marches an d dance mu sic or pla ying a t da nces himself

, .
At this time he went on a tour with the violinist Rem enyi Once .
they were to pla y the Kr eu tzer Son a ta of Beethoven The pi ano

”
.
proved too low for the needed violin brillia nce ; so Brahms tra nsposed
the entire pi ece a se m itone u p ward from m em ory an d pla yed it, ,
with accurac y an dspiri t in spite of Rem enyi s misgivings Joa chim

,
’
.
,
who was in the au dience was so as tou nded by this fea t th a t he ga ve

,
B rahms letters to Liszt and to Schum a nn The tour ended su ddenly .
a t H a nover where the police remember ed tha t Rem enyi s b r other

’
,
(an d p rob a bly he hi mself too ) ha d been a ctive in the u prisings of

184 8 B u t the pair went to Wei m ar an d ga ve a pe rforma nce which
.
,
Liszt heard Rem enyi introdu ced his com panion a t Liszt s hou se
.
’
,
where the la tter pla yed B ra hms s Scherzo (Op 4 ) from an alm ost
’
.
illegible ma nuscript A little la ter Liszt pl a yed his own sona ta ; b u t

.
,
when he looked arou nd for a pprob a tion he fou nd tha t B rahms , ,
worn ou t from tra vel was sleeping pea cefu lly

, .
B rahms ma de a m u ch better imp ression on Schumann .
from G ottingen to D usseldorf (he was too poor a t the moment to

ride ) he was warmly welcomed on his a rriva l an d enter ta ined f
, or ,
some tim e He ca ptiva ted the loca l mu sicians b y a performa nce of

.
Schum ann s C arni

’
a n d Schu ma nn resp onded by wri ting u p
B ra hms m ost fa vora bly in his ma ga zine The article ca lls B ra hms .
the coming hero of music spea ks of his pi ano sona tas as veiled
,
symphonies and pra ises his other early works

, .
2 22 TH E BOOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWLEDGE
One resu lt of this pra ise was a n a ppeara nce a t the Le ipsic Gewa nd
ha us There B rah m s m et with a foreta ste of the a dverse criticism
.
th a t was to follow him for some tim e In spite of the p ra ise of Schu .
“
ma nn an d Joa chim one critic wrote B ra hms will never become a
, ,
“
sta r of the first ma gnitu de ; an da nother wished hi m speedy deliv
”
era n ce fr o m his over enth u si a stic p a tr ons B u t a ttention was

”
- .
d ra wn to the you ng m an an d the pu blishers soon bega n to print his

,
B ra hms was a devoted friend to the Schu ma nns during the elder
com poser s illness ; an d in l a ter life Brahm s cherished the grea test
’
a dmira tion f or Mme Cl ara Schuma nn . .
Soon a fter this Dietrich described B ra hms as h aving a depth of

ser iou sness b u t a n u nderlyi ng vein of qu iet hu m or a lso B rahms
, .
never marri ed thou gh a t Dietrich s house he met a la dy whom he

,
’
sa id he wou ld h a ve liked to marry Poverty prevented him a t first .

,
a n d a fter war ds he considered it too l a te His life was orderly and .
well b a la nced exhibiting a llthe virtu es of the Germ anic ch aracter

-
, ,
in refreshing contra st to Wa gner .
Mu ch of B ra hm s s la ter life was passed in Vienn a He was fond of

’
.
long walks a n d wou ld often settle down for a time a t a ny near b y

,
-
pla ce tha t seem ed quiet an d su ita ble for com position In these trips .
,
a n d in his su m mer va ca tions he showed a n extre m e fondness f, or
children He wou ld often carry sweetmea ts for them Once a n Eng

. .
lish la dy wishing to see B ra hms when he stopped a t the hotel where

,
she was sta ying fou nd him on allfours giving a horseb a ck ride to
,
-
,
three j u venile friends .
B rahms was a t first describ ed as ra ther delica te slim looking ,

-
,
a n d with a be ar dless fa ce of idea l exp ression He remarked of

”
.
“
himself I su ppose I did look somethi ng like a ca ndida te for the
,
ministry in those da ys B u t he grew a fterwar ds to rea lly Teu

.
tonic brea dth ofsta ture He was a thletic enou gh an d u se d to be

.
,
fond of diving when off on va ca tions with Henschel or other friends .
In m ou nta in climbing however he wou ld soon b e ou t of b rea th ;

-
, ,
thou gh he Often concea led his sta te by getting his comra des to p ause
a n d exa mine the view .
B ra hms was mu ch a verse to writing letters An Engl ish pu blisher .
once wished perm ission to bring ou t the com poser s new works ’
a t the sa me time th a t they a ppe ared in Ge rm a ny ; b u t B ra hms

2 24 TH E B OOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
lea rned (either by stu dy or experience ) tha t form is the true logic of
“
music So grea t a wr iter as Fi nck has ca lled B ra hms s work musi
.
’
” “
ca lsmal l ta lk m ea ningless twa ddle a nd ra ted the composer as a
-
, ,
“
grea t dr essm a ker ; a musica l Worth B u t the dressm a king the .
,
”
ba l ancing of stru cture a n d development of figures are rea lly points

, ,
of val u e in m u sic an d not a ca u se for reproach More difficu lt to

, .
“
understa nd is Run cim a n s cla im tha t B rahms ha d not the intellect
’
“
of a n a ntelope a n d ha d not a grea t ma tter to u tter Time has
”
, .
shown the tru e va l u e of Bra hms who stood for allth a t was best in ,
cla ssicism .
The orchestra l works of B ra hms include four symphonies two ,
overtures a bea u tifu l set of varia tions on a H aydn theme a set

, ,
of Hungarian da nces a serena de and a nother serena de for sm aller

, ,
orchestra With these works belong a lso two piano concertos a

.
,
sta ndard violin concerto an da dou ble concerto for violin an d cello
,
’
.
Of these works the sym phonies are hea rd oftenest The first one in
, .
,
“
C minor is the one tha t Von B iilow ca lled the tenth not exa ctly
,
”
,
beca u se it was fit to su cceed the nine of Beethoven b u t beca use it ,
ca m e tenth in a list of grea t symphonies tha t he was ma king The .
mu sic is deeply earnest an d austerely noble The second sym .
phony is more pla yfu l The third has ma ny moments of bea u ty

.
,
while the four th is sometimes odd and novel in fla vor .
The cha mber music of B rah m s displa ys the sa me ea rnestness an d

underlying feeling tha t the orchestra l works show It consists of two .
stri ng sextets two string qu intets th ree stri ng quartets a qu intet for
, , ,
clarinet and stri ngs three pia no violin sona ta s two cello sona tas
,
-
,
’
,
three pia no tri os three pia no qu artets a pia no qu intet a tri o for
, , ,
pia no violin an d horn a nother wi th clarinet in pla ce of horn an d

, , , ,
two clarinet sona tas The pi a no qu intet an d the sextets are espe
.
cial ly grea t .
The pia no solos by B rahms inclu de sona tas rha psodies varia , ,
tions étu des an d other pieces He wrote a lso a n excellent sona ta

, , .
an d other works f or fo ur ha nds besides two orga n co m positions, In .
lthese both ch a mber an d solo works he is a t his best He does

l
al , ,
.
not give the artist mu ch chance for technica l displa y The pieces .
are h ard enough f or the performer but it is a self a bnega to ry sort of ,

-
difficu lty in which he has to present form or emotion without show

,
BRAHMS AND THE SYMPHONISTS 225
B rah m s com posed ma n y fa irly large chora l works som etimes ,

“
wi th orchestra Best of these is the grea t Germa n Requ iem not
”
.
,
a liturgica l requ iem b u t a noble ora to rio tre a ti n g of dea th an d con

,
sola tion He wrote this j u st a fter his mother s dea th an d u ndou bt

.
’
,
edl y ha dher in m ind Another gr ea t work is the Ode of Destiny.

,
“ “
or cho rus a n d orchestra Nanie an d the Song of the Fa tes are
” ”
f .
other famou s chora l orchestra l com positions The list is com pleted
-
.
by m otets psa l m and m any choru ses

, , .
B rahm s composed over two hun dred solo songs In ma ny of these .
his style of u nobtrusive emotion an d depth is shown to the best a d

“
vanta ge Su ch a cas e is fou nd in the Sa pphic Ode
.
”
a pparently ,
sim ple b u t in rea lity most poignant in expression Nearly allthe

, .
songs are vocal gems ; b u t so m e of the p art songs show an over -
refin em en t of style an d a too grea t rep ression th a t resu lts in com

,
m onpl a ceness The ch a m b er a n d or chestra l works a void this defect

.
,
f or they o f fer the co m poser many p ar ts instea d of a single melodic

voice an d a llow him to give to his mus ic the contra pu nta l sugg es
,
tion th a t ma kes for streng th an d permanence .
On the whole then B ra hms is the com poser who leans most to
, ,
ward intellec tualeffects These are not dry an d u ninspired as som e .

,
critics a ssert His effects are contem pl a tive where those of a Bee
.
thoven were dra m a tic ; b u t they h a ve their fu ll shar e of feelin g in ,
spite of the occas iona l qu ietness of style The a ppreci a tion of .
B ra h m s is still growi ng ; an d the next genera tion will prob a bly a d

mit tha t Von Bulow s ra nking him with B eethoven was pra ctica lly
’
j u stified In the wild cha os of m odern ra dica lism B ra h m s sta nds as

.
,
a model of al ltha t is sa ne an d wel l ba lanced in m u sic Ifothers do -

.
not follow his lead it is beca u se they do not possess his geniu s The
, .
im pressionistic style is easy to a dopt an d the stu dent can soon ,
lear n to compose in the progra m m e school by thr owing together

his ma sses of or ch estralcolor B u t it is m u ch h ar der to write m u sic .
tha t u nites the logic of form with the persu a siveness of expressive
bea u ty and yet does not borrow interest fr om a ny ou tside story
, .
B ra hms did this b u t no one seems to ha ve inherited his ma ntle of

,
lea dership .
Anton B ru ckner (182 5— 9 6 ) was in some resp ects a riva l of B rahms .
Withou t desiring it B ra hm s was held u p as a model for Wagner

,
by the l a tter s enemies B rahm s himself cou ld a pprecia te Wa gner s

’
.
’
freedom of style b u t a t first the cr itics cou ld not When B ru ckner
,
.
bega n to becom e known by his sym phonies their involved ch arac ,
ter a n d their use of the fu ll m odern orchestra tempted Wa gner s par

’
.
tisa ns to cl a im hi m as a sym phonist of the Wa gneria n school Th a t .
Wa gner looked as ka nce a t allsu ch riva lry is shown by hi s sta tement

tha t he intended his style only for opera B u t th a t did not prevent .
the u pholders of both sides from ma ki ng riva ls ou t of Bra hms a nd

B ru ckner with m u ch consequ ent bickering
, .
B ruckner was born a t Ansfelden in Upper Austria His fa ther , .
a n d gra ndfa ther wer e school tea chers his mother an innkeeper s
’
-
,
dau ghter He was the O ldest of twelve children As the tea chers
. .
were expected to be mu sicia ns Anton foun d his fa ther rea dy to tea ch ,
him At twelve he was sent to a rela tive Weiss When his fa ther
.
, .
died his mother a d the fa mily moved to St Flori a n s where

, n .
’
,
Anton beca me a choir boy There he continu ed his stu dies

-
. .
As a school teacher in Windh ag he was so poor as to be litera lly

-
,
ha lf sta rved Kr onstorf pr oved even worse ; b u t he was soon trans

-
.
ferred to Steyr where there was a go od orga n and su ff

, i cient p a y .
After th a t he ta u ght a t St Florian pra ctising ten hours a da y on the

.
,
organ an d three on the pia no La ter on he beca me orga nist a t Linz .

,
an d final ly he went to Vienna where he beca me a conserva tory ,
tea cher .
His grea t ma stery of cou nterpoint was shown in a theoretica l

exam in a tion when Herbeck an d others ga ve hi m a su bject on which
,
he was to exte m porize a fu gue Herbeck m a de the su bject long an d .
ha rd ; b u t B ru ckn er ha ndled it with su ch ma stery th a t Herbeck

excla im ed He shou ld examine us instea d
,
”
In sp ite of his skill .
,
B ru ckner stu died with Sechter This tea cher was not the best one .
,
for B ru ckner was often diffu se an d Sechte r didnot correct the tend ,
ency .
Owing to the B ra hms B ru ckner riva lry the critic Hanslick beca me
-
,
a viru lent enemy OfB ru ckner sl a shin g a t his works an d even oppos , ,
ing his a ppointm ent as cou nterpoint tea cher So mu ch did this in .
j u stice ra nkle tha t when B ruckner was presented to the E m peror ,
a n d a sked to n a m e a fa vor he repli ed naively

“
Won t you plea se
, ,
’
ma ke Mr Han slick stop writing a b ou t m e? Von B iilow the Her

.
”
,
zog en b erg s a n d other friends of B ra hms were a lso una ble to a p pre
,
cia te B ru ckner s grea tness ’

.
BRAHMS AND WPHONISTS
TH E SY l 2 27
In person B ru ckner was fu ll of odd ma nnerisms an d showed a sly

, ,
pea sa nt hu m or tha t betra yed his hu m ble ori gin B u t he was tre .
“
m en dousl y sincere in his m usic Once he sa id to a friend I think .
,
tha t if Beethoven were a live an d I should go to him with my sev ,
en th sym phony a n d sa y Here Mr Van Beethoven this is not so

, ,
‘
, .
,
b a d as certa in gentlem en wou ld ma ke ou t I think he would

’
,
ta ke me b y the h and a n d sa y My dear B ru ckner never mind I

, ,
‘
, ,
ha d no better lu ck Then I d sa y to him Excu se me for going b e

’ ’ ‘
.
,
yond you in freedom of form b u t I think a tru e artist shou ld m a ke ,
his own forms a n d stick to them

, .
B ru ckner com posed three m a sses a requ iem a Te Deu m for , ,
“
voi ces orchestra and orga n a Ta ntum E rgo a n d other sa cred
, ,
”
, ,
works ; b u t he is best known by his nine sym phonies Weingar tner .
sa ys tha t B ruckner was too mu ch given to the invention of ideas ,
a n d too little to their development while B ra hm s showed the re ,
verse fau lt B ru ckner s sym phonies are often long and not a lwa ys
.
’
,
perfectly ba la nced B u t they are earnest to the point of a bsolu te

.
a u sterity a n d their intensity i m pr esses the b ea rer in spite of a n y

,
fau lts of constru ction The seventh an d eighth sym phonies are full
.
of gra nd effects The ninth is u nfinish ed being withou t a fina le It

.
, .
is dedica ted to God The la rge plan and serious intent of these works
.
pla ces B ru ckner a m ong the masters .
Max B ru ch born in 1838 a t Cologne has been a ctive in ma ny

, ,
fields He com posed three sy m phonies b u t these are seldom heard

.
,
now A better fa te a waited his four violin concertos as they are fa

.
,
vori tes with the soloists especi a lly the bea u tifu l wor k in G m inor
, .
“ “
His ora torio Moses and the opera s Lorelei a n d Herm ione
,
”
,
” ”
,
are co m p ara tively little known ; b u t in the field of the epic ca nta ta
he a chieved consta nt su ccess The martia l Fri thj of and the strik .
“
ing Odysseu s are works in this form tha t are most wonderfu lly
”
“
i m pressive Arm iniu s is less so thou gh it is the com poser s
.
”
,
'
“ ” “
fa vorite Other wor ks of the sa me sort are Achilleus
. The Song ,
“
of the Bell a n d D am aj an ti Su ch m a le choru ses as Sa la m is
”
,
” ”
.
,
“ “
Leonidas a n d the Norm ann enzu g deserve especia l m ention
,
”
f or si m il ar vi rile qu a lities
Herma n Goetz (184 0—

.
76 ) co m posed a sym phony which has re

ma ined in the repertoire for som e tim e He beca me known a lso by .
“
an O pe ra tic setting of The Ta ming of the Shrew ”
.
1 7 —
Au g ust Klughardt ( 84 1902 ) composed five symphonies the ,
“
symphonic p oem Leonore several overtures and four opera s , , .
Josef Rheinbe ge (
r r 18 3 7— 19 02 ) prod u ced a Florentine sym phony ,
“
three overtures the tone picture Wallenstein two operas a
,
”
-
, ,
mas s an d mu ch ch a mber mu sic He excelled in cou nterpoint As a

,
. .
tea cher he ha d m any America n pu pils

,
.
Fri edrich Gernsheim born in 183 9 has been known as condu ctor , , ,
tea cher an d com poser He wrote four symphonies of which the

, .
,
first and last have been most frequ ently given His choral orches .
-
tral works incl u de Die nordische Sommernacht and Der Nornen

”
“ “
Wiegenlied His male choru ses su ch as Sa lamis an d the Watch
”
.
”
,
ied are well known A recent composition is the Overture to

”
terl , .
a D ra ma which ha ndles m odern effects with cl assic dignity

”
.
,
Gusta v Sa tter born in 1832 has composed sym phonies over

, , ,
“
tu res an opera and the tone picture Washington
, ,
” -
.
Ferdina nd Thieri ot born in 183 8 has composed orchestral fan , ,
“
tasies m an uscript sym phonies an d the opera Ren a ta
,
”
, .
Georg Riemenschneider born in 1848 is a nother conservative , ,
composer for orchestra .
H ans Koessler has produ ced a symphony a violin concerto a , ,
canta ta and sma ller works ; b u t he beca me best known throu gh his
,
sym phonic vari a tions in which he endea vored to picture B rahms in ,
various phases of life .
Wilhelm Berger born in Boston though living in Germany is

, , ,
“
an other conserva tive His Todtenta nz scored a fair su ccess
”
. .
Georg Henschel for a long time intima te with B rahms com posed
, ,
som e instru m enta l music as well as an ora torio a requ iem an dsm all , , ,
operas Bu t he beca me most fa mou s by his singing an d his early

.
lea dership of the Boston Symphony Or chestra .
Pa u l Car o com posed four symphonies as well as symphonic poems ,
a n d O pera s .
Igna z B rirl l(184 6 1907 ) composed a symphony seren a des con

‘
-
, ,
certos an d overtures b u t was most widely known by his opera s

, , ,
“ “
su ch as The Fiery Cross and The Heart of Stone
”
.
Other Germ a n sym phonists inclu de Albert Thierfelder Karl ,
Gra m m a nn Max Zenger Bern ar d Scholz Heinri ch Hofm an n

, , , ,
Richard Heu berger Arnold Kru g Otto Kurth an d Rich ard Metz , , ,
dorff M any of these men composed operas a lso Other opera

. .
XXV
GRIE G AND THE N ORTH E RN CO UN TRIE S
—
E DWARD H AGERUP GRIE G (1843 1907 ) was the only Sca ndina vian
composer to win a pl a ce a mong the world s grea t musica l m asters ’
.
Born a t Bergen he benefited by the musica l a tmosphere of his home

, ,
a nd was well ta u ght by his mother Ole B u ll was so im pressed by .
Grieg s early a tte m pts a t composition th a t he persu aded the boy s

’ ’
parents to send him to Leipsic for stu dy This was done and the .
,
course com pleted in spite of illness G rieg then worked u nder G a de

, .
for a wh ile ; b u t in Copenh a gen he met Rikar d Noor draa k whose ,
na tiona l principles drew Gri eg s a ttention to the bea uty of the ’
Norwegia n folk m usic Grieg returned a fterward to Norwa y where

-
.
,
he settled in Christia nia married a charming an d cu ltiva ted wife

, ,
an d devoted himself to composition A la ter cha nge of residence .
brought him to a villa near Bergen where his retired life could not ,
‘
prevent him from receivi ng many honors and dra wing a govern ,
ment pension Occasiona lly he ma de little tours where he proved

.
,
ca lm an d for cefulas a condu ctor but ra th er nervou s as a pia nist , .
In com position Grieg beca me devoted to a style th a t echoed the

,
Norwegia n folk mus ic Tha t music is fu ll of the most expressive

-
.
“
a n d pla intive effects as m a y be shown by su ch songs as
, As tri my ,
“
Astri or The Herder s C a ll The richness of melodic an d har
”
,
” ’
.
monic bea u ty in Grieg s works of course goes beyond the popula r

’
style b u t is nevertheless a very definite idea liza tion of it Grieg s

, .
’
melodies are lyri cal and fu ll of a sweetness th a t is never com mon

,
pla ce b u t a lwa ys remar ka ble for its joyous enthusiasm or pla intive
,
sa dness There is in his works a melting tenderness a warmth of

.
,
sentiment th a t seems perennia lly charmi ng His harmonic effects .
are responsible f or mu ch of this as they are not only fresh a n dnovel

, ,
b u t fu ll of feeling an d pa thos a lso .
Grieg s com positions m a y be divided into three cl a sses These

’
.
consist of his larger works the sma ller works tha t are essentia lly his
,
own a nd the man y pieces direc tly inspired by the Norwegia n folk
,
m usrc .
GRIEG AND THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES
Best known in the first clas s is the Peer Gynt m usic which the ,
com poser arrang ed in two concert su ites The mel odic beau ty of the .
“ “
Morning Mood the intense gloom of Aase s Dea th the rhyth m
”
,
” ’
,
“
of Anitra s Da nce a nd the su ggestive oddity of In the Mou ntain
’
,
King s Ha lls are known to nea rly al

' ”
lconcert goers The second -
.
“
su ite is less familiar b u t conta ins Solvej g s Song whi ch is a gem
,
” ’
,
of pa theti c a ppea l His other orchestra l works inclu de the im pressive

.
Au tu mn overtu re a worthy an d dignified pia no concerto the melo

, ,
“
dram a Berg liot a nd the Sig urd Jorsalfar suite as well as som e
”
,
”
,
Norwegian dances The elegia c m elodies the Norwegia n them es

.
, ,
a n d the Holberg sui te are a l lfor stri ngs These works show a llof .
Grieg s rich fu lness of lyri cal expression ; a n d the sa me is tru e of the

’
“
la rg e chora l works su ch as Olaf Tryg vason
,
.
The second grou p m a y be sa id to inclu de Grieg s three bea utiful ’
violin sona tas in F G and C minor Of these the fir st is the fa vor

, , , .
ite Ma ny of Grieg s pia no works belong here a mong them the

.
’
,
“ “
Hu moresken an d a pa rt of the Lyric Pi eces Here too mu st
” ”
.
, ,
be clas sed the ma ny bea u tifu l songs tha t Grieg com posed These .
songs show a most wonderfu l freshness of insp ira tion Su ch lyrics as .
“ ” “ ” “ ” “
Die Prinzessin Sonnenu ntergang
, Waldwa nderun g Haa , ,
kons Wiegenlied or The Fi r st Primrose show a most surprising

,
”
,
and novel bea u ty of style Grieg ha d something new a n d interesting

.
to sa y in m usic a t a tim e when inspira tion seemed a t a di scount else
More directly inspired by the Norwegian mu sic are the H a llings ,
“
Spri n g Dances an d sim ila r nu m bers both in the Lyri c Pieces
”
, ,
“
an d elsewhere Som e of these like the Slatter Op 72 were mod
”
. .
, , ,
elled on the a ctua l performa nces of pea sa nt mu sicia ns .
Grieg has been com pa red with Chopin since both emphas ized ,
em otion an dboth drew ins pira tion from na tiona l sour ces Bu t while
, .
Chopin som etim es grew morbid Grieg never did Grieg s m usic is , .
’
pl a in tively expressive ra ther tha n intensely passiona te B u t it loses .
nothing by this as its charmi ng origi na lity lea ves the au ditor re
,
freshed instea d of exh austed .
Among Norweg ia n mu sicia ns Lu dwig Li ndema nn did pioneer ,
work in collecting the folk m usic Wa ldem a r Thra ne produ ced the-
.
first na tive opera Ole B u ll com p osed a violi n concerto an d other

.
large works b u t wrote a lso in the na tiona l style Torgeir Au dunson

, .
was a na tive genius who refu sed to ta ke mu sic lessons H al fd an Kj e -
.
fs songs were early fa vorites in ma ny na tions Rikar d Noord

’
rul .
raa k died very youn g b u t beca me known by his na tiona l songs , .
Edm u nd Neu pert Adolf Terscha k an d Chr istian C appelen deserve

, ,
mention a lso E ri k Meyer Helm u n d (born a t St Petersburg ) c om

.
-
.
posed som e su ccessfu l songs an d an opera Among the women .

,
Aga the B a cker Gr On da hlis known by her expressive voca l works

-
.
Peer Winge an d Peer La sson are a lso su ccessfu l song composers

Joha nn Severin Svendsen (184 0—
.
19 11) was less disti nctively n a

tion a lin style He stu died in Germa ny toured E urope as a violinist
.
, ,
“
marri ed an Am erica n wife an d settled in Denmark His Rh a p , .
“
sodies Norvégiennes like his C arniva l a t Pa ris give a very
”
, ,
“
mu ch dilu ted na tiona lism His sym phonies his Z orahayda mu sic
”
.
, ,
“
a n d his Sigurd Slem b e overture show sim ilar qu a lities being
”
,
good music b u t not distinctively na tiona l or overwhelmingly ori

,
g in al .
Christia n Sinding born in 1856 has shown himself the grea test of
, ,
the Norwegia ns after Grieg He has entered the orchestra l field with .
“ “
a symphony a Rondo Infin ito the Episodes Cheva leresqu es
” ”
, , ,
a pi an o con certo a n d two violin concertos , A recent work of mu ch .
“
merit is his opera The Holy Mou nta in He wri tes with modern
”
, .
orchestra l contr ol He has com posed songs b u t he is m ost widely

.
,
“
kn own by his many excellent pia no pieces of which the Rustle of ,
Spring is a fa vorite Sinding has been so fond of wea ving ra pid .
tona l em br oideri es a bou t his themes th a t the mu sica l copyists united

in char ging him more tha n the regu lar ra tes .
Joha nn Selmer born in 1844 composed severa l orchestral tone

, ,
pictures an d man y voca l works

, .
Otto Winter Hjelm born in 1837 wrote two sym phonies based on
-
,
Germa n models b u t beca me more popu lar by his songs an d other

,
short works .
Ole Olsen born in 1850 has composed a symphony incidenta l

, , ,
“ “
mu sic the symphonic poem Asga rdsr eien the opera Stig
,
”
,
Hvide an d m u ch piano mu sic His birthpla ce was H a mmerfest

”
, . ,
the most northerly city in the world .
Sig ur d Lie and Eyvind Alnaes are more recent orchestra l com
posers in Norwa y Thom as Tellefsen of Norwegian descent has .
, ,
delightfu lly fresh enthus iasm and a warm rich ess of harmonic , n
bea u ty .
Wilhelm Peterson Berger born in 1867 is an opera tic lea der hav
-
, , ,
“
ing produ ced Svea ga ldrar ”
Fortu ne an d the la ter mu sic drama
”
, ,
-
“ ”
His opera tic lyri cs like his songs are sometimes pensive
Ran . , , ,
b u t genera lly mar ked by a su nny war mth of feeling .
H u go Alfvén born in 1872 has composed three fa irly su ccessfu l

, ,
symphonies besides a Swedish rha psody a symphonic poem and

, , ,
ma ny sm a ller works .
Tor An liu born in 1866 is fa mou s as a violinist an dhas comp osed

, , ,
three violin concertos and four idyls of mu ch mu sica l worth .
E rik Akerb erg has produ ced orchestral and chora l works Gus .
ta v H agg has tried the orchestra l form s b u t is best known by his ,
“
orga n music Ja cob H agg com posed a Northern Symphony a n d
.
”
other works Fri tz a n d Anton Hartvigson were pianists as well as

.
com posers Johann Nordqvist is an orchestra l wri ter of an Older

.
genera tion Widéen has produ ced excellent ma le choruses Linde

. .
gren was a composer of chamber music Bror B eekrnan ha s worked .
in the violin field Liliefors Vletb a d Erikssohn an dLu ndberg have

.
, , ,
com pos ed for the piano Elfrida An dree lea ds the women wi th .
,
Va lborg An liu Helen MunktellandAlice Tegner deserving mention

, , .
In Denmark G a de s prominence obscured both Joh ann H artma n

’
,
an d his gifted son E m il thou gh both ha d wr itten good sym phonies

,
a n dpopu l ar operas Af ter Ga de s dea th a new genera tion succeeded ’

.
,
them .
Siegfried Sa lom an wrote opera s for Copenh agen beginning in ,
1832 . Henrik Rung pr od u ced eight dr a ma tic works beginning ,
in 1847 Alfred Tof. ft was a nother D anish opera comp oser J Org en .
Ma lling was still another Copenha gen writer of operas Presb en .
“ ”
Noderm ann beca me known by his King M a gnu s
—
.
In mo e recent years Lu dvig Schytté (1850 1909 ) composed sev

r ,
“ ” “ ” “
era l operas inclu ding The Ma melu ke
, The Swa llow Hero ”
, , ,
an d the burlesqu e
“
Circus D a men as well as the pantomime
”
-
,
“ ”
Atel
derspu ck
Eduar d Lassen (1830—
.
1904 ) has been mentioned in connection
A recent D anish opera composer is Au gust E nna born in 1861 , .
He wa s ha ndica pped a t first by poverty an d once indu lged in the ,

GRIEG AND THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES
melodra ma tic act of burning som e of his ma nuscripts for warmth .
“ “
His early Villa ge Ta le won a little notice ; b u t Areta was re
” ”
“
fu sed an d Agla i a sa crificed as fu el An orchestra l su ite an d a
”
.
,
sym phony won some a ttention an d a little money ena bling the com ,
“ ”
poser to tra vel On his tour he wrote m u ch of The Witch his
. ,
first grea t tri umph This work was a ccepted by an opera ma n ager
. ,
b u t la id as ide an d rescu ed fr om oblivion only when Svendsen ha p

,
pened to look a t the score and a dmire its bea u ties It is based on .
Fitger s dra ma of the sa me n a m e Its su ccess was marked Since

’
. .
tha t time Enna has held a lea ding position in Denm ark His la ter .
“ ” “ ” “
opera s inclu de Cleopa tra Au cassin an d Nicolette
, La mia ”
, ,
“
The Little Ma tch Girl an d severa l other An dersen su bjects
”
-
,
.
In the orchestra l field Simon Pau l li was a n ea rl y co m pose r who

,
ou tlived Ga de The Helsted fam ily consisting of Herma nn Karl

.
, , ,
a n d Adolph were a ctive in D an ish mus ic the fir st co m pos ing b al

, ,
lets while the other two wrote sym phonies an d variou s large wor ks
, .
La ng eTMul er is a more recent sym phon ic a n d opera tic co m poser

l .
Joa chim Andersen is a flu te composer who has a lso entered the sym
phonic field Victor Bendix a Ga de pu pil has com posed severa l
.
, ,
“ “
sym phonies inclu ding the Fel
, sens teigu ng an d the Sommer
kl ang e aus Sii drussl an d Asgar Ham erik who ta ug ht for a time in
.
,
B a ltimore has written six symphonies so m e operas a n d other large

, , ,
wor ks Otto Ma lling has composed orchestra l and cha mber mu sic
. .
E m il Horn em ann has wr itten a nu mber of overtures ; Fini Henriqu es

is known by incidenta l m usic as well as piano pieces ; Au gust ,
Hyllested is another orchestra l composer who has ta ught in Am erica ;

Au gust Winding has written a violin concerto ; while Ka rl Nielsen
is becoming known as an importa nt sym phonist In the sma ller .
form s Attru p a Ga de pupil has com posed orga n works ; while

, , ,
Joha nn Neb elong an d Asgar Ju u l ha ve produ ced pia no works an d

songs Thorva ld Otterstroem is a visitor to America who has com
.
posed good cha mber works .
The first well known Finnish composer was Bernha rd C rusell

-
(1775 who lived in Sweden an d Germa ny an d composed the

“
opera Die Kleine Skla vin B u t the real founder of the Fi nnish
”
.
sch ool was Fredri k Pa ciu s (1809 a Ge rm a n by bir th who spent
his life in Finla nd a n d com posed na tiona l songs and operas Filip .
von Schantz who lived until 186 5 prod u ced songs choruses and
, , , ,
ca nta tas Carl Wasenius was a ctive a t Ab o the former ca pita l
. , .
Karl Colla n son in l a w of Pa ciu s

, com posed very popu lar chora l
- -
,
marches Conra d Greve of Abo wrote incidenta l music M ohr ing

. , , .
devoted his efforts to ma le choruses while Ing elius Ehrstrom and , , ,
L insén co m posed well known so ngs Richar d Fa ltin the su ccessor

-
.
,
of Pa cius as a tea cher pr odu ced ca nta tas voca l works and pia no
, , ,
“
pieces M artin Weg elius beca me known by the overture to D a niel
.
Hjort an d by his critica l essa ys Robert Ka j anu s founded and led

, .
the Philha rm onic Or chestra a t Helsingfors the ca pita l an d com , ,
posed sym phonic poems on su bjects from the Finnish na tiona l epic ,
the Ka levala This epic has mu ch literary interest and m a y have

.
,
inspired the methods u sed by Longfellow in his Hia wa tha “ ”

.
Armas Jarn efelt born in 1869 wr ote orchestra l suites a nd the sym
, ,
phonic poem Korsholm an d u nited lyri c beau ty with rich instru

”
,
menta tion E rnest Mielck known as the Finnish Schu bert died
.
“ ”
, ,
when only twenty two a fter composing a bea u tifu l symphony an d

-
,
other or chestral works Oskar Meri ka nto has produced an opera.

,
The Ma id of Pohj a Ilmari Krohn has written ins trum ental works
.
a n dmotets besides tea ching an d pu blishing essa ys E rik Mel

, a rtin is .
a song writer ; Emil Genetz a wa kened mu ch enth u si a sm by his m a le

-
choru ses su ch as Heraa S u omi (Awa ke Fi nland

,
”
while Selim ,
Pal rng ren is kn o wn by songs a n d pia no pieces of mu ch b rillia ncy .
B u t the lea der of the Finnish school a n d the only Finnish com ,
poser to win a government pension for mu sica l excellence is Jea n ,
Sibeliu s He was intended for the lega l profession but his violin les
.
,
sons led him to a dopt a mus ica l career He studied with Weg elius in .
Fi nland an d with Bec ker an d Goldmark in Berlin an d Vienna He

, .
has compos ed four sym phonies a t the present writing His sym .
“ “
phonic poems The Swa n of Tu onela an d Le mm inka inen are
” ”
“ ” “ “
b as ed on Ka leva l a su bjects Islossni ng en Sa n del
s
”
a nd Su b .
, ,
“
frid dem and choru ses while Ku llervo em ploys soloists as well
” ”
,
.
“ “
His su ites C arelia an d King Christia n IV are earnest works
,
” ”
, ,
“
the Elegy in the la tter being especia lly impressive His Fi n .
la ndia an orchestra l wor k bas ed on Finnish tu nes arou sed su ch

”
, ,
pa triotic feeling th a t the Ru ssians a fter depriving Finla nd of self ,
government forba de the performan ce of the work His other com

, .
positions inclu de ca nta tas voca l ba lla ds songs pia no pieces str ing , , , ,
XXVI
STRAU SS AND RE C EN T GE RMAN S
R ICHARD S TRAUSS was born a t Munich on Ju ne 11 1864 His , .
fa ther Fra nz was first horn pl a yer in the cour t orchestra On one
, , .
occas ion Fi a n z fou nd certa in Wa gneri an horn passa ges too difli cult;
b u t he did not know then th a t his son wou ld one da y compose
mu sic even more intr ica te th an Wa gner s Rich ard s mother was a ’
.
’
d au ghter of the brewer Pschorr .
The child s precocity a ided by the musica l a tm o phere of his

’
,
s
hom e resu l ted in a rea diness for piano lessons a t four a nd the
, ,
beginning of composition a t six So ngs a n d pia no pieces were even

.
followed by an orchestra l overtur e The child s hand writing was .

’
still imma ture so the mother ha d to inscribe the words of the songs
,
in order to get them in to their proper sp a ce .
D ur ing his Gym n asiu m course (a t the a g e of eleven ) young Rich ,
ard bega n ta king lessons in mu sica l theo ry a n d com position An .
“
Electra chorus severa l songs a n overtur e and a string qu artet
”
, , ,
ca m e soon a fter this period These were a llin cl assica l form an d

.
style The sa me is true of a violin concerto a horn concerto a n d

.
, ,
the F m inor Sym phony The l a tter work was intended to be in the
-
.
B ra hm s style b u t it is not so deeply earnest as the B rahm s sym

,
“
phonies Pia no works of these years su ch as the Mood Pictu res
.
”
,
-
,
Op 9 show mu ch bea u ty a n d are somewha t in Sc humann s style

.
, ,
’
.
This grou p inclu des the delica te an detherea l Another

“
early chora l work is the Wa nderers Sturm lied Op 14 for six
”
, .
,
voices an d orchestra .
Soon after this Strau ss ga ined Von B ulow s esteem and was ap
,
’
,
pointed a ssista nt condu ctor a t Meiningen This ca me a bou t a fter .
Von B irlow heard Stra uss condu ct withou t rehearsal his Sere
’
, ,
na de Op 7 for thirteen wind ins truments Strau ss afterward

, .
, .
beca me chief condu ctor .
It was a t this time th a t Strauss met Alexa nder Ritter who per ,
suaded the young composer to a b a ndon cl assica l forms an d styles in

the end of the work there is no m ista king the stern anger of the citi
zens who ha ve ca u ght the rogu e His inconsequ entia l little theme is .
of not the slightest a va il a ga inst their insistent a ccu sa tion At last .
his them e starts in a fina l plea b u t is choked offru thlessly in the ,
middle .
“
Also Spra ch Z ara th ustra is b as ed on Nietszche s mystic phi ’
losop hy in which Z ara thu stra (Zoro a ster ) is ma de to tea ch a doc

,
“
tr ine of su per men There is a picture of the Hinterweltern or
-
.
”
,
dwellers in the rear world of ordinary narrow hu ma nity ; and their

-
striving a n d yea rning find voice in a tender Gra ve Song Science ”

- .
a n d its fu tility are represented by a chr o ma tic fu gu e A p as sa ge eu .
“
titled The Conva lescent shows the defea t ofsorrow and trou ble
”
,
a n d the tri u mph of the su pe r ma n s joy a n d l a u ghter An exult ’

-
.
an t Da nce Song pictures this still more definitely At the close

”
-
.
“
comes the mystic Song of the Night Wa nderer ; and the work”
-
ends oddly in two keys as if representing eterna l dou bt Stra ng e

, .
as it m a y seem this com position shows mu ch su blimity in spite of

, ,
the unu sua l na ture of its su bject .
“
Don Q u ixote is still m ore definite in its tone p ainting Thi s is
”
- .
a set of vari a tions ea ch of which por tra ys one a dventu re of the

,
Knight of the Sorr owful Cou ntena nce These a dventures incl u de .
the a tta ck on the windm ills the dispersa l of the fl ock of sheep the
, ,
discourses of the knight with his squ ire Sa ncho Pa nza the mista kin g ,
of the pilgrim s for r obbers the knight s vigil a meeting with Du l

,
’
,
c inea the ride thr ou gh the a ir the voya ge in the ench a nted boa t
, , ,
the mista king of the two monks for ma gicians an d the fight with the ,
Knight of the White Moon The origina l theme conta ins a passa ge . ,
typica l of the Don tha t a ppea rs in a distorted sh a pe a t first b u t in a

, ,
sim plified an d clear form a t the end where the hero rega ins his sa ,
mity j u st befo re his dea th In the vari a tions the p rogra mme idea is
.
,
ca rried ou t thorou ghly The flock of sheep blea t persistently ; the

.
pilgrims sa cred phra ses come to a rude end ; and the ride th rough
’
the a ir is a ccom pa nied by a thea tri ca l wind ma chine - .
“ “
Ein Heldenleben ( A Hero s Life ) is m eant as a bit of a u to
” ” ’
biogra phy It is divided into six sections The first portra ying the
. .
,
hero is brou ght to a grea t climax Then hi s enemies are described

, . ,
by ca ckling snarling phras es on the wood wind instru ments His

, .
helpma te is represented by a solo violin givi ng ra ther conventiona l ,

STRAUSS AND RECENT GERMANS 24 1
passa ges d by a love du et an d other sweet mu sic The hero s

,
- .
’
ba ttlefield is shown as a fierce or chestra l stru ggle The hero s works .

’
of p ea ce which form the fifth section bring in them es from the com
, ,
poser s earlier wor ks

’
as m a ny as twenty th ree r em iniscences one
,
-
,
writer cla im s The final section shows the hero s a potheosis This
.
’
.
work is grand in conception b u t the thema tic ma teri a l is som etim es

,
com monpla ce .
“
The Dom estic Sym phony is a long one movem ent work It is - .
sa id to depict a da y in the com poser s hom e which is a pparently ’

,
very noisy There are them es for fa ther mother a n d child while
.
, , ,
the a dvent of other rela tives is suspected here and there Stra uss .
once told the present writer tha t the work is su pposed to depict the
p a ssing of night an d the su cceeding morning in the la tter of which ,
is a fu gu e portra ying the edu ca tion of the child B u t he has given .
different versions of the sym phony a t different times The mus ic i

'
s
.
often broa dly effective ; b u t it does not gai n mu ch from the na ture
of i t su bject
s .
The p rogra mm e school which seem s to ha ve won first pla ce in

,
contem pora ry m u sic perm its som e variety of trea tm ent M u sic ca n
,
.
depict em otions su ccessfu lly b u t is a t a disa dva nta ge when tryi ng

,
to describe a ctu al scenes or events A program m e su bject tha t indi

.
ca tes contrasts in em otion is therefore more fitted to perm it the writ

“
ing of grea t m u sic Liszt s Tasso Lam ento e Trion fo has been
.
’ ”
, ,
“
cited as an exa m ple In the m usic of Stra u ss Dea th a n d Trans
.
,
figura tion a ffor ds a sim ilar ef

”
fective contra st withou t for cin g the
“
music to depend on trivial deta ils B u t Don Qu ixote brings in ”
.
the objective rea lism which is hard to portra y a ccura tely by m u sica l
mea ns To illu stra te this the rea der m a y listen to short progra m m e
.
,
pieces (pia no solos are m ost convenient) withou t knowing their

n ames He will find tha t the m u sic is a l m ost a lwa ys ca pa ble of m a ny
.
exp la na tions a n d does not of necessity su ggest its su bject Stra u ss

,
.
clai m s tha t pr ogra m m e m u sic w ill u ltim a tely becom e m u ch m ore

definitely su gg estive an d a ccura te ; b u t this idea like his cla im tha t ,
all co m posers rea lly u se m enta l pr ogram m es in writing m u sic is ,
definitely incorrect Wh a t m a y be ca lled su bjective progra m m e

.
mu sic dea ling with em otions ra ther th a n events has m ore possibili
, ,
ties an d m ore va l u e tha n O bjec tive progra m m e m u sic .
“
Stra u ss has com posed severa l operas G u ntra m the first is a .
,
”
,
story of a knight belongi ng like Lohengrin to a mystic order Gun , , .
tra m rescu es Freihild who is drowning herself to esca pe a ha tefu l

,
marri a ge Her fa ther honors him but is a ngered by his pra ises of
. ,
pea ce a n d meekness He a tta cks Gu ntra m the la tter killing him in

.
,
self defense Thou gh Gu ntra m is held bla meless he knows tha t

- .
,
riva lry in love was his real motive ; an d he is forced to renou nce
d
Freihil .
“
Feuersn oth is b ased on an old Oudena rde legend D iem u t the .
,
B urgomaster s dau ghter is loved by the stranger Kunra d She re

’
, .
sents a kiss given too publicly and revenges herself by enticing him ,
into a b asket hau ling him ha lfwa y up to her window an d leaving

, ,
him there In his turn he ca sts a spell th a t pu ts ou t al

. lthe fi res a n d
lig hts in to wn ; and she renews her a llegi ance before he relents In .
the legend the gir l was ma de the only source of renewin g the fire ,
so tha t her pride was a b ased by exposure to the tou ch and the eyes
of the m u ltitu de This opera has some richly orchestra ted music
.
,
thou gh it is not often performed It has an au tobiographica l p assa g e .
in the text in which pu ns on Wa g ner (cartwright) and Stra u ss (b ou

,
quet ) show th a t he like Wa gner objected to the critics who ha dm a

, ,
“
ig ned him a t first B u t where Wag ner s Meistersinger p a ssa ges
”
l
’
.
are artistic the person a l a ll u ions of Stra uss are too openly con
,
s
e d.
ceit
His la ter opera tic style has b een exemplified by S a lome ,
” “ “ ” “
Elektra D er Rosenka va lier a n d Ari a dne a u fNax os
, Sa , .
“
lome is an intensely dra ma ti c one a ct a ffa ir Elektra based on
”
-
.
,
Hofmannstha l s version of the su bj ect is terrifica lly str ong a n d the

’
, ,
“ ”
orchestra a lmost drowns the singers voices D er Rosenka va lier ’
.
“
is somewh a t in the style of The M a rria ge of Fi gar o thou gh ,
scored for fu ll modern orchestra ; but it la cks sincerity in a way an d ,
“ “
is not ra ted highly Aria dne is a two a ct setting of Le Bour
”
.
-
g eois Ge ntilhomme one a ct being devoted to M Jourdain s enter ’

.
,
ta inm ent of the mar quise while the second consists of the pl a y ,
“
Aria dne given for her a mu sement It is scored for only thirty
”
, .
six instru ments b u t ea ch one is given importa nt work in a solo style

,
.
The songs of Strauss are polished gems of perfection Sometimes .
they seem fra gmenta ry a t first b u t on repea ted hearing they all ,
show a most perfect un ity While his orchestra l themes are som e .
times commonpla ce in spite of the gra nd u ses to which he pu ts them

, ,
cu t off a hea d a n d yet lea ve it in pla ce In the fir st movement the .
celestia l ma id Swa nhilda a ppea rs Wiela nd loves her b u t she is ter .

,
rified a t first by ea rthly p a ssion a n d retires to her lofty a bode The , .
second movem ent shows Wieland s despa ir The third movement ’

.
depicts him forging a pa ir of wings which he completes su ccessfu lly , .
In the four th movement he departs aloft with Swa nhilda lea ving ,
the du ll world for the rea lms of eterna l su nlight .
Hauseg er has written other works incl u ding songs with orches
g
,
tra He is p r omi nent as a cond u ctor His mu sic shows a most richly
. .
“
melodiou s ch ara cter th a t ma kes it rem a rka bly a ttractive
, B ar .
ba rossa for exam ple has ma ny charming passages thou gh it is

”
, , ,
ra ther long dra wn out- - .
Strau ss an d others consider Jean Louis Nicodé (bo rn in 1853) a

pioneer in the progra mme school Nic odé ta ught piano a t first an d .
,
“
beca me a condu ctor His works inclu de the C arniva l Pictur es
.
,
“
M aria S tuart a Ju bilee M arch a violin concerto a set of
”
,
”
, ,
sym phonic varia tions and chora l orchestra l compositions su ch as

,
-
,
“ ” “ “
Das Meer an d Gloria a rom a ntic u n d Sonnen lied
” ”
8t ,
-
.
They show som e largeness of stru cture an d an inter esting style , .
Felix Wein gartner born in 1863 has been active in ma ny fields

, , ,
an d is known as a gifted condu ctor After stu dy with M a yer who .

,
ta u ght Stra u ss Weingartner spent some years as condu ctor in sma ll

,
thea tr es In a letter to the present writer he com pla ins of the hard
.
,
conditions in these minor posts I beca me a cqua inted with their .
“
wretchedness he wri tes , The sa lary was sma ll 150 marks
.
,
a month f or seven months a n d a ha lf

,
In Dan tzic there .
were only four or five first violins two contra ba sses third ra te sing , ,
-
ers a mise ra ble choru s a n d no ch a nce f

, or p r oper rehearsa ls as the
, ,
directors insisted u pon an extens ive repertoire ”

.
“
Wein gar tn er s first opera Sa ku nta la was given by Liszt a t
’ ”
, ,
“ “
Weim ar La ter operas by him were Ma la wika an d Genesius
.
” ”
.
“
His Orestes is a grou p of three one ac t dra mas on su bjects from
” -
“
ZEschyl us His symphonic poems inclu de King Lea r a nd The
.
”
Elysi a n Fi elds the la tter be ing inspired by a B Oc klin picture He

”
,
.
has a lso wr itten symphonies of which the third with orga n is fu l ,

l , ,
of broad effects His ch a mber music inclu des three stri ng qu artets
.
a nd a sextet He has com posed a lso ma ny bea u tifu l son gs a n d a

.
,
nu mber of pia no pieces His larger works show a str ong ha ndling of
.
the orchestra an d a commenda ble freedom of style withou t ra dica l

,
h arm onic excesses .
Max Reger born in 1873 m ingles cl assica l learning with experi

, ,
ments in a bstr use styles His stri ng qu artets show the very in trica te.
an d j u m bled h armonic effects tha t cons titu te modern ra dica lism .
He has com posed a very bea u tifu l set of vari a tions with fu gu e on a , ,
“
them e b y H iller ; b u t his Su ite in Old Style shows less direct inspi ”
ra tion He has written ma ny orga n works

. .
B u t the wildest ra dica l in modern Ge rmany is Arnold Schoenberg ,
born in 187 4 His earlier compositions inclu ding the

.
,
orchestral Gurrelieder were fa ir ly direct in style In

”
, .
however he has em ployed wildly dissonant h ar monies in a most su r

,
prising wa y His works seem a t first sight nothing more than cha otic
.
mas ses of fra gments His piano pieces ha ve ma de a u diences think

.
tha t he m us t ha ve wri tten them as a joke B u t in spite of their .
j umbled chara cter they show a marked dram a tic force even thou gh
, ,
they are too ra dical for those who a pprecia te the more orderly work
“
of Strau ss The Five Or chestra l Pieces form a nother mu ch dis
.
” -
cu ssed an d m u ch a bused work Like the pian o pieces they are for
-
.
,
the m ost part a lmost too wildly ra dica l to be cl assed as music B u t .
“
som e of them especially the fir st one entitled Presen tirnents
,
”
, ,
show a drama tic power of u ttera nce tha t prevents Schoenberg from
being disregarded .
A list of those who ha ve composed recent symphonies will include

Herm an Bischoff Gusta v B recher Hu go Daffner Pa u l Ertel the
, , , ,
condu ctors Max Fi edler an d Emil Pa ur Georg Fi telb erg Gu sta v , ,
Kord Juliu s M ajor Josef Reiter Au gust Sch arrer Pa ul Schein

, , , ,
p flug E rnst Seyf

, f ar dt a n d Ewa ld Stra esser M a ny of these m en
, .
h ave com posed sym phonic p oems also Other orchestra l writers are .
C arl B leyle E rnst B oehe Wa lther B ra u nfels Joseph Foerster

, , , ,
Oskar Fried Richar d Ga briel Ka r l Ka m pf Siegfried Karg Ehlert

, , ,
-
(known a lso by organ works ) the boy prodigy E rich Wolfga ng ,

-
“
Korng old (a sym phon ietta a p antom ime Der Schneema nn ”
, ,
ch amber mu sic a n d shor ter pieces ) Gerhard von Keussler the

, , ,
ea rlier Ju lius Kn iese Theodor Kroyer Wa lter La m pe Richard , , ,
Ma ndl Fra nz Mayerhoff Heinrich Noren Siegfried Ochs Bernhard

, , , ,
Pau mgartner Ferdina nd Pfohl George Was hington Pi ttrich Max

, , ,
Pu cha t Felix von Ra th R u dolf Roesel H u go Rueter H a ns Schaub

, , , , ,
2 46 THE BOO K OF MUSICAL KN OWLE DG E
Bernha rd Sekles Georg Sch u ma nn Thoma s Sta mm Ru di Stepha n

, , , ,
Otto Tau b m ann Ama deu s Wa ndelt Herma nn Wetzler a nd the , , ,
condu ctor H a ns W in derstein This list does not clai m a bsolu te .
completeness for orchestralcomposers in Germa ny are as thick as

,
bla ckberri es in Au gust B u t it is representa tive enough Beside . .
these men a nu mber of the opera com posers h a ve wri tten sym
,
phonies an d other or chestra l works Best known a mong these are .
E u gen D Alb ert Wa ldem ar von B aussnern Leo Ble ch Au gu st

’
, , ,
Bungert Otto Dorn Josef Erb Alb an Foerster Robert Fuchs Pa ul

, , , , ,
Geisler Theodor Gerla ch Albert Gorter Wa ldemar Kam pfert

, , , ,
H ugo Ka u n Fri edrich Klose Josef Krug Wa ldsee Fr iedrich Koch

, ,
-
, ,
Arthur Koenn em a nn Georg Kra mm Fra nz Mikorey Le opold , , ,
Reichwein Au gust Reuss Bernhard Schus ter the older Robert

, , ,
Schwalm Lu dwig Thu ille Fr itz Volba ch Richar d Wetz H ugo Wolf
, , , , ,
Felix Woyrsch an d Heinri ch Zoellner Among those who ha ve p a id

, .
a ttention to other forms Max von Erdm a nns rf er a n d Reinhold ,
Herman ha ve composed ca nta tas H ugo Roehr has produ ced an ,
ora torio Robert Ka hn an dS tepha n Kr ehl are known for their cha m
,
her mu sic Heinrich Gebh ar d is a piano co m poser while Henning

, ,
von Koss Alexa nder von Pielitz an d H a ns Heu ma nn ha ve won

, ,
n otice by their songs .
In opera Engelb ert H umperdinck born in 1854 is the most su c

, , ,
c essf u l of the contemporary Germa ns Stu dying architecture a t .
first he took up mu sic a t Hiller s su gg esti on His works inclu de a

,
’
.
“
Moorish rh a psodie for orchestra the chora l b a lla d Die Wa l lfa hrt ,
na ch Kevlaar and ma ny mu sica l pla ys arra nged for his j u venile rel
”
,
“ ” “
a tives The la tter incl u de D orn rOschen The Kings Chil dren ’
.
, ,
“ “
Sa int Cyr a n d Die Sieben Geislein Fr om these ca me also his
”
-
,
”
.
“ “
first grea t su ccess H ansel an d Gretel ; while a l a ter opera The
”
, ,
Ki ngs Children is ela bora ted fr om the earlier mu sica l pla y of the
’ ”
,
sa me na me .
“
H ansel an d Gretel brou ght ou t in 1893 is bas ed on one of , ,
G rimm s fa iry ta les It opens with the two ch ildren dancing an d

’
.
ma king merry instea d of working Fina lly they u pset the cream j ug .
-
.
Their stepmother ca tching them sends them ou t to ga ther berries , ,
on the Ilsenstein to m a ke u p the deficit in food Left a lone she , .

,
bewa ils the fa mily s poverty The fa ther Peter returns in a rollick ’
.
, ,
ing hu mor ha ving sold his brooms andother wares to good profit and
, ,
the forest a a in with the minstrel living in the b u t of the witch
g
, ,
whom the people ha d ki ll ed in a nger a t her su pp osed mockery .
Messengers com e to as k him to return ; an d a child begs him to find

the ki ng s son a nd the goose girl a ga in While he is a wa y the pa ir
’
-
.
,
retur n to the hu t fa m ished a fter their wa nder ings ; b u t the people

,
r efuse them food a n d they retr ea t to the hillside to die

, The min .
str elfinds them too l a te an d sin gs a very stri king l a ment over their
,
bodies The mu sic is keenly expressive a n d richly melodious The

. .
plot is really an allegory mea nt to Show th a t tru e nobili ty of soul is

not recognized by the common herd .
A very su ccessfu l opera which has been transl a ted into ma ny ,
“
langua ges is Der Eva ngeli m a nn by Wilhelm Ki enzl Its plot is
,
”
, .
bas ed on self sa crifice M a thias an d Johannes two brothers both

-
.
, ,
love the sa me girl M arth a She prefers M a thia s ; and Joh annes in
, .
,
a nger sets fire to the b ar n where the lovers are meeting a n d de

, ,
n ou n ces M a thi as as the incendiary M arth a s effort to sa ve her ’

.
lover prove fu tile ; he a ccepts his fa te an d is imprisoned for twenty ,
years After the term is u p M a thia s finds Joh annes dying an d for
.
, ,
gives him Kienzl born in 1857 has composed other operas su ch as

.
, , ,
“ ” “ ” “
m ar der Narr Don Q u ixote and the recent
”
Urvasi ,Heil , ,
“
Ku hreigen or R a nz des Va ches b ased on the a ctions of the
”
, ,
Swiss gu ar d a t Paris d ur ing the French Revolu tion .
E u gen D Alb ert born in 1864 is fa mou s as a pianist He has com

’
, , .
posed pi ano concertos a cello conc erto overtures an d a sym phony

,
’
, , .
B u t ope ra has been his chief work an d he has set a dozen or more ,
“ ”
dram a tic su bjects The R u by is b as ed on Hebbel s version of an
.
’
Orienta l story in which a C a liph s da ughter is m a gically imprisoned

,
’
“
in the g em an d du ly freed by her lover Ghism onda trea ts the
,
”
.
love of a low born m an for a princess When discovered he dies

- .
,
ra ther th a n revea l her secr et ; b u t she ma kes his chiva lry known .
“
Ge rnot is a fair y opera with mu ch delica te music Die Abreise
”
.
shows the rec oncilia tion of a married cou ple who ha d drifted a part , ,
but were br ou ght together thr ough the un welcome a ttentions of a

“
thir d p arty C a in is a one ac t version som ewha t altered of the
”
.
-
, ,
“
Biblica l story Der Improvisa tor is a setting of H u go s Angelo
.
” ” ’
.
“
Tieflan d the best of D Al b ert s works tr ea ts a Spa nish story of
” ’ ’
, ,
tr ue love th a t b affles the intri gu es of a dissolu te lowla nd Alca lde .
Cyrill Kistler born in 184 8 was once looked u pon as a possible

, ,
su ccessor to Wa gner His Kun ihild which was well received has
.
, ,
for her oine Ku n ihil d who lives in a m a gic cas tle an d is won by
, ,
Sig un b u t loses him thr ou gh the en m ity of his brothers Kistler

, .
“ “
com posed a lso E ulenspiegel the legendary B a ldur s Dea th
” ”
,
’
,
“ “
the comedy Im Honigmond an d Der Vogt von Miihlstein , .
His style is som etim es too hea vy ha nded -

.
Max Schilli ngs has produ ced the symphonic fantas ias Meer
“
gruss and Im Morgen and a dignified prologue to
”
,
“
Of his operas Ingwelde tr ea ts a viking story Its heroine is car
,
”
.
ri ed fr om her home her ki dna pper is killed by his br other an d when

, ,
she returns tha t brother kills her husband a lso after which the pai r
, , ,
who love ea ch other set ou t in a boa t an d irnm ola te themselves to

,
“
gether Der Pfeiferta g is an a ttempt a t the old tim e a tm osphere
.
” -
of Die Meistersinger ”
The plot inclu des variou s a dventures on
.
“
Piper s Day with the guild resenting an excessive toll ; but it is
’
,
ra ther confu sed .
Au gust B u ngert went to Grecian mythology for his subjects and ,
“ ” “
com posed a hexalogy consisti ng of Achilles Clytemnestra , ,
“ ” “
Circe Na usicaa
,
”
Odysseu s Retu rn an d Odysseu s Dea th
,
’
,
’
.
The plots are a dm ira bly arra nged b u t the mu sic is h ardly grea t ,
enough for su ch bea u tifu l su bjects Bungert wr ote a lso a comic .
“
opera the Tasso Overtur e an d a sym phonic poem
”
—
.
, ,
H ugo Wolf ( 86 0 19 03 ) com posed an O pera Der Corregidor

1 , ,
“
a n d p ar tly finished a nother M anu el Venegas The form er is
, .
b a sed on a Spa nish libretto a n d a pparently a ims to d u plica te the

,
“
su ccess of Carm en ; b u t its story is intri c a te a nd its m u sic not
”
,
“
str ongly dr a ma tic His symphonic poem Penthesilea is a worthy
.
”
work ; b u t he is best known by his ma ny songs These are rea l art .
works and continu e the excellence of the Germ a n Med with some
,
thin g of the variety a n d force shown by the Stra u ss songs .
Siegfried Wa gner born a t Tri eb schen in 1869 has a ttem pted to

, ,
ca rry on Germa n opera b u t with more persistence tha n su ccess His

, .
su bjects are good enough consisting mostly of Germ a n legendary

,
“
lore ; b u t hi s mu sic is never grea t His operas inclu de D er B aren .
” “ ” “ ” “
hau ter
'
, Herzog Wildfa ng D er K obold B ru der Lustig

,
”
, ,
The Kingdom of Bla ck Swa ns an d others of the sort Bu t he is , .
better known as a condu ctor .
—
Lu dwi g Th u ille (18 6 1 19 07 ) was mu ch pra ised by Strauss Thu ille .
com posed overtur es an d cha mber works tha t are well known His .
“
operas consist of the u nsu ccessful Theu erdan k the fa iry pl ay
”
,
“ “
in e a n d Lob eta n z given recently in New York
” ”
Gug el , , .
Leo Blech born in 187 1 is credited with thr ee symphonic poems

, ,
“
a n d severa l opera s The la tter inclu de the villag e pictur e Das war
.
“ “
ich the legendary Asc henb rOdel the dra ma tic AlpenkOn ig
,
” ” ”
, ,
“
a nd the b ri ght comic O pera Versiegelt ”
.
Heinrich Zoellner born in 1854 shows American infl u ence in his

, ,
“ “
ca nta ta Colu mbu s and his choral work Ona wa y a wa ke He
” ”
, .
has composed a lso severa l symphonies His operas inclu de Der .
” “ “
Ueb erf al l , Fri thjof and The Su nken Bell
”
, .
“
H u go Ka un s American sta y resu lted in Mirm ehaha and other
’
symphonic poems Born in 1863 he now lives a br oa d He has com

.
, .
“
posed a Fa therland Symphony chora l works an d the opera
”
, ,
“
Der Pietist .
Ema nu el M oor of Czech extra ction has composed a symphony

, , ,
two concertos an d three O peras, .
Among operas th a t ha ve been highly pra ised are Friedrich Klose s ’
“ “
Ilsebill Pa u l von Klenau s S ulamith Ju liu s Bittner s D er
,
” ” ’
,
’
“ “
Mu sika nt Arnold Mendelssohn s Elsi H an s Pfitzner s D ie
”
,
’
,
’
“
Rose vom Liebesgarten Ma x von Ob erleithn er s Aph rodite
”
,
” ’
,
“ “
Max Vogri ch s B u ddh a and Wa ltershausen s Oberst Cha bert
’
,
’
.
Other opera com posers not mentioned in connection with orchestra l

,
wor ks are Robert E rben Iva n Knorr Gu stav Ku lenkam pf Rein

, , , ,
hold Becker Max Mar scha lk Karl Pottg iesser E ugen von Volb orth
, , , ,
I g naz Wa ghalter an d Hector von Woikowsky Bled a u

,
-
.
finto
Eyol bu sh where he is killed While the victors deba te
an a m , .
whether su ch a gen tle ma id as H ulda shou ld not be pu t ou t of thi s

cruel world Eyolfs m en a ppea r an d she cas ts herself into the sea to
,
’
,
esca pe their vengea n ce .
“
Le Va let de Ferm e was a n ea rl er opera tha t did not m et with i
“
grea t su ccess Ghisella was left u nfinished an d too fragmenta ry
”
.
,
f or performa nce .
Fra nck com posed some excellent cha mber mu sic and a nu mber of ,
shorter works His orga n pieces are na tura lly well su ited to their
.
“
instru m ent His Prelu de Aria et Fina le a n dsimila r compositions
.
”
, ,
f or pi a no are widely known

, .
Fra nck s work is ra ther mod u la tory In his shorter pieces he shows
’
.
an interesting style thou gh his mod u la tions are not ha ndled with
,
the freshness possessed by a Strau ss In the or chestra l works .

,
Fra nck s ma nner is dignified and lofty an d often strongly dra ma tic
’
, .
His orga n compositions show mu ch solid learning .
Fra nck s simple fa ith a n d devou t ea rnestness won him m u ch

’
respect ; an d Rop artz wr ote of him He sta nds ou t from his con ,
temporaries as one of an other a ge They are scof fers he was a .

,
believer ; they vau nt themselves he worked in silence ; they seek ,
glory he let it seek him

, They shrink from nothing .conces ,
sion comprom ise mea nness even ; he performed his mission fa ith
, ,
fully an d withou t cou nting the cost lea ving us the noblest exa mple
, ,
of u prightness ”
.
C harles C a mille Sa int Sa ens born a t Paris in 183 5 represents a

-
, ,
more conserva tive sc hool His musica l a ctivity bega n a t sixteen .

,
when he pr od u ced his first sym phony Soon a fterward he beca me a .
chur ch orga nis t ; an d his la ter im provisa tions a t the Ma deleine ma de

him fa mous He has been a ctive a lso as a pia no tea cher a nd a pu blic
.
perform er thou gh most of his la ter yea rs ha ve been spent in compo

,
sitiou .
His orchestra l works inclu de four symphonies two suites an d , ,
five pia no concertos of which the one in G minor with clea n cu t

, ,
-
a nda nte gra cefu l a l

, legr etto a n d brillia nt presto is a p rime fa vo rite
, , .
For voices in a ddition he wr ote a Christma s ora torio two ma sses , ,
“
the ode La Lyre et la H arpe and ma ny orchestra l ba lla ds His
”
,
.
songs with pia no are often Orienta l in chara cter His p ia no and orga n .
solos are a lso su ccessful His four symphonic poems seem ra ther .
R I M SK Y -
K O R SA K OV D VO RAK
FR A NC K
M assenet start ed his opera tic career with La Gra nd Ta nte a nd ’
” “
Don César de B a za n Le Roi de La hore which followed was
”
.
, ,
specta cu lar It dea lt with the love of Alim for the Hindu Pr i ncess
.
Sita who is coveted a lso by the powerful Sc in dia In jea lou sy

,
.
,
Sc india strikes Alim dea d The la tter in the Orienta l para dise begs
.
, ,
In dra tha t he m a y return to ea rth He is a ccorded permission b u t .

,
must die (perm anently) when Sita s life ends Sc in dia s pursu it ’
.
’
grows so irnp ortuna te th a t Sita kills herself The scene in the India n .
hea ven is gorgeou sly set a n d sta ged .
Hérodia de was a nother su ccess b u t it was thr own in the sha de

”
,
“
by M a non The la tter work fou nded on Prevost s novel shows
”
.
,
’
,
tha t fa ir b u t fra il bea u ty lea ving her lover for a rich a dmirer pa ssing ,
through various vi cissitu des bein g reconciled to the former and , ,
fina lly dying in his arms .
Le Cid proved ra ther wea k as Massenet s style was senti

”
,
’
“
mental ra ther tha n dra ma tic Escl ar m on de
”
however scored .
, ,
a nother su ccess It shows the bea u tifu l Byza ntine sorceress of tha t
.
na me winnin g the kn ight Rola nd losing him throu gh his la ck of ,
ca u tion a n d recovering him when he ga ins her as prize in a tourney

, .
The prize idea a nd the condition tha t Rola nd wi ll lose his love u nless
,
he keeps their rela tion secret see m rem iniscent of Wa gner s librettos
,
’
.
“ “
Werther is bas ed on Goethe s novel Oftha t name Le M age
” ” ’
.
“
tr ea ted a n Orienta l su bject The very su ccessf u l Thai s depicts .
”
the conversion of a n Alexa ndria n cour tesa n who becomes tru ly ,
devou t a n d sa int like while the monk who conver ted her falls a
-
,
“
prey to feelings of ea rthly love for her La Na varra ise is a one ”
.
a c t m ilita ry a f fa ir (belonging to the vertsm o school of rea lism ) in

'
which the heroine ki lls a hostile lea der to ea rn a reward b u t is su s ,
pec ted by her lover of ha ving obta ined the money in a wa y less cred
“
e to her honor Le Portra it de M a non is a one ac t love idyl
”
ita b l .
-
.
Cendr illon tr ea ts a fa iry su bject Griselidis shows tha t legen

”
.
d ary bride s fidelity which is u nsha ken by ma ny a ttem pts to prove

’
,
“ “
her inconsta nt Roma an d Don Q u ixote a re l a ter works b u t
” ”
. ,
“
neither of them ma de a su ccess equ a l to tha t of The Jongleu r of
Notre Da me This delightfu l m ediaeva l story shows a poor ha lf
-
”
. ,
starved Jong leur enterta ining a cr owd A monk reviles his ca llin g ; .
a n d the sight of a donkey la den with food m a k es hi m willing to give
it up and enter the mona stery Inside he b ecom es the b u tt of all

, .
,
FRANCK AND MODERN FRANCE 2 55
except the cook ; for they ca n a lldo som ething in honor of the Virgin ,
while he knows nothing su ita ble to offer her Struck by a su dden .
idea he thinks he wi ll en terta in her ; an d he does his tricks before her

,
sta tu e The monks find him a n d are shocked a t wha t they think
.
,
blasphem y ; b u t the sta tu e com es to life tha n ks him an d calls him , ,
to her side in hea ven This opera was written for m a le voices on ly
.
,
b u t ch a nged afterwards a t Mary Garden s req u est the j ug gler s

’ ’
part being arra nged for fem a le voi ce .
Vin cent d Indy born in 1852 is a lea der of the new school tha t the
’
, ,
Fra nck pu pils developed In a letter to the present writer he m en .

,
“
tioned Fra nck s tea chin g as worthy a n d b eneficen t direction A
’ ”
.
tri p to Germ a ny in 1872 ena bled D In dy to meet Liszt ; a nd the ’
V o u ng m a n beca me a devou t Wa gner ia n .
“
His first su ccess was the Piccolom ini Overture which beca me ,
“ “
a p ar t of the la ter Wa llen stein Triptych La Cheva u chée du
”
.
“
Cid a nd Le Chant de la Cloche are voca l orchestra l wor ks The
” -
.
“ “
overtu re to Anton y a n d Cleopa tra a n d the Jea n H u n ya di
” ”
,
“
S ym phony were followed by the symphonic poem L a Foret
,
Encha ntée This work ba sed on an Uh la nd poem depicts the

.
, ,
knight Hara ld riding thr ou gh the woods u ntil his com pa nions a re ,
“
lost a n d he him self thrown into a m a gic sleep Sa u g efleurie is
,
”
.
a nother sym phonic poem trea ting a story by De Bonni eres Ista r
”
.
, ,
the set of varia tion s trea ting a n old Assyr ia n legend shows tha t ,
heroine seeking her lover in the a bode of dea th Her procedure is .
marked by su ccessive sa cr ifice s of her garments to pa cify the ,
warders ; a n d the work depicts this by reversin g the u sua l form an d ,
ha ving the varia tions grow sim pler with the them e a t the end Of , .
D In dy s two sym phonies the fi rst is m o re su ccessfu l It is ba sed

’ ’
.
,
on a Cevennes air ; a n d the pure sa d m elody is trea ted in a wa y tha t ,
is earnest if som ewha t a scetic Other orchestra l works by the com

, .
poser inclu de the Ka ra dec su ite an d incidenta l m u sic to Mendes

” ’
Médée ”
.
In O pera D In dy s ea rly on e act comedy Attendez m oi sou s

’ ’
- -
, ,
lOrm e has been frequ ently given Ferv is bas ed on a Dru idic
’ ”
.
,
plot in whi ch the hero loved by Gu ilhen da u ghter of his S ara

, , ,
cen conqu eror ren ou nces everything in a va in a ttem pt to restore

,
“
the D ru ids power The Stra nger has a more sym bolica l plot
’
. .
It tr ea ts of a Silent pa tient stra nger who meets persecu tion in a

,
fishing villa ge b u t is loved by Vita André who is betr othed to
-
, .
,
Vita loses her love thr ou gh his rea diness to ea rn m oney by ferreting
,
ou t poo r sm u g lers The others think Vita fooli sh ; b u t she kn ows

g .
a n d loves the stra nger s forgiving wa ys R om the shore a boa t is

’
.
seen in distr ess NO one will try to a id it ; b u t fina lly the stra nger
.
does so Vita ru shes a long with him The pa ir rea ch the ship b u t
. .
,
are engu lfed with it The plot extols self sacrifice by contrasting it
.
-
with selfish fina ncia l shrewdn ess .
Achille Cla u de Debu ssy (1862 19 18) was the l ea der of the m ove
-
ment known as m odernism His work has b een a ptly ter med m u sica l
.
stippling In his operas a nd orchestra l com positions si m ilar to The

.
,
Afternoon of a Fa u n he ga ins hi s effects by a su ccession of m ore or

”
,
less deta ched chor ds instea d of by flowi ng harmonic progr e sions of

,
s
the u su a l sort His ear was exceedingly delica te the resu lt showing
.
,
in the contin ua l softness of his orchestra l pieces A clima x in his .
works wou ld be lost in the noise of a Stra u ss or a Scriab ine His use .
of chords in fugitive dissonan ces is m u ch a dm ired by ma ny ; b u t they

are a lwa ys the ones who ha ve been the l a ggards in a pp reci a ting the
less fra gm entary style of clas sic an d rom a ntic com posers To one .
who does not sense harm onic rela tions Debussy s music will show ,
’
merely its exqu isite delica cy B u t to those who are definitely moved
.
by a perception of orderly ha rmonic progression the more ra dica l ,
work O fDebu ssy a n d other modernists seems too fra gmentary to be

plea sing Certa in Fr ench critics ha ve ca lled the m odernistic pro
.
du ction s cereb ra l mu sic ; a n d the te rm is fa ir enou gh since those

”
,
who enjoy them feel a mentala ppre cia tion of their delica cy ra ther
tha n a n y em otiona l u plift su ch as a them e of rel a ted harmonies will
p rodu ce Thus we m a y not sa y tha t Debu ssy s more extrem e com
.
’
positions are b ad b u t tha t their a ppea l is not tha t of earlier m u sic

, .
His little gen re pictur es sometimes see m like minia tures so excessive ,
is their refinem ent .
TO win the P rix de Rom e Deb u ssy la id a side his new style a n d
, ,
produ ced the exp ressive ope ra ca nta ta The Pr odiga l Son In this
-
”
.
he showed him self a mas ter of conserva tive mu sic ; b u t his own au ral
“
delica cy soon led him into stran ge pa ths La Demoiselle Elu e ”
.
a n d Chim ene are two ea rly lyric scenes For orchestra the va gu e
”
.
,
a n d el u sive Prel u de to Ma l
“Afternoon of a Fau n was fol
”
l
’
a rm é s
“ “ “ ”
lowed by the Nocturnes consisting of Nuages a nd Fetes
”
,
.
Q58 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLE DGE
ma de from a set of pia no pieces Its five movements show a most .
delightfully piqua nt orchestra tion a lthough the thema tic ma teria l ,
cons ists of the bitter sweet p rogressions th a t ch aracterize the mod

-
ern B e nch school .
Lou is Au bert is a young er member of the modernist grou p His .
“
opera La Foret Bleu e has an a ttrac tive plot a n d some hu morous
”
,
mom ents b u t is set in an a ltogether dissona nt an d una ttra ctive

,
style .
Florent Sch m itt is another master of dissonance but he writes in a ,
more effective an d forcible style He has com posed a symphonic .
“ “
stu dy on Poe s H au nted Pal a ce the sym phonic poem En Ete
’ ”
, ,
the Com b a t des Ra ksasas

” “
two rha psodies the ba llet La Tra ge , ,
”
die de Sa lom e voca l orchestra l settings of psa lms cha mber works
,
-
, ,
a n d sm a ller pieces
Alexis Emma nu el Cha brier (184 1—

.
94) wr ote in vigor ou s style ,
b u t with more conserva tive h armonies His early ope ra s inclu de .
“
L Etoil
” “ “
L Educa tion ma nqu ée His Gwendoline is ”
’
an d
’
e .
strongly dra ma tic Tha t heroine is the da u ghter of the a ncient

.
B ritish king Armel She drea ms tha t a D ane carries her over the
.
sea. The people la u gh a t her fears ; b u t their m irth soon cha nges
to disma y for the D an es u nder H a ra ld h a ve rea lly come Gwen
, , , .
doline sa ves her fa ther and ca ptiva tes H ara ld b u t Armel plots ,
to kill the in va ders a t the weddin g Gwendoline warns H a ra ld b u t .

,
he disregar ds her words His men are massa cred an d he is bea ten .
,
down ; whereu pon she sna tches his knife sta bs herself an d joins her , ,
dea th song to his The score is virile and forcefu l and the work is
-
.
,
the best French a ttem pt a t the dra ma tic Wa gner ia n vein A la ter .
opera Le Roi ma lgré Lu i was lighter and more humorous in

”
, ,
“
style Other works by Cha brier in clu de the orchestra l Espafia
.
”
,
“ “
the M arche Joyeu se music to Mendes Fem me de Ta barin
”
,
’
,
the chora l Su la mite some pia no pieces /and a few oddly humor
”
, ,
ous so ngs .
Gu sta ve Charpentier born in 186 0 has some socia listic idea s an d

, , ,
has ta ken grea t interest in the Montma rtre l a b orers This shows in f
“
his ca nta ta La Couronnement dé la M u se and in his best opera
, , ,
Louise The her oine of th a t opera is a poor working girl who

”
.
-
,
loves the poet Ju lien b u t is prevented from ma rrying him by her

,
p arents who think him too wild A stree t scene and a wor kroom
, .
FRANCK AND MOD ERN FRANCE 2 59
scene show Ju lien ta ki ng Loui se a wa y to a l ife of free love They live .
very ha pp ily for a tim e Then her mother b rings her hom e a lln
. ,
tha t her fa ther is sick ; an d the p air try to coerce her She fina lly .
lea ves them while the fa ther curses Paris an d its ba lefulinflu ence
,
.
The plot is som ewha t confused in its m ora l b u t the u nderlyi ng idea ,
is a protest a ga inst the har d conditi ons of a worki ng girl s life The -
’
.
“
m u sic is rea listic even incl u ding str eet cr ies a t tim es
,
Ja lien in .
,
“
certa in wa ys a sequ el to Lou ise has a very wea k plot C har
”
,
.
“
p en ti er s othe
’
r wor ks incl u de the s u ite Im p ressions d Ita lie an d
’
“
the ca nta ta La Vie du Poete He writes hi s own librettos . .
Alfred B runea u born in 1857 won an early su ccess with

, ,
L Atta qu e du Moulin trea ting a story of the Fra nco Pru ssian
’ ” -
,
War Sin ce then he has set m any a llegorica l su bjects from Z ola s
’
.
works ; b u t their m u sic is ra ther hea vy ha nded -
E rnest Ch au sson (1855—

.
9 9 ) might ha ve becom e very grea t if hi s

career had not been cu t short b y a fa ta l bicycle accident His chief .
“
work is the opera Le Roi Ar thu s Other com positions inclu de the .
”
“ “
sym phonic p oem Vivia ne the tone pictur es Solitu de da ns les
”
,
-
Bois an d Soir de Fete a p oem for violin a nd orchestra som e

” ”
, ,
ch am ber m usic an d various songs His style is most charm ingly

, .
expressive a n d his h armonies richly a ttra ctive

, .
Ga briel Piern é born in 1863 is best known by his interesting can

, ,
“
ta ta The Children s Crusa de Other voca l orchestra l works by
” ’
.
-
“ “
him are The Children a t Bethlehem a n d the ora to rio St Fra ncis
”
.
of Assisi .
PaulD ukas born in 1865 won fam e in the orchestral field by hi s

, ,
“
s cherzo entitled L Apprenti Sorcier This illustra tes Goethe s
”
’
.
’
b all a d of the sorcerer s a pprentice who ma de a br oo m bring bu ckets

’
,
of wa ter consta ntly b u t forgot how to stop it The com position is

, .
str ongly effective in style an d fu ll of hu m orou s tou ches His opera

, .
“
Aria ne et B arbe Bleu e presents Blu ebea rd s earlier wives as
” -
’
spir itless crea tures while Ar iane is more independent and prog res
,
sive an d lea ds them to freedom Other works by Du ka s are a

, .
sym phony overtures to King Lea r an d G otz von Berlichingen

,
” ”
,
the ba llet Le Péri a pia no sona ta a n d sm a ller pieces

”
, , .
Henri D u parc has been a ctive in the field of ora torio Gu y de .
Ropa rtz has devoted himself to or chestral a n d cham be r music .
Pi erre de B réville has wr itten in allthese styles an d com posed a ,

ma ss a lso Arthur Coquard is known in opera René de B oisdefire
'
. .
has produ ced a symphony a n ora torio an d other large com positions , , .
Lou is Bour ga u lt D u cou dra y composed opera s a nd or chestra l works

-
,
a n d beca m e an au thority on folk mus ic Am ong the women Au gu sta -

.
Holm es (of Irish descent ) wr ote large symphonic odes an d an ope ra ;

C ecile Cha mina de has pr odu ced a mbitiou s com positions like the
“
lyr ic symphony Ca lirrhoe b u t is better known by her da inty
”
,
pia no pieces an d songs ; while Ga briella Ferrar i has become known

in orchestra l an d opera tic work .
Opera s tha t ha ve received som e notice in Fra nce an d el sewhere

“ “
are Ela ine by Herma n Bemberg ; C a mille Erlan g er s Polish
”
,
’
“ “
Jew an d Aphr odite ; La C a brera by Ga briel D u pont ;
” ”
,
“ “
Monna Va nna by Henri Février ; Reyna ldo H a hn s Na usicaa
”
,
” ’
“
La H a ba nera by Ra ou l La parra ; Ferna nd LeB orn e s Giron
” ’
,
“
dins Le Chem in ea u by Xa vier Lerou x ; D aria by Ge orges
”
,
”
,
Marty ; Char les Le febvre 5 Ju dith and Qu o Va dis by Jean Nou

” ’
,
gues Other French opera com posers are Félix Fou rdra in Philippe
.
,
G a u bert An d ré Geda lg e Georges Hue B ar on Fr édéric d Erlan g er

, , ,
’
,
E u gene d Harcou rt Charles Len epveu Ju les Ma zellier AndreMes

’
, , ,
sa ger Ed m ond Missa Max d Ollone Georges Pa licot E m ile Pes

, ,
’
, ,
sard Henr i Ra ba n d Sa mu el Roussea u Gu sta ve Sa m a zeu ilh E m ile

, , , ,
Pa l he Ch arles Silver Antoin e Sim on an d Pau l Vid a l

a dil , Com
, , .
posers who ha ve kept more solely to the orchestra l field are the
condu cto rs C a m ille Chevilla r d an d E dou ar d Colonn e Henri Pa u l ,
-
B ii sser Roger D u ca sse Pa u l La dm ira u l

, t Jea n Le m a ire Albe ric
, , ,
Ma gna rd (killed in the war in Albert Rou ssel Georges Sp orck , ,
Charles Tournemir e Richard Vinée G Witkowsky a n d Andr é

, , .
,
Wormser Gu sta ve Sa ndre has composed cha mber works ; Ga briel

.
Grovl ez wr ites f or pia no ; a n d Jea n B a ptiste Fa ure is known by
Pa lm B ra nches a nd other songs Nearly a llof these men are a live

”
.
a n d a ctive a t the p resent writing .

was The Prisoner of the C a u ca su s ba sed on a Pu shkin poem His , .
“
rea l repu ta tion bega n with Willia m Ra tcliff pr odu ced in 18 69
”
, .
B u t C u i ha d cr iticised others so u nsparingly th a t it was now tim e

f or him to receive his own m edicine The work was freely a tta cked .
a t first thou gh it ga ined m ore su ccess l a te r on

, It does not corre .
sp on d to C u i s wri tten p rinciples b u t see m s midwa y between l yr ic

’
,
a nddr ama tic opera Tsch a ikovsky ca lls the mu sic too delibera te an d
.
,
“
not sponta neous enou gh Angelo is b a sed on a Victor H u go
”
.
“
pla y dea lin g with the sa me su bject tha t Ponchielli u sed in La Gio
,
conda This is C u i s m ost representa tive work ; a nd he confirm ed

”
.
’
tha t estim a te him self in a note sent to the present writer some years
“
ago . The Sa ra cen is bas ed on the D um a s book entitled Charles
”
VII chez ses G ra nds Vas sea u x a n d conta ins good love scenes b e
”
-
,
“
tween tha t king a nd Agnes Sorel Le Filib ustier is a com edy on .
“
a Richep in lib retto M a m selle Fifi is a one a ct work on a Mau
”
.
’
-
passa nt story while A Fea st in Tim e of Pla gue is a nother single

,
”
“
a ct wor k The C a pta in s D a u ghter trea ts a nother Pushkin su b
” ’
.
j ect C u i wr ote a lso sym phonies or chestra l scherzos choru ses

.
, , ,
songs an d pia no pieces His style is not very distinctive or in divi

,
.
d ua l .
AW (183 4—87 ) was a nother of the

B a l a kirev g rou p which com prised five fa mou s na mes Bor odin was
, .
descended from the princes of Im eretia who in turn cla im ed King ,
D a vid as one of their a ncestors Like ma ny Ru ssia n composers . .
Borodin ha d a profession a nd he beca me well known in medicine ,
a n d chemistry He was a lso a ctive in fu rthering ed u ca tion for

.
women He considered mu sic a n a voca tion merely an dwou ld not a t

.
,
first pu blish a ny works Yet he wrote severa l when qu ite you ng .

,
prod u cing a flu te a n d pian o piece a t thirteen an d a str ing sextet

- -
,
soon a fter In 1862 he joined B a la kirev s circle a n d bega n to com

.
’
,
pose in ea rnest His first symphony met with a plea sing reception
. .
He followed this by nu merou s songs incl u ding La Pr incesse Eu ,
” “
dormie La Vieille Cha nson
,
”
a n d others of interest These are ,
.
often ra ther som bre in color an d Bor odin showed him self a m as ,
ter of gloom a n d dissona nce At this tim e he composed one a ct .
“
of Mla da a com posite work by him self C u i Mou ssorgsky
”
, , , ,
a nd Rim sky K orsa kov This idea of coopera tion was a lso a dopted
-
.
by you nger men who p a id homa ge to the pu blisher Bela ieffby

,
THE RUSSIAN SCHOOL 9 63
produ cing m ovem ents of a str ing qu artet on the notes B La F , , .
Bor odin wrote a second sym phony and pa rt of a third which was , ,
finished by Gla zoun ov He com po sed other orchestr a l pieces two

.
,
“
origina l quartets an d so m e pia no m usic His Steppenskizze was
,
.
”
the first new Ru ssia n work to becom e known in Am erica It is an

- .
orchestra l com position depicting the loneliness of the Steppes the ,
pa ssing of a ca ra va n with its vari ed noises a n d weir d songs an d ,
the return of silence a n d loneliness .
B u t Borodin s m ost im po rta nt work was his sing le ope ra Pr ince

’
,
Igor Thi s is bas ed on an old Ru ssia n epic dea ling with Igor s ex
” ’
. ,
p ed i ti on a ga inst the P olovtsi A p r ologu e s how the p rince a n d his

.
son Vla dimir lea ding their arm y a wa y in spite of the portent of an ,
eclipse ; whi le the Princess Y aroslavna is left to ru le with her brother ,
Prince Galitsky The first a ct shows Ga litsky s misru le an d his

.
’
,
efforts to un derm ine her influ ence ; b u t a t the news of Igor s defea t ’
,
the people renew their loya lty to her The second an d third a cts .
ta ke pla ce in the enem y s ca mp The noble lea der Koncha k has a

’
.
, ,
da ughter with whom Vl a dimir fa lls in love A ba nqu et to the ca p

,
.
tive serves to intr od u ce da nces choru ses an d grea t scenic ef , fects , .
By the a id of a nother ca ptive Ovlour who plies the guards with , ,
drink Igor esca pes ; b u t the lea der s da u ghter holds Vla dimir ba ck
,
’
a n d is a fte rwa rds m arried to him In the la st ac t the la m enting

.
Y ar osl a vn a sees Igor retur n The m u sic of this opera shows mu ch

.
clea r m elod y an d m a ny strong scenes The com poser wrote it piece

,
.
mea l workin g only when he was u na ble to give his m edica l lectur es
,
.
It was left u nfinished ; b u t the obliging Rim sky Korsa kov pu t in the -
orchestra tion while Glazou n ov who had hea rd Borodin go over

, ,
the work a t the piano wrote the overture from mem ory
—
.
,
Modest Petr ovitch Mou sso gsky (183 9 8 1) was decidedly the
r
b ad b m ou p He was tra ined in m ilita ry sci

.
ence b u t drifted a bou t from one post to another an d fina lly ga ve u p

, ,
governm ent work In m usic too he was little a m ena ble to disci
.
, ,
pline thou gh he a toned for this by displa ying marked origina lity
, .
His life showed the sa va ge excesses so often fou nd a mong the Sla vs ;
b u t his m u sic exp ressed their str ong p a ssions a n d deep e m otions .
Meeting Bor odin in 1862 b e a tta ched himself to the a ssocia tes a n d
, ,
im bibed their principles He la cked the sim ple rou tine tha t com es
.
from tra ining ; b u t the formless style of his music did not obscure its
striking a nd origina l chara cter He has been ca lled a born poet ex .

,
pressing his grea t pa ssions in a medium tha t he ha d not mastered .
His rugged str ength is evident in ma ny com positions for pia no or ,
orchestra as well as for the sta ge His orchestra l Intermezzo a nd .
“Night on Ca lvary ” show this qua lity His Hebrew choruses such .
,
“The Defea t of Senna cherib ” are a lso str ong works His pia no
as , .
“
pieces inclu de the Ta blea u x d u ne Exposition while his songs
” ’
,
conta in ma ny forcefu l numbers B u t he is best known by his operas . .
“
His ea rly works in this form inclu de some CEdipus mu sic a set
”
,
” “
ting of Sa la mmbo The M a tch M a ker a nd the comic scenes
,
”
-
,
“ “
entitled The Fa ir a t Soroschini B u t his Boris God u nov and
” ”
.
“
Khova n tchina are of grea ter power
”
.
“
Boris Godu nov is founded on a Pu shkin d ra ma Boris ha ving
”
.
,
killed the Czarevitch Dimitri has his men incite the popu l a ce to ,
offer him the crown A corona tion scene follows The next a ct
. .
shows Gregory and other monks with Gregory pla nning to pretend ,
tha t he is Dimitri the rightfu l ru ler whom Boris ha d killed The

, , .
Poles su pport his cla im Another act shows Boris in his fa mily ; b u t
.
the news of the Fa lse Demetrius begins to drive him m a d In the

”
.
la st a ct the people follow the pretender while Boris is left deserted

, , ,
his ma dness ending in dea th .
Khovantchina is b a sed on the existence of the Old Believers ,
who followed ea rly an d incorr ect Scriptura l versions with fan a ti

c ism . The story brings ou t the contrast between them a n d the newer ,
more civilized R u ssians Prince Khovan tsky an d his Streltsy.
(archers) represent the old idea s an d fina lly immola te themselves ,
ra ther tha n surrender
Nicola i An dreievitch Rimsky Korsa kov (1844—

.
1908 ) was by a l l -
odds the grea test of the na tiona lists even though Moussorgsky ,
sometimes excelled him in sa va ge power Like his compeers he took .

,
up government work gra dua ting from the na va l school an d serving

,
f or a time a t sea In la ter years he ha d the rank of a dm ira l a n d was

.
,
in charge of the marine bands B u t he ma de music his life work .

-
.
While on a voya ge begun in 1863 he wr ote a sym phony sa id to be

, , ,
the first work in tha t form by a R u ssian In the a u tumn of 18 6 5 he .
joined B ala kirev s cir cle composing soon afterwar d the symphonic
’
,
“ “
picture Sa dko the progr amm e symphony Antar and his first
”
,
”
,
opera The M a id of Pskov Accepting a post in the St Petersburg

,
”
. .
her mother gran ts she retur ns her lover s ardor b u t in tha t moment
,
’
a ra y of sunlight fa lls u pon her a n d she melts a wa y , .
“Ml d ” first done in colla bora tion was a lso com pleted by the
a a , ,
com poser a lone It is ba sed on a ninth centur y historica l episode

.
-
.
“Chr istm as Eve Revels ” tr ea ts the story of Va ku l

-
a the Sm ith .
Moza rt an d Sa lieri is pra ctica lly a short dra ma tic scene

”
.
Sa dko bas ed on a n epic of the Novgor od set shows tha t indi

”
, ,
vidua l trying to ca tch goldfish on a wager and charming the Sea ,
King with his Gu ssl a m u sic Afterward he sets sa il with ships a nd

.
goods a n d is thr own overboard as a Jona h when a storm ar ises He

, .
has a dventu res a t the bottom of the sea where the Sea K ing wishes ,
-
one of his dau ghters to ma rry the newcomer His Gu ssla pla yi ng .
sha kes the sea an d ea rth an d is only stopped when the instrument is
,
sm ashed Ultima tely he retu rns to home a nd hearth

. .
“
The Czar s Betrothed a ga in ba sed on a Mey dra ma shows
’ ”
, ,
Gr iazn oi in love with M artha who is betrothed to Lykov Gria zn oi , .
gets a potion which he thinks will insure her love The Czar I van .
sees her an d chooses her as his bride Gria zn oi gives her the potion
, .
,
b u t a r iva l has cha nged it f or one tha t m a kes her insa ne an d u gly .
The riva l fina lly confesses an d Gria znoi sta bs her qu itting the scene
, ,
a fter imploring M artha s p ar don T his is one of the com poser s very
’ ’
.
best works the score showing a charming flu ency u nited with a m ost
,
interesting ha ndling of folk mu sic The bea u tiful overture is widely

-
.
The Cza r Sa lta n trea ts tha t monarch s meeting with three sis ’
ters his marria ge to the youn gest a nd the jea lou sy of the other two
, , .
It is brillia ntly orchestra ted using folk melodies an d gu iding mo ,

-
Servilia dea ls with C hristia nity in a ncient Rom e .
The Immorta l Kastchei tells of a wiz ard of tha t na m e whose

”
,
da u ghter redeems herself by letting fa ll a tear which ha ppens to ,
conta in the W izard s fa te The a ction dea ls a lso with the rescu e of
’
.
the Czarevna fr om his power When this was first performed the .
,
com poser ha d been dropped fr om the Conserva tory ; and his friends
ma de the opera a pretext for giving him ova tions a n d good W ill -
.
Pa n Voyevode is the story of a Polish noble who p arts lovers to

”
get the girl for himself At the wedding fea st he ta kes poison mea nt
.
,
THE RUSS IAN SCHOOL 2 67
The Invisible City is a legenda ry a ffa ir The heroine Fev .

,
ron ia is ca ptur ed a t her wedding by T arta rs ; b u t they are sca red off
,
by a reflection of the invisible city seen in a la ke Fevronia is then .
ca lled by the prince who loved her and joins him in the las ting happi ,
ness of dea th .
The Go lden C ock is a bir d tha t crows whenever da nger threa t

ens It is given to King Dodon by an as tr ologer Its crowing ca u ses
. .
him to send his sons to meet the tr ou ble an d la ter to follow himself , .
The d anger turns ou t to be a bea u tifu l woma n the Q u een of She ,
ma kha who fa scina tes the ki ng a lthou gh his sons ha d qu arrelled

, ,
over her a n d killed ea ch other She la u ghs a t hi m b u t fina lly b e

.
,
comes his bride and proves hea rtless

, .
The lea der of a la ter genera tion is Alexa nder C onsta ntinovi tch
Gl a zou n ov who was born a t St Petersb urg in 18 65
, He stu died . .
with Rims ky Korsa kov a nd a t eighteen wrote a sym phony which

-
, ,
was given by Li szt a t Wei m ar Since then Gl azou n ov ha s p rodu ced

.
seven sim i l ar works hi s sixth symphony be ing especia lly melodious

,
a n d plea sing He com posed a lso severa l sym phoni c poe m s whi ch
.
,
echo the joy of spring the charm of the forest the spell of the sea
, , ,
the a ttra ction of the Orient or the ma jesty of the historic Kremlin
, .
Another of these tr ea ts the story of Stenka Ra sine the Volga pira te ,
who ca rried off a princess Glazoun ov prod u ced a Triu mpha l M ar ch

.
for our Chica go Exposition a n d a Cor on a tion C a nta ta f

, or the Czar .
Other orchestra l wor ks by him are the Greek an d C arniva l Over

“
tur es the Middle Ages su ite a n d the glo wing Overture Solen
,
”
,
nelle His opu s numbers nearly 100 inclu de m a ny other la rge com
.
”
, ,
positions su ch as su ites or or chestra l ca nta tas His cham ber works

, .
a n d sm a ller pieces show m u ch m elodic cha rm He has not tr ied .
“ “
opera b u t his ba llets su ch as Ra ym onda a n d The Sea sons
, ,
” ”
,
“
hold the sta ge well R a ym onda is the story of a C rusa der s wife
.
” ’
who rem a ins fa ithful in his a bsence in sp ite of a riva l s a ttentions ’

.
A recent work by Gla zoun ov is som e str ong incidenta l m usic to the
“
sa cred dra ma The Kin g of the Jews ”
Anton Stepa n ovi tch Arensky (18 6 1—

.
1906 ) was another Rimsky

pu pil W hi le tea ching in Moscow Arensky produ ced the opera
.
,
A Drea m on the Volga He com posed a lso the one ac t Ra phae l

”
.
”
-
,
“
a n d the ba llet A Night in Egypt ; b u t his best work was the opera
”
“
Nalan d D am a j an ti
”
This trea ts of a mythi ca l king who loses his
.
sweethea rt a nd his la nds while gambling u nder the infl u ence of a ,
wicked god b u t rega ins them l a ter

,
.
Sergei Ra ch m a ninov born in 1873 a t Novgorod is known by his

, ,
pictu resqu e prelu des and other works for pia no He has com posed a .
“
few opera s inclu ding Aleko and The Miser Knight His sym
,
” ”
.
phonic poem The Isle of the Dea d illu stra ting a B oecklin pa int
”
,
ing is a n a dmira ble pictur e of gloom His other works inclu de a

,
.
“
symphony the ca nta ta Spring two pia no concertos an d some
,
”
, ,
ch am ber m u sic
Sergei Tan eiev (1856—
.
19 15) com posed four symphonies a few ,
overtures str ing qua rtets an d several choru ses ; b u t he beca me

, ,
best kn own thr ou gh his O resteia a lofty opera tic tr ilogy in eight
”
, ,
scenes bas ed on the wor ks of i Eschylus Alexa nder Ta n eiev his

, .
,
nephew is a nother or chestra l composer in R u ssia

, .
Ippolitov Iva nov a ctive in Moscow u sed Hebrew melodies in his

-
, ,
“ “
O pe ra Ru th an d pu t mu ch tender expression into his Assya
” ”
, .
His other pr od u ctions inclu de su ites an d choruses .
Micha el Iva nov com posed incidenta l mu sic a symphony a tri , ,
“
u m pha lovertur e the b al let The Vesta l a nd the operas Sa ba wa
” ”
, ,
“
and The Fea st of Potemkin ”
.
Edward Na pra vnik a Bohem ia n living a t St Petersburg wrote

, . ,
“ ” “
the operas Nij u i Novgorod H ar old-
”
D ou b rovsky
”
an d
, , ,
“
Francesca .
” “
Pau l Blara m b erg s operas consist of The M u mmers
’
The ,
” “ ” “
Roussalka M a iden M ary of B urgun dy Toushin o a nd The
”
-
, , ,
Wa ve .
”
Alexa nder Gretschan inov composed the opera Dobrynia and

some incidenta l m u sic .
Vla dim ir Reb ikov has prod u ced In the Storm a nd The Chr ist
m as Tr ee as well as the so cal led m i m odra m e Geniu s a n d Dea th
”
- .
,
Nicola i Soloviev com posed severa l opera s of somewha t restra ined

chara cter as well as a n overtu re a nd the symphonic poem Ru ssia ns
,
a n d Mongols
”
.
Sergei Vassilenko s City of Ki tezh trea ts the subject alrea dy

’
“
described as The Invisible City ”
.
Opera s of som e su ccess in R u ssia are Ka za tchenko s Prince Sere ’
“ “
bria ni an d Pa n Sotnik ; Korestchenko s Belsh azzar s Fea st
” ” ” ’ ’
,
“
The Angel of Dea th an d The Ice Pa la ce ; an d Kochetov s
” ”
,
’
com positions in the shorter forms ; while others who ha ve worked in
these are Alphéra ki Amani Grodsky Blu menfeld Artsib ou tchev
, , , , ,
ovitch Karg a nov Ka sta l

Ga b ri l , , , , am ov Victor
ski P og oj ev an d War l .
Ewa ld and Alexa nder Winkler ha ve written cha mber music while,
E m il Mlynarski has composed violin works .

XXIX
OTHE R E UROP E AN N ATION S
I N the last four deca des Ita ly has done m u ch to p u t herself

,
a b reas t of other m u sica l na tions She has no g enius of the first ra nk

.
,
as Stra u ss is the only living m a n who coul d by an y cour tesy be in

clu ded in tha t class B u t she has revived her tra ditions of opera tic
.
su prem a cy an d has a lso pr od u ced a sma ll b u t ea rnest grou p of

,
or chestra l com posers .
The verism o (rea listic ) school of opera was fou nded by M asca gni .
Born in 18 63 he was the son of a ba ker and was destined for the
, ,
law . He stu died pia no an d other mu sica l su bjects in secret When .
four teen he was discovered a t this work an d loc ked u p by his fa ther ; ,
b u t a n u ncle rescu ed him an d a friend a ided him to ta ke lessons a t

,
“
Mila n He beca me lea der of sm a ll opera tic tr ou pes u ntil Ru stic
.
,
Chiva lry won him a com forta ble prize from the Son zog no firm an d
”
,
a n intern a tiona l repu ta tion Since then he has com posed ma ny other
.
“ ” “ ” “ ” “
opera s , L Am i co Fritz
’
I Ra ntza u R a tcliff
, Silva no ”
, , ,
“
I ris ,
”
Le M aschere ”
Isa bea u
”
etc B u t none of these was su c
, , .
“
; a n d Le M aschere was even hi ssed beca u se of its rem in is
”
cessf ul
cences of Pu ccini .
“
R u stic Chi valry has for its heroine Sa ntu zza betra yed and ,
d eserted by Turi ddu She tells Alfio of a n intrigu e tha t Turidd u is

.
ca rrying on with Alfio s wife Lola The two then meet a nd Tu riddu
’
.
,
is killed The mu sic is endowed with a vivi d strength tha t seem ed a

.
revel a tion in Ita ly While Germ a n composers were m a king hea vy

.
imita tions of the inim ita ble Wa gner this work led to a school tha t ,
was wholly su c ces sfu l a n d well su ited to modern needs of ra pidity

,
in a ction Its one a ct length a fter the size of Wa gner s works ma de

.
-
,
’
,
it seem like a short story in com p arison with a novel Som e of the .
“
best points in the music are Tu riddu s Sicilia na (su ng from b e
” ’
hind the curtai n as part of the prelu de ) the br oa d a nd noble ,
“
chur ch service ( Regina Lola s solo My King of Roses ” ’
,
a n d the lively B rindisi or dr inking chorus The sugary intermezzo

”
-
.
,
ha s becom e widely known .

Ru ggiero Leonca vallo born in 1858 began by composing Cha t

, ,
ter ton a t first a fa ilure b u t well rec eived a fterward He produ ced
”
, , .
“
a l so a n a mbitiou s tri logy Crepu scu l u m dea ling with the Medici
”
, .
“
B u t he did not become wi dely known u ntil he wr ote I Pa glia cci
”
“
( The Str olling in imita tion of Masca g nr 3 style This .
opera beca me fam ou s in m a ny l ands Like M a sca gni Leonca va llo .

,
“ ” “ ” “
has fa iled in l a ter works su ch as Boheme Trilby Z a za ”
, , , ,
“
a nd Rola nd of Berlin For the la st of these he was chosen com
.
poser by the Germa n Ka iser who wrote the libretto , .
I Pa glia cci with an excellent libretto by the composer himself

”
, ,
opens with the arrivalof the strolling pla yers a t a villa ge Tonio .
,
the clown overhears Nedda the lea der s wife pla nn ing elopement
, ,
’
,
with the villa ger Silvio As Nedda ha d repulsed Tonio s former a d

.
’
va nces he now revenges himself by bringing the lea der C anio on

, , ,
the scene b u t preventing him fr om identifyi ng the interloper The

, .
second a ct shows the pl a y within the play given before the villa gers , .
This is ba sed on a plot mu ch simil ar to wha t has ha ppened ; a nd

when C a nio a sks Nedda the na me of her unknown lover his pa ssion ,
becomes rea l instea d of mimic At la st he sta bs her Silvio ru shi ng

. .
,
from the a u dience meets a similar fa te The mu sic is mu ch stronger

, .
“
tha n tha t of R u stic Chiva lry thou gh in the sa me school The
”
, .
prolog ue (for b aritone ) the chorus of the first a ct Ga nio s intensely

, ,
’
strong la m ent a fter seeing Nedda s perfidy and the drama tic close ’
,
of the pl a y are the chief points in a sc ore tha t is often str ongly
dra m a tic .
The verism o school is not merely rea listic but is devoted to a ,
tra gic sort of rea lism th a t is fou nd in the somewha t cru de a nd ele
menta l lives ofthe lower cla sses Love jea lou sy a n d revenge are its
.
, ,
chief a ssets B u t its strength of expression has ma de it importa nt

.
in contem porary opera Other com posers of the school are Giorda no
.
“ “ “
Ma la Vita a nd Mme Sa ns , Spinelli ( A .
“
B a sso Ta sca A Sa nta C oron aro ( Festa a .
a n d Cesar e Rossi Ita lo Montem ezzi chose

a higher su bject in his
“ Love of Three Kings which tre a ts of a
”
,
girl who was betrothed to a mediaeva l prince b u t forced into a m ar ,
ria g e with his conqu er or She still loves the prince a n d the susp i
.
,
cions of her husba nd s blind fa ther lea d to discovery an d tra gedy

’
.
“ “
C il
’
ea s Arlesia na an d Adria na Lecou vreur are in older style
” ”
.
wou ld not love him if he were bra ve enou gh to stea l for her the
jewels on the M a donna s sta tue She listens with delight to a ser ’
.
ena de by Ra fa ello ; b u t Gennar o does a ctu a lly b ri ng the jewels .
She pu ts them on a nd is lost in ecstasy The third act however

, .
, ,
shows her fleeing from Ge nnaro a nd coming to Ra fa ello s retrea t ,

’
.
He is shocked by her sa crilege in wearing the jewels and cas ts her ,
off She rushes a wa y to pl ung e into the sea ; while Gennaro com
.
,
ing a fter her sta bs himself beca use of remorse The overture con
, .
sists sim ply of three pistol shots ; b u t the festiva l scenes of the first
-
a ct are ca rried ou t in a l arge style The lyrics are smoothly a ttra e .
tive a n d the clima x duly tra gic thou gh the brigands revels before
, ,
’
it are too mu ch spun ou t .
The chief figure in recent Ita lian opera is Gia com o Pu ccini .
Born in 1858 of a mu sica l family he soon a ttra cted a ttention ; an d

, ,
Verdi na m ed the young m an as his proba ble su ccessor .
“
Le Vil li produ ced by P u ccini in 1884 was rea lly the origi n of
”
, ,
the short opera s The Villi or Wilis are spirits of betr othed b u t
.
, ,
deserted ma idens ; a nd they seek to lur e their betra yers to dea th .
The scene is la id in a Bla ck Forest villa ge where Robert loves ,
Anna Le arning of a n inherita nce he goes to M a inz where he for

.
, ,
gets Anna a n d starts an intrigue She dies broken hea rted When .
-
.
Robert returns he is ca ught in the Wilis da nce and whir led a bou t ’
,
un til he fa lls lifeless .
“
Edgar a ppear ing in 1889 has a hero who loves a bea u tiful
, ,
gypsy Tir ing of her he lea ves her mou nta in retr ea t a nd becomes
.
,
a soldier Retur ning hom e he is cha rmed by a villa ge ma iden who

.
,
has loved him from the first ; but his ha ppiness is short f or the ,
“ ”
vengefu l gypsy sta bs her riva l Thi s Ita lian ized Carmen was .
not a grea t su ccess .
M a non Lesca u t fou nded on Prevost s novel has some strong

,
’
,
scenes In the first a ct M a non flees with Des Grieu x ra ther tha n
.
enter a convent In the second ac t she lea ves him ; and when she
.
,
retur ns her rich p r otector revenges himself by h a ving her con

,
signed to p r ison The third act shows the em b arka tion of fem a le
.
convicts for Am erica the monotonou s roll ca ll m a king a n impressive

,
-
b a ckgro u nd to the i m pas sioned dia logue The last act is a long .
love scene ending in M a non s dea th

-
,
’
.
“
La Boheme ba sed on Murger s Vie de Boh eme shows the
” ’
, ,
OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS 2 75
four gifted b u t poverty stri cken a ssocia tes in their a ttic of the La tin
-
Qu arter R odolfo the p oet fa lls in love with Mi m i At the ca fé

.
, ,
.
of the second act M u setta returns to her fa ithful M a rcel The

,
.
thir d ac t brings jea lou sies an d qu arrels ; while in the las t a ct Mim i
r etu rns to die in Rodolfo s arms The mu sic has a h au nting sweet
’
.
ness an d the plot see m s to give the tou ch of na tur e th a t m a kes the
,
whole world kin .
“To c ba sed on Sardou s pla y shows th a t heroine s love for’ ’

s a , ,
M ario a n d the la tter s tr ou bles resu lting from his pr otection of a

,
’
politica l refugee Sca rpia the wicked officia l in con tr ol has M ario
.
, ,
arrested a n d tortu res him to ma ke Tosca minister to his (Sca rp ia s)

’
plea sure Wh en Tosca pretends to yield he writes a n order for

. ,
M ar io s execu tion which he alleges is to be only pretended Mea n

’
,
.
while Tosca secretes a k nife a nd when Sca rpia com es to her she
, ,
sta bs him She then (Act III) goes to tell M ario th a t his execution
.
will be only pretence ; b u t the trea cherou s Sca rpia ha d dir ected his
soldiers to fire rea l cartri dges a fter all M ario is ki lled a n d Tosca
, .
,
th ro ws herself from the ba ttlem ents to esca pe ca pture for h a ving

sta bbed Sca rpia The score is rea l istic a nd follows the sense of the
.
,
wor ds fa ithfu lly even if it is h ardly definite enou gh to sta nd a lone

, ,
“
as Wa gner s mu sic does Tosca s la ment in Act II ( Vissi d arte )
’ ” ’ ’
.
is an effective solo nu mber .
“
M a da ma B u tterfly has a Ja panese her oine An America n offi
”
.
c ial a mu s in g himself with her goes thro u gh a J a p a n ese marri age

, ,
ceremony which she na tura lly considers binding Left a lone she is
, .
,
shown l a ter living with her son an da m a id a nd a nim a ted b y a to u ch ,
ing fa ith in the retu rn of her hu sba nd The consu l tries to show her a .
letter from the a bsent one b u t fina lly does not dare to do so ; a n donly
,
on the officer s return does she see th a t he has ra ted her merely as a
’
pas tim e and m arried a girl of his own na tion Then she ki lls hersel f
, . .
“
The Girl of the Golden West is bas ed on the Bela sco pl a y of
”
tha t na me in which Minnie beloved by a llin the Western ca mp

, , ,
fa lls in love with an a dmir er who com es as a stranger When he .
proves to be the highwa yman whom allare hu nting she protects ,
him Wh en he is ca ptured la ter she sa ves him from be ing lynched

.
, ,
a n d depa rts with him to sta rt life a new elsewhere The m u sic con .
ta ins two In dia n songs one of which (tha t of the homesick min er)
,
seems ha rdly in pla ce .

2 76 TH E BOOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWL EDGE
The lea der a mong the new Ita lia n orchestra l com posers was Gio
va nni Sga m ba ti (184 3 He produced symphonies cha m ber ,
W o rks ove rt ures a pia no conce rto an d ma ny lesse r pieces of vari

, , ,
ou s sorts His early efforts met with encoura gement from Wa g ner
. .
Other Ita lia n orchestra l composers inclu de Giu seppe Martu cci ,
E u genio di Pira ni Edgar do Del Va lle de Pa z Ettore Pinelli Silvi o

, , ,
Lazzari the Am erica n kn own M artin Roeder Luigi Torchi the

,
-
,
critic the la te violinist Antonio B azzini the pia nist Lu igi Roma
, ,
niello the Sicil ia n Antonio Scontr ino Le one Sin iga g lia the ma ss
, , ,
com poser Alessa ndro B u si an d Amilcare Z anella , .
Ferru cio B usoni has become a modernist after writing a dmira ble ,
“
fu gu es in his you th His mu sic to Tura ndot has been called by
.
”
on e critic the best exa mple of modernism yet p r od u ced .
M arco Enrico Bossi born in 1861 is known as an orga nist a nd

, ,
“
tea cher His one a ct opera Pa qu ita took a prize He has com
.
-
”
.
posed a lso a symphonic poem a n overture a n orga n concerto (given , ,

“
a t our Chica go Fa ir ) the d ra ma tic o ra torio Christu s the ca n
”
, ,
“
ta ta Pa ra dise Lost and ma ny other works He is a lea der in the
”
, .
orchestra l field an d is intensely m odern

, .
Don Lorenzo Perosi has been especia lly successfu l in composing

ora torios an d other works for the C a tholic service Born in 1872 he .
,
has been very a ctive His trilogy The Pa ssion of Chr ist (the Las t
”
.
Su pper the Sermon on the Mou nt a n d the C rucifix ion ) ma de him

, ,
known throu gh Ita ly La ter works of his inclu de the two p art
.
-
“ ” “ ” “ “
Moses The Tra nsfigura tion
, The Ann u ncia tion an d The
”
, ,
Ra isin g of La zarus ”
Perosi s brother Marzia no has composed an
.
’
opera The La st D a ys of Pom peii

,
”
.
Sirn on etti is an excellent Ita lia n violin composer .
Ita ly ha d a lm ost no concert ha lls in 1850 ; a n d even the churches

were content to u se opera tic a irs with sa cred words In the sixties .
,
a n o r chestra l concert o rga nized by Pinelli ear ned fou rteen l i re from ,
which sixty performers were to be pa id Sga mba ti produ ced a Bee .
thoven symphony in Rome but ha d to pa y f or it himself

, Su ch .
a bsurd conditions ar e now relega ted to the pa st ; an d Ita ly has
reg a ined some mu sica l infl u ence .
Spa nish composers are grea tly devoted to the Z arzu ela which is a ,
n a tiona l form of light but plea sing a nd brillia nt comic opera Among .
those who h ave worked recently in this form are Larrocla Arri eta 1
, ,
r esembla nce to the Germa n mas ter Composers like Smeta na his .
,
su ccessor Dvo rak Hu ber a n d even Ra ff are ra ted a little below the
, , ,
highest sta nd a r d They h a ve pr od u ced m u ch good mu sic b u t they

.
,
do not qu ite rea ch the high level of the grea test ma sters .
Sm eta na married the pia nist Ka tharin Kola r an d with her help ,
fou nded a mu sic school He was a ctive a lso as a condu ctor ; b u t com
.
position was rea lly his life work While visiting Liszt he hear d Her
- .
beck a ssert tha t the Czechs were not original b u t merely reprodu c ,
tive ; a nd he determ ined to dispr ove this He su cceeded a dmira bly .

,
thou gh the world is not yet as fa mi liar as it shou ld be with his

opera s .
Sm eta n a s instru menta l works inclu de a Festiva l Overtur e a

’
,
Triu m ph Sym phony an d ma ny symphonic poem s The la tter were

, .
“ “
begun by Richard III which was followed by Wa llenstein s
”
,
’
C a mp a n d H a kon Ja rl Best known however is the cycle of six

”
.
, ,
“ “
su ch works known as My Cou ntry This consists of Vysehra d
”
.
”
,
in which the minstrel Lu m ir is pictur ed as evoking the pa st glories of

“
tha t fortress ; Vlta va the M olda u comes next a n d is a fa vorite
”
, , ,
“
concer t nu m ber ; Sarka trea ts of the legend ary Ama zon of tha t
na me ; Bohemia s Groves a n d Mea dows is the fourth in the gr ou p ;
’
“ “
Ta bor depicts the ca m p of the H u ssite soldiers ; a nd B la n ik is ”
the mounta in where they are supposed to sleep in rea diness to a wa ke ,
a t thei r cou ntry s need

’
.
Sm eta n a s first opera The B ra ndenburgers in Bohemia ea r ned

’
, ,
f or him the repr oa ch of tryi ng to ma ke Bohemia n mu sic Wa gneri a n .
“
Nettled by this he pr odu ced the bright co m edy The B artered
,
B ride which is not only origina l in style b u t remarka bly a ttra e

”
, ,
tive When it was brou ght to foreign notice a t an 1892 fa ir in

.
,
Vienna the critics as ked How is it possible tha t su ch a geniu s ha s

, ,
been u nknown so long ? A return to the seriou s a nd tra gic vein re

”
“ “ ” “
ted in D a l ib or a nother su ccess Two Widows The Kiss
” ”
su l , . , ,
“ “ “
a n d The Secret a re lighter in sty le ; while L ib u sa a n d The
”
Devil s Wa ll are strongly dra ma ti c In passing one m a y sta te tha t

’ ”
.
,
the composer s na m e shou ld be a ccented on the first sylla ble

’
.
Antonin Dvoi ak (184 1— ’

19 04 ) showed a n ear ly lo ve f or mu sic At .
twelve he pla nned to surprise his rela tives with an or chestra l polka ;
a nd as he fo rgot to a llow f or the tra nsposing instru ments the resu lt ,
was even mo re surp rising tha n he expected He su pported himself .

OTHER EUROPE AN NATIONS 2 79
f
or a time in Pra gue anda t length won the governm ent a idfor needy
,
geni u ses by some ea rly co m positions He sta ted tha t he spent his .
“
tim e in ha rd stu dy occas iona l composition mu ch revision a grea t
, , ,
dea l of thinki ng a n d little ea ting After his marria ge he som e

,
”
.
times sa id tha t he a te less and thought more than ever .
An ea rly Opera Konig u nd K6 hler was a tta cked as being u ltra

,
”
,
Wa gneria n Rewritten in a simpler a n d m ore na tiona l sty le it

. ,
ma de a su ccess a lthou gh its com poser ridicu led his u nintelligent

,
“ ” “ ” “
pu blic His la ter op eras su ch as Wa nda
. Selm a Sedla k
, The , ,
” “ “
Ja cobins ,
Ka te an d the Devi l a nd Arm ida are a lmost a ll
” ”
,
“
na tiona l in style Dim itri trea ts of the false Demetri us tha t
”
.
Moussorgsky m a de so fa mous .
“
Dvof ak s overtures Carnival an d Na ture
’
, ,
a n d others ) are given occas iona lly on con ce rt pr ogra m m es His .
“St b t Ma ter ” well received in London led to a n English sta y

a a , , ,
andthe com position of the su ccessf u l ca nta ta The Spectre s B ride ” ’

.
“
A l a ter ca nta ta Sa int Lu d m ill a was a com pa ra tive fa ilure ; and
,
”
,
“
this fact m a y ha ve inspired Dvoi ak s rema rk The English do not '
’
,
love mu sic ; they respect it .
His America n sojourn inspired him to pr od uce the bea u tifu l New
World Sym phony the grea test of his works in th a t form He used
”
, .
the negro songs as the tr u e America n folk mu sic an d ma de them es -

,
tha t echoed their styles effectively The negro music is not a llde .
voted to the sm ooth vein em ployed by Stephen C Foster It is . .
pla intively expressive a t times lively a t others an d in certa in exa m , ,
ples weirdly impressive Dvofak used allthese styles an d produ ced

.
,
a m as ter work
Zdenko Fi b ich (1850—

-
.
1900) was a nother Bohemia n lea der His .
opera s receive a lmost as mu ch a ttention as th ose of Smeta na .
“
His work in melodra ma (the trilogy Hippoda m ia ) has been men
”
tion ed elsewhere .
E m il Nikolau s Freiherr von Rezni cek works a t Vienna He like

, , .
,
ma ny others was destined for la w b u t deserted it for m usic He b e

, , .
ca me known by his opera s Die Ju ngfra u von Orlea ns ”

,Sa ta n ,
” “ “
ella, E m erich Fortu na t the viva ciou s Donna Dia na an d , ,
“
Till E u lenspiegel His early orches tr a l works su ch as his over
”
.
,
tures a n d the Tra gic Sym phony were fa ir ly c onserva tive ; b u t his
”
,
“ “
la te r symphonic poems Schlemihl and Der Sieger pla ce him
”
, ,
THE BOOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWLEDGE
a mong the m odern progra m m e ra dica ls He h andles the fu ll orches .
tra with a d m ira ble contr ol an d skill .
Am ong Bohem ian co m posers Josef Su k son in law of D vofak , ,

- - '
,
“
pr odu ced the Fa iry Ta le Su ite Josef Mra czek ha s composed a n
”
.
“
opera The D ream a n d the ra dica l orchestra l hu moresque en
, ,
titled Max an d Moritz which depicts the a dventures of two b ad

”
,
boys well known in Germa n litera tu re Heinrich Kaa n Alb est has .
-
“
composed severa l ballets and the sym phonic poem Sa ku nta la ”
.
“
Josef Nesvera a wri ter of ma sses won a su ccess with his opera Per
, ,
dita Other Bohemia n opera composers are Hrim a ly Jiranek Ka d

”
.
, ,
letz Kovai ovic M a la t Na vra til Ostrcil Proch azka Pr okop

,
'
, , , , , ,
Reu ter Rozkosny Sebor Trn ecek a n d Sku hersky Of these

, , , , .
,
Jiranek Na vra til a nd Trneéek ha ve entered the orchestr a l field

, , .
Still other Bohem ia n orchestra l com posers inclu de Abert La ska , ,
Nedb al Nova cek Nova k an d Pri b ik

, , , .
H u ngary has its school of na tive O pera brou ght into bein g by the ,
“
Dopplers an d Fra nz Erkel The la tter s H u nya di Laszlo is very
,
”
.
’
popu lar Other H u ngari a n opera composers inclu de his son George
.
E rkel Andrea s B artay Far ka s H u ba y Jarn o Mihalovitch Pol

, , , , , ,
dini Reka y Sztoj an ovics Sza b a dos and Cou nt Geza Zichy the
, , , , ,
one armed pia nist Some of these ha ve pr odu ced orchestra l works
-
.
a lso
. E rwin Lendva i has com posed a ra dica l sym phony E rnst von .
Dohna nyi has ga ined mu ch renown by overtures concertos a sym , ,

“
phony and the pa ntom im e Pierrette s Veil Miha lovi tch has
,
” ’
.
won fa me by sym phonies an d orchestra l ba lla ds Other Hungaria n .
orchestra l composers inclu de B artok B u ttika y Korb a y Szekely , , , ,
a n d Va vrin ecz Hor va th an d J osef fy h a ve p rodu ced pia no mu sic

.
,
while Nachez and Rem enyi composed for the violin .
Rouma nia is represented by Georges Enesco in the orchestra l field ,
Theodor Flon dor in opera a n d Fra nz Kneisel in the violin world ,

.
Xa ver an d Philipp Sch arwenka well known in Berlin are of Pol , ,
“
ish ori gin The form er has wri tten the opera Ma ta swin tha a
.
”
,
sym phony an d three pia no concertos ; while the la tter is credited

,
with chora l canta ta s symphonies a su ite an overture and many , , , ,
lesser works .
Moritz Moszkowski is a nother Germa n composer of Polish de

“
scent His com positions inclu de an opera Boa bdil the sym
.
, ,
“
phonic poem Joa n ofArc two orchestra l suites a pi a no concerto
”
, ,
OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS 281
an d ma ny sma ller works He seems a ble to assume many sty les as .

,
“
his pia no cycle Aus a ller Herren Lander will show He is full of
”
.
“
hu mor an d sta tes as other a ccom plishments tha t he ca n pla y bil
,
liards chess dom inoes an d violin and can ride imita te ca na ry

, , , , ,
birds and rela te jokes in the Sa xon dialect

,
”
.
Pa derewski is widely known as a composer beca use of his minu et

“
a n d other pieces He has written the gypsy opera M a nru a long
”
.
,
sym phony an d a piano concer to the la st of which wins su ccess

, ,
when he ta kes the solo pa rt .
Other Polish opera co m posers inclu de Ga vronski Jarec ki Kazyn , ,
ski Koczalski Melcer Mign ard Mon iuszko Op ienski Rozycki

, , , , , , ,
k owsky
a n d Sta l Polish orchestra l com posers incl u de Ka rlwicz
.
,
Maszynski Novovi ej ski Sta tkowsky Nova kovski Dob rzynski

, , , , ,
De Kontski Chopin s pu pil Miku li Soltys Z elenski Kur pinski

,
’
, , , ,
an d Z i ent
a rski .
In Belgiu m a recent lea der was Peter Benoit (1834

, He
com posed opera s an d other works b u t was best known by his grea t ,
“ “
ca nta ta s These inclu de Oorlog
.
”
Lu cifer ”
De ,
” “ ” “
Schelde De Rhyn
, Prom etheu s an d a Ru bens ca nta ta
, , .
“
They ha ve been described as grea t decora tive pictur es in tone ,
su ggesting vista s of g ra nd pa la ces arm i es in b a ttle arra y rich fields , ,
of gra in m ystic vi sions of the spirit world or gorgeou s tri umpha l

, ,
ma r ches ”
.
Pa u l Gilson born in 186 5 is a nother Belg ia n lea der His sym

, , .
phonic sketches entitled La Mer ma de hi m well known These

”
.
pictu re su nr ise a t sea the r ollicking mu sic of the sa ilors a love

, ,
“
scene with departure and a tem pest The ca n ta ta Fra n cesca da
, .
”
Rim i ni is a nother strong work by Gilson The lovers are con .
dem n ed by Minos a nd ta u nte d by dem o ns in the Inferno Fra n

, .
cesca s p ra yer fina lly wins pity f or her ; b u t she will not a c cept
’
mercy withou t Pa olo and decides to sta y with hi m Other works

, .
“
by Gilson inclu de the ora torio Moses the opera s Prin cess
” “
,
” “ “
Su nshine The Adventurers a nd The Demon incidenta l
,
” ”
, ,
music orchestra l works with declama tion overtures fa nta sies

, , , ,
su ites an d ma ny other co m positions

Gu illa u m e Lekeu (1870—
, .
94 ) showed much pr om ise in his b rief

ca reer He produ ced symphoni c poems cha mber works a n d lesser
.
, ,
pieces often tinged with gloom b u t usua lly very effecti ve

, , .
Edgar Tinel s chief composition is the ora torio Fra nciscus

’
.
This is a thr ee part work showing Fra ncis of Assisi as you ng noble
-
“
m an as monk a n d as sa int in hea ven Tinel s Saint Godelive ” ’
.
, ,
is a nother su ccessful ora torio He has written a lso or chestra l pieces .
a n d ca nta tas .
Jan B l ockx (1851 19 12 ) pr odu ced or chestra l works of various -
“
sorts b u t was best known by the ba llet Milenka a nd by his
,
“
opera s Of the la tter The Pri ncess of the Inn meets with most
.
”
,
su ccess Its heroine Reinilde loves Merlyn and r efuses M arcus ;

.
, , ,
whereu pon M arcu s pla ns to ruin Merlyn by mea ns of Rita an , ,
innkeeper s da u ghter Rita s discarded lover Ra b o becomes j ea l

’
.
’
ous a n d kill
, s Merlyn Reinilde is then rea dy to kill Rita b u t de .
,
cides tha t a life of remorse will be a grea ter pu nishm ent for her .
“
Other B lockx opera s are the one act Iels Verg eten the op era
” -
,
“ ” “ “
com iqu e M ai tr e M artin La Fia ncée de l a Mer and Thyl , ,
Uyl
ensp ieg el .
Am ong Belgia n opera tic composers Keurvels has produ ced ,

” “ “ “
Pari s Rolla a n d H a mlet ; Wa mba ch has composed Na
”
,
”
,
tha ns Para bel as well as ora torios and a symphonic poem ; the
”
,
“ “
works of Du pu is inclu de Moina a nd Cour d Og non ; Vlee
” ” ’
shou wer is a B lockx p u pil ; Va n D u yse is cr edited with seven opera s ;

“
Waelpu t s Stell a is better known th a n his four sym phonies ;
” ’
“
Ra wa y s Neon a n d Freya are a mbitious works ; Van den
” ’ ”
Eeden s Rhena has been well received ; Juliet Folville a lea der
’
,
“
a mong the wom en has composed Atala a nd ma ny or chestra l
,
works ; E m ile M a thi eu has written incidenta l music as well as

opera s ; while other a ctive opera composers include Callaerts Da ,
nea u Ka iser Lebrun Neu ville Paqu e Ra dou x Ra sse Ra tez Va n

, , , , , , , ,
der Me u len a n d Verhul st Other Belgia ns deserving mention in

, .
variou s fields are Ge vaert orga nist and tea cher ; Hu b erti a n ora , ,
torio composer ; Lenaerts who has composed ca nta ta s ; and in ,
genera l orchestra l work M ailly Mestdagh Ryela ndt Ru efer , , , , ,
Thieb a u t Tilma n Vreu l s an d Wou ters

, , , .
In Holla nd Rich ar d Hol was for ma ny yea rs a lea der famous

, ,
for his na tiona l hymn an d f or symphonies ca nta ta s a nd other , ,
compositions Ju liu s Roentgen a lso composed orchestra l works

. .
Va n t Kru is has been very a ctive in produ cing overtu res a nd sym
’
phonies Other Du tch orchestral com posers are Averka m p Coenen

.
, ,
With these five men worked a nu mber of others su ch as the ,
“
Ma c Farren b rothers Sir Frederick B ridge (known as the West
,
minster Bridge beca use he is organ ist in Westm inster Abbey )

, ,
Parra tt B a rnett Lloyd Cor der C u sins a nd Willia ms On the

, , , , , .
whole the school ha d worthy a ims b u t la cked deep in spira tion

, , .
E rnest Newma n once sa id th a t men of the B ridge M a ckenzie type -
cou ld no m ore ha tch ou t a new school tha n a hen cou ld ha tch har d
boiled eggs This is too severe a criticism b u t its point is correct
.
, .
English hymnology received an impetus from Wesley whose ,
work was carr ied forward excellently by Sta iner B arnby Webb , , ,
and others .
Sir Edwar d Elgar born in 1857 is the lea der of a newer an d less
, ,
a ca demic style The story goes tha t when he was sent to school
.
,
“
a n d a sked by a tea cher wh a t his na me was he replied Edwa rd , ,
Elgar ”
. Add the sir dem a nded the peda gogue wishing to instil
”
, ,
“
principles of respect ; whereu pon the boy replied Sir Edward El ,
B u t he has now a tta ined knighthood in rea lity a n honor

”
ga r .
,
won by the va lu e of his works .
In childhood he delighted in his fa ther s orga n pla ying a t Wor

’
-
c ester He was l argely self ta u ght in mu sic an d for pra ctice in

.
-
,
com position he wrote a sym phony with Mozart s G m inor work as ’

~
a m odel m a king his them es an d other divisions of the sa me size

,
“ a
as Mozar t s Of instru ction books he once sa id I h ve rea d them
’
.
, ,
“
a n d I still live B u t he a ppr oved of Moza rt s Thorou gh B a ss
” ’
-
.
”
School .
His ea rly ca nta ta The Bla ck Knight was given a t a W orces

, ,
ter festiva l Other ca nta ta s written as a n ou tcome of the first one

.
, ,
“ “ “
wer e The Light of Life ”
C ara cta cu s a n d Sir Olaf His
” ”
, ,
.
Enigma varia tions for orchestra ea ch descr ibing a friend form a , ,
very a ttra ctive work a n dearned him recognition in London The first
, .
“
of his ora torios The D rea m of Gerontius won him interna tiona l
,
”
,
“ ”
fa me La ter compositions in this form by him are The Apostles
.
and The Kingdom ”

Other voca l wor ks of Elg ar s are Scenes
.
’
,
” “ ”
from the B a vari a n Highla nds The B a nner of Sa int George , ,
Lu x Chr isti a n d a Te Deu m For orchestra he has written sev

”
, .
“
era l overtures In the Sou th a n d
”
,
some effective Pom p an d Cir cu msta nce mar ches incidenta l

”
,
“
music to Dia rm id an d Gra nia a Corona tion M arch a n d the Sea
”
, ,
OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS 28 5
Pictures for solo voice with orchestra In recent years he has gone
, .
over to the ra dica ls His two sym phonies are ra ther a bstruse
.
,
thou gh the fina le of the second is very impressive His violin con .
certo is fu ll of difficu lties .
Joseph Holbrooke born in 1878 is a nother ra dical His opera

, , .
,
The Chi ldren of Don is to be ma de the first of a Trilogy For

”
,
.
“
orchestra som etim es with voices he has written The Ra ven
,
”
, ,
“The Skeleton in Arm or ” “Ul al um e the bizarre b u t effective ”

, ,
Qu een Ma b a n da Poe Sym phony His works are not su fficiently

”
, .
tu nefu l for rea l su ccess .
Frederick Deliu s born in 1863 is a nother modernist His B rigg

, , .
Fa ir introdu ces old Engl ish m elodies ; b u t his other works su ch

”
,
“ ” “ ” “
as Appa la chia The D a nce of Life, A M a ss of Life (with
”
,
“ ” “ “
voices) Sea D rift ,
Paris a n d The So ng of the High Hills
”
,
”
, ,
are fra gm enta ry a n d biza rre in their h arm onies .
Cyr il Meir Scott born in 1879 is one of the few com posers who
, ,
ca n h a ndle m odern ef fects in an interesti ng wa y His h arm onies .
are novel a n d intri ca te enou gh ; b u t he b u ilds them into works tha t

,
ha ve be a u ty an d coherence He is kno wn in America by som e of .
his interesting pia no pieces Bu t he has com posed in the l arger forms .
too produ cing a symphony a pian o concerto thr ee overtu res a n d

, , , ,
som e effective ch am ber m u sic .
Another ra dica l who has done good work is G ra nville Ba ntock ,
born in 18 68 His early efforts resulted in the one act operas Ca ed

.
-
m ar a n d The Pea rl of Ira n as well as a vast setting of Sou they s

” ” ’
,
“
poem The Curse of Keham a in twenty four orchestra l nu m bers
,
”
,
-
.
He com posed a lso a ca nta ta The Pi r e Worshippers a n d the over

”
,
-
,
tur es Sa u l an d The Pierrot of the Minu te The la tter is ra ther

”
.
fra gm enta ry Recently he has tried to develop a sym phonic form

.
“
for voices a lone his Atala nta in Ca lydon ha vi ng four movem ents
,
a n d divi ding the voca l for ces into twelve grou ps .
With B antock ha ve been a ssocia ted Willia m Wa ll a ce composer ,
of a Crea tion Symphony a chora l sym phony six sym phonic poe m s , , ,
“
the opera B rassolis a nd other works ; E rskine Allon whose or
”
, ,
“ “
chestra lb a ll a d Annie of Lochr oyan ca nta ta The Oak of Geis
”
,
“
a n d over t ure The M a id of Colonsa y ha ve ma de his ea rly
”
m ar ,
dea th a su bject for gre a t regret ; Regina ld Stegga ll who has c om ,
posed severa l scenes ; Sta nley Ha wley who has become known by ,
his melodra ma s ; a n d Arthur Hinton whose Triu mph of Caesar , ,
En dym ion su ite a n d pia no concerto are effective works

”
—
.
,
Sa mu el Coleridge Ta ylor ( 87 5 19 12 ) was the son of a fu ll

1 -
blooded negro physicia n of West Africa an d a n English mother .
His works are exp ressive a n d im pa ssioned in style His ca nta ta .
“Hi w th a ” in severa l p ar ts shows mu ch bea u ty Other v c l

a a , , o a .
or chestra l works by him are a n ora torio The Atonement the ”

, ,
“
ca nta ta Endym ion s D rea m a n d A Ta le of Old Ja pa n His
” ’
,
”
.
orchestra l works consist of a Solemn Prelu de the Herod music an d , ,
other nu mbers He com p osed a lso effective songs pia no pieces

.
, ,
a n d violin wor ks .
V Sir A r th ur Seym o ur S u lliva n ( 1842 —19 00 ) was a conserva tive in

style Known on severa l continents by his su ccessfu l light operas
.
,
he excelled a lso in a m ore seriou s vein with su ch works as the ora ,

“
torios The Pr odiga l Son
” “
The M artyr of Antioch a n d The
” “
, ,
“
Golden Legend the ca nta ta Kenilworth a Te Deu m some
”
,
”
, ,
overtures m u ch incidenta l m u sic the opera Iva nhoe an d a sym

, , ,
“
phony His songs are widely known The Lost Chord being an
.
”
,
esp ec ia lly br oa d a n d effective solo .
With S ulliva n m a y be classed the opera com posers Alfred Cellier

a n d Edwar d Solom on ; b u t Edwar d Ge rm a n (rea lly Germ a n Ed
war d Jones ) is now better known tha n either He has com posed .
two symphonies b u t has won his grea test rec ogniti on by incidental
,
mu sic to vari ou s Sha kespea ria n a nd other pla ys His da nces from .
the Henry VIII mu sic are widely popu lar He finished Su lliva n s .
’
“ “ “
E m era ld Isle an d composed The Riva l Poets a n d Merrie
,
”
Engl a nd He has employed the folk song style with mar ked
.
-
su ccess .
The English folk mu sic is dir ect and lively in style being mostly
-
,
in ma jor The Scotch folk songs with their use of the penta tonic
.
-
,
sca le are even more a ttra ctive The Welsh songs are mu ch like
, .
the Scotch an d the Ir ish often ha ve odd b u t impressive harmonies

,
.
While Ru ssia n folk songs show the grea test variety of style and
-
mode those of G rea t B rita in are a ttractive a lso

, .
The English orchestral composers are now very nu merou s M a ny .
of the following shou ld h a ve specia l mention if spa ce would permit , .
A list of the chief na mes incl u des Arthur Som ervell Frederick ,
Cliffe Arth ur Hervey Robert B ridges Herbert B u nning Samuel

, , , ,
THE musica l life of the America n colonies ca me from sma ll b e
ginnings Virginia ha d its C a va lier songs b u t did not develop them
.
,
into a n origina l school ; while M a ssa chu setts was a t first devoted
solely to psa lms even hymns being b arred a t first Its early schola rs
, .
“
pu blished the B a y Psa lm Book and disp u ted learnedly over who
”
,
shou ld be a llowed to sing When hym ns ca me into use they were

.
,
“
a t first lined ou t ea ch line being rea d before it was su ng since
, ,
not allthe chur ch goers p ossessed books This sometimes p rodu ced
-
.
ra ther str a nge e f

fects a s in the hymn which bega n
, ,
The Lord wil he wil

”
lcom e, an d ln ot
a nd continu ed ,
Kee p sil
en ce, b u t p eak
s ou t.
In the eighteenth centur y concerts bega n in such centr es as Bos

,
ton New York Phila delphia and Cha rleston These are well de
, , , .
scribed by Osca r G Sonn eck in his E arly Concert Life in America

.
”
.
The first Am erica n composer was proba bly Fra ncis Hopkinson
(1737 He gra du a ted a t Princeton a n d in 1759 bega n a collec ,
tion into which he pu t severa l origina l songs In a mu ch la ter set .

,
dedica ted to Was hington he definitely cla ims the honor of being the
,
first America n composer His only riva l was James Lyon the m in
.
,
ister who gra d u a ted a t the sa m e college com posed co m mencement

, ,
odes an d pu blished the hym n collection Ura nia in 17 6 1 Willia m

,
”
.
Billings (1746 of Boston was a com poser of somewha t more ,
a dva nced style He was a ta nner s a pprentice a t first b u t he soon ’

. ,
bega n cha lking mu sica l exercises on the sides of lea ther By 1770 .
“
he pu blished an origina l collection The New Engla nd Psa lm ,
Singer which esta blished his repu ta tion In la ter years he worked
”
, .
“
at fu gue tu nes ; a nd while his fuga l effects were very flimsy his
”
-
,
prefa ce showed th a t he understood the na ture a n d bea u ty of coun

terpoint Bill ings was the m an who was a sked whether snoring was
.
AMERICA 28 9
voca l or instru menta l m u sic ; b u t history d oes nR give his reply .
Other hym n com posers of la ter da te were Oliver Holden Sa mu el

, , ,
Hol yoke Ja cob Ki m ba ll Henry Kem ble Oliver Da niel Rea d a n d

, , , ,
Lowell M as on In m ore recent y ea rs Willia m B ra dbur y com posed

.
,
hym ns an d ca nta ta s ; the evangelist Ira D Sa nkey wrote m a nv .
hym n tu nes ; a nd H art Pea se D a nks produ ced hym ns as well as the
-
“
fam iliar Silver threa ds a m ong the gold ”
.
In the early p art of the nineteenth centu ry ca m e the developm ent

of orchestra s an d singing societies as well as the a dvent of opera ,
Rompes ; Willia m Henry Fry (18 13 64 ) com posed the opera Leo
— “
nora in 184 5 thou gh it was not given u ntil 1858 In 18 63 he fin

”
, .
ished a nother opera Notre D a me de Paris George F B ristow

, . .
( 18 2 5—9 8 ) com posed Rip van Winkle in 18 55 Both m en wr ote

”
.
i nstru m en ta l works which were perform ed by Ju llien on a n Am eri

,
The na tiona l songs OfAmerica are la rgely bo rrowed The melody .
“
of Ya nkee Doodle ca me from English sour ces a nd was a da pted
”
,
by Dr Shu ckburgh to his words sa tiri zing the Colonia ls in the Old
.
French War It was a t first a B ritish tune an d not ta ken by the

.
,
colonies u ntil nea r the end of the Revolu tion Am erica is b or ”

.
“
r owed dir ectly fr om God sa ve the king a tune tha t is u sed in
”
,
“
ma ny cou ntri es H a il Colu m bia is origina l b u t not a sour ce for
.
, ,
p ride It was first known as The President s M arch The m elody

.
” ’
.
of The Sta r Spa ngled B a nner is ta ken fr om an old English drink

”
-
“
ing song To Ana creon in Hea ven which expla ins its a wkwardly
-
,
”
,
l arge com pa ss a n dbold ou tbursts The Civil War however b rou ght .
, ,
“
forth good na tive songs Glory H a llel u j a h wa s or igina lly a
”
.
“
Sou thern ca mp m eetin g hym n known as Sa y b rothers will y ou
-
, , ,
meet u s It was a dopted by the soldiers a t Fort Warren Boston

”
.
, ,
with words ma de u p to tea se one of their m em bers na med John ,
B rown When these m en m ar ched to the front they sa ng the song

.
,
on their wa y a nd m a de it insta ntly popu la r Two yea rs la ter Ju lia

, .
,
Ward Howe wrote new words for it Ifthe North got its best war .
song from the Sou th it pa id the debt fu lly ; for Dixie was a North
,
”
ern a ffa ir com posed b y Da n Emmett as a m instr el s wa lk ar ou nd ’
M
-
,
in New York w ote The B a ttle C ry of Fr eedom

.
-
an d other war rm e su ccesses while Henry Cla y Work produ ced;

“
the ever popu lar M arching thr ou gh Georgia H L Schr einer
-
”
. . .
and A E Bla ckmar wrote Sou thern war songs of decided spiri t
. .
-
.
Stephen Collins Foster s songs show the pla nta ti on style After the
’
.
war the gr owi n g m us ica l a tmosphere in our la rger cities especia lly
, ,
New York Boston C incinna ti an d Chica go r esu lted in the devel

, , , ,
op m en t of co m posers whose wo rk is m o re a mbitiou s in style a nd ,
more in line with the grea t E ur opea n models Va lua ble infl u ence .
was exerted by the pia nist Willia m Ma son a nd the condu ctor Theo
dore Thoma s .
A lea der a m ong America n orchestra l composers was John Knowles

Pa ine (1839 Born a t Portl a nd M a ine he stu died in Berlin , , ,
a nd beca me k n own in both Germa ny a nd Am erica by his orga n
concerts In 1862 he beca me hea d of the mu sic departm ent a t Har

.
vard College where he worked u ntil his dea th In 1867 his Ma ss

, .
in D won a Berlin su ccess This was followed by the America n pro .
“
du ction of his ora torio St Peter a work of mu ch skill and also
”
.
,
mu ch difficulty Pa ine s first sym phony in C minor was performed

.
’
,
-
,
“
by Tho m a s ; b u t his second the Spring Symphony proved a , ,
“
grea ter su ccess At the Phila delphia Exposition of 1876 his Cen
.
,
tennia l Hymn showed more inspira tion tha n Wa gner s bla tan t
” ’
“ ”
Centennia l M arch Pa ine s sym phonic poem The Tem pest
”
.
’
“
proved to be a nother interesting work His mus ic to the (Edipus .
Tyra nnu s of Sophocles was lofty dignified an d thorou ghly effec

”
, ,
tive This was the best Am erica n co m position of its time Pa ine
. .
“ ” “
wrote a lso su ch voca l orchestra l works as Phoebus arise -
The , ,
Na ti vity the Song of Promise a n d the Colu m bu s M arch a n d

”
,
”
,
“
Hymn Another symphonic poem by him was An Isla nd Fa n
.
tasy com posed a fter a pa inting of the Isles of Shoa ls by J Appleton

”
,
.
B rown The m us ic to The Birds of Aristoph a nes was good though

. ,
“
ha rdly equ a l to (Edipus Pa ine composed an opera Aza ra , ,
“
ba sed on the old Trou vere story of Au ca ssin et Nicolette It con .
ta ins mu ch bea u tifu l m u sic b u t is not essentia lly dra ma tic as the
, ,
composer s forte was a more conserva tive style

’
.
Edward Alexa nder Ma cDowell(186 1— 1908 ) was held to be Ameri

ca s best co m p oser He stu died in Germa ny a n d ta u ght a t D arm
’
. ,
sta dt In la ter years he was in charge of the mu sic departm ent a t

.
Columbia College Ma cD owells mu sic is ea rnest i m pas sioned and

.
’
, ,
expres sive His studies with Raff res u lted in giving him a com ma nd
.
of melodic uttera nce He was not a stri ct cla ssicist b u t pu t into the
. ,
AMER ICA 29 1
old forms the freedom tha t m odern sta ndards a llow His tw o grea t .
pia n o con certos ha ve been frequ ently pla yed by Mm e C arrefio . .
The sa me is true of his sona ta s which are remarka bly effective ,
works in the m odern free form The first of these is the dra m a tic .
“
sona ta tra gica the second is the sona ta eroica inscribed ”
,
with the words Flos regum Arthurus ; the thi rd dedica ted to ”
,
“
Gri eg has been ca lled by H u n eker An epic of ra inbow an d thu n
,
der while the la ter Keltic Sona ta bears witness to its c o m poser s ’
Scotch a ncestry Mac D owells orchestra l works inclu de the sym

.
’
“ “
phonic p oems H am let Ophelia a n d the bea u tifu l La ncelot
,
”
,
”
“
a n d Ela i ne ; the India n S u ite b a sed on r ea l In dia n m elodies ; The
”
,
” “ “
Sara cens The Lovely Al da two frag m en ts of the Song of Ro
, ,
“
a nd a n d a l a ter su ite often given in Ge rm a n y co n sisting of
”
l , ,
In ,
” “ ” “ “
a H a u nted Forest Sum m er Idyl In October The Shep ”
, , ,
herdess s Song an d Forest Sp iri ts The In dia n Sui te n a tu ra lly

’ ”
, .
shows the com poser s own orchestra l use of the them es There has
’
.
been m u ch di scussion as to whether India n or negro music is the

rea l folk m u sic of the U n ited Sta tes
-
The la tter ca rries off the palm .
,
for two r eas ons In the fir st pl a ce India n m usic is not known to

.
,
m a ny people a n d consequ ently does not ha ve the wide a ppea l of

,
tru e folk m u sic ; an d in the second pla ce it is m erely u nison m elody

-
, ,
so tha t in instr umenta l use it derives its chara cter from the indi
vidu a l com poser s harm onies Arthu r Farwell has u sed India n m el
’
.
odies effectively for pia no b u t the harm onies are his own ; while the
,
very bea u tifu l chords of Charl es Wa kefield Cadm a n wou ld un

dou btedly sou nd stra nge to the In dia ns whose songs he u ses as m el
odies Ma cDowellwrote An India n Lodge for pia no b u t it is
.
“ ”
,
no m or e folk m usic th a n hi s other pia no works

- “
the Wo odla nd ,
” “
Sketches the Sea Pieces or the earlier a n d m ore classica l pia n o
,
”
,
su ites Mac D owellis known a lso b y m a n y bea u tifu l son gs varying

.
,
“
in style from the em otion of Thy Bea m in g E yes to the som b re
”
“
force of The E a gle Especia ll y effective are the Eight Son gs
”
.
(OD conta i nin g The Sea which shows a noble brea dth of
”
,
“
effect an d the delica te Midsu m m er Lu lla by ”
, .
George Whitfield Ch a d wick born a t Lowell Massa chu setts in , , ,
18 54 s tu di ed with his elder br other a t first He beg a n co m position

, .
while a p u pil a t the La wrence High School ; a nd so m e of the da nces

he pr od u ced then were used la ter in his su ccessfu l m u sica l comedy
Ta b a sco Stu dies a t the New Engl a nd Conserva tory resu lted
.
in the com position of orchestra l works an d pia no trios Cha dwick s .

’
fa ther wished him to begin a b u siness career ; b u t the you ng m an

ma de mu sic his life work by sta rting ou t as music tea cher in a Mich
-
iga n college There he earned m oney enou gh for serious stu dy a t

.
Leipsic u nder Reinecke a n d Ja d a ssohn Since his retur n he has

,
.
,
been tea cher an d musica l director a t the New Engl and Conserva
“
tory His Rip Van Winkle Overture an d two string qu artets
.
”
da te from his Germa n stu dent d a ys an d received m u ch pra ise His , .
Melpom ene Overtu re u nites cla ssic di gnity with tragic power in
”
“
a wa y th a t deserves the highest r ecognition Th alia is an over
”
.
“
tur e to the m use of com edy while E u terpe is a l a ter offerin g to
,
the m u se of da ncing The Adona is Overture is a nother work of

.
nobly expressive ch ara cter Ch a dwick has written three sym pho
.
nies the second of which ma de use of pl a nta tion ef

, fects long before
D vof ak ca me to Am erica to work in the sa m e field Ch a d wick has
‘
.
sometim es u sed this fla vor in his cha m b er works of whi ch a pia no ,
qu intet a n d a la ter stri ng qu ar tet deserve mention His Ju dith ”

.
is an a mbitious s a cred opera thou gh so far it has been given only

,
“ ” “
in ora torio form Phoenix Exp ira ns
. The Lily Nymph a n d”
, ,
“
Noel are su ccessfu l ca n ta ta s La ter orch estra l works i n cl u de a
”
.
“
Syrn phon ietta (conta ining the wildly America n Va grom
a S u ite Sym phoniqu e the sym phon ic poem Cleopa tra and a l a ter
”
, ,
“
one Aphr odite The las t na m ed inspired by a beau tifu l hea d
,
”
.
-
,
of the goddess th a t is now in the Boston Art M u seu m portrays ,
scenes tha t m ight h a ve ta ken pla ce before the sta tu e when it stood
in its tem ple The mu sic su gg ests sa cred da nces ; a storm a t sea ;
.
the th a n k offerings of rescu ed m ari n ers ; temple services ; m oo n lit

-
solitude ; a n d other a ppr op ri a te idea s Ch a dwick s m a ny songs ’

.
“ ” “ “
conta in su ch gems as Allah Sora is Song
”
the So n g from the
,
’
,
“
Persia n a n d the Bedou in Love Song His Ta rn o Sha n ter
”
,
-
”
.
’
,
a sym phonic sketch in Scottish style was pe rformed with su ccess in ,
19 15 .
Hora tio Parker born a t Au burnda le M assa chusetts in 1863

, , , ,
did not become interested in mu sic u ntil the a g e of four teen Then .
he bega n a sking many qu estions a bou t it a n d devoted himself to ,
stu dy with Cha dwick and with Rheinberger a t Mu nich On his

, .
return he beca me m u sica l dir ector in va riou s schools tea cher in the ,
works which are highly prized incl u de a pia no qu intet a string
, , ,
qua r tet a pia no tri o and an excellent violin sona ta An other work
, , .
,
or o r chestra is the effective symphonic pr ologue to D a nte s story

’
f ,
“
of Francesca da Rimini Foote s ca nta tas su ch as The Skeleton
.
’
,
“ ”
in Armor a nd The Wreck of the Hesperus are ma de of worthy
”
,
music b u t the words are som etimes spun ou t a nd repea ted too
, ,
“
mu ch His songs inclu de ma ny fa vorites such as the Irish Folk
. ,
“
Song or When icicles ha ng by the wa ll ”
.
,
Henry Kim b a ll H a dley born a t So m ervi lle M assa chusetts in

, , ,
187 1 stu died with Cha dwick in Boston a n d Ma n dycewsk i in Vi

,
“
enna The four movements of his You th an d Life symphony
.
”
seem to typify aspira tion sorrow high spiri ts a nd tri u mph The “
, , , .
Seas ons is a nother symphony dividing na tura lly into four move
”
,
“
ments A still la ter symphony North E ast Sou th and West
.
,
”
, , , ,
boxes the compa ss in excellent fa shion portra ying the ru ggedness ,
of the North the mystery of the Or ient the lively jollity of the
, ,
South a n d the victorious spiri t of the golden West H a dley s over

, .
’
“ ” “
tures inclu de Hector and Andr oma che In Bohemia a nd”
, ,
“He d ” His b allet mu sic has been arra nged in su ites He r

ro .
p o .
“ “
duced the opera Safie in Germa ny ; while The Atonement of
”
Pa n
”
,
composed for the high jinks of the Sa n Fra ncisco Bohe
”
mia n Cl u b is pra ctica lly a nother opera He has prod u ced cha mber
,
.
mu sic of rea l va l u e a n d a nu mber of artistic songs ; b u t he seems

,
“ l
to prefer the larger forms Le ewa la is an early ca nta ta tha t
”
.
“
brings in Nia gara Merlin a nd Vivian is a lyric work of dra ma tic
.
”
“
tendencies for solo voices choru s and orches tr a
, , The Fa te of , .
Princess K iyo is a nother ca nta ta this time f or women s voi ces

” ’
, .
Most a dva nced however are his symphonic poem s consisting of

, , ,
“S lo e ” n d “The C u lprit Fa ” In the former the largest mod

a m a y .
,
ern orchestra is h a ndled with Stra uss like contr ol a n d power of -
expression The la tter is b ased on a poem by Joseph Rodma n

.
D ra ke a imed to show tha t America n rivers an d scenes shou ld ha ve

,
their poetic legends The culprit fa y disgra ced by the glance of a

.
,
mortal ma iden s eye rega ins his sta tus by voyaging in a mussel
’
,
shell boa t to obta in the glistening drop of wa ter from a lea ping
sturgeon and the spark from a fa lling star After a su ccessfu l return . .
he joins the fa iry dance tha t ends with cock crow In the music - .
,
H a dley has given ma ny effective suggestions such as the gra ce of ,

AMERICA 2 95
the fa iri es the cu lprit s trou bles the immensi ty of sea a nd sky the
,
’
, ,
joyfu l retur n a n d the fina l da nce

, .
Frederick Shepa rd Converse born a t Newton Ma ssa chu setts , , ,
in 187 1 is a nother orchestra l a n d opera ti c lea der Two of his sym

,
.
“ “
phonic poem s The Festiva l ofPan a nd Endymion s Narra
,
” ’
tive are in sp ired by the poetry of Kea ts Both are effec tive enou gh
”
,
.
,
“
b u t ra ther contem pla tive in sty le More dra m a tic is Ormazd
”
.
,
whi ch depicts the co nflict between the followers of tha t b eneficent

“ ”
deity a nd the forces of the wicked Ahrima n Night a nd Da y .
“The Mystic T mpete r ” were inspired by Wa lt Whitm a n s ’

an d ru
poems Other instrum enta l works by Converse are a n ea rly sym

.
phony given while he studied with Rheinberger a t M u nich ; the

,
“
concert overture You th ; a violin concerto ; an d two string quar
”
“
tets He has com posed a lso the ora torio Job the baritone ba l i
.
”
,
La Belle D a m e Sa ns Merci a n d incidentalm us ic to Per cy

”
lad ,
Macka ye s Joa n of Arc B u t he is known m ost widely by his

’ ”
.
opera s The Pipe of Desire a nd The Sa crifice He is now work

,
”
.
“
ing a t Bea u ty a nd the Bea st ”
.
The Pipe of Desire beg ins with revels of the Elves who decide
"
,
tha t their fa vorite pea sa nt Iolan sha ll be a llowed to see them in ,

‘
sp ite of the warn ings of the Old One their king The l a tter pla ys , .
his sa cred pipe and thu s forces even Iola n to da nce ; b u t in revenge
,
Iol a n seizes the pipe The pea sa nt will not give it b a ck until its
.
notes ha ve shown him a vision of his desire a fertile far m a n d a , ,
co m forta ble ho m e in which wife an d children a wa it him He ca lls .
his beloved Na oia to com e to him Beca u se of the pipe s power

, , .
’
,
she has to obey ; b u t the journey is so long tha t she dies in the arms
of Iola n who is thu s pu n ished for a ttem pting to obta in su per
,
na tura l power The delica te contempla tive style ofthe music is

.
,
a lmost too refined f or sta ge su ccess .
The Sa crifice dea ls with the renu ncia tion of an America n ca p

”
ta in (B urton ) who loves a Spa nish girl (Chonita ) duri ng the ta king
of California by the United Sta tes The plot is based on a story .
by Lieu t H A Wise Chonita in rea lity loves Berna ] her cou ntry 3
. . . .
,
-
m an The first ac t conta ins an impressive India n prophecy an

a n d a n imp as sioned love—
.
,
a ttra ctive song by Chonita , du et The .
second act in the interior of a m ission bu ilding begins with a

'
, ,
spirited soldiers chorus and a pi qua nt da nce of gypsy and Mexi

’
ca n gir ls When the cha pel em pties Chonita enters a nd sings a
. , ,
melodious pra yer Berna ] who is rea lly ou tla wed is discovered in
.
, ,
disgu ise ; he tr ies to kill B urton b u t Chonita thr ows herself between ,
the m en a n d is wounded The thir d a ct shows Chonita recovering

,
.
,
an d B u r ton pla nning to free Be rna ] f or her When som e Mexica ns .
a rra nge a su rp rise he lets him self be kill ed so tha t Berna l s free ’
, ,
dom will be a ssur ed The work has much viri lity b u t moves
.
,
An ea rlier America n opera composer was Frederic G ra nt Glea

“
son (184 8 His works inclu de the ca nta ta The Cu lpri t Fa y ”
,
“ “
the orchestra l comp ositions E dris a n d The Song of Life
”
,
“
a nd the opera s Otho Visconti a n d Montezuma ”
.
Victor Herbert born a t D u blin in 1859 has ma de himself thor

, ,
oughly America n He has composed symphonic poems a cello

.
,
’
concerto a su ite r oma nti qu e an d ma ny l ight opera s as well as the

, ,
“
gra nd opera Na toma Even in his light opera s he usu a lly in
”
.
“
clu des so m e seriou s nu mber su ch as the B rida l Chorus in The
,
Red Mill He has been a well known cello pla yer

”
.
-
’
.
“N toma is b as ed on a n India n su b j ect N a tom is the servant

a a .
of B arb ara who is loved by Pau l Merr ill whom she prefers an d
, , ,
by Alvar a do ; while the ha lf breed C a str o a dmires Na toma who -

,
loves Merrill hopelessly When the unwelcome su itors are refu sed
.
,
C as tr o arra nges for Alvara do to ki dna p B arbara The second ac t .
shows a festiva l under cover of which Alvara do is to a ct; b u t Na

,
toma da ncing the dagger d an ce with C as tro rushes by him a n d

, ,
sta bs Alvara do seeking sa nctu ary in a church Here (Act III)

, .
Na toma s vengefu l ideas are calmed down an d she becom es a nu n

’
, .
The score conta ins both India n a nd Spa nish color with b rillia nt ,
fes tiva l effects in the second act A shorter opera by Herber t i s the .
“
one a ct Ma deleine
-
”
.
With Herbert in light opera belong Regina ld de K oven whose ,
“
Robin Hood a nd Ma id M ar ian are worthy works Here too
” ”
.
, ,
shoul d be mentioned John Philip Sou sa wri ter ofm a rches a nd ,

“
the opera El C a pita n ”
.
Wa lter Joha nnes Da m rosch son of Leopold Da mrosch wrote a , ,

“
M a nila Te Deum In opera his Sca rlet Letter was ea rnest
.
”
,
b u t not inspired “
The Sena tor is a su ccessfu l mu sica l comedy
.
”
.
His la test effort is Cyra no which is set with a fa ir share of humor

”
, .
Harvey Worthington Loomis born a t B rooklyn in 186 5 has , ,
hun dreds of works in ma nuscript bes ides ha ving pu blished ma ny ,
com positions An ea rly pia no concer to was the resu lt of stu dy wi th

.
Dvof ak He has comp osed severa l canta tas su ch as The Fair y

.
,
Hill for children He ha s been a ctive in the field of melodra ma

”
,
.
,
“
writing b a ckgrou n ds (which he sometimes ca lls Musica l Symbol
“
ism ) for Sa nda lphon and other poems His ma ny pa ntomimes
” ”
.
“
inclu de su ch diverse su bjects as The Encha nted Fou nta in ”
Her ,
“ ” “
Revenge an d In Old New Amsterda m
”
, The M a id of Athens ”
.
“
an d The B urglar s B ride are burlesqu e opera s His Tragedy
” ’
.
of Dea th partly voca l a n d pa rtly melodra ma tic is a str iking work

”
, , .
It shows a mother s efforts to sa ve her child before Dea th ca n ta ke

’
it from the Garden of Souls to Hea ven ; while Undines an d Fa tes

pa rticipa te with effective choru ses In p i a no works a n d songs .
,
Loomis shows a remarka ble origi nality His hunt for novelty is .
sometimes too restless but his wo rk is a lwa ys interesting

—
.
,
“
J Remington Fa irla m b (183 7 1908 ) left his opera Le onella
.
in ma nu script He stu died a t Paris ; was consu l a t Zuri ch under

.
Lincoln ; an d received a meda l from the King of Wiir ttem b erg for a '
Te Deu m with double chorus and orchestra He wrote sa cred music .

,
a n d p ar ts of la ter opera s .
Other composers who ha ve opera s in ma nuscript are Ar thur Bir d ,
H arry Rowe Shelley Alexa nder Hull Joha nn H Beck E F , , .

, . .
Schneider W H Neidlin ger Ju les Jorda n Gaston Borch and

, . .
, , ,
W Fra nke H arling The la st four ha ve written songs Hull has

.
- . .
“
c omposed a ma nu script symphony a n d has p u blished Ja va for
”
,
“
fu ll orchestra a nd pia no He has under wa y the opera s Pa olo .
“
and Fra ncesca Merlin an d Vivien His songs a nd pia no
” ”
and .
works show very interesting effects of modernism his harmonies ,
being novel and a ttra ctive Bird has composed the comic opera .
“ “
Da phn e the ba llet Rii b ezahl a sym phony and thr ee su ites
”
,
”
, , .
Homer Moore of St Lou is has pla nn ed an Am erica n opera tic tri l

, .
,
“ ” “ “ ”
ogy , The New World The Pilgrims an d The Purita ns
”
, ,
.
Charles Ma rtin Loefiler born a t Miilhausen in 186 1 is now an

’
, ,
America n citizen His works are ra dica lly modern b eing fu ll of the
. ,
“
q u ickl ys ha ng ing harmonic effects tha t ha ve been ca lled musica l
stippling an d tha t ma ke the works of Debussy so cha otic to con
”
,
serva tive ea rs Loefii er s works include a su ite an d a divertimento

’
.
ALE RICA 299
f
or violin a nd orchestra a cello concerto and the orchestral tone ,
’
,
” “
poems The Dea th of Tin ta g iles
, L a Villa nelle du Dia ble ”
, ,
“ “ “
La Bonne Cha nson A Pa ga n Poem The Dea th of
” ”
an d , .
“
Tin ta g iles
”
is a dmira bly expressi ve and La Bonne C ha nson a ”
,
work of infinite sweetness .
Another composer of foreign bir th is Gusta v Strube born a t ,
B a llenstedt in 1867 He beca me known as violinist and condu ctor .
“
in Boston His works inclu de overtures ( The Ma id of Orlea ns
.
”
and symphonies (the second being a strong work ) a set ,
of orchestra l va ria tions two violin concertos a cello concerto , ,

’
,
“ “
cha mber mu sic a n d the symphonic poems Longing ”
, Fan , ,
" “ “
ta sti c Da n ce Echo et Narcisse and Die Lorelei He uses
” ”
.
,
the intr ica te ha rmonic sty le of the modernists ; b u t his work is

direct and virile where tha t of Debussy is often sha dowy and
,
va gue .
Another foreigner a ctive in B oston is André Ma qua rre a Belgia n ,
by birth He is first flu tist in the Sym phony Orchestra He has com

. .
posed operas b u t is known in Ameri ca by orchestra l works such as

, ,
“
Sur les Fa la ises
”
.
Otto Urack cellist in the Boston orches tra until reca lled by the
,
’
Europea n war in 19 14 composed a melodious symphony

B runo Oscar Klein (1858—
.
,
19 11) was a Ger ma n who composed the

“
opera Kenilworth a nd sma ller works
”
.
Pi etro Tiri n delli is another foreign born opera tic com poser -
.
Lou is M aa s (1852 born a t Wiesba den was inspired by ,
America to write concertos overtures suites a n d the symphony , , ,

“
On the Pra iri es "
.
R u dolf Friml born in Pra gu e but living in New York has

, ,
composed severa l ba llets a number of Opera s (inclu ding The ,
Fir efly va rio u s songs a nd instr um enta l piec es of novel and ,
plea sing cha ra cter .
Other foreigners who have composed orchestra l mu sic in America

are W C Seeb oec k Fritz Stahl
. . berg the Chica go condu ctor Fi e d
, ,
eri ck Stock Arthur H artma nn (who ca me to America when two

,
months old ) Anton Hegn er the D a ne Carl Busch the D u tchma n

, , ,
John A B roekhoven a nd the Englishm a n Hora ce Wadha m Nicholl

.
, .
Ba er m a nn , Richard Pohlig Will C M a cfarla ne Arthur Claa ssen , .

, ,
Henr y Eichheim Nichola s J Elsenheim er Lou is Victor Saa r Fred

,
.
, ,
erick B ra ndeis Robert Goldbeck Richar d Hoff m a n Ka rl Mii ller

, , , ,
Sebas tia n B a ch Mil ls P A Schneck er Otto Floersheim Juliu s , . .

, ,
Eichberg an d E m ilio Agramonte

, .
Otis B ardwell Boise of Ohio who lived a broa d a nd in B a ltimore

, , ,
prod u ced a symphony two overtures a nd a piano concerto , , .
Another America n choosing to live a b roa d is George Templeton

“
Str ong born a t New York in 1855 Of his sym phonies the Sin
, .
,
tram No 2 ha s been hi ghly pra ised He ha s written a lso ca nta

”
, . .
tas su ch as The H a unted Mill a nd symphonic poems

”
.
, ,
Howar d A B rockway born a t Br ooklyn in 1870 keeps his sym

.
, ,
phonies in ma nu script He is known by hi s excellent Sylvan Su ite.
f or o rchestra an o r chestra l B a lla de an d ma ny vi olin works inclu d

, , ,
ing some tha t are pra ctica lly concertos .
Edga r Stillma n Kelley born in Wisconsin in 1857 studied in Chi ,

“
ca go an d in Ge rma ny His setting of Purita nia is remarka bly
”
.
“
plea sing an d better tha n the u sua l light opera work His Ma c
, .
bet music ma de over into a su ite is more ea rnest an d dra ma tic ;

, ,
“
while the incidenta l mu sic to Ben Hur a dds m u ch to tha t stri ki ng
”
pla y In songs su ch as Eldora do a nd Israfel Kelley ha s shown

.
,
”
,
“
marked melodic gifts ; whi le his La dy picking M u lberries is a su c”
cessf u la doption of the C hinese style D uri ng a recent sta y a broa d .
he earned very fa vora ble notices with his pia no qu intet Op 2 0 an d , .

,
“
str ing qu artet Op 2 5 A la ter work is his New Engla nd Sym
, . .
phony the movements of which illu stra te a ppropria te qu ota tions

,
“ “
from the Log of the Ma yflower Chr istm a s Eve wi th Ali ce is
”
.
a set of d a inty orchestra l pictur es
D u dley B u ck (183 9—
.
19 00) belonged to an e arlier genera tion an d ,
composed before modernism had ga ined its hold His works incl u de .
“
the opera Deseret orchestral pieces ca nta tas su ch as The Voy
”
, ,
a g e of Col u m b u s a n d The Light of Asia a n d a set of five sa cr ed

” ”
,
“
ca nta ta s known as The Christia n Year His style na tura lly was
”
. , ,
conserva tive .
Willia m W Gilchrist born in 1846 is a nother of the pioneers His

.
, .
psa lms ca nta tas an d So ng of Tha nksgiving ha ve or chestra l a c

, ,
”
E rnest R Kroeger born a t St Lou is in 1862 has produ ced a

.
, .
,
“ “
symphony the symphonic poem Sa rda na pa lu s a Hia wa tha
,
” ”
,
by his songs su ch as the cycle Floria na and the Ba rra ck Room

,
-
B a lla ds ”
.
Ru bin Goldmark nephew of the Europea n Goldmark was born , ,
a t New York in 1872 For orchestra he has written a theme a n d.
“
varia tions a Hia wa tha overture an d the symphonic poem
”
, ,
“S mson a nd Da lila ” His string qua rtet won a prize while
a ; . an
“
ea rlier pia no tri o ca u sed Dvofak to sa y There are now two Gold ,
marks .
Henry Holden Huss born a t Newark in 1862 seems to fa vor H , ,
as a n initia l ; f
or he married Hildegar d Hof fma nn He has produ ced .
a pia no concerto a violin concerto songs with orchestra ch a mber

, , ,
music an d lesser pieces

, .
Edwin Gra sse the blind violi nist was born at New York in 1884
, , .
He has composed a sym phony a su ite a n d ma ny vi olin works , , .
Another vi olinist c omposer is E u gene Gruenberg known in Bos -

,
ton as a tea cher He too has composed a symphony .

, , .
Arthur Fa rwell born a t St Pa ul in 1872 is devoted to India n mel

, .
,
odies They even fig ure in his Cornell overtu re side by side wi th

.
”
,
college songs They are more in pla ce in his other or chestra l pic
.
“ ” “ “
tures su ch as The Doma in of Huraha n
, D a wn and the Na
”
, ,
va j o War D a nce
”
His songs vary in sty le ; but his pia no pieces are
.
a lmost a l wa ys ba sed on Indi an themes .
Among other America n orchestra l composers (ta ken in a lphab eti

ca lorder to a void dispu tes over pr ecedence ) John C ar ver Alden has
, ,
written a pia no concerto Maur ice Arnold is responsible for over .
tures an d Plan ta tion Da nces Percy Lee Atherton has composed

”
.
a tone poem entitled

-
“ Noon in the Forest a nd severa l symphonic
”
,
movements Homer W Ba rtlett has produced a violin C on certstii ck

. .
a nd shorter pieces Joha nn H Beck of Clevela nd numbers a mong

. .
, ,
his works the man uscript mu sic dra ma Sa la mmbo and severa l
”
-
overtures John Spencer Ca mp of Ha rtford is responsible for can

.
, ,
ta ta s as well as orchestra l works Philip Greeley Cla pp has written .
“
the tone poem Norge and a symphony ver y learned b u t too dis
-
”
, ,
sonan t H ugh A C larke presides over the music depa rtment a t the
. .
University of Pennsylva nia H Clough Leighter has composed a n . .

-
orchestra l ca nta ta a nd ma ny flu ent songs Arthur M Curry has

, . .
“
produced the symphony Ata la ba sed on Cha tea ubria nd s trag
” ’
,
edy . Henry M Dunha m has composed for orga n and orchestra

. .
AMERICA 3 03
Henry F Gilbert has written a Comedy Overtu re and other works

.
based on negro themes A J Goodr ich is known as a theorist

. . . .
Willia m E Haesche of New Ha ven has c omp osed a sym phony

.
, , ,
“ “
a Wa ld Idyll and the sym phonic poem Fri thjof Edward B
-
”
,
"
. .
H ill has set pa ntomimes Ernest H u tches on the pian ist is cr edited
.
, ,
“ ”
with a pia no concerto and the to ne poem Mer lin a nd Vivien -
.
Ha rry Pa tterson Hopkins is a symphonist Na tha niel Ir ving Hya tt .
“
is the composer of an En och Arden over ture Carl V Lachm u nd s
”
. .
’
Ja pa nese Overtu re was praised by Theodore Thomas D a niel Greg .
ory M as on wr ote orchestra l mu sic of mu ch interest f

or the impr es
si ve C a pe Cod Pa gea nt Homer Norris has composed ca nta tas and

.
a n overture Arne Oldb erg in charge of music a t the Northwestern

.
,
University numbers a mong his works symphonies concertos a nd

, , ,
dignified ch amber mu sic Na tha niel C lifford Pa ge is known for his

.
incidenta l mu sic E A Parsons has co m posed a pia no concer to

. . . .
Henr y Bickford Pasm ore is responsible for a ma rch an overture a , ,
Nia gara sym phony for orch estra an d military ba nd Smith

, .
Newell Penfield is a n overtur e composer E llsworth C Phelps has . .
“ “
produ ced a Hia wa tha symphony and the sa cre d opera Da vid
” ”
.
John Powell of Richmond is known by a vi ol

, in concerto Silas G
, . .
Pra tt has worked indu stri ously in the la rgest forms composing pro ,
“
gra mme symphonies and su ites and ha ving his operas Zenobia ”
,
“
a nd Lu cille given with su ccess in Chica go Cornelius Ru eb ner
"
.
,
mu sic professor a t Columbia College has entered the sym phoni c ,

“
field E rnest Schelling the pianist ma de clever use of Dixie and
.
,
”
,
“
The Su wa nee River in hi s fanta sie for pia no and orchestra Ed
”
.
wa rd Fa ber Schneider ofOma ha has written an Autumn Sy mphony

, , .
The Nu ptials of Attila and the large ca nta ta enti tled The City
,
in the Sea al lof which show a n interesting ha ndling of modern har

”
,
monic complexity D a vi d Sta nley Smith inclu des a mong his ma ny

.
orchestra l works a sym phony and the symphonic sketch Prince

Ha l Albert Augustus Sta nley ha s com posed a symphony entitled
”
.
“ “
The Sou l s Awa kening and the symphonic poem Attis Hum
’ ”
,
”
.
“
phrey J Stewart has prod u ced the su ite California Scenes ”
. .
“
Fra nk Taft has won su ccess with a Marche Symphoniqu e Rich ”
.
ard Henry Wa rren is an orga nist as well as an orchestra l composer .

Mortimer Wilson is well known in Atlanta In addition to these .

,
ma ny others a re entering the field as gra dua tes from our foremost
mu sica l conserva tories .
Among the wom en Mrs H H A Bea ch is the lea der of the na , . . . .
tives Her Ga elic Symphony is bu ilt on broa d lines while her ma ss

. ,
wi th o rchestra is a nother la rge work She has published The Rose .
of Avontown and other ca nta tas and is well known throu gh her
”
,
pia no works a nd exp ressive songs .
Mme Helen Hopekir k s pia no concerto and Concertstu ck are of

.
’
unusua l va lu e and show rare musicia nship Her vi olin sona ta is

, .
“
a nother worthy wor k Her Iona Memori es f or pia no and ma ny .
, ,
of her songs a lso bea r witness to her Scottish birth , .
Mrs Clara Ka thleen Rogers (Clara Doria ) is a nother orchestral

.
c omposer of fore ign birth .
M arga ret Ruthven La ng has heard two of her thr ee overtures per
formed Her published works consist chiefly ofpia no pieces an d
.
“
songs the la tter inclu ding My Lady Ja cqu eminot
, E ros , ,
“ ” “ ” “ “
Ghosts Prelude , Tryste Noe Northward and sim ilar
”
, ,
Among other America n women Helen Hood ha s composed worthy ,
cha mber mu sic Edith Noyes Porter ha s worked in the sa me field

.
,
with o ccas iona l orchestra l excursions M a bel Da niels ha s com .
posed a Ba lla de for baritone and orchestra and won prizes with her ,
solo songs La ura Sedgwick Collins is a nother who has essa yed the
.
cla ssica l forms M arguerite Melville is still a nother com poser of

.
chamber music Fa nnie Dillon is sa id to ha ve large works in ma nu

.
script Ju lia Rive Kin g a nd Fa nnie Bloomfield Zeisler have written

.
-
piano works Mrs Ma ry Carr Moo re composer of songs has in

. .
, ,
“
ma nuscript the opera Narcissa dea ling with the a dventures of
”
,
Narcissa Prentiss who married Marcus Whitma n went with him to

, ,
the Pa cific Coast on missionary work and was mas sa cred there by ,
India ns Mary Turner Sa lter has written ma ny rema rka bly interest
.
ing song s of mu ch musica l va lu e a recent su ccess being the tra gic

, ,
“ “
C ry of Ra chel Ge na B ran scom b e s songs su ch as the cycle A
” ’
.
,
Lute of Ja de show u nusua l poetic bea u ty Pa tty Sta ir the pia nist
”
, .
, ,
has excelled in both hum oro u s an d seriou s songs The lyrics of Ha r .
riet Ware a nd Lola C arrier Worrell ha ve been fre quently heard a t

Am erica n recita ls M ary Knig ht Wood s songs are freshly sponte
.
’
Other America n song composers in a lpha betica l order are Ja mes C , , .
“
Ba rtlett the la te Fr ed Field B u llar d of Ste in Song fa me Charles
,
”
,
H Da na Willia m H Da na L R Dressler Willia m Arms Fi sher

.
, .
, . .
, ,
H a llett G ilberte Victor Harri s Fra nk S H astings Rupert Hu ghes

, , .
, ,
Herbert Johnson Willia m Spencer Johnson John A Loud H C

, , .
, . .
MacDougallA A M a ck Ma lcolm D McMillan George L Osgood

, . .
, .
, .
,
H R Pa lmer Winthrop L Rogers Wa lter Morse Rummel Arthur

. . , .
, ,
Ryder Lily Strickla nd Arthur W Tha yer Everett H Titcomb

, , .
, .
,
Stephen Townsend R S Willis an d G D Wilson Other names

, . .
, . . .
deserving mention in an America n list for various rea sons are F , , .
Addison Porter Bra ina rd Dia l Alexa nder Russell Carl E ngel
, , , , ,
Benj a min La m b ord Henry Wa ller Willia m Schuyler Chester Ide

, , , ,
Caroline Wa lker and Willia m McCoy ma ny of whom ha ve had

, ,
works published by the pa tri otic Wa Wan Press - .
While the first edition of the present book was in press John ,
'
Alden C arpenter entered the orchestral field with a large work

“
entitled Adventures in a Pera mbula tor It pictures the impres .
a
sions of an infa nt a nd is divided into six movements for fu ll modern

,
“
orchestra En Voiture forms a ra ther digni fied introdu ction
.
”
,
“
with rhythmic suggestions of the moving perambu la to r The .
Policema n is shown cha tting with the nurse a n d sta lking a bout
”
“
with hea vy steps The Hur dy G u rdy is su ggested most hum or
”
.
-
ousl y by two xylophones a gainst the orchestra and they revel in ,
popular tu nes u ntil reprima nded by the ponderous policema n The .
La ke is a most cha rming picture of rippling wa velets and forms an ,

“
a dmira ble contra st to the p reced i ng bits of humor Dogs are
”
.
“
hea rd ba rking on various instruments ; and Dreams bring a ”
qu ieter conclu sion The sco re shows a wonder ful ma stery of or

.
chestra ltechni que a n d fu ll measur e of inspira tion

, This one work .
PART III
MUSICAL FORM
3 10 THE BOO K OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
apprecia te is the variety of rhythm ic effect to be found in good
,
music He will very seldom com e a cross the pla in unvarni shed see
.
sa w tha t pe rva des popu la r m u sic .
Da niel G regory Mason illu stra tes this point by citing poetry He .
rightly sta tes th a t without metre mu sic wou ld be formless ; b u t on
the other ha nd he is just as correct in protesting a ga inst the monoto

nous du m du m du m tha t arises from ha ving the rhythm too la cking
, ,
in cha nge Var iety of ef

. fect is desir ed ; an d a t the same time this va
riety sho u ld not p revent a la rger sense of un ity fr om cha ra cte rizing
a n entir e work In poetry Kea ts is cited as an exa mple of the a void

.
,
a nce of monotony ; a nd the po int is well b rought out by the following
A thin g b
of eau ty is a v er
j oy for e .
ovel
Its l in ess increases ; it willn ev er
Pass into n othi n g ness ; b u t stillw illkeep
A b ower q u i et for u s an d a sl
, eep
Ful lofsweet drea m s an d heal , th a n d q u i et b rea thin g

, .
The delica te rhythm of these lines and their skilfula voidance of ,
a nything monotonous in a ccent is pl a inly evident Ma son illu s

,
.
tra tes the same point in mu sic by citing the origina l and the fin a l
sta te of the O pening melody in the slow movement of Beethoven s ’
fifth symphony An exa mina tion will show tha t the finished wor k
.
has mu ch more variety .
A gla nce a t the first line of this mu sic which is the origina lidea ,
tha t Beethoven wrote down wi ll show th a t it is fa irly regu la r Two

, .
notes on the third bea t of the mea sure begin both ha lves of the mel
ody a n d a note on the first bea t followed by one on the second end
, , ,
MELODY AND APPREC IATION 3 11
them in ea ch cas e More than this the second ha lf is practica lly the
.
,
sa me as the fir st h a lf except f or the fa ct tha t it is given a tone hi gher

, .
Looking a t the theme in its fina l sha pe we m a y notice mu ch ,
grea ter variety of rhythm There is slightly less resemblan ce b e

.
tween the two whole mea sures in ea ch half theme ; then the second -
ha lf is ma de to begin with three notes instea d of two ; while the end

ing of the second ha lf still on the first two bea ts of the mea su re is
, ,
ma de to consist of thr ee notes tha t seem to shift the a ccent a long to

the second bea t All th ese cha nges in a them e of only four bars show
.
tha t Beethoven was a ca reful worker ; b u t they a lso in di ca te tha t the

best music has variety of rhythm as well as a la rge unity perva ding
the whole The little changes add to the variety while lea ving
.
,
enough regula rity to m a ke the theme still very swingy .
The mu sic of the grea t com posers is rhythmic enou gh and man y ,
exa mples of their work mi ght be cited to prove this One cou ld ta p .
his feet to the accents of Beethoven s Seventh Symphony or nea rly ’

,
lof Wa gner s Prel u de to The M as tersingers or the fina l choru s

’ ”
al ,
“
of Ba ch s St Ma tthew Passion Even the second movem ent of
’
.
”
.
“
Tscha ikovsky s Pa thetic Sym phony whi ch has the unu sua l num
’ ”
,
b er of five bea ts to ea ch measur e is ma de rhythm ies l y a ttra ctive by

l ,
the skill of its com poser ; while the march in the third movem ent is
com pelling in its swi ng iness Ther e is no la ck of rhythm in the clas
.
sics when once the listener has sh a ken himself free from the too
,
simple and monotonou s effects of commonpla ce mu sic .
Ta ki ng u p the qu estion of melody the stu dent will fin d its a ppre ,
cia tion governed by somewha t simi la r ru les M u ch of the popu la r .
a rticle a n d even a grea t dea l of fa ir ly good mu sic has its melody

, ,
divi ded off in phrases tha t su it the conventiona l rhythm of equ a l

pa rts While this division is often u sefu l it shou ld not be the only
. ,
one a ny more tha n a su ccession of eight syll

,
a bled li nes in i a mbic -
“
tetra meter (kn own as long metre in the hymn books ) shou ld be
” -
the only kin d of poetry to receive widesprea d a ttention .
In pla ce of m elody good mus ic so m etimes consists ra ther of wha t

,
m i ght be ca lled melodiousn ess It is tu nefu l an d m elodic b u t not

.
,
limited by being forced to su it a com m onpla ce rhythm Instea d of .
c oming in cu t a n d dried lengths li ke so much ma ca roni it is given

- -
, ,
to us in su ita ble a n d plea sing variety .
As an exa mple the rea der m a y look a ga in a t the fina l form of the
,
Beethoven theme printed a bove It is not exa ctly a tune but it is .
,
tunefu l It is not cas t in any cu t and dried sha pe ; for a fter the four
.
- -
O pening ba rs cited a bove we find a dded rhythm i c vari a tions th a t
a llow the melody to ta ke a free a n d a ttra ctive sh a pe .
Ma ny passag es in cla ssica l mu sic show a ma rked melodic chara cter ,
in a ddition to a clea r rhythm Su ch passa ges are very mu ch in pla ce

. .
The good com poser does not stri ve to ma ke his music needlessly u gly
or involved Melody forms a va lua ble pa rt of his assets Wha t he
. .
does do is to use melodic pa ssa ges in ba la nce a ga inst others or in con ,
tras t with them There m a y be in one par t of a piece a tender mel

.
ody a n d in a nother a set of fiery chor ds or sombre phras es or ru sh

, , ,
ing themes of unrest A good exa mple of su ch contras t is found in

.
the E rn eralM ar ch by Chopin in which the gloomy a nd power fu l

”
,
chords of the march are pu t in contrast with the smooth song li ke ,

-
section th a t forms the m iddle pa rt of the work Com posers then do .

, ,
not often follow any one simple style of melody b u t a im to use more ,
tha n one style and bring ou t in their works the bea u ty th a t comes
,
from variety a nd the strength of stru cture tha t depends upon artis
,
tic b ala nce a nd contra st .
The listener mu st therefore edu ca te himself to see the bea u ty of

, ,
different kinds of mus ic To qu ote a few exa mples on the spur of the
.
moment he will find a bright a n d d a inty opening theme in the fina le

,
of Beethoven s first symphony ; an infinitely bea u tiful serenity in

’
the p a ssa ge beginning the second sym phony of Bra hms ; a ha lf

pa thetic ha ppiness in the second them e of the first movement in
“ ”
Schu bert s Unfinished Sym phony ; a wild a lmost sa va ge gloom
’
in the first ra pid theme of Tscha ikovsky s fifth symphony ; or in ’
tense chords tha t seem to ha ve very little melody a t the sta rt of

B rahms first symphony
’
.
For variety one m a y inspect su ch a song as Schu be rt s Wa n

’
,
derer It begins with an a lmost forbidding style when the wan

”
.
,
“
derer m en tions the hard conditions of flood a n d field Then .
comes a tenderly pa thetic pa ssa ge of regret a t hi s ma ny tri a ls and

few bits of ha ppiness This is followed by a brightly rhythm i c mel
.
ody as the tra veller rem embers with joy his own home la nd ; b u t it -
“
ends in su dden sugg estion of dou bt when he cries 0 la nd where , ,
art thou ? Then once more is hea rd the them e of regret After this
”
.
comes a ghostly suggestion of an answer to his eterna l question of

3 14 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL K NOWL EDGE
hea rer s intellec tua l sense of fitness Su ch development m a y ta ke

’
.
“
the entire them e f or tr e a tm ent or a sing le phra se or even a simple

, ,
figur e The figure is the shortest recogniza ble bit of mu sic It m a y

. .
consist of as few as two notes ; a nd su ch a two noted figur e m a y be -
found on the second and thir d bea ts of nea rly every mea su r e in
“
Schu ett s R everie filling ou t the melodic pa uses Beethoven s
’ ’
.
,
ninth symphony begins with a two noted ia mbic fig ure ; a n d the -
scherzo of the sa me work conta ins a three noted da ctylic figure - .
For mu sica l trea tment or development a fig ure shou ld u su a lly be ,
longer tha n this though it is quite possible for a com poser to work
,
up two note effects

- .
Still a nother method of tr ea tin g melodies is by contrapu nta l

imita tion which has been previou sly mentioned This consists of
,
.
a llowing a theme or su bject or even a fig ure to be u sed in pa rt

, , ,
mu s 1c a ppearing first in one voice an d then in a nother an d m a k

, ,
ing a tona l desig n by its well ba la nced a nd orderly recurrences - .
“
Su ch wor k will be trea ted in the cha pter on Contra pu nta l
Forms ”
.
H armony is the science of chords a n d chord progressions Here -

.
,
perhaps the ta ste of the non m u sicia n is more la cki ng tha n in other
,
-
wa ys an d less a mena ble to tra ining The compa ra tive monotony of

, .
harmony in popu lar mu sic is evident when one considers how mu ch

“
of it consists simply of the thr ee chords learned on the ba njo
”
and other sim ila r instr um ents These are the tonic on the first
.
,
sca le degree ; the domina nt on the fifth ; a n d the su bdomina nt on

-
, ,
the fou rth Here a ga in the good composer will show his a bility
1
.
by u sing even these chor ds in a more ta stefu l a nd artistic fas hion

tha n is fou nd in the work of the ha ck writer who grinds ou t popular
trash Incidenta lly the au thor does not mea n to imply tha t all
.
,
popu la r mu sic is tra sh ; b u t some of it is and the pu blic is seldom ,
a ble to know the dif ference Exa mples of simple chor d work fr om
.
-
the cla ssics m a y be fou nd in the first ra pid theme of Beethoven s ’
seventh symphony ; the choru ses behind the scenes in the first act
“
of Gou nod s Fau st ; or the opening theme in the fina le of the
” ’
first B ra hms sym phony The hearer then mu st lea rn to discrim i

.
, ,
na te between ar ti stic a nd ina rtistic ha rmony and to j u dge whether ,
Fori n form ati on a bou t chords , sc al

es, etc . , see the cha ter p on How to r ead
”
m usi c , in P art V ofthis v ol um e .
MELODY AND APPRECIATION 3 15
the chords of a piece are brought ou t in pleas ing su ccession or

merely thrown together ca relessly an d withou t pla n .
There are different styles of ha rmony and the hea rer shou ld ,
learn to a pprecia te them Ju st why certai n harmonies pr od u ce

.
certa in effects on the bra in is a deep psychologica l qu estion th a t ha s

not yet been thorou ghly a nswered Associa tion has som ething to
.
do with the j u dgin g of music as a whole ; b u t it does not a ccount for

everything The more ra pid rhythms are brighter than the slow
.
ones an d hi gh pitched notes more cheerfu l tha n low ones In

,
-
.
ha rmony however no su ch clea r ru le is fou nd The a pprecia tion

, , .
of harmony consists in a perception of the rela tionship between

su ccessive chords This rela tionship m a y be kept simple or
.
,
smoothed into delica te a dj u stment or even ma de a bstru se A , .
mu sica l exa mple will show the difference between the first two
“
styles The opening voca l phras e of B a ch s song 0 hea rt ever
.
’
,
“
faithfu l has the sa me notes as the first line of Jensen s Murmur
,
’
ing bree ze ; b u t the B a ch work has sim ple an d dir ect harmonies
”
(the three chords a ga in ) while the Jensen lyric varies the tonic
,
chord by chroma tic a ltera tions There is a marked variety in the

.
rhythm of the two voice parts a n d a ccompa niments b u t even a llow
ing for tha t there is a noticea ble difference in the harmony too
,
.
Cha nges of chords m a y be slight or a bru pt In the first ca se .

,
nearly allthe notes of one chord are held for the next ; while in the
second there is very little connection As long as the hea rer is a ble
,
.
to perceive the rela tionship whether it is close or dista nt he will

, ,
continu e to a pprecia te the m u sic in a grea ter or less degree ; b u twhen

the chord sequ ence pa sses beyond the ra nge of his percep tive powers
-
,
it will become a cha os of u nrela ted sounds a mas s of unm ea ning ,
discord Some of the more involved clas sics ha ve this effect on the
.
listener who has not cu ltiva ted his sense of harmony ; b u t after he
edu ca tes himself by continu ed hearing of good works he begins ,
to find order emerging from the a ppa rent harmonic cha os There is .
therefore only one rea l wa y for the stu dent to develop his ta ste
f or good ha rmony ; he mu st pu t himself in a mu sica l a tm osphere ,
a n d listen to the best pieces u ntil he learns to a pprecia te them .
This growth in a pprecia tion is som ething tha t follows na tura lly
on the frequ ent hear ing of good mu sic ; and even the grea t com
posers ha ve not been exempt from its improving influ ence as a ,
com parison of their you thfu l produ ctions with their more ma ture
ones will show .
As sta ted a bove melody harmony and rhy thm are more or less
, , ,
inextrica bly blended into one orga nic whole Especia lly is this tru e
.
of melody and ha rmony ; so tha t a melody will u sua lly suggest to

the mu sicia n the harmonies th a t might go with it .
One limita tion of popu la r mu sic is noticea ble in our own cou ntry ,
if not in certa in others ; th a t consists in the too continu ou s use of

the ma jor mode There is m u ch bea u ty in the minor m ode Some
. .
times it is devoted to effects of sa dness and pa thos while a t other ,
times it is ma de to show the most delica te gra ce The opening theme

.
“
of Mendelssohn s Hebrides overture is of the la tter chara cter
’ ”
,
a n d has been cited as a pe rfect r eflection of its subject The under .
lyi ng rhythm ofthe low notes gives the la rge pulsa tion of the wa ves ;
while little rippling figur es a bove surging to different heights give
, ,
a pe rfect su ggestion of the wa velets th a t ch a se one a nother on the
surfa ce of the la rger billows In Mendelssohn s Scotch Symphony

.
’
the minor mode of the first and las t movements is ma de to show a

most wonderfu l var iety of effects The tra ining in a pprecia tion of
.
this mode is a necessary part of every a u ditor s ed u ca tion

’
.
It wi ll be seen from a llthese considera tions tha t the composer

ha s a f ar va ster field to wor k in than the ma n u fa ctur e of c on ven
tion a lpopu lar music The grea t composer m a y h andle ma ny styles

.
of melody ba la ncing one a ga inst a nother in a ctu a l design ; he m a y

,
vary melodic W ork by contras ting it with wholly different styles ,
such as development or contra punta l imita tion ; an d he m a y give

to his entire work a variety an d origina lity of harmony th a t ca n
ma ke it glow with ever chan ging beau ty It sta nds to rea son th a t
-
.
the only wa y to learn to a pprecia te good mu sic is to hear it But .
if the listener knows W ha t to look for his tas k will surely be made
,
easier ; and this section is pla nned as a guide for him .

the ou ter notes of a figu re (u pper a nd lower ) are the ones to be
a lter ed Even a two note figure m a y be a ltered in this wa y For
.
-
.
“
exa mple in Liza Lehma nn s song The C u ckoo tha t bir d ca l ls
,
” ’
,
in notes a third a par t ; b u t once or twice for purposes of ha rmony , ,
the interva l is cha nged into a fou rth .
3 B y con tracti on As a r ever se of the p receding method the in

. .
,
terva l s of a figu re m a y be m a de sma ller .
4 B y a u gm en ta ti on A figu r e m a y be given in notes of la rger

. .
va lu e tha n before .
5 B y di m i n u ti on A figur e m a y be given in notes of sma ller

. .
va l u e .
6 B y r ep eti ti on Certa i n notes of the figure m a y be repea ted in

. .
the necessa ry nu m ber of sm a ller notes .
7 B y om i ssi on Pa rt of a figu re m a y be given instea d of the

. .
whole For exa mple in the a llegretto of the second B ra hms sym
.
,
phony there is a very rhythmic figure ,
which gra du a lly tra ils off into nothingness by the repetition of
the C a lone on the second bea t of two or thr ee mea su res while the
, ,
a ccompa nim ent softens an d dies a wa y .
8 B y cha n ge oforder The sequ ence of the notes m a y be a ltered

. .
.
This is not a common procedure as it is a pt to ma ke the figu re nu ,
recogniza ble .
9 B y reversi on A figure m a y be pla yed thr ou gh b a ckwards

. .
.
10 B y i nversi on or con trary m oti on A figur e m a y be inverted

.
, .
,
ha ving its u pwar d interva ls cha nged to downward ones an d vi ce ,
versa An exa m ple of inversion wi th reversion a nd contra ction is

.
fou nd in the fina le of the first B ra hms sym phony where the figure ,
bec omes
11 B y el
. a bora ti on . A figure m ay be ma de more intrica te by the
a ddition of new notes .
12 . B y si m p l This is the reverse of the preceding

ifica ti on .
.
13 B y orna m en ta ti on
.
Turns trills and other embellishments.
, ,
m a y be pu t into the figure .
14 B y rhythm i c i m i ta ti on The rhythm of a figure m a be imi

y
.
.
ta ted on a single note or by an instrument of no pitch like the bass

, ,
FIGURES AND PHRASES 3 19
dru m or tria ngle The la tter starts a them e in Liszt s E fla t piano

.
’
-
concerto by giving its rhythm .
15 B y rhythm i c a l
. ter a ti on This m ight com e under repetition
.
,
or ela bora tion or sim plifica tion b u t m a y be cl a ssed a s a sep ara te

, ,
method Thu s in the B rahms a llegretto mentioned a bove

.
,
becomes
becomes
As a lrea dy shown by example combina tions of any of the fore
,
going pr ocesses m a y be em ployed .
It is b y mea ns of som e or a llof these devices tha t a com poser

crea tes the mu sica l stru cture known as development in which the ,
fig ures of one or more them es are u sed in variou s wa ys to bu ild up

a n i m pressive tona l edifice B u t figur e tr ea tm ent has ma ny more
.
uses tha n this It m a y be ca lled u pon for the crea tion of the themes
.
themselves thou gh not a ll melodies show figur e repetition Fig

, .
ur es m a y a lso be interwoven into the a ccom p a niment of them es .
The stu dent m a y now get a clearer u ndersta nding of figur e trea t
ment by inspection of certa in works .
First of a lllet him ta ke the opening movement of Beethoven s ’
fifth symphony The wr iter has tha t work in the L itolffedition

.
,
arra nged f or pia no solo by Winkler b u t the numbe r of ba rs will

,
be the sa me in any good edition .
The fir st two bars show the figure on which much of this move
ment is bas ed It is a virile figure having been expla ined by Bee
.
,
thoven as the knocking of Fa te a t the door a lthou gh on a n ,
other occas ion he cla imed tha t he had hear d this rhythm pou nded
ou t when a bela ted a n d intoxica ted reveller had returned home to
seek admission The figure ru ns thu s

.
In la ter use the la st note is som etimes held for its fu ll va lu e an d ,
sometim es ma de an eighth note to permit of a recurrence of the

-
figure immedia tely a fter .
In bars the figure is repea ted tra nsposed downward In

ba rs 6—
.
,
9 three occurrences of the figure the second c ontra cted an d , ,
the la st two transposed ma ke the first phrase of the chief theme

, .
B ars 10— 13 are similarly formed the figure being now exp a nded in ,
the first ca se as well as cont cted in the econd B s

,
r a s ar 14— 19 show .
first a n a ltered figure the thir d note being now between the second
,
a n d fourth in pitch an d then an inversion of the a lter ed figur e ; the

,
a ltera tion a ppea r ing thr ee times a n d the inversion twice The next .
two ba rs ha ve a chord ea ch ending the first theme with wha t is,
known as a ha lf ca dence a close on the do m ina nt chor d instea d

-
,
of the tonic In b s a r 2 1
.
—24 the figur e is r epea ted separa tely as a t ,
first Then for two grou ps of four bars ea ch it a ppea rs (in various
.
positions ) in thr ee downward recurrences the la st one contra cted , ,
a n d one inverted a nd exp a nded occurrence Fr om b a r 33 to b ar 44 .
it is worked into a long u pward progression the thir d note of the ,
inverted figur e being a ltered a nd the la ter mea sures of this group
,
showi ng a sequ ence B ars 44—56 show three four measur e grou ps
.
-
of down war d prog ressions A repetition of the figur e from b ar 59

.
, ,
serves to us her in a second theme star ting in b ar 63 This is not , .
bu ilt of the origina l figure a t a ll; but we see the la tter forcing its
wa y into the a cco m pa nim ent a n d not letting itself be forgotten
, .
It a ppea rs in the left ha nd part in bars 6 5 6 9 73 77 8 1 84 86

-
, , , , , , ,
8 8 9 0 a n d 92 Its rhythm is slightly su ggested by the running pa ss

, .
a g e from b ar 9 5 to b ar 110 In the la tter b ar it comes ba ck u nm is

.
ta ka b ly a n d from then on is used to bu ild u p the close of the first

,
section which is marked for repea t after b ar 12 4

, .
In the first m ovement of a symphony the exposition of the themes ,
shou ld be followed by a section of development This is fou nd to .
be the ca se here thou gh the four note figure has been used so con
,
-
sta n tly tha t a lmost a llthe movement seems to be a development of

. 2 —
it B ars 1 5 128 a nnou nce the figure (fir st tra nsposed then con ,
tra cted a lso ) as a sort of introd u ction to this section The figur e is .
then employed in variou s wa ys For a time the chief theme is su g .
gested ; then in b ar 14 1 a downward p rogression begins still built ,
of the figure ma teria l ; while from b ar 159 to b ar 167 inclu sive the
figure is imita ted in a ltered sha pe withou t repea ted notes ; and ,
from there on to b a r 179 the figure is rhyth m ica lly imita ted in
chords with more or less ch ange From th a t point on other ma teri a l
, .
predomina tes b u t in b ar 24 0 the figure is intr odu ced prominently

,
once more an d reitera ted as a signa l for the end of the development
,
an d the beg inning of the usua l resta tement of the origina l themes .
next two ; the third pa ir has a new phra se ; but the fourth pa ir uses
the origina l phra se once a ga in .
The com poser m a y ba la nce phras es in instr umenta l compositions

if he desir es He m a y follow one phras e of conventiona l length with
.
a nother of the sa me length or he m a y ma ke the second phr a se m u ch

,
longer tha n the first which mu st be kept fa irly short He is not

,
.
compelled to write in the style of ba la n ced phrases unless he chooses ;

b u t if he does a dopt this style he m a y pr od u ce a ttra ctive wo rks
,
in it .
A section ma de out of two su ch ba la n ced phras es is known to

musicia ns as a period It is sometimes ca lled a theme b u t tha t
.
,
term has other a pplica tions so tha t the word period is a dopted in
,
this work for the sa ke of clearness

, .
Periods m a y vary from the sim plest to the most complex The .
“ “
first ha lf of D rink to me only wi th thine eyes ”
or of The Last ,
Rose of Su mmer shows a period in which both phra ses a re a like

”
,
.
“
Not mu ch different is the first ha lf of Ann ie La urie in whi ch the
”
,
second phra se is the sa me as the first except for an a ltera tion of the
“
fi na l note which brings an effec t of completeness In My Old
, .
K entu cky Home the second phra se is cha nged only slightly more
”
.
,
A little more difference is found between the first two ph ra ses of

“
Ya nkee Doodle Most well known songs show this resem bla nce
”
.
-
between their first a nd second phra se In pia no mu sic the resem .

,
bla nce need not be so close ; a nd we m a y find in Mendelssohn s ’
H u nting Song a fter the obviou sly separa te introdu ction a four
, ,
b ar phra se followed by a second phras e tha t l as ts throu gh twenty

bars Incidenta lly phra ses used in forming periods are a lmost never
.
,
less tha n four ba rs in length a nd often longer , .
Any piece m a y ha ve a n intr odu ction varying in length or scope , .
“
In the H u nting Song it is a little prelu de like phra se of less tha n
”
-
five ba rs ; while in Bee thoven s Sona ta Pa thétiqu e it is a la rg e

”
’
section forming a complete contras t with the ra pid themes tha t

,
follow it .
Any piec e m a y a lso ha ve a coda or mu sica l postscript b rin gm g

,
it to a close (a n d sometim es a clima x ) a fter the dema nds of the form

ha ve a lrea dy been sa tisfied The cod a is free in sha pe b u t esta b
.
,
l ishes the key of the piece to which it belongs and brings it to a , .
clea r ending .
FIGURES AND PHRASES 3 23
The very short intr od u ctions to some of Mendelssohn s Songs ’
withou t Words sou nding like pia no phra ses before the sta rt of an
”
,
a ctua l song are so m etim es spoken of as prel u des

, When they recur .
a t the end of su ch a piece they are then ca lled postlu des

, Both are .
“
foun d in the piece known as Consola tion .
It will be seen by referr ing to the songs cited th a t mor e tha n one
period is used ordinarily It is possi ble to ha ve a piece consist of a
.
single period The Germa n folk song known as The B roken R ing
.
-
”
,
“
or sometimes as The Mill in the Va lley is a single period form
”
-
.
,
Its second phr as e is lengthened by repetition in a somewha t altered

form ; an d the song consists of only two phras es A certa in pia no .
prelu de by Scria b ine shows a single period stru ctur e ; b u t it is

-
lengthened by an intr od u ction an d a cod a .
Most of the songs cited end with a phras e from the first part .
Annie Laurie is a n exception ha ving its second period inde

”
,
pendent ofthe ma teria l of the first ; b u t su ch insta nces are com

pa ra tively rar e in popu lar songs .
The songs mentioned show a two period form ; b u t more than

-
two periods m a y be u sed in some cas es or the two m a y be differ

,
ently arranged It is a lso pe rmissible for a com poser to ba la nce a

.
period a t certa in times by a passa ge of contras ted style The ordi .
nary period has two phras es ca lled a ntecedent a nd consequ ent the
, ,
second one seem ing to a nswer and complete the first B u t mu sic .
does not need to be confined to this stru cture ; a n d a period m a y

sometim es be followed by a free episode The forms in common use
.
a re described in the next cha pter .

THE SO N G FORMS —
C OMPOSERS ha ve a very prevalent ha bit of repea ting themselves
as mu ch as possible They write a theme a n d a lterna te it with
.
,
other mu sic b u t O ften insist on bringing ba ck the origina l them e

,
a ga in p artly to give a finished and ba la nced effect to their wor k

,
.
They are very fond Ofdoing thi s in the song form s ; the rondos are -
nam ed from the proced ure ; a nd even in the freer sona ta form the
them es are followed by a development Oftheir ma teria l whi ch in ,
turn is su c ceeded by a repea t of the themes .
The shor test song form in common use consists of two periods
-
,
ea ch ha ving a first phr ase known as the a ntecedent and a second

, ,
phra se kn own as the consequ ent In the two period independent

, .
-
form the phra ses O fthe second period are ma de of wholly new ma te
,
r ia l
. In the two peri od form with partia l return the consequ ent of
-
,
the second period is derived from a p hra se of the first with no ,
cha nge or only slight a ltera tions The pa rtia l retum form is mu ch
.
-
more popu lar tha n the independent form beca u se of the tendency ,
shown by com posers to end as they bega n Even when they use .
the two independent periods they m a y su ggest the origina l section

,
by employing some of its ma teria l in a coda .
The best s ingle volu me for the stu dy of the song forms is the -
“
collection of Mendelssohn s Songs withou t Words In these an
’ ”
.
,
exa m ple of the two part independent form is seen in no 6 the first
-
.
,
Venetia n Gondola Song As its title would imply it is soothingly

.
,
rhyth m ic being in 6 /
, 8 time An intr od u ction defines the rhythm
. .
The fir st period begins on the las t bea t of the seventh measure Its .
a ntecedent is four mea sur es long while the consequ ent is prolonged
,
to six measures a nd ends on a ca den ce in the domina nt key A

, .
longer section of new ma teria l follows ha ving an a ntecedent Of ,
eight mea sur es and a consequ ent of nine The piece cou ld end a t .
tha t point ; b u t the com poser following the preva lent impu lse of
,
letting so m e of the opening ma teria l retu rn a dded a coda bas ed ,
on the phra ses of the first period .

the first note O fthe postlu de are pla yed a t the sa me time This is .
one of severa l little devices for ma king a piece unified in effect .
Su ch overla pping is ca lled compression .
“
The Funera l Mar ch no 2 7 is a nother three part song form
, .
,
- -
.
A prelu de Offour bars precedes the first period which begins a t the ,
end of the fou rth fu ll mea sure This period has four b a r phra ses .
-
for a ntecedent a n d consequ ent It is then repea ted being writte n .

,
ou t with fu ller harmony th a n a t fir st An episode follows with two .

,
four b ar phrases but no ca dence a n d four extra mea sures giving

-
, ,
the rhy thm a nd sty le of the prelu de These serve as a returning .
pa ssa ge to bring ba ck the origina l peri od now set with still br oa der ,
harmony and prolonged four mea sur es by a dela yed ca dence Four
, .
mea sures of postlude follow echoing the rhythm of the prelu de ,

.
“
Variety is shown a lso by the Spinning Song no 3 4 An in
”
, . .
trodu c tion O fa lmost two b ars is followed by a period of two four

b ar phras es ending in the domina nt A nineteen b a r episode is
, .
-
followed by a return of the period this time with an a ltered conse ,
qu ent of eight bars ending in the proper key Epis ode and return
, .
of period are repea ted b u t now the episode is in minor instea d of

,
ma jor for variety A sixteen b ar coda ends the piece

, .
-
.
“
The use Ofa countertheme is shown in The Return no 4 1 Of , .
the set It has a four b ar prelu de a nd postlu de starting with a

.
-
,
repea ted octa ve figure tha t is skilf u lly echoed in the ma in body of
the work The first peri od beg innin g with three occurrences O fthe
.
,
sa me eighth note chord consists Oftwo four b ar phrases ending

-
,
-
,
in the domina nt key The cou ntertheme beginning with the thir d
.
,
chord in the twelfth full m ea sur e is a lso built of two fou r ba r phrases -
-
,
ending with a cadence in the rela tive minor Ofthe domina nt The .
first period retu rns with its consequ ent a ltered and extended to
,
The a bbrevia ted three division form m a y be illustra ted by no

-
.
“
19 ca lled On the Seas hore The first period begins in the las t
”
, .
ha lf of the third b ar an d has a four b ar a ntecedent followed by a

,
-
‘
four b ar conse quent After a thir teen b ar episode the return shows
-
.
-
,
only a single phra se instea d of a two phr a sed period This phrase - .
is lengthened to six bars but it is indu bita bly not a period

, .
“
A simila r a bbrevia ted return is found in Schuett s Reverie ’
.
In tha t piece cited for its consta nt use of a two noted figure an
,
-
,
THE SONG —
FORMS 327
eight b a r a ntecedent and a cons equ ent Ofthe same leng th are re
-
pla ced in the return by a single ten measur e phras e using the sa me
, ,
-
A summary of the song forms willgive the following ta ble -
Two divi si on i ndependent for m

-
A period followed by a nother .
,
period ma de of independent ma teria l Either period m a y be .
pea ted by itself .
Two di vi si on form wi th parti a l retu rn

-
A period followed by .
,
a nother pe riod ha ving a new a ntecedent b u t the co nsequ ent re ,
pea ted or deri ved fr om a phra se in the first period Either period
. .
m a y be repea ted by itself .
other period of new ma terial whi ch is in turn su cceeded by a recur ,
rence of the first pe riod a t times with a ltered consequ ent

, The first .
period m a y be repea ted a lone if desir ed or the second and thir d ,
pa rts repea ted together or both repea ts ma de if requ ir ed In rare

, .
exa mples a cou nterthem e m a y be repea ted a lone .
Three di visi on form wi th episode The sa me as the preceding

-
.
,
b u t instea d of a co u nte rtheme (ha ving a ntecedent consequ ent a n d , ,
ca dence ) there is a n episode la cking some or a llof these points a n d

, ,
being in a more or less fr ee sty le .
Three divi si on ab brevi a ted form

- The sa me as either O fthe two .
preceding forms b u t ha ving the retu rn of the first period a ltered

,
into a sing le phra se instea d Ofa complete period .
Larger pieces are ma de from these sim ple song forms by uniting -
them in a three division cycle j u st as the single periods of a three ,
division song form are grou ped In other words ma ny pieces are
- .
,
ma de on the pla n O fa complete song form followed by a nother -
com plete song form which in tur n is followed by a recurrence of the

-
,
first song form either wholly or in pa rt Su ch a piece is known as

-
, .
a song form with tri o a n d the second song fo rm is ca lled the trio
-
,
-
.
In the old days when grou ps of simila r instr uments a ppeared in

,
a lterna ti ng selections it was often rea lly a tr io

, Thus in som e of .
y s mu sic we find three fl u tes g iving a piece in contras t to the

’
Lu l l
more consta nt violin work The na me has been kept an d has come .
,
to be u sed for a contras ting section Ofsong form The trio is gen -
.
era ll y marked by a cha nge of key u sual ly being in the su bdom i ,
na nt though sometimes it is in the dom ina nt

,
.
Either the first song form or the tri o m a y be of severa l sha pes
-
.
B u t it ma nifestly wou ld not do to h a ve a sing le peri od form f or -
both the song form a nd the trio as tha t wou ld resu lt in a simple
-
,
thr ee part song form The single period form is mor e O ften foun d
- -
.
-
in the tri o tha n in the fir st section thou gh it is not very frequ ent ,
in either cas e .
Song form with tri o is proba bly the most fa milia r Ofallthe forms
-
to the genera l pu blic Abou t a llthe popu lar da nces an d marches

.
are written in this form As a rule su ch pieces show ra ther long

.
,
a ntecedents a n d consequ ents The wa ltz is a p t to ha ve ea ch phra se .
consist of sixteen m ea sur es instea d of the u su a l eight A very little .
tra ining shou ld ena ble even the non mu sica l rea der to a nalyze the -
popular exa mples of the form an d pick ou t the periods or recog , ,
nize the tri o with fa ir certa inty

, .
In song form with tri o as a lwa ys there m a y be intr odu ction or

-
, ,
co da or both There m a y a lso be tra nsition or returni ng pa ssa g es

.
a t a n y desir ed point .
If the first song form does not return as a whole after the tri o
-
,
the piece is described as a song form an d tri o with a bbrevia ted -
return The a bbrevia tion m a y be ma de to a void monotony if the

.
periods are too long or too similar Another device to give variety .
“
is found in Scharwenka s Polish Da nce an d Meyer Helm trn d s
” ’
-
’
“
D a nce In both works when the retur n of the first song form
”
.
,
-
is nea rly over a bit of the tri o is interpola ted before the close of the
,
p i ece .
In the Old ga vottes the tri o was O ften of musette like cha racter
,
-
,
ha ving a drone bas s effect as Ofbag pipes This style Oftri o m a y

-
.
“
be fou nd in the Meyer Helm un d D ance where it is in a dmira ble
” -
,
contras t with the r est of the piece .
Schu bert s fir st Milita ry March m a y be cited as a clear exa mple

’
of song form with trio The opening song form begins with a fan
-
.
-
far e like intr odu ction of six measures The first period which fol
-
.
,
lows consists of sixteen ba rs in two equa l phras es It is repea ted

, . .
After its sec ond ending come four ba rs of fanfare su gg estion as

tra nsition Then a cou ntertheme follows with a four b ar an tece
.
,
-
dent a nd a twelve b ar consequ ent endi ng in a perfect ca dence on

-
,
the domina nt This bri ngs a return of the first period wi th conse
.
,
re turn is not suggested clea rly being one of style ra ther tha n form
, .
An extra phras e a fter the second repea t is evidently a returning

passa ge.
The song form Ofthe beginning comes ba ck It is now given with

- .
out repea t and withou t return a fter the countertheme which now
, ,
lea ds directly into the coda .
Contrasts Ofstyle as well as ma teria l ma ke this movement very

a ttra ctive The first song form is str ong and rhythmic ; the first
.
-
trio a da inty web of echoing chords ; and the second trio in brisk ,
running style .
Exa mples of song form with two tri os are found in Mendelssohn s
-
’
works ; an d the stu dent will find plea sur e in a na lyzing for himself
“
the familiar Wedding M arch and the Priests March from ’ ”
“
Athalie which are both in this form
”
, .
THE ROND OS
THE rondos esemble the song forms in certa in wa ys They con

r -
.
sist of a chief theme or ma in section which a lterna tes with one or

, ,
more other sections The ma in section however is not necessarily

.
, ,
a single pe riod It m a y be a complete song form in itself or m a y be

.
-
,
entir ely free in sha pe In the old r ondos of H a ydn and Mozart a nd
.
,
even in those of Beethoven the them es are u sua lly clea n cu t a nd ,

-
,
ea ch section is in som e fa ir ly defin ite form Even when this is the .
case the rondo differs from the song forms for in rondos the first
,
-
,
section or chief them e

, is em phas ized an d ma de more prom
,
in en t tha n in song forms a l lthe other sections being b rou ght into
-
,
definite contrast with it B u t in ma ny cases the rondo shows more

.
freedom of sha pe tha n the song forms When th is chara cteristic -

.
is foun d it will be seen tha t a r ondo m a y ha ve its sections blended

,
into a mu ch more unified whole than ca n be Obta ined from the

song forms
- .
The so ca lled first rondo consists of a ma in section a side section

-
, ,
a nd a return O fthe ma in section The side section a nd ma in section .
m a y be repea ted together j u st like the second a n d third pa rts of a

,
three division song form ; an d in this case the sha pe is ca lled first
- -
rondo extended by repea ts A coda m a y a lwa ys occur a t the end of.
a rondo or a n intr od u ction a t the beginning ; a n d the u nified cha rac

,
ter of the rondo often ma kes tra nsition and retur ning pa ssages
pra ctica ble .
As an exa mple Offirst rondo the slow movement OfBeethoven s ,

’
first piano sona ta ( Op 2 no 1) m a y be inspected by the student

.
, . .
It shows a fa ir ly clear stru cture The first sixtee n mea sures form a .
first section New ma teria l ma kes a clear side section Then the
. .
first section returns qu ite clearly a nd is prolonged into a coda

, , .
Some ana lysts ha ve ca lled this movement a song form ; b u t the -
evidence seems contrary to their verdict The first sixteen ba rs .
seem more like a two pe riod form tha n a single period ; a n d if the
-
two period stru cture is a dmitted then the side section is too epi
-
,
sodica lto be a tri o .
A clea r exa mple Of first rondo form m a y be found in the

a d a gio m ovem ent of Moza rt s sona ta in D no 15 in the Li tol ff ’
.
,
collection .
Clementi s Rondo in the key of F is a nother very clea r exa mple

’
.
The piece is divided into two well ma rked sections both in a free -
, ,
running style After the second section is finished a D C ma rk

. , .
brings the retu rn of the first section .
Any section of a rondo m a y be repea ted by itself Som etimes .
the first theme is repea ted on its first a ppea ra nce ; b u t tha t is
sca rcely necessary as its recurrence in the form will insure its re
,
ceiving su fli cien t a ttention .
The first rondo m a y often a pproa ch very near to the thr ee divi -
“ “ ”
sion song form Anitra s Da nce fr om Gri eg s Peer Gynt
-
”
.
’
,
’
“
suite an d Poldini s Pou pée Valsa nte ha ve been chosen to illu s
” ’
, ,
tra te this point .
In Anitra s D a nce the first section coming a fter a brief intro

’
, ,
duction is a sixteen b ar period repea ted The side section m a y

,
-
, .
with perfect propriety be ca lled a long episode The first period .
returns in du e order a n d the episode is r epea ted with the return ,
of them e The genera l unity of style in the piece su ggests the

.
rondo idea even thou gh the divisions are not u nlike those of the
,
song form Incidenta lly the stu dent will note tha t the retu rned
-
. ,
them e has a prolonged a ntecedent instea d of a n a ltered consequ ent , ,
to ma ke it end in the proper key This is a very u nu sua l procedure . .
“ a
In Poldini s D ncing Doll the sa me stru cture is a pparent
” ’
, ,
a short intr od u ction a single period repea ted a n episodica l side , ,
section a n d a return Oftheme the las t two divisions being r epea ted
, ,
together This work ha s a long coda based on the thema tic ma te

.
,
ria l a lrea dy used This coda is ra ther too large for a simple song
.
form a nd its use of the ea rlier ma teria l gives the piece a rondo
,
su ggestion .
Chopin s Nocturne in G Op 3 7 no 2 is an exa mple Ofthe first

’
, .
, .
,
rondo extended b y recurr ences if not literalrepea ts The first sec , .
tion of a bou t two pa ges in the u sua l editions is not in periodic

, ,
shape b u t is based a lmost wholly on the ma teria l of the first thr ee

,
or four mea sur es The side section sostenu to is of song like cha rac
.
, ,
-
no disa gree m en t a bou t the na me In the five pa rt song form the .

- -
,
simplest second rondo allsections are of a bou t equal importa nce

, .
An exa m ple of this five part single period stru cture m ay be found
- -
in Moszkowski s Spa nish D a nce Op 12 no 1 The others of thi s

’
, .
, . .
set are song forms with trio b u t in the first da nce the five period
-
,
-
arra ngem ent is clea rly present Other exa m ples are found in the fina l .
movem ents of Mozart s first two pia no sona ta s (Li tolffedition )

’
.
“
Beethoven s Fii r Elise is a clea r exa mple of second rondo In
” ’
.
this piece the first section consists O fa short three division song -
form Then follow in order the first side them e the first return the
.
, ,
second side them e and the fina l retu rn of theme There are re
, .
turning pas sa ges a fter the side themes .
The slow movement O f Beethoven s Sona ta Pa thétiqu e is ” ’
a nother very clea r exa mple of second r ondo The stu dent shou ld .
find no difficu lty in noticing its divisions .
“
Grieg s Norwegia n B rida l Pr ocession is a ga in in single period
’
-
divisions with the first side section repea ted

, .
Moza rt s Rondo in A m inor illu stra tes the use of embel lishments
’
-
.
An u nu sua l stru cture is foun d in Berthold Tours Ga votte Mod ’
erne Su ch a da nce is u sua lly a song form with tri o The trio is
.
-
.
fou nd in proper sha pe in this piece ; b u t instea d of the song form a t -
the sta rt there is a little r ondo This consists Ofan eight b ar theme
, .
-
,
a n eight b a r episode a four b a r pa rtia l r eturn of the theme a

-
,
-
,
second side them e of nine measures and a fu ll return of theme , .
Rondo with trio is not a recognized form The mu sicia n will sa y tha t .
it does not exist ; j u st as the farmer on seeing a gira ffe for the first ,
“
time refu sed to believe his eyes and exclai med There a in t no
, , ,
’
su ch a nim a l B u t composers often rise su perior to rules an d pro

”
.
,
du ce ma ny u nu sua l forms .
The so ca lled third rondo is like the second with an a dditiona l

-
,
retu rn O fthe first side section a nd the ma in section to finish the ,
work This is not frequ ently used

. .
The Old rondo as exemplified by C P E Ba ch and others of his

, . . .
,
period consisted of a chief theme tha t occu rred a nu mber of tim es

, ,
in contrast with any convenient nu mber of side them es In this con .
n ec tion the use of the term r ondo ins tea d O ffive pa rt song form is
,
- -
j ustifi ed by the ear ly composers who a lwa ys ga ve such works the ,

THE RONDOS 335
Anything tha t ca nnot be classed elsewhere is a pparently pu t

“
a mong the rondos if possible Thu s Moza rt s Alla Tu rca m ove
’ ”
.
,
ment seem s a t first sight to be mu ch like a song form a n d tri o B u t

-
.
a n extra the m e is a dded both a fter the song form a n d the trio
,
-
,
which ma kes the piece a som ewha t irregu la r first rondo .
Another sort of rondo is illu stra ted by Sinding s Ru stle O f ’
Spring It will be seen on exa m ina tion tha t thi s is bas ed wholly on
.
”
two periods They a re given first with the m elody in the left ha nd
.
,
a nd a runn ing em b roidery of to nes in the right Then they a ppea r

.
as massive chor ds f or the r ight ha nd Then they return as a t first

.
,
in the left ha nd Even if it is a dm itted tha t the periods of a two

.
pa rt song form m a y som etim es be repea ted together instea d Ofsep

-
ara tely there are too m a ny repea ts in the Sinding piece to a llow it
,
to be cla ssed as a song form The work is ca lled a rondo on two

-
.
them es It does not follow tha t a llr ondos on two them es are like
.
this one in sha pe ; b u t a llsu ch pieces wi ll be ma de u p of a trea tment

of two them es or sections tha t ca nnot well be cla ssified with the
, ,
more u sua l rondos The rondo on thr ee themes exists a lso

. .
In allrondos the chi ef idea is a recurren ce of one ma in theme or

,
secti on with one or m or e side sections in contras t with it

, While .
so m e rondos show a periodic structu re there are a lso rondos in

,
which the sections are Offreer style a nd blended into one a nother
,
so as to give a more unified effect tha n wou ld be possible in the song

XXXV
THE SO N ATA—
AL L E GRO FORM
THE works Of Dom enico Sca r la tti Ga lu ppi Para disi Ku hna u , , , ,
and C P E Ba ch b r ou ght a bout a g ra du a l development of the

. . .
sona ta until it took sha pe in the ha nds in H a ydn a n d Mozar t

,
.
The distinctive qua lity of the sona ta consists in the sha pe of its first
movem ent ; an d as this first movement is genera lly a n a llegro the ,
sha pe is mentioned here as sona ta a llegro form The sona ta con -

.
sists Ofvariou s m ovements whose contrasts of style a dmit of mu ch

,
artistic excellence The sa me excellence is found in the form used

.
in the first movem ent .
The sona ta a llegro form is first Ofa lldivided into three mai n
-
pa rts These are the exposition or first pla ying of the themes used ;
.
,
the development or building u p of a tonalstru cture from the ma te

,
ria l in the themes ; and the reca pitula tion or return of them es If , .
desired a middle pa rt of new ma teria l m a y be su bstituted for the

, , ,
developm ent ; b u t com posers do not u sua lly ma ke this su b stitu

tion withou t some good rea son .
The them es u sed in a sona ta m ay be mu ch freer tha n those of a

song form It is this variety of ma teria l in sona ta themes tha t
-
.
ma kes the pia no sona ta s of Beethoven so grea t There is pra ctica lly .
no limit to the power and exp ression tha t the composer m a y put
into su ch themes .
The principle of contra st is intr od u ced in the exposition ; for the

them es three in nu mber m a y be of different styles In general the
, , .
,
chief them e or first theme is expected to be bold an d resolu te in

, ,
cha ra cter while the second theme shou ld be more lyri ca l an d ten
,
der Between the two is a sho rt tr ibu ta ry pa ssa ge Ofmod u la to ry

.
,
character After the second theme comes a short closing theme

.
,
usually of brillia nt style The exposition is a lwa ys marked for re

.
pea t so tha t the themes m a y be clearly sugg este d to the hea rer ;
,
b u t the modern tendency is to do a wa y wi th ma ny r epea ts In .
pia no sona ta s the exposition is still usua lly given twice though in ,
symphonies the repea t is optiona l with the conductor .

1 .Chief theme in the tonic minor Tributa ry passa ge lea din g
,
.
,
to a ha lf ca dence in the rela tive ma jor .
2 Second them e in the rela tive ma jor

. ,
.
3 Closing theme or them es in the rela tive ma j or

. , .
4 Development free in style a n d key

. ,
.
5 Return of chief theme in tonic minor

. , .
6 Return of side theme in tonic mino r or ma jor

. ,
.
q Closing theme or them es in tonic minor , .
If there is a coda division 7 m ay be in the tonic ma jor a llowing

, ,
the coda to esta blish the tonic minor key .
Another form of sona ta allegro in minor a llows divisions 2 and 3

to oc cur in the domina nt minor instea d of the rela tive ma jor In ,
.
the return divisions 6 an d 7 will then occur in the tonic minor

,
.
To illustra te the sona ta a llegro in ma jor the Moza rt Sona ta in ,
F (no 3 in the Litolf fcollection ) m a y be a na lyzed here :

—
.
,
Chief theme in F mea sures 1 22 Tribu ta ry here a theme lea d .
—
, , , ,
ing from minor to a ha lf ca dence in C mea sur es 2 2 4 0

D -
Second them e in C mea sur es 41—

.
,
, 86 Fr om mea sur e 56 some

, .
tri bu ta ry mod u la tion a ppea r s b u t the ending is on the proper key

Closing theme in C mea sures 86—
.
,
93 All three themes repea ted

, . .
Middle part Ofnew ma teria l in d ifferent keys ending on the

dom ina nt seventh chord of F measures 94 —
, , ,
132
Reca pitu la tion Chief them e in F mea sures 133—
.
,
. 154 Side , , .
theme ending this time in F m ea sur es 154—176

, , .
Second theme now in F mea sures 177—

, 22 2 Tributa ry work , .
begins a t mea sure 192 .
Closing theme now in F mea sures 222 —

, 22 9 , .
The first m ovement of H a ydn s Sona ta in D (no 7 in Ten Cele ’

.
”
b ra ted Sona ta s ) is a na lyzed here as a nother exa mple of the fo rm
Chief theme an 8 b ar period ending in a fu ll ca den ce Tr ibuta ry

,
-
, .
,
8 ba rs ending with a ha lf ca dence in the tonic .
Second theme 19 mea sures long in A

, , .
Closing theme a little over five ba rs in A

, , .
Development 2 0 mea sur es , .
Return Of chief theme in D somewha t a ltered and extended , , .
Tributa ry pa ssage a ltered to 6 mea sures .
Sec ond theme mu ch as before but now in D

, , .
THE SONATA—
ALLEGRO FORM 33 9
Clos ing theme as before b u t now in D , .
As a clea r exa mple of the sona ta a llegro in the usua l minor form ,
the openi ng movem ent of Beethoven s first sona ta (Op 2 no 1) is ’

.
, .
now a na lyzed :
Chief theme in F minor mea sur es 1—
, 8 T ribu ta ry with ha lf
-
, .
,
Second theme in A flat ma jor mea sur es 2 04 1

,
- -
, .
Closing them e in A fla t ma jor mea sures 4 1—

, 4 8 All repea ted
- -
, . .
Developm ent founded largely on the ma in figure of the chief

them e a nd modu la tory mea sures 49—
,
93 Returning passage
mea sures 9 3—
.
, , ,
100
Re tur n of chief theme F minor measures 101—
.
108 T ribu tary -
pa ssa ge with modula tions a ltered mea sures 108—

.
, ,
119
Second them e now in F minor mea sur es 119—
, .
,
14 0 -
Closing theme extended now in F minor mea sures 140—

.
, ,
, 152 ,
-
, .
“
The first movem ent of Beethoven s Sona ta Pa thétiqu e is an ’
excellent exa m ple of Beethoven s u nion of form with expr essive ’
power Kn owing hi s love of liberty an d his high con ception of hu

.
ma nity this movem ent seems a lm ost like a tone pictur e of ma n s

,
-
’
stru ggle wi th a dversity .
The intr odu ction tha t begins the work is gloom y an d tra gic in
the extreme Then come the them es powerfu l enou gh to su ggest
.
,
a lmos t a ny sort of effort or com ba t The seventeen b ar chief them e .

-
a n d the twenty thr ee b ar tri b u tary are litera lly fu ll of fight

- -
The .
th irty eight bars of the side them e are less tu mu ltu ou s b u t the long
-
,
thirty three ba r closing them e soon grows com ba tive a ga in Str ug

- -
.
gle sa dness an d renewed ef

, , fort are wha t the them es seem to typify .
A returning pa ssa ge lea ds to the repea t a nd a tra nsition pa ssa ge ,
to the development When the la tter begins four mea sures of the
.
,
sa d introd u ction are hear d Then renewed struggle is sug gested .
by the development sta rting with the opening figure of the chief
,
them e The reca pitula tion follows with a tra nsition to the coda
.
,
.
The la tter begins wi th the intr odu ction figure whi ch is here ma de ,
suggestive of utter wea kness by the omission Ofan a ccented chord .
Ju st a t the finish however the tru e Beethoven spirit of defiance

, ,
shows itself ; and the movem ent ends with one more rush of the
chief theme figure like a l
-
a st comma nd to fight on even a ga inst
, ,
fa te itself .
The fin ale O fBeethoven s first pia no sona ta (Op 2 no 1) is a

’
.
, .
good example of the sona ta a llegro form with the themes a ppea ring
-
in the domina nt minor instea d of the rela tive ma jor The move .
ment being in F m inor the second and closing themes a ppear first
-
,
in C minor and return la ter in F minor Su ch consta nt minor effects

-
,
-
.
wou ld be apt to prod u ce monotony if u nrelieved so Beethoven put

in a middle part instea d of a development a nd wrote it flu ently ,
in ma jor for pu rposes of contra st After it ends a returning pas .

,
sage lea ds to the reca pitu la tion .
The sona ta s of Moza rt and Ha ydn show clea rness of form and a ,
light but plea sing cheerfu lness Those of Beethoven ha ve mu ch

.
more dra ma tic power Weber s sona tas were highly prized b u t are
.
’
,
not O ften heard now Liszt s sona ta and those of Ma cDowell are
.
’
, ,
free in form a nd in the modern style The last five sona ta s of Bee
, .
thoven too are free in sh a pe They are tremendously br oa d pia no

, , .
rha psodies in style an d spirit and ha ve been a ptly spoken of as

,
“
veiled symphonies B u t while the la ter Beethoven and the mod
”
.
ern radica ls dispensed with stri ct form it mu st not be forgotten ,
tha t their geniu s entitled them to liberty of thou ght and expression .
The student of to da y will do well to study form thorou ghly an d

-
,
a pprecia te a l
lits po ssibilities He should be a ble to master form
.
before he discards it if he wishes to excel in composition

, .
of a Beethoven a nd a Moza rt sona ta ha ve been cited previou sly as
“
first ron dos The slow m ovement of Beethoven s Sona ta Pa the
.
’
tiqu e has been m entioned as a second r ondo The 5/4 m ovem ent
”
.
“
of Tscha ikovsky s Sym phonie Pa thétiqu e is an example of a
’ ”
l arge song form with tri o ; and m i nu ets are regu larly in this form
- .
The slow m ovem ent of Beethoven s first sym phony is an illu stra tion
’
of the u se of sona ta a llegro .
The so ca lled sona ta rondo varies the sona ta a llegro form by the
- -
principle of the rondo i e the frequ ent a ppearan ce of the chief

, . .
,
them e There is u sua lly no repea t in a sona ta rondo The them e

. .
a ppea rs twice mor e th a n in son a ta form once a t the end of the ,
exposition an d once a t the end of the reca pitu la tion The divisions
,
.
of the sona ta rondo are therefore chief theme second theme closing , ,
them e chief them e development chief theme second them e clos

, , , , ,
ing them e a n d chief theme An exa mple of the sona ta rondo

, .
“
m a y be fou nd in the fina le of Beethoven s Sona ta Pa thétiqu e ’ ”
.
The sona tina form is a shor t prim itive sona ta a llegro It begins
, .
with two them es a chief them e a n d a side them e contrasted a nd

, ,
joined like those of the sona ta a llegro b u t ra ther lighter in style , .
Usua lly there is no development The reca pitu la ti on consists of .
the two themes this tim e both in the toni c key The sona tina m a y
, .
ha ve two or thr ee movem ents Clem enti wr ote a nu mbe r of wo rks

.
in this form which the stu dent m a y inspect for purposes of ana ly
,
sis The sona tin a form m a y be used for a sona ta movement

. .
The sona tina rondo consists O fthem e second theme in the proper ,
rel a ted key them e second theme in the tonic a n d theme a ga in

, , , .
This form a lso m a y be u sed in a sona ta movem ent .
Varia tions of a them e ha ve been a fa vorite form wi th the grea t

composers Beethoven B ra hms Elgar Reger Tscha ikovsky a nd
.
, , , , ,
others ha ve ma de a separa te work of this form the B ra hms va ria ,
tions on a H a ydn theme being especia lly bea u tifu l Beethoven .
used varia tions in the fina le of his E roica Symphony in the slow ,
movem ent of his pia no sona ta (Op 14 no a n d in the slow move .

, .
“
ment of his Kreu tzer Sona ta for violin an d pia no Varia tions .
ena ble a composer to show his mas tery over differ ent sty les of writ
ing There is a lways da nger of their growing into a mere techni ca l
.
displa y ; a nd the composer must guard a gai nst this fau lt .
The minu et movement Ofthe Old symphonies was regula rly in

OTHER SONATA MOVEMENTS 34 3
the sh a pe of song form with trio The minu et in Beethoven s fir st

-
.
’
sym phony is a case in point Beethoven su bstitu ted the scherzo

.
f or the minu et a n d in his la te r sym phonies ma de it very b rusqu e

,
a n d str ong In the scherzo the da nce like chara cter of the themes
.
-
is a bsent the trea tment is fa irly free and development is permis

sible B u t ma ny scherzo movem ents keep to the song —
, ,
. form a nd tri o
stru cture Schuma nn has been qu oted as us ing the song form with
.
-
two tri os in the scherzo of his first symphony The scherzo is now .
trea ted as a n independent pia no piece and works in this form by ,
Ku l lak a n d Chopin m a y be investiga ted by the stu dent .
B ra hm s repla ced the scherzo by the in termezzo This is still .
mu ch like a song form with tri o The first pa rt genera lly consists
-
.
of two them es as in the song form A tri o follows in contras ted

,
-
.
,
style The ea rlier themes do not retur n as a whole b u t are repla ced
.
,
by a coda conta ining rem iniscences of them .
The m inu et is properly in 3 4 rhythm ; b u t the scherzo a nd inter

mezzo m a y be in an y su ita ble rhyth m a lthough most scherzos are ,
in 3 4 rhythm .
The fina le is u su ally a brillia nt movement Yet every ru le has .
“
excep tions a nd we find Tscha ikovsky ending hi s Symphonie
,
Pa thétiqu e with a very mournfu l slow movem ent B u t this is

”
.
only one of the ca ses tha t pr ove the rule .
In the tim e of H a ydn a n d Mozar t the final e was Often a light , ,
j ovia l m ovement in r ondo form Even Beethoven followed the ear.
lier cu stom in the fina le of his first sym phony This style of ending .
was evidentl y ta ken fr om the Ol d su ite which closed with a rollick ,
ing gigu e or jig

, .
In Beethoven s second symphony he ended the work with more

’
power ; while in his thir d he u sed varia tions tha t were bu ilt u p into
,
a gra nd clima x The fifth sym phony fina le is a nother tr em endou sly
.
powerfu l m ovem ent before which the r on dos of H a ydn an d Mozart

,
m ay hide their dim inished hea ds The fina le of Beethoven s seventh

’
.
sym phony is a riot of speed an d liveliness The eighth closes m ore .
conventiona lly b u t the ninth a ga in ends powerfu lly ha ving varia

, ,
tions tha t bring in the chora l work described in a previou s chapter .
Besides varia tions the sona ta form is som etimes u sed in the fina le
, ,
or even the sonata r ondo as a lrea dy illu stra ted , The fina le of Bee .
thoven s sona ta Op 7 is a sona ta rondo The fin al es of Op 2

’
.
. . ,
no 1 and of the fifth symphony are in sona ta form The sona tas
.
, , .
Op 109 a n d Op 111 end wi th varia tions The sona ta Op 106

. . . .
,
“
known as the Gra nd Sona ta closes with a fu gue The fugu e was
”
.
,
sometimes u sed as a finale by H a ydn and Moza rt while La chner ,
em ployed it in his suite Op 113 . .
The fu ll possibilities of the sona ta form should now be a pparent

to the rea der The complete sona ta consists Offour movements
.
which show the utmost vari ety Ofsty le a nd a llow the com poser to ,
ma ke the most artistic contrasts .
In the first movem ent the themes themselves are of varying

,
cha ra cter a llowing the com poser to ba la nce them in excellent

,
fa shion The exposition is then pu t in contra st wi th the develop

.
ment in which the thema tic ma teria l m a y be woven an d interwoven

,
to form an exqu isite design or worked u p to a gra nd climax

, .
Aga inst this movement usua lly somewha t intellectua l in cha ra c

,
ter is pla ced the lyri ca l a nd exp ressive em otion of the slow move
,
ment Here feeling is pa ra mou nt an d sim plicity is O ften the key

.
,
note .
Following this comes the scherzo or its equivalent a ga in a ,
com plete ch ange in style Now everything is pla yfu l an d light or

.
,
else bizarre or bru squ e in effect .
The finale brings still a nother cha nge In some degree it is a .
reversion to the style of the first movement B u t as a genera l ru le .
the fina le is ma de da shing a nd brillia nt while the first movement ,
was more earnest a nd seriou s .
In allthe la ter m ovem ents the composer has such choice of form
,
tha t he shou ld be a ble to give the fu llest expression to his mu sica l

ideas Even in the first movement there is su fficient fr eedom with
.
,
in the form for him to develop his thou ghts unh ampered The vari .
ety and ar tistic possibilities of the sona ta an d symphony ha ve
resulted in mu sic of the u tmost valu e music tha t com es as a reve ,
la tion to the cultiva ted hearer and a ppea ls to hi s hi ghest emotions

,
in a la nguage tha t is said to begin where speech ends .

this requ ir em ent a dm ira bly Schu bert a voided the concerto and
. ,
even in his sym phonies it Often seems as if the musica l idea s were
thinly disgu ised songs Schuma nn s ma ssive chor d style was pia n
.
’
-
is ti c enou gh b u t not
,
u nsu ited for o r chestra l use a lso ; a n d his pia no
concerto shows the proper ba la nce even thou gh his instrumenta ,
tion is O ften poor Chopin on the other ha nd was more exclu sively
. , ,
devoted to a n expressive melodic style As a result hi s concer tos .

,
seem like pia no solos with incidenta l orchestra l a ccompa niment .
Symphonies and concertos ca n be bu ilt on a far gra nder sca le tha n

pia no sona ta s In the first pla ce the variety of orchestra l coloring
. ,
is very grea t A pia no piece in compar ison with a n orchestra] work

.
has been likened to a bla ck a n d white dra wing beside an O ilpa int
- -
ing ; a nd the compari son is certa inly j u st In pia no work too the .
, ,
num ber Ofnotes is limited to the a bility th a t ca n be shown by a

single pa ir Ofha nds ; while in the or chestra a chord m a y consist of
ma ny notes Thi s increa ses the possibilities Ofdra ma tic effect In
. .
orchestra l mu sic too development is ca rri ed to a grea ter extent

, ,
th an in pia no m usic .
C ha mber mu sic is very O ften wri tten in sona ta form The term .
ch a mber mu sic is derived from the Ita lia n wor ds m usi ca di

”
ca m era in contr a distinction to m usi ca di chi esa or chur ch mu sic

, , .
It was pl a yed a t first only in the cha mbers of wea lthy am a teurs .
All mu sic for combina tions of instruments sma ller tha n a n or ches
tra is ca lled cha mber mu sic The most common form is the str ing
.
quartet consisting Ofa first an d second violin a viola an d a cello

, , ,
’
.
Pian o qu ar tets with pia no violin viola an d cello are fa irly numer
, , , ,
’
,
ous ; a nd pia no tri os with violin cello a nd pia no are still more so
, ,
’
, , .
M a ny sona ta s ha ve been wri tten for single instru ments with pia no .
The pia no qu intet a dds the keyboa rd to the instrum ents of the
str ing qu ar tet Variou s combina tions for strings and woodwind
.
ha ve been employed ; while even the brass instruments are used

occasiona lly In chamber mu sic the gra ndeur Of the orchestra is
.
a bsent ; b u t this is a toned f or by a clear an d inte resting lea ding O f
the parts Thu s a string quartet m a y be a work of consumma te

.
skill in spite of its O ften ha ving an a ppa rently simple effect

, .
Overtur es are O ften written in son ata a llegr o form In su ch ca ses -

.
there is usua lly no repea t Ofthe exposition Som e overtures ha ve little .
development the chief interest lying in the well contras ted themes
,
-
.
THE ORCHESTRAL FORMS 7
One Ofthe earliest styles of this form was known as the French
overtu re In fa ct the word overture com es directly from the French
.
,
O ped an overtur e consisting of a slow movement followed withou t

pa use by a qu ick one The slow section was a fa ir ly short intr oduc
.
ti on while the ra pid part was O ften a fu gu e H a ndel u sed this form
, .
“
in the overtur e to hi s Messiah Sometimes the French com posers
.
followed the ra pid section with a modera tely slow dance movem ent ,
which was held to be p art of the form .
The cla ssica l over tur e has the sona ta a llegro sha pe with no repea t
-
,
“
of the exposition Mozart s opera overtures su ch as those to Don
.
’
,
Giova nni ”
The M arria ge of Fi garo etc are in this form
,
”
, .
, .
” “
Weber u sed the form slig htly modified in his Freischutz E ury
, , ,
“
a nthe a nd Obe r on overtur es and a t the sa me time chose the
” ”
, ,
themes from the mu sic of the opera s tha t followed .
The drama tic overture a ims to give a su ggestion or a n epitome

of the opera tha t follows it S u ch overtur es were not restr icted in
.
form They were origina ted by Glu ck who sometimes kept them
.
,
sepa ra te b u t genera lly a llowed them to lea d dir ectly into the
,
opera At times they a pproa ched the sona ta a llegr o form in sha pe
.
-
.
Beethoven a dopted the dra ma tic overture with evident preference

“ “
or it a n d his Le onora no or the opera Fi delio is a n excel
”
f ,
f .
,
lent exa mple Beethoven a lwa ys kept the overture as a separa te

.
piece Beethoven s other overtu res too are rea lly dra ma tic thou gh
.
’
, , ,
“
the one to Egm ont a ppr oa ches the cla ssica l overtu re in form .
The concert overture resembles the cla ssica l overture in follow

ing the sona ta a llegr o form It derives its na me from the fa ct th a t
-
.
it is not a tta ched to an y opera or pla y b u t is a separa te com posi ,
tion intended for concert performa nce Mendelssohn brou ght this .
“
form into p rominence his Hebrides a nd Sea Ca lm a nd Pros
” -
,
perons Voyag e overtures being unconnected with a ny dra m a tic

”
The medley overture u sed by H erold Au ber and others has

, , , ,
no definite fo rm but is merely a string of melodies dra wn from the

,
O pera tha t is to follow it The tun es a n d sections are pu t together

.
withou t any regard for definite form ; b u t the com poser u sua lly sees
to it th a t they are well contrasted and arra nged to ma ke a clima x
The Wa g neria n Pr elu de or Vorspi el is a n ou tgr owth Of the , ,
dra ma tic overtur e B u t Wa gner s prelu des are so varied in form

.
’
a n d effect tha t they deserve a sepa ra te cla ssifica ti on Sometimes .

,
”
as in the Meistersinger Prelu de he foresha dowed the plot Of the ,
“
opera itself ; while on other occa sions as in the Prelu de to Lohen ,
grin he lim ited him self to a simpler su ggestion

”
,
the coming and ,
going of the Holy Gra il The Vorspi ellea ds directly into the opera
.
tha t follows it .
Liszt an d others ha ve developed the symphony a long the lines of

program m e mu sic an d even invented a new form the symphonic
, ,
poem to sa tisfy their desir es an d ena ble them to devote themselves

,
wholly to p rogra mm e effects As sta ted in a previous cha pter pro .

,
gra m me music is mu sic tha t tries to portra y definite scenes or events .
“
Very O ften the title is a sufficient clu e Thus in Liszt s Fau st ”
.
’
Sym phony the first m ovem ent typifies Fa u st the second Mar
, , ,
guer ite an d the third Mephistopheles

, , .
The sym phonic poem is a free orchestra l form There are no la ws .
governing its sh a pe except those of good tas te , or those of p u b ,
lic ta ste one might better sa y Yet com posers genera lly choose
, .
poetic su bjects so tha t they are ena bled to write expressive or

,
dra ma tic mu sic In the sym phonic poem form thu s becomes an
.
,
individu a l ma tter Yet the genera l la ws hold good stil

. l There .
mu st be su f fi cient ba la nce contras t a n d gr owth to war d a clima x

, , .
There m u st a lso be good mu sic Very ma ny works by contemporary .
com posers a re hear d once or twice and then la id a side as uninter est ,
ing In a llthe modern struggle for suggestive tona l effects inspira

.
,
tion has not yet been ma de unnecessary by mere skill Ta lent or .

,
geniu s is still a desideratu m

Liszt chose excellent su bjects for his symphonic poems —su b
, .
j ec ts tha t ena bled him to give free rein to his crea tive a bility His .
“
most gloriou s work Les Pr elu des illu stra tes a sentence of La ma r
”
, ,
tine which shows tha t the va ried phas es of life su ch as love hap
, , ,
“
p in ess or glory are a l
, la pr el u de to ete rnity In Tas so La mento e
, .
,
”
Trionfo the str ong contras t between the two pa rts of the work is
,
“
brou ght into notice a t once by the title The B a ttle of the H u ns ”
.
,
a fter a p a inting by Ka u lb a ch is a nother su ggestive su bject , .
Richa rd Stra u ss has gone fa rthest afield in progra mme mu sic ;

and he cla ims th a t the time will come when music ca n give a de
w orked purposely in the su ite form writing eig ht exa mples of it

, .
Most fa mou s a m ong La chner s suites is the one conta ining his well
’
known march and an orchestra l fugue In su ch su ites the form of .
the first m ovement m a y som etim es a ppr oa ch the sona ta a llegr o ;

b u t the style is not necessa rily as eleva ted as in symphony The .
other m ovem ents m ay ha ve a ny of the forms enu mera ted in the

preceding ch a pter .
Of the su ites bu ilt u p from incidentalor other music Grieg s two ,

’
“
Peer Gynt su ites a nd Bizet s two Arlésienn e su ites are the
” ” ’
best known There is no a ttempt a t sona ta a llegro form in these

.
-
works Bizet s two compositions ta ken from mu sic to Dau det s

.
’
,
’
pla y begin in fra nkly melodiou s fashion ; while the first Grieg work
,
“
opens with a tone picture of a Morning Mood tha t certai nly
-
”
suggests su nr ise a n d the growing light of da y Another well known .

-
su ite is the Nu tcra cker by Tscha ikovsky ta ken fr om one of his

, ,
ba llets .
The divertim ento is somewha t like the suite b u t even more light ,
and inf orma l in chara cter Tscha ikovsky ma de it a single su ite

.
movement .
The serenade was formerly held to be a piece or set of pieces pla y

a ble in the evenin g It thu s beca me som ewha t like the diverti
.
mento Volkma nn s Serena de for string orchestra is an exa mple

.
’
.
The old su ite com posed of da nces and similar movements will
, ,
be described in the following cha pter .
In a llthese works the composers took ca re to give the proper

ba la nce between the styles of the different movements .
XXXVIII
D AN C E S AND PIAN O Y
ST L E S
D ANCING has existed from the earliest times ; and it proba bly
origina ted a mong prehistoric races from pa ntomime in tended to
, ,
b e descripti ve Of hu nting or mar tia l scenes M a ny Of the early .
religions a dopted da ncing as p art of their cerem onia l ; but in his
toric tim es it has a lwa ys been an independent art as well .
i Cir cu la r da nces are fou nd to ha ve exis ted a mong the old su n

worshippers The Biblica l da n ce a bou t the Golden C a lf or tha t
.
,
a ro un d the b u ll Apis show the sa me cha ra cter

, A simila r rou nd .
“
forma tion existed in the Ge rma n Reigen of ea rly mediaeva l times ,
“
which su r vive in children s ga mes su ch as Little Sa lly Wa ters
’
,
”
an d others of th e so rt .
The Grecia n da n c es and the Roman pa ntomime described in an ,
ear lier cha pter had little effect on mediaeva l da ncing The art re
, .
ceived sca nt encou ra gem ent duri ng the dark a ges ; b u t the Tr ou b a
dours and Minnesingers br ought in their train a reviva l of da ncing

as well as of song In Germa ny a quick da nce was often followed
.
,
by a slow one while a la ter return Ofthe qu ick movement brought

,
a bo u t a first rondo effect In Fra nce the Fr en ch overtur e developed

.
,
from a slow da nce followed by a ra pid one There were various re .
lig ious dances O fm ore or less influ ence on the popu lar bra nch of the
,
art The Fl a gella nts ha d a penitentia l da nce whi ch they employed

. ,
in times of pla gu e or other ca la mity .
The sta tely Sa ra ba nd arose directly from the d an ce of the Spa n

ish a lta r boys on Holy Thursda y
- It was a slow da nce in triple
.
A da nce tha t is now not clearly u nderstood is the English Morris

D a nce Som e cla im tha t the title com es fr om Morisco and indica tes
. ,
a M oorish origin if not a rela tion to the Spa nish Fa nda ngo
, In .
Engla nd it was merged into an Old pa ntom im e celebra ting Robin

Hood The Morris Da nce cou ld be ma de to progr ess from pla ce
.
,
to pla ce ; and Will Kem pe once da nced it from London to Norwich .

In modern times Edward Germa n composed a very pleas ing Morri s
,
“ ”
D a nce in his m u sic to Henry VIII .
The Hornpipe once cherished by sa ilors was origina lly an Eng

, ,
lish shepherds da nce the horn being rea lly a shepher d s pipe as
’
,
’
,
shown by the name English horn The Hornpipe was a lively da n ce .
Another ru stic da nce in Engla nd was the Ha y or Hey This was , .
a cir cu l ar arra ngement much used a t Ma y D a y ga therings

, When -
.
Sha kespeare makes Ti tan ia sa y Come now a r oundel and a fairy

, , ,
song the roundel refers to the cir cu lar Hay Sometim es words
,
”
.
were sung to it .
“
In M u ch Ado a bou t Nothing Bea trice remarks tha t Wooing , ,
wedding and repenting is a Scottish jig a meas ur e an d a cinqu e

, , ,
pa ce The jig in variou s na tions was a lively 6 /8 or 12 /8 move

.
”
, ,
“
ment It was often ca lled Gigue from the Germa n word Gei ge
.
”
, ,
meaning fiddle ; and tha t instr u ment was well suited to the ra pid
sty le of the da nce The Gigu e was typica l Ofthe lover s ha ste The
.
’
.
“
Mea sure derived from Pass e Mezzo or mediu m step was more
,
”
-
, ,
“
qu iet and regu lar When Lochinvar excla ims Now tread we a
.
,
”
Measure he refers to this da nce and not to a b ar of music Its
, , .
even course typifies qu iet marri ed life a ccording to Bea trice The , .
Cinqu e Pa ce (ci nqu e p as) was a n irregu lar five step af

- -
fa ir a ptly -
,
illus tra ting the brea k u p of domestic harmony

-
.
Somewha t slower varieties of the Gigue were kn own as the Loure

an d the C a nary .
The Ga illar d was a more gra cefu l da nce thou gh still fa ir ly lively , .
In Ita ly and Fran ce it was known from its Roma n origi n as the , ,
Rom a nesca ; an d Liszt s pia no arrangement of thi s Old singing d ance

’
-
will show the gra cefu l style of its music In even rhythm it flows .
,
a long sm oothly a t first b u t hurries before the close

, Evidently the .
Ga illard dem a nded some a gility ; for an Old English letter sa ys Our ,
Ga l ia rdes are so cur ious tha t thei are not f

l or my da u n syng f or thei ,
are so fu ll of tri ckes a n d tour nes th a t he which ha th no mo re b u t

,
the pl ine Sing uepa ce is no better a ccum ptedOfth an a verie b om gler

a ”
.
The Tordion or Tourdion was much like the G a illa rd b u t

, , ,
slower a n d smoother .
Another dance mentioned by Sha kespeare is the Du mp B u t the .
“
words Pla y me some merry dump are par a doxica l since the Dump ,
The Pa va ne was a lso slow a nd sta tely b u t in even rhythm ,

.
The Cha conne was a nother slow and dignified da nce It was .
s
u ua lly in tri ple rhythm tho u gh ex a m ples in even ,
rhyth m ha ve
been fou nd It is best known now throug h B a ch s fa m ou s Cha
.
’
conne for violin a lone .
The Pa ssa ca glia was a slow da nce in tri ple rhythm mu ch like ,
the Cha conne but more often in minor It was given with mu ch
,
.
exagg era tion a nd bombast the cou ples su cceeding one a nother in
,
a fa shion tha t is now fou nd in the ca ke wa lk Som e derive the na m e -

.
from pasar ca lle which is Spanish for wa lkin g a long the street ; b u t
,
others tra ce it to p asso gallo or rooster step ,

.
The old su ite was composed of severa l of these ea rly dan ces The .
us u a l su ccession was Allema nde Coura nte Sara ba nd and Gigu e , , , ,
which suggests the genera l sty le of a symphony with the slow move
ment com ing third B u t ma ny other movem ents were permissible
.
.
Between the Sa ra ba nd an d the Gigu e Interrn ezzi wer e som etimes ,
introd u ced These were u su a lly dances of modera te pa ce like the

. ,
Gavotte or Minu et which wou ld be in su fficient contrast with the

,
slow tem po preceding them an d the ra pid tempo tha t followed The .
middle movem ents cou ld be varied Ifthis was done by m ea ns of .
”
slight embellishm ents the varia tion was known a s Les Agr éments
, ,
while a more decid ed a ltera ti on was ca lled a Dou ble Certa in move .
ments th a t were not d ances O ften entered the su ite A fu gue was .
perm issible Often it ca me after a Tocca ta a brillia nt piec e full of

.
,
technica l displa y Less a m bitiou s tha n the Tocca ta was the Tocca
.
tina The Air was a sim ple m elody while the B ur lesca was pla yfu l
.
,
in style Som ewha t like the B urlesca was the Scherzo not to be
.
,
confused with the sym phonic movement of the sa m e na m e The .
suite cou ld begin with a prelu de known under the variou s na mes ,
OfIntra d a Prea m b u l
, e Fa nta si a Overtu re or even Sinfoni a
, The , ,
.
la st word was often a pplied to an y interlude su ch as the Sym phony ,

“
in B a ch s Christm as Ora torio or the Pa stora l Sym phony in
’
,
“
H a ndel s Messiah In B a ch s B minor Su ite is a char ming m ove
’ ”
.
’
-
“
ment entitled B a dinerie which consists Of some delightfu lly
”
,
cha ttering flu te work a ga inst a n orchestra l ba ckground The Par .
tita was an early name for the su ite itself .
In more recent times Germa ny has given to musi c the LandIer

'
, ,
or cou ntry d a nce Ofwa ltz type The wa ltz itself was developed in .
D ANCES AND PIANO STYLES 355
Germ a ny a cotillion being still known as a Germa n while the da n ce

, ,
itself was the Deu tsche The wa ltz ha s been developed into a pia no
.
form not su ita ble for da ncing by Chopin Ru binstein an d others

, , , , .
The wa ltz is written in 3 /4 time b u t pla yed as if composed in ,
rhythm inste a d .
Sp a in has been devoted to the dance for ma ny centuries Most .
popu lar in tha t coun tr y is the Fa nda ngo a 3 /4 or 3 8 a ffa ir aecom ,
pa n ied by ca sta nets Loca l varieties of this are the Ma la gu ena

.
,
Rondena Gra na dina an d Mur cia na The Anda lusia n Ca chu cha
, , . .
is a nother da nce in tri ple rhythm this time fa irly ra pid Still a n , .
other da nce of the sa m e sort is the Jota The Bolero is a da nce of .
modera te pa ce in 3 /4 rhythm a ccom p a nied by ca sta nets in certa in

, ,
a lterna tions of large a n d sm a ll notes So m etim es the Boler o conta ins .
a Tira na which is a p a ssa ge of gentle 6 /

, 8 m elody The Seg uedil la .
is m ore ra pid and in 6 8 rhythm Other na tiona l Spa ni sh da nces of

, .
thi s sort are the Ja leo a nd Guara cha The Spa nish gypsies u se a n .
a ttra ctive 3 8 d a nce ca lled the Polo Gita no The Hab ari era (Ha va ‘
na ise ) a dopted b y Spa in fr om C u ba is in modera te tem po a n d

, , ,
usu a lly in tr iple rhythm thoug h the one in Bizet s opera Carmen
,
’
shows even rhyth m with frequ ent tri plets , .
Ita ly has given mu sic the Tara ntella a swift ru nn ing d a nce in , ,
6/ 8 rhyth m It is sa id tha t this da nce was na m ed fro m the ta ra n

.
tu la as its fiery style wou ld incite people to the exertion of ra pid

,
da ncing tha t was held necessa ry in curing tha t spider s bite ; b u t ’
the Ita lia n tara ntula was evidently not the tr opica l one The Sa l .
ta rel lo i s a n Ita lia n d a nce of sim ilar style b u t conta ining m o r e skips ,
tha n the Tara ntella Mendelssohn ended his Ita lia n Sym phony
.
with a Sa ltarello The Fur la na or Forlane is a ra pid 6 /8 a ffa ir of

.
, ,
Ven etia n origin mu ch u sed b y the gondoliers Ponchielli em ployed it

, .
“ “
in La Gioconda a n d Wolf Ferrari did the sa me in The Jewels of
”
,
-
the Ma donna The Sicilia no was a pas tora lSicilia n da nce or da nce
”
.
,
song of gentle a nd soothi ng chara cter in slow 6 8 or 12 8 rhyth m

, ,
.
Am ong the da n ces of Pr ovence the Fa ran dole is best kn own b e , ,
“
ca u se ofBizet s us e of it in his Arlésienne m u sic It is a lively
’ ”
.
,
ra pid d a nce som etimes in 4 4 rhythm but occa siona lly in 6 /

,
8 The ,
.
Fran ca ise denotes a gra cefu l French da nce in rhythm The .
Ga lop is a ver y qu ick dance genera lly 2 4 thou gh other rhythms , ,
are som etimes used .

Among Sla vic da nces the Cra covienne (Kra kowiak ) is a Polish
,
da nce in rhythm The Varsovienne is in modera te

. rhythm .
The Pola cca is simila r to this but somewha t qu icker This mu st , .
not be confu sed with the Polka which is the Bohem ia n Pulka a , ,
ra pid d a nce in even rhythm Ra ffa nd Rubinstein composed polkas.

,
b u t the da nce does not O ffer ma ny mu sica l possibilities The .
M azurka (Masurek ) is a Polish da nce in tri ple rhythm and ra ther

ca priciou s style It has frequ ent a ccents on the second bea t of the
.
mea sure which the da ncers empha size by a kick The Polk a Ma
, .
zu rka is a bou t the sa me in style thou gh slower and with the un ex , ,
p ec ted a ccents on the thir d bea t The Polka Redowa is faster and .
,
has no un u sua l a ccents The Redowa itself sometim es a lterna tes

.
a nd mea sures The Czarda s or Csarda s is a fiery Hun

.
, ,
gar ia n dance Most sta tely of a llis the Polona ise origina lly a dign i
. ,
fied da nce para de in which the Poles marched before their lea der
-
,
John Sobieski when he was given the Polish cr own Chopin ma de

, .
excellent use of both Polona ise a nd Ma zurka .
Norwa y offers the Spring dans (3 /4 ) a nd the H a lling (2 / both

illu stra ted in the shorter works of Grieg The la tter is a boisterous .
a ffa ir for men only a t which the perfo rmers try to kick the low
,
rafters of the barn or other bu ilding where they d a nce .
Russia has ma ny folk d ances The one exerting most infl u en ce

-
.
on mu sic is the lively da nce for men known as the Ka m ari nskaia ,
which Tsch a ikovsky ma de into a symphonic movem ent .
“
Scotland is su ggested by the Schottische or Scotch D ance , .
This is a slow da nce in even rhythm ha ving a number of short ,
notes in ea ch b a r to which the performers ta ke three modera te

,
steps and two qu ick ones The Reel is a very a nima ted affa ir in
.
,
ra pid even rhythm The Stra thsp ey is somewha t slower an d has

.
,
wha t is known as the Scotch sna p a sixteenth note followed by ,
a dotted eighth note The Contra D a nce or Cou ntry D a nce known
.
-
, ,
in Engla nd and other la nds is a ru stic a ffa ir mu ch u sed in former

, ,
centuries and somewha t resembling our Virginia Reel ; for the

,
da ncers were pla ced in opposite rows and ma de to go throu gh cer ,
ta in figures a ccompa nied by ra pid four b ar or eight b a r phrases in - -
the mu sic The Q u icks tep was a sort Ofmarch in very ra pid 6 /8
.
rhythm . The Q ua drille was origina lly a French d ance consisting ,
of five movements which were entitled La P a nta lon La P oule

, , ,
par t stru ctu re the fir st part or Lassa n being slow a n d very mela n
, , ,
chol y while
,
the la st pa r t the Fr iska is wild a n d fier,y , .
The Prelu de is a short piece in free form wri tten to precede

a nother piece Thu s a Pr elude precedes ea ch Fugu e in Ba ch s ’
.
“
Well tempered Cla vichor d Chopin trea ted the Prelude as a sep
-
”
.
ara te form a n d its free im p assioned sty le suited his geni u s well
, , .
The Reverie is a drea my tender com position O ften in one Ofthe , ,
song forms
-
.
The Rom a nza is a piece expressing roma ntic fee ling if not a iming ,
a t a n a ctu a l sto ry It m a y be written in one of the song form s or

.
-
rondos b u t is usua lly free in style

, .
The Poem e is si mila r to the Roman za .
The Legende carries with it a sugg estion of legen dary roma nce
’
or su perna tura l mystery Wienia wski s Légende for violin a n d

.
’
pia no is an a d m ira ble exa mple .
The B a lla de is a nother work in poetic an d emotiona l style with ,
some degree of narra tive su ggesti on Chopin s Ba lla des are good .
’
exa mples .
The Ita lia n term B alla ta sometimes mea ns B a lla de b u t is m ore ,
often a da n ces ong or da nce like piece - .
The Novelette a title well u sed by Schuma nn is a piece com

, ,
posed of sections so strikin g an d chara cteristic tha t they seem to

tell a story .
The Novellozza ca rries with it a hu morou s suggestion Godar d s .

’
Novel lozza is a n a d m ira ble illu stra tion .
The Ca ba letta is a pleas ingly melodiou s piece of fa irly simple ,
style with an a ccompa niment of tri plets or other notes tha t will
,
su ggest a ga lloping horse .
The Nocturne is a pie ce in emotiona l style representing the

poetic feelings a roused by evening or night Fi eld was a pioneer in .
this form b u t Chopin s Nocturnes soon drew a ttention a wa y from

,
’
those of the ea rlier composer .
The Ber ceu se is a cra dle song gen era lly with a lulling 6 /8 rhythm
-
, .
Chopin s Ber ceu se is an exa mple

’
.
The Ser ena de is a n evening song of melodious cha ra cter su ggest ,
ing a love song Both Serena de and Nocturne on ce referred simply

-
.
to music for evening use .

DANCES AND PIANO STYLES 359
The Au ba de is a morning song Liszt s tra nscr iption of Schu .

’
“
ber t s Hark ha rk the lar k is a n instrumentalexa mple
’
,
”
, .
The Pa stora le is a piece of ru stic suggestion .
The Bar ca rolle is an Ita lia n boa t song suggested in instrumenta l -

,
music It is genera lly in swingy 6/8 rhythm

. .
The Gondoliera is sim ila r to the Ba rca rolle b u t ca rri es a defin ite ,
sugg estion of Venetia n ef fects .
The Ca va tina is a sm ooth a ttra ctive melody in voca l mu sic and

, ,
in pia no mu sic mu st keep the sa me style Ra f fs expressive C a va .

’
tina for pia no and violi n is an excellent illu stra tion .
The Eleg ie or Dirge is a melodious piece of sa d or mournfu l

, ,
The Song Withou t Words is a short melodiou s piece of song like -
cha ra cter co m posed definitely in one of the song fo rm s

,
-
.
The Mom ent Mu sica l is a short piece of m elodious style .
“
The Ba ga telle mea ning tr ifle is a short and simple piece
,
”
, .
The Albu m bla tt or Albu m Lea f is a short piece of improvisa

, ,
ti ona lcha ra cter su ch as one might write in a n a lbum

, .
The Im prom ptu is a nother piece of m a r ked improvisa tiona l style .
The E tu de is prima rily a tec hnica l stu dy b u t m a y be ma de of ,
interesting mu sic Chopin s E tudes are exa mples in point being

.
’
,
stu dies in the sense tha t a pa inter s sketches are studies ’

.
The Intermezzo is a short piece in free sty le genera lly found b e ,
tween others .
The Entr a cte is a piece to be pla yed between the a cts of an

’
opera So m etim es su ch a piece is known a lso as a n Inter mezzo ; b u t

.
the la tter m a y occur a t other pla ces as the Intermezzo in Mas ,
“
’
ca g n i s Ru stic Chiva lry will show
”
.
The Po tpourri is a medley in which variou s fra gm ents of a m u si

ca lwor k are strung together in conti n u ou s sha pe Potp ourris from .
the fa mou s opera s are the most common exam ples .
The Pa sticcio is a medley O fa nother sort ma de u p of variou s ,
sin gle pieces In a n O pera tic pas ticcio words are set to m elodies a l
. ,
rea dy existin g separa tely The Pas ticcio m a y be ba sed on works of

.
“ ”
m ore tha n one co m poser Orefice s O pe ra Chopin is an exa m ple’
.
Ofthe Pa sticcio In tha t work Orefice took variou s Chopin pieces

. , ,
a n d blended them into a n O pe ra by a dding suita ble words .

XXXIX
THE VO CAL FORMS
THE larger forms enu m era ted in the preceding cha pters are not
used in voca l mu sic Voca l r ondos exist in second rondo form ; b u t
.
,
they are never very in tri ca te in constru ction M a ny songs are writ .
ten in the song forms while some Show the Sha pe of song form with
-
,
-
tri o ; b u t voca l mu sic has forms and styles of its own .
Alessa ndro Sca r la tti developed the da capo aria a n d used it in ,
his ope ra s This is pra ctica lly a voca l song form with tri o consist
.
-
,
ing of a section an a lterna ting section an d the repea t of the first

, ,
section An exa mple of this sh a pe is fou nd in the solo He was

.
“
despised from H a ndel s Messiah Sometimes there is only a
” ’
.
,
partia l return .
Opera a t first ga ve a n importa nt pla ce to recita tive which is ,
mu sica l decla ma tion mu ch resembling speech thou gh a lwa ys with a ,
definite pitch As ea rly as H a ndel s time there were two varieties

.
’
reci t a ti vo secco with no su pport except occa siona l chords a n d

, ,
r eci ta ti vo strom en ta to with a mu ch fuller and more varied a ecom

,
“
pa n im en t Both kinds are p resent in Com fort ye the opening
”
.
,
nu mber of The Messia h The a ccompa nied recita tive comes first
”
.
,
the cha nge a ppear ing with the words The voice Ofhim tha t crieth ”
The songs of Ha ndel s time were cla ssed in five varieties —a ria
, .
di bravu ra , a ri a
di p or ta m en to, a ri a di m ezzo ca rattere, ari a p a rl
a nte,
and ari a ca n ta bil

e .
The fir st of these the a ri a di bravu ra was a imed to displa y voca l

, ,
.
“
techniqu e The old solos of this sort su ch as H a ndel s Ev ry va l ’ ’
,
” “ “
ley or Why do the na tions so furiou sly ra ge (in The Messia h
”
ma ke grea t dema nds on a singer s a bility to give ra pid roulades in ’
clea n cu t style These a rias are full of bea u tifu l mu sic wherein
-
.
,
they are su perior to the mea ning less brillia nce of certa in showy
scenes in Ita lia n opera The a ri a di bravu ra was usua lly given
.
“
to a fem a le voice Rej oice grea tly being a good example in
”
,
The Messia h ”
.
Sep ara te com positi on Mendelssohn s Infeli ce is .
’
an independent
scen a .
The hymn is a song or p art song with ac comp animent set to -

, ,
the words ofsome sa cred poem Hymns are divided into phrases .
corresponding with the lines of the poem For four line st anz as .
-
,
most hymns are in the Sing le period form antecedent an d c onse -

,
qu ent e ac h extend ing for two lines Eight line settings of hym ns .
-
are u su ally in the two period form som etimes independent a nd -

, ,
som eti mes with p ar ti al retu rn The metre Ofhymns is shown by .
letters or nu mbers S M or short metre describes a n i ambic hym n

. . .
, ,
with four line stanz as e ach of which consists of six Six eight and
-
, , , ,
six syll a bles respectively in the lines C M or common metre has . . .

, ,
four i ambic lines containing respectively eight six eight and six , , ,
sy ll ables L M or long metre consists wholly of eight syll abled

. . .
, ,
-
iambic lines The letter D a fter any of the a bove signifies dou ble
.
length stanz as and c alls for an eight line tu ne Other metr es are
,
-
.
a lm ost al ways shown by figures A Single figure will do if allthe .
lines are equ al ; as for insta nce 73 signifyin g seven syll abled
, , ,
-
(troch aic ) lines If the lines are not al

. lequ a l it is cu stom ary to ,
give the nu mber of syll a bl es in e ach line ; as for instance 8 : 7 : 8 z7 , , ,
in which (troch aic ) lines of eight and seven syll ables are altern a ted .
In some c ases the letters P M are used to signify pecu li ar metr e . . .
The anthem is a p art song set to sa cred words with accom p ani
~
,
ment Anthems are u su a lly mu ch more am bitiou s and v aried in

.
style th an hymns They are Often su ng by a choir which will take

.
,
al lthe p ar ts ; where as a hymn ifsu ng by a congrega tion is usu al ly , ,
given wholly in the soprano p art as a u nison melody , .
Ch ants and ca nticles form a p art of vari ou s church services .
The c an ticles or other music in pl ain -song or pl ai n ch an t m ake ,

-
,
use of the Gregori a n modes .
In the ti me Ofthe contr apunt al schools music was a lm ost eu ,
tirely voc al Cou nterpoint in its simplest Signific ance me ans p art
.
, ,
wri ting .
Among the contrapu ntal forms used for voice the motet was a ,
sacred p art song It has been derived from m otus or movement and
-
.
, ,
fr om m ot me aning the s acr ed Wor d

, .
The m adr igal was the chief riv al of the motet The n ame has .
been derived from m adre me aning mother and expl ained as desig , ,
THE VOCAL FORMS 3 63
n atin g a song in praise of the Vir gin ; b u t this definition is not fin al ,
since m adrigals tr ea ted Secu l ar su bjects also In the m a dr ig a l the .

,
melody or ca ntus was usu ally divided among the v ari ous p arts
, , ,
inste ad of being kept to one voice A tru e madrig alwas alw ays sung
.
withou t accom p animent The term is Often misa pplied

. .
‘
The chorales of Lu ther s time and l a ter were very strong and
’
rug ged in ch ar acte r They Often conta ined sugg estions of the har
.
monic style an d a more definite melodic stru cture th an was com

,
Bu t the most important voca l form Ofthe contr apu nt al period

was the m ass The compose rs fondness f or m a sses an d their use
’
.
,
of popular tu nes in them has been mentioned alre ady M a sses

, .
are wri tten by modern co m posers a lso ; b u t these ar e usu ally le s s
stri ctly contr a pu nt a l th a n the older works .
The chief divisions of the m ass are the Kyrie Lo rd h ave ,

“ ” “
the Glori a (conta ining also the Qu i tollis Q u on i am ”
, ,
“
and Cu m Sa ncto the Credo (h avi ng as su bdivisions
“ ” “
Et incarn a tu s the S anctus ; the
”
, Et resurrexi t and ,
B enedictus ; the Agnu s Dei ; an d the Don a nobis The v ar ying .
emotions of the L atin words used in these divisions ena ble com
posers to tre at the form with due variety and contrast Ofstyle .
The Requi em m ass is generally shorter It omits the Glori a and

.
,
“ ” “
conta ins inste a d a Requ iem aeterna m Lux saterna a nd Dies
,
”
,
iri s
”
. The last division is a thirteenth century poem describing the
-
The Sta ba t Ma ter is a nother mediaeva l La tin poem depicting ,
Hora tio Parker ma de an adm ira ble setting of the early La tin
“
poem entitled Hora Novissima This work is rea lly an ora torio
”
. .
“
Shorter Latin poems tha t are Often set inclu de Veni C rea tor ”
,
ing the variou s phas es of som e Biblica l s u bject or event Su ch a .
work consists Ofsolos ensem bles of more tha n one voice choruses
, , ,
an d even instr umenta l interlu des Two styles of ora torio are u sed
. ,
being known as the epic and the dra ma tic In the form er the singers
.
merely narra te the text in its voca l gui se ; b u t in the la tter sty le ,
“ ”
ea ch singer represen ts a certa in chara cter H andel s Messia h ’
.
364 THE B OOK OF MUSICAL KNOWL EDGE
is epic while hi s Sa mson is d ra ma tic Mendelssohn combined

,
.
“ “
the two styles in his Sa int Pa a nd Elij ah ”
.
The Pa ssion is an ora torio dea ling with the ma rtyrdom of Chr ist .
“
The best exa mple is the Sa int M a tthew Pas sion by B a ch
”
, .
The ca nta ta is a voca l work somewha t Similar to the ora torio in

genera l a spect b u t trea ting a secular su bject Ca nta ta s are usua lly
, .
shorter tha n ora torios though not necessarily so ; a n d they are gen
,
era ly less contra p u ntal Sa cred ca nta ta s exist tr ea ting religious

l .
,
su bjects in a brief or inform a l ma nner .
The tra ditions of H a ndel and Mendelssohn have ma de Engla nd

the home of ora torio and ca nta ta In Germa ny the epic ca nta ta s.
” “ “
of Max Bruch su ch as Frithj of
, Odysseus a nd Arminiu s ,
”
, ,
deserve especia l mention .
The English composer Gra nville B antock has recently en dea v

ored to fou nd a new form consisting of separa te movements for
,
“
voices alone His Ata la nta in C a lydon divides the voices into
.
”
severa l grou ps a nd trea ts the variou s grou ps much as a n orch estra l

,
work wou ld tr ea t its individu a l instru m enta l parts The composi .
tion is in four sections an d the contra sts of style are much l ike those
,
Ofthe symphonic movements .
Stri ctly spea king melodra ma is not a voca l form It is music

, .
set as an a ccompa niment to spoken words and dema nds a rea der ,
“
instea d of a singer Schu mann s melodra ma pa ssa ges in Man
.
’
fred a dd excellent orchestra l mu sic to parts of Byron s poem ; while ’
the Enoch Arden of Richar d Strau ss pla ces a str ikin g piano
”
a ccomp a niment a ga ins t Tennyson s wor ds The Bohem ia n com ’

.
“
poser Fib ich has set a n entire tr ilogy Hippoda mia in this ”
, ,
fashion Melod ra ma is one of the few forms tha t ha ve not yet re

.
ceived the a ttention they deserve .
The Singspiel with music either as a setting for the importa nt

,
parts of a d ra ma or as a diversion in the unimporta nt pa rts has ,
been described a lrea dy in connection with early opera

, .
The opera itself is too free in style to be ca lled a definite form ;

but the different schools of opera Show various distinctive charac ~
teristics Peri and the Flo renti nes who helped him meant ope ra
.
, ,
to be declama tory with the music heightening the effect of the

,
a ction. But Opera grew a wa y from tha t idea ] a nd by the time Of ,
H a ndel it was practica lly a singing concert wi th a conventiona l

,
-
,
THE C O N TRAP UNTAL FORMS
WHEN the l aym an learns th a t counterpoint is Simply p art writing -

,
he takes the sta tement lightly The stu dent however who has
.
, ,
been through a course in the hea rt brea ki ng rules th a t govern the

-
leading of the p arts a ppreci a tes the fac t th a t cou nterpoint is an

,
important branch Ofmusic The composer finds a knowledge of

.
cou nterpoint a lmos t indispensa ble ; and the rea der will remem ber
that Schu bert pl anned a thorough course in this bran ch just before
While composers in the h ar monic style m ake use of cou nterpoint

in a p assing way an d allow suggestions of it to stre ngthen their
,
works there are a lso certai n contrapu ntal forms th a t are wholly
,
independent of the h armonic style Cou nterpoint is the science of

.
combining melodies instead ofsupporting a melody by chords

, .
Counterpoint is cl assified into five dif ferent vari eties In the first .
order the dif

, fer ent p arts Show note agai nst note In cou nterpoint .
of the second order two (or sometimes three ) notes of disca nt

,
(a ccomp anyi ng p art ) are used for e ach one in the ca ntus firm us
(fixed theme ) The third order shows four notes agai nst one The
. .
fourth var iety consists O fsyn cop ated cou nterpoint in which ea ch ,
note of the discant begins when a note of the can tus is h alf done .
The fifth v ariety florid cou nterpoint m akes use of a llthe preced
, ,
ing kin ds in a single com position .
Good examples of counterpoint as used in h armonic works m ay

be found in the las t p ar t of the first section of the slow movement
in Beethoven s Seventh Symphony a n d a lso in the l a tter par t of
’
,
“
Wagner s Ta nnhau ser M arch where fa irl y ra pid a n d regu l ar b ass
’ ”
’
notes ar e used against the retur n of the first theme in chords , .
Cou nterpoint of the third order is su ggested by both examples .
When two voices or p ar ts are wri tten in counterpoint it is pos

, , ,
sible for the composer to make them of su ch a n a ture th a t they can

be transposed as a whole with referen ce to each other and m ade to ,
THE CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS
exch ange positions One p art m ay be tra nsposed an octa ve while
.
the other sta ys in its origin a l position ; or the sa me resu lt can b e

rea ched by h a ving one p ar t move u p a fif th while the other is trans
posed do wn by a fourth ; or one m a y move u p an d the other down
a n octa ve Su ch an inversion of p arts is ca lled dou ble counterpoint
.
.
In the c ases su ggested the ch a nge in rel a tive position wou ld

,
alwa ys b e in octa ves ; an d the tr ansposition is spoken of as dou ble
counterpoint a t the octa ve B u t other interva ls m ay be used in

.
stead ofthe octa ve Dou ble cou nterpoint a t the tenth is frequ ently
.
fou nd in the old works .
Dou ble counterpoint m a y be a ccompa nied by one 0 1 more ' '
free p arts in other voices .
Tr iple cou nterpoint wou ld consist of three parts inverted in any

order This is mu ch h arder to wri te th an double counterpoint
.
.
Even higher orders th an tri ple counterpoint m ay exist .
Im ita tion is O ften used in cou nter point Th a t consists Ofthe em

.
ploym ent O fthe sa me figure or figures in more th an one p art at ,
different tim es .
One p art m ay be m ade to serve as its own accomp animent by ,
h aving the sa me m a teri al sta rt in a second voice after it has alr eady
begun in the first As sta ted e arlier in this work su ch a use of a
.
,
them e or m elody for its own accomp anim ent is called a can on The .
second p ar t usu ally begins one or two m easures after the first has
begun The second p ar t m ay sta rt at any desired interva l from the
.
first mak ing a canon a t th a t interval Ifthe p arts begin an octa ve

, .
ap art a ca non a t the octa ve res u lts In Jadassohn s Pi anofor te ’

, .
Album (Op are a n u mber of ca nons some of which are a t the

.
,
seventh or other intervals A ca non at the u nison m ay exist the

, . ,
second p ar t starting the theme on the sa me note with which it b e

g an An ex ample of su ch p r oced ur e is fou nd in Mar zi al s s d u et in
’
.
ca non entitled Fri endship In this the voices ta ke the s ame melody
”
.
,
one voice beginning a m easure l a ter than the other B u t if one voice .
is male and one fem ale the song becomes a ca non at the octa ve
,
.
The Old puzzle canons were des cribed in the ch apter on the con
trapu n ta lschools The melody of a cra b ca non it will be remem
. ,
bered is accomp an ied by the s ame melody sun g b ackwar ds Thi s

,
.
ca non was sometimes kn own as the ca non p er recte et retro It m ay .
“
al so be resta ted th a t the phrase Out of light d arkness or vi ce , ,
versa , me a nt th a t the white (hollow) notes of a melody were to be
u sed in a ccom p animent as bl a ck (soli d ) notes h a ving a different ,
time va lu e or vi ce versa
,
.
The stu dy of the contra punta l forms is one th at u su ally ar ou ses

the pu pil s enthusi asm Only a few illu strations and an alyses c an
’
.
be given here ; b u t by the understan ding of these the stu dent shou ld
be en abled to continu e by himself and an a lyze allthe music th a t
,
he stu dies .
If the stu dent will look a t the second of B a ch s Fi fteen Two Part ’
-
Inventions he will find ex amples of var iou s p oints mentioned in the

,
foregoing p aragra phs In the first pla ce the ten opening measur es
.
,
form a ca non The lower voice u ses the sam e m a teri al as the upper
.
voice does a t an interval Ofan octa ve downward By h aving the

,
.
lower voice start two measures after the upper one a canon is made ,
in whi ch the lower voice u ses eig ht measures of the m a teri a l fou nd
in the upper voice Then there is a ch an ge One p art moves down
. .
an eleventh a nd the other u p a fif

, th m aking dou ble counterpoint
,
a t the oct ave (r e ally the dou ble octa ve ) The m a teri a l is then .
started by the lower p art while now it is the upper p art th a t enters
,
two m easures l a ter with the c anonic accom p animent after filling ,
in free ma teri al for these two measur es When the second c an on .
ends two measures of modu l atory ch aracter are found with the
, ,
lower p art in the first one becoming the u pper p ar t in the second .
T he next four me as ures Show simil ar contr apunt al ch anges ; and

a fter them the piece closes .
An inspection of other Inventions in the set will show th a t such

pieces are not allc ast in the s am e mou ld The Invention m ay be .
defined as a short contrapu nta l piece som ewh a t in the inform al ,
style Ofan improvisa tion b u t always a imed to show ingenu ity

, .
Most varied and interesti ng of allthe contra pu nta l forms is the

fugue The n am e comes from the La tin word fu ga meaning a
.
,
flight ; and dif ferent voices ta ke up the fu gal themes successively ,
in a ma nner th at m akes the term appropri ate enou gh The fu gu e .
is bu ilt up from one or two them a tic ideas which are woven and ,
interwoven into an in trica te and be au tiful ton al design .
The fu gue consists of m ateri al of three sorts exposition stret , ,
tos and episodes The exposition comes first after whi ch strettos
, .
,
and episodes altern ate with one anothe r .

Strettos are ca nons m a de by the a ppea ra nce of su bject or a nswer
in different voices star ting a t different times Su ch c a nons m a y
,
.
occa sion ally use the theme in more th a n two voices th us ma ki ng a ,
c anon Ofm ore tha n two pa rts At the end of the fifth fugu e in vol .
um e II of the Well tempered Cl a vichord there is a stretto which

-
runs through four voices .
Other trea tments of subject and an swer are ca lled r epercu ssions .
The exposition leads into a first episode which ends in a pa ssi ng ,
c adence After this the first str etto a ppe ars Then come other
. .
episodes followed in each case b y other str ettos until fina lly the
, ,
fu gu e ends with wh a t is ca lled the cod a episode In a stri ct fu gue -

.
,
the number of strettos and episodes is arranged by rule an d their ,
keys determ i ned in the sa me way There m ay b e also a cou nter .
exposition giving answer and su bject in a reversed su ccession of

,
voices just after the first episode

, .
Fug ues m ay be cl as sified in a number of w ays

1 A fu gue is known by the nu mber of voices th a t it uses ; as for
.
,
instance a four voiced fugu e a three voiced fugue etc

,
-
,
-
, .
2 A fu gu e m ay h ave more th an one su bject a sing le fugue hav

.
,
ing one a dou ble fu gu e two in su cc ession etc

, , .
3 When the an swer u ses ex actly the sam e interv als as the su b
.
j ec t the
, f u gu e is c a lled a r e a l fugue ; b u t if the interva ls are a t all
“
a lter ed in the a nswer to keep it in the key or tone the fu gue is
”
, , ,
known as a ton al fugue .
4 Fugu es m a y sometimes be cl as sed by the sc ales they use ; as

.
dia tonic fu gu es withou t accident als ; chrom a tic fu gues with a su b

, ,
j ec t wholly chr om a tic ; or even fu gu es n amed after one of the Gre

gori a n tones when su ch a sca le is employed .
5 Fugues are cl as sified als o by any tr e a tment given to the an

.
swer This m ay be augmented inverted or otherwise ch an ged

.
, , ,
givi ng rise to au gmented inverted or other fu gu es , , .
6 Fugu es are cl as sed as strict or free ac cor ding to whether they

.
,
do or do not follow the key schedule and nu mber of strettos a nd -
episodes prescribed by the rules for a stri ct fu gue These rules are .
seldom respected now but they m ay be found in the text books on

,
-
fuga l composition .
A free fu gue is by no mean s nec essarily simpler th an a stri ct one .
“
The fu gues in the Well te mpered Cl avichord are very free for
-
”
THE CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS 3 71
the most p ar t ; b u t at the same tim e they Show the gre a test ori gin al
ity a nd the mos t m arked c ontr a pu nta l ski ll In som e of them the
, .
cou ntersu bject is worked u p a long wi th the su bject ; in others there

is no re al cou ntersu bject ; whi le still others are com posed of dou ble
or tri ple coun ter point instea d of str ettos a nd episodes B u t every .
one of them is alm ost wholly derived by contr apu nta l tr ansform a
ti ons of the m a teri al in its exposition .
A fug a to p assa ge is a p assag e th a t su ggests fu g al tr eatment .
For a cle ar ex ample of fu gue the rea der m ay look at no 7 in , .
“
volum e II Ofthe Well temper ed Cl avichor d It is fou nd to be a
-
”
.
four voiced fu gue with a single su bject ; it is a ton al fu g ue becau se

-
, ,
the answer devi a tes once from the intervals of the su bject ; it is not
an au gmented inver ted or other wise a lter ed fugue ; an d l astly it
, , ,
The p arts enter from the lowest u pwar d The su bject l asts for .
si x b ar s an d ends on the first note of the next b ar the a nswer b e

, ,
ginning while this fin al note of the su bject is sou nded The a nswer .
starts with a fourth inste a d of a fifth b u t follows the subject in all

,
its l ater intervals In spite of a sim il arity in the accom p animent to

.
the su bject or a nswer ther e is no rea l cou ntersu bject The answer
, .
does not overl ap when it ends and there is even a brief interlu de
, ,
in m e asur e 13 before the su bject enters in the alto voice The sam e
, .
interlu de recur s before the sopra no voice enters with the a nswer .
When the exposition ends on the first be a t O fb ar 2 5 the first epi

, ,
sode continu es it to a ca dence three me as ures la ter There is no .
p a use at this cadence however ; an d in b ar 2 8 the tenor voice starts

,
the answer with its first note shorten ed so th at it fills only the l ast
,
h alf of the measur e In b ar 2 9 the su bject enters in the b ass p art

. ,
m aki ng a str etto In b ar 3 1 the upper two voices stop giving thi s
.
,
stretto fu ll prom inence In measure 3 5 the alto sta rts the answer
.
, ,
while the sopr ano begins the su bject in the next me asu re forming ,
a nother stretto Ih om b ar 42 onwar d a n episode is foun d f air ly

'
. ,
free in sh a pe b u t conforming to the gener al sty le of the preceding

,
work In b ar 51 the su bject re appe ars in a repercu ssion ta ken by

.
,
the tenor voice in the su bdom inan t key After this in b ar 57 the .
, ,
a nswer begins in the sopra no ; while the su bject entering in the ,

b ass p art in the next measure forms another str etto This stretto
, .
is the fin a l one ; and it is ma de maj estica lly prominent by the use

O fthe two outside voices while the two middle voi c es add str ength
,
by their a ccomp a niment The su bject ends on the first bea t of b ar

.
64 an d the cod a episode then closes the wo rk Thus this fu gu e is

,
- .
chiefly ma de of three com plete ca nons .
Sometimes a climax is brought a bou t near the end of a fu gue , ,
by the use of wha t is known as an organ point or peda l point This , .
is a long susta ined note in the b ass over which the other p arts pro
-
,
oec d continu ously .
In fu g ue no 5 of the a bove mentioned volume a different stru c

.
-
ture is fou nd This is a four voiced Single an d free fu gu e ; b u t ex

.
-
, ,
a min a tion Shows th a t it is r ea l inste a d of ton al The subjec t consists .
O fthe first nine notes and ends on the first h a lf of the thir d be a t in
,
the second measure The exposition is consequ ently very short

.
,
and the fu gu e is found to consist chiefly of str ettos an d episodes .
Str ettos will be fou nd in b ar s 14 2 1 (three voices ) 27 33 and 44

, , , .
The episodes it will be noted ar e m ade up chiefly of the su bject

, ,
ma terial Sometimes the su bject or answer a ppea rs in a single p art

.
d u ring these episodes ; b u t more O ften they are bu ilt l ar gely or

wholly Ofa figure ta ken directly from the l as t four notes of the su b
ject The student wi ll fin d it an interesting exercise to mark with
.
pencil every a ppe arance of this figure .
The fina l stretto of this fugue has been cited already as going
throu gh allfour voices ; b u t it merits still closer a ttention E xami n a .
tion will Show th a t the theme enters su ccessively in the soprano ,
a lto ,tenor and bass voices ; th a t the time interva l between one
,
-
a ppe ara nce and the next is alwa ys the sam e ; and th a t the sca le
degree difference between one a ppe ara nce an d the next is also kept
the sam e The scale intervalbetween su ccessive appearan ces of the
.
-
them e is always a third thou gh an extra octa ve is added between

,
the alto an d tenor p ar ts Su ch a str etto in which the time intervals

.
,
-
an d the sca le degree diff

-
eren ces are kept equ al while the them e
appe ars in a l lvoices in su ccession is ca lled a stretto m a estra l
, e or ,
masterly stretto In the exam ple cited it occu pies less th an three
.
,
measur es ; and this will serve to illu str a te the fa ct th a t a seem

y simple contr a punta l p assa ge m ay show the most varied an d
in g l
intrica te beau ty to those who h ave lear ned to apprecia te it The .
THE INSTRUMENTS
378 THE B OOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWLEDGE
violin by slight pitch vari a tions b u t gave in addition a varying
, ,
power O ftone gr ea test when the string was tightest This tr emolo
,
.
effect (Bebung ) m ade the cl a vichord very expressive Beethoven .
tri ed to imita te it on the pia no by a lterna tely pressing an d releasing

the soft peda l ; b u t he did not su cceed The clavichord tone thou gh .
,
soft is of an infinitely appea ling sweetn ess

,
.
In the spinet h arpsichord type the keys were provided with

-
,
q u ills or j acks which plu cked the stri ng in p assing as ea ch key

, ,
was pl a yed The j ac ks were sometimes m ade of lea ther instead of

.
The sma llest instrument of this type was known as the octa vina ,
a nd consisted ofa Single octa ve of keys in a sm a ll box The virgi .
n als which wholly supe rseded the O lder cl a vicytheri u m was still
, ,
box like in Sh ape b u t had four octaves It cou ld give mu sic of some
-
, .
worth ; a nd the English Virginal school Ofcomp osers who flour ished ,
in and after the Eliz a beth an ag e wrote pieces of as tonishing ,
bre adth and valu e for this little ins trument The n ame virgin als .
ca me from the fa ct th a t the instrument was a favorite with young

gir ls As the qu ill p as sed over its stri ng to plu ck it a scraping noise
. ,
was u su a lly au dible ; a nd this ma de the histo ri an B urney descri be

“
the tone as a scra tch with a sou nd a t the end O fit ”
.
The n am e spinet is derived either fr om spi na a thorn in su gg es , ,
tion of the pointed qui lls or from Spinetti a Veneti an maker The
, , .
spinet was sometimes squ are b u t more Often h arp sh a ped lik e our,
-
,
gr a nd pianos While the virginals was a mere box set on a ta ble

. .
,
the spinet ha d legs of its own Its longer strings ga ve a fu ller tone .
,
though still somewha t light .
The ear ly h arpsi chords had a compass of less th an five octaves .
B u t the instrument grew u ntil we find su ch m akers as the Ru cker s

,
or T askin p r od u cing h arpsichor ds with two l arge keybo ards a nd
ha lf a dozen pedals The dou ble h arpsichord had two strings (and
- -
.
two qu ills ) for eac h tone The second keyboard had j ac ks of differ
.
ent m a teria l from the first to O bta in a different tone qu ality The
,
-
.
vari ou s ped als cou ld make one qu ill effective inste ad of two or ,
cou ple the two m anu a ls together or caus e the sou nding of any note ,
with the octa ve a bove or below Th us the h arpsichord had a gr ea t .
vari ety Ofeffects and was a worthy instrument even though its
, ,
tone was somewha t tin p anny -

.
THE PIANO AND ITS PREDECESSORS 3 79
There was an upright spinet ca lled the cl avicytherium which ,
must not be confused with the earlier instru ment of th a t na me .
The pia no (Germa n cl a vi er; French pi a noforte; Ita li a n pi a n o

, , ,
forte) di ffers from allthese instruments in going b ack to the ham m er

idea used in the du lcimer Su ch a ham mer ac tion was first brou ght
.
-
ou t by the Ital ia n Cristofori a t Pa du a in 17 11 Similar inventions

, .
were cla imed by the Fre nchman M ar ius the Germ an Schr oeter , ,
and the E nglishm a n Wood ; b u t C ristofori deserves the re a l credit .
The ear ly pian os had two strings to a note where ours h ave thr ee .
As a result of this the old term ca lling for soft pedal was u na corda
, ,
or one stri ng the other being thr own ou t of a ction by the soft pedal
, .
Now we should sa y due corde as two str ings are left in action when
,
the soft peda l ta kes one ou t On the old pia nos due corde signified
.
,
a relea se of the soft peda l At present this is ca lled for by the

.
words tre cards .
The pian o did not a t once displac e the older instruments This .
was especia lly tru e of the cl avi chord on which the soft tender , ,
tones were wholly different from the piano qu ality B a ch kept to .
the cla vichord whi le the harpsichord conti nu ed to hold its own
,
even in Mozar t s time It was Beethoven who tu rned the sc ale

’
.
definitely in fa vor of the piano ; for his broad and massive ef fects
were too strong for the h arpsichord .
The pian o of tod a y m ay be gra nd squ are or u pright in Sh a pe , , ,
thou gh the squar e pianos are not now ma nu factured The u pper .
notes h ave three str ings to a tone the lowest notes ha ving one and ,
some other low notes two The deepest strings are wou nd with
.
copper wire to m a ke them heavy enou gh to be stru ng tightly with

,
ou t getting too high a pitch The tension incre ases as the pitc h Of
.
the stri ngs rises To hold allthis pu ll m odern pianos are provided
. ,
with metal fra mes One end of ea ch wire is fastened arou nd a pin
. ,
”
which m ay be turned by a pia no hammer c au sing a tightenin g -
,
or looseni ng of the (wir e ) str in g s The other end of eac h str ing
.
goes over a bridge th a t rests u pon the sou nding bo ard which is of -
,
spru ce front an d m aple b ack When a pia no key is pl ayed it works

. ,
as a leve r
, an d thr o ws u p a felt covered h a mme r a g a inst
- the str ings .
“
There is a complica ted a ction governing the h ammer which
”
,
a llows it to fal l b ac k a little a fter it hits the stri n gs When the key .
is pla yed it also raises Offthe strings a felt damper so th at the

,
,
h ammer stroke ca uses free vi b rations When the key is released.

,
this d amper drops b a ck u pon the str ings an d stops the tone The .
key itself moves in a way governed by ova l pins tha t extend into
felt li ned ca vities on its under side
- .
The d am per peda l of the pi ano O ften misca lled the lou d pedal
, ,
opera tes by moving allthe d ampers up off the str ings The hi ghest .
notes h ave no d ampers as their tones are m ade short by the ex

,
trem e tightness of the wir es B u t allexcept these h a ve d ampers

. .
When the d ampers are lifted off the str ings the tones will not only ,
las t until they die a way of them selves b u t will ma ke some of the
,
other stri ngs vibra te in symp a thy with them Low notes will last .
longer th an high ones when the d amper ped al is u sed .
The soft pedal Opera tes in different ways a ccording to the sty le ,
of piano u sed In grand pia nos it shifts the action to one side so
.
, ,
th a t the h am mers strike only two stri ng s ou t of thr ee In u pright .
pi anos it u su ally moves the h ammers SO nea r to the wires th a t their

,
stroke l acks the power obtai ned by a long swing In the squ ar e .
pi ano the soft peda l sometimes mu ffles the tone by m a king tongues
,
of soft lea ther or felt come between the h ammer and the strings .
In allc as es the O bject is to soften the tone .
Some pi an os h ave a sostenuto ped al which will hold notes only ,
if it is pu t into use after they h ave been pl ayed The performer .
m ay thus str ike a note or chord th a t he wishes to susta in and then ,
pu t down the sostenu to ped al after which the tone will l ast even
, ,
though he releases the keys and uses his han ds elsewhere .
Other instruments h ave b as s d am per ped als which will susta in ,
allthe lower tones of the pi ano but none of the higher ones
, .
It will be seen from the mechanism of the piano th a t after a note

has been pl ayed and the h ammer has dr opped b ack from the
,
str ings the player ca n in no wa y influ en ce the qu ality of the tone

, .
Yet it is not unusu al for grea t artists to be seen wiggling their fin

gers on the key as if they expected in some mysterious way to make
,
the tone expressive by such procedure There are differences in the

.
quality of tones but these are ca used by the varyin g degr ees of
,
strength with which the key is struck in the first pl ace .
There are at present two main methods Of pi ano practice ,
th at of fing er strength represented by Leschetizky and th a t Of

-
, ,
weight represented by B reithaupt There is little doubt of the

, .
su ffi ciently equ ipped In other wor ds he is a ble to pound the pi ano

. ,
so forcibly th a t even the best instr u ment will give fo rth only a
blur of noise The artistic effects are obta in ed by contr ol a nd vari

.
a tion O fpower not by a buse of it ,

.
The sa me is true of speed The pia nist does not usu ally pl ay a
.
piece as fas t as he can b u t ta kes the p ace su ited to the work and
, ,
gives it expression by ch an ges of sp eed as well as of power By .
using the proper a ccelera ti ons and reta rds and the most ef fective ,
ch anges of pa ce as wel las proper accents a n d b ala nce Offorce the

, ,
pi anist m ay bring mu ch ou t of a piece and m ake it nota bly exp res ,
sive The hearer m ay alwa ys ask himself qu estions on these points

. .
Does the performer ma ke the right contras ts Ofspeed and power ,
or are they minimized or exa ggera ted too mu ch ? Does he bring

ou t the melody a n d form of a piece prope rly ? Or is it over em pha -
sized Or left obscure ? Vari a tions in power v ari a tions in Speed and
, , ,
the proper use of contr ol and contras t are wha t the b earer mu st ,
tra in himself to notice and estim a te He will then be a ble to tell .
whether a perform ance is qu iet or p assion a te repressed or exa g ,
gera ted well b al anced or eccentric He c an a lso tell whether the

,
-
.
pi anist is stri ving to interpret a piece logica lly or trying to displ ay ,
his own powers a t the expense of the composer s me an ing The use ’
.
or a bu se of the ped a l is a nother point worthy of a ttention .
z The n a ture of the piece pl a yed is often a guide as different schools ,
of piano mu sic requ ir e dif ferent tre a tm ent Thu s the early son atas .
of Sc arl a tti and the music of Couperin R a meau and others of

, , ,
their sort demand a light e ase of contr ol and more th an usu al

,
directness in style The Mozart pieces admit of more expression

.
,
though still direct and str aightforward With Beethoven s grea t .

’
son a tas the dram atic element pl ays a more prominent p ar t In .
connection with these there has been mu ch discu ssion over the fit
ness or unfitn ess Ofru b a to Th a t is a ch a nge of p ace within the
.
me as ure or phrase a prolonging of certai n notes a t the expense of

,
others for the sa ke O f expression Paderewski cl aims tha t Bee .
thoven s works shou ld h ave rub a to ; but the young pi anist wi ll do

’
well to use it in very modera te quantities Modern works of the .
Liszt type m ay be given the fu llest degree of dram atic expression .
Works of contr apunta l ch aracter dem and a special tr ea tment of

their own They are based on a system of pa rt writin g in whi ch
.
-
,
THE PIANO AND ITS PREDECESSORS 3 83
ea ch p art or voice has its own importa nce In h armonic (homo

, , .
phonic ) mu sic there is one chi ef melody su pported by an aecom

, ,
pa nim ent of chords In stri ct cou nterpoint su ch as is fou nd in the

.
,
fugu e ea ch voice has its own melodic line and the voices blend with
, ,
ea ch other like colored strands twi ste d to form a vari ega ted rope
, .
There are m any pieces th a t com e between the two extr em es and ,
h ave some contra punta l (polyphonic or m an y voiced ) effects while ,

-
being mostly harmonic in style or vi ce versa , .
In polyp honic mu sic su ch as the fu gu es of B ach Mendelssohn , , ,
and others the pi anist mu st bring out ea ch p art Inste a d of h a ving

, .
a single m elody to be m a de pr ominent a gai nst a b a ckgrou nd of
chords an d h armonies he now has severa l melodies which mu st be, ,
b a lanced ag ainst each other in su ch a way th a t the importan t p arts

of allare br ought ou t This is hard work an d its su ccess marks the
.
,
Bu t in spite of genera l rules there is still much l atitu de in the ,
renderin g of a piece We m ay therefore j u dge the pi anist by hi s

.
, ,
own individu alwork If he pl ays with contr ol and variety of speed

.
“
a n d power brings ou t his them es exp ressively withou t
,
teari ng
them to ta tters an d b al an ces secti on against section or voice
”
, ,
ag a inst voice in p r oper f ashion exp ressing the very best ef

,
fects ,
of which a piece is ca p a ble then we m ay feel sur e th a t he is a gre at

,
ar tist .
1
The use of electricity to vibra te wires has been embodied in an

instr ument kn own as the choralcelo This looks like a dou ble u p .
right pia no Electri c ma gnets contr olled by properly interrupted

. ,
currents a ttract and release the wires thu s ma king them vibra te
, ,
a t the desired ra tes The resu lt is a very pure and plea sing tone
.
qua lity of flu te like or organ like cha ra cter The chora lcelo has
,
- - .
a lso an ordinary pi a no a ction which m a y be u sed by itself or in ,
com bina tion with the electri ca lly pr odu ced tones Recent im m ove .
ments in the instrument inclu de the use of ba rs pla tes and cha ins , ,
Ofvariou s sizes which give ma ny plea sing ton e color s

- .
,
1 For a n est im a te ofthe work ofcerta in players , see the cha ter p Som e Fam ous
Pi an ists ,
”
in this work .
THE organ (Germ an Orgel; French orgue; Italian organo) has
, , ,
been ca lled the kin g Ofinstru ments ; but ifthe ti tle is correct it has ,
had a much longer re ign tha n usually fal ls to the lot of royalty .
The j u st designs of the poet Collins seemed to

“ ”
thi nk Superior to Cecili a s m ingled world of soun d ha d no pla ce
’
,
for the o rga n unless we a ccept as a primitive organ the syrinx or

, ,
set OfPan pipes Tha t the organ sometimes took such a small form
- .
is shown by the rega ls OfMonteverde s seventeenth century orches ’

-
tra which was a tiny porta ble organ somewh a t resem bli ng the
,
syrinx The larger sta tionary organ of Monteverde s day was known
.
’
as the po sitive ; an d this term is stil l kept to describe the choir

~
orga n in France an d Ge rma ny .
1 Rome ha d a so m ewh a t mysteriou s wa ter orga n worked by b y -

,
drau lio pressure Its constru ction is not now known in sp ite of refer
.
,
ences to it by Vitruvius an d others .
The E astern Empire kept the organ though with hu man instea d ,
of hydraulic motor power In the eighth century the Byza ntine

.
,
Emperor sent an organ as a present to King Pepin of Fra n ce These .
early organs were noisy affairs withou t the selective power tha t
,
comes with the use of stops ; an d when a note was played allthe ,
pipes of th a t pitch gave their tone together It is on record tha t .
a l a dy a t Ch arlema gne s cour t was driven cra zy by hea ring the

’
orga n un expectedly for the first tim e A century or more la ter .

,
the organ at Winchester Engla nd was described by the monk

, ,
“
Wul sta n as h a ving a noise li ke thunder .
The idea Ofstops grew up gradua lly in the middle ages Stops .
depend on the simple principle Ofh aving two opera tions necessary ,
instea d of one to let the a ir into an organ pipe Pressing down a

, .
key must be preceded by a dra wing out or other a dj u stment of the , ,
stop E ach stop operates a b ar known as a slider which keeps its

.
, ,
set Ofpipes closed until certa in holes in the slider are brought di
rec tl y under the co rresponding pipe openings After one or more .
sma ll to give the sca le ha lving the le ngth a lways giving an octave
,
higher and so on B u t on the orga n a set is also designa ted by the

,
.
length of pipe connected with the key known as grea t C two oc ,
ta ves below the middle C of the pi ano An open pipe a bou t eight .
feet long will give this note Any series of pipes sounding the pitch .
of the note pla yed is ca lled from this an eight foot series ; an d tones , ,
- .
th a t sou nd the pitch of the key played are ca lled eight foot tones -
.
This is thu s a designa tion for those pipes th a t sound the pitch of the
key pla yed even thou gh the pipes a bove grea t C are shorter than
,
eight feet and those sounding below it are longer The other figures
,
.
used to designa te sets of orga n pipes ena ble us to com pare them ,
with the eight foot sets or stops Thu s a sixteen foot stop is one
-
,
.
-
whose pipes m ay be twice as large for the sa me pitch as those of an , ,
eight foot set ; a t any rate the sixteen foot set mu st sound an octa ve
-
,
-
deeper for any given key th a n the eight foot set There are thirty
, ,
-
.
‘
two foot sets of pipes tha t sou nd an octa ve deeper yet for a given
-
,
.
key It will thu s be seen th a t one key on the organ unlike one on
.
,
the pia no m ay give severa l different tones The eight foot stops
, .
-
are ca lled fou nd a tions an d the sixtee n foot stops double, s while -
,
stops smaller th an eight feet are known as muta ti ons Of these .
sma ller stops the four foot sou n ds an octa ve a bove the key played
,
-
,
and the two foot two oc ta ves a bove it The interva l of a fifth is u sed
- .
a lso a stop of five a n d a third feet giving a fifth a bove the f

, ou n da
tions while one of two and two thi rds feet gives an oc tave an d a fifth
,
(the twelfth ) a bove the fou nda tions There are a lso stops of ten and .
two thir ds feet giving the fifth a bove the dou bles ; b u t these are
,
used chiefly for the peda ls Sets of two or three ra nks of very sma ll .
pipes sou nding together are ca lled fu rnitur e or mixtu re They are
, , .
used in com bina tion with heavy tones to brighten them The , .
dou bles an d fou nda tions are often pla yed together with enou gh ,
mu ta tion and m ix tur e to get the desired effect The fifth is never .
used alone b u t is combined with other stops to brighten them

, .
It will be seen on reflection tha t a single large orga n will have

a gre a t nu mbe r of pipes E ach of the five ma nu als as well as the
.
,
ped als will ha ve ma ny stops ; an d ea ch stop represents a set of pipes

,
usu a lly conta ining one for ea ch key The orga n a t the town bu ild .
ing in Sydney like the still la rger one recently erected a t Liverpool
, ,
has a bout ten thousa nd pipes .

THE ORGAN 3 87
Pi pes m a y be open or cl osed the la tter being stopped at one end ,
and sou nd ing an octa ve d eepe r tha n open pipes of the sa me length .
Pipes m a y be wide or narrow in proportion to their length the na r ,
row ones giving the more bril li ant tone Pipes m a y be m ade of .
wood or of m eta l Fi nally they m ay be provi ded with reed mou th

.
,
pieces or simply have air openings in stea d being known as flu e

,
-
,
pipes The organ bu ilder combines a llthese possibilities so as to

.
produ ce the maximu m var iety in tone color Inciden ta lly his in -
.
,
“
strument ha s to be voiced to the church or hall where it is set
”
u p This consists in tr ying ou t al

. lthe tones an d m aking them even ,
or stop whi ch are reenforced when their wave length happens to

,
-
fit the bu ilding wou ld sound too lou d

, .
Sta iner in his book on the orga n g ives a cla ssifica tion of the
, ,
stops tha t is qu oted here for reference His ta ble is still u seful . ,
thou gh descr iptions of other stops m ay be fou nd in the works of

Hopkins an d Rim b a ult or Au dsley ,
.
MAN UAL FL U E STO PS

D ou ble stopped di a p ason or b ou rdon Soft an d sweet . . .
D ou ble ga m b a or c on tra g a m b a Reedy g en eral y soft

l ,
.
D ou b l
e (open ) di a p ason m eta l lri c h ton e
Fu l .
w
i t1 ie c . ac
Soft and sweet .
Cl et flu te .
H ohl
flote
’
.
Sweet, b u t f ul
ler-ton ed .
D ulc i an a .
Soft an d reedy.
Kera ulophon .
G am b a or vi olda g am b a
Sp itzfldte .
Thi n i
a n d delc ate.
Viold am our
’
More pow erf ul

.
Sm al lopen di a p ason .
L arg e o pen di a pason lan d ri c h

Fu l .
B elldia pason .
Fl u te a p a vil
l Very ri ch, full an d very reedy .
on .
,
G am b a (ful ltoned) or -
bellgam b a .
Fl
u te
Sweet an d b ri ght
.
Reedy a n d very b rig ht .

Very brig ht , b ut fluty .
B ri g ht a n d ul
lf
-
ton ed.
am . Q i
u n t,fullton e ; a dds brea dth an d digni ty in com bin a tion
- .
Twel f th f ulltone; a dds richn ess in c om bin ati on

,
- .
E cho com et Soft in c om bin a tion .
Adds fu l
hi ess .
MANUAL REED STOPS

Ten oroon or c ontra ob oe . Soft an d ri c h ; g en eral
ly on the
D ou ble b assoon . swellorg an .
D ou b l
e tru m p et .
Trom bon e . Ful

l-
ton ed a n d ri ch .
C on tra p osau n e .
O b oe (orc hes tra l ) .
Cl an n et . Ofspec i alq u al
ity ofton e ; gen
C orno di b assetto . era l
ly used in depen den tl y as
C or An g l a is . o stops
so l .
Vox hu m a n a .
a u tb oy , sof t a n d sweet; foun dati on p

g
used on Sw el
las sto .
orn .
lan d ri ch
Fu l on swel
l.
Posaun e .
L ou d an d ri ch
Trom b a . .
H arm on i c trum pet . Very l

ou d an d bri llian t on
ub a m ira b i hs . hi g h win d pre
s sure .
O ctav e hau tboy B ri g ht

.
Cl an on Very b right .
PEDAL FL UE STOPS
Sub b ass dou bl
-
e stop ed di a p ason or c on tra b ourdon
Very soft l ittle
,
p ,
exc ep t m c om b i n ati on
.
82 f
,
t -
. .
D ou b l
e di a p ason Ric h an d f ulllowest n otes u sed in com bi n a ti on
.
, .
B ou rdon ( ft ton e
16-
.
Vi olon e .
Soft an d m ost use ul
. f
land hea vy
Ful .
St!? ped fl u te (8 4W Sweet an d soft; g en eral

ly use
VIO on ceno .
ful
Fu l
l-
ton ed; m ost usef ul to
stren gthen b ass .
Fi fteenth per octa v e

or su -
Adds bri ghtn ess .
Qu i n t , produ c es a very hea vy ton e in c om bin a ti on .
. Adds b ri g htn ess .
C on tra fa gotto
C on tra posaun e .
C on tre b om b arde .
tones on the ma nuals and sixteen foot on the peda ls An open dia
,
-
.
pas on increases the tone while the a dditi on of other eight foot and
,
-
four foot stops brings fa ir power For loud notes the dou bles are
- .
,
u sed to a dd the lower octa ve while sti ll mo re founda tions muta

, ,
tions an d mi xtures are thr own in

,
.
The au ditor then will look most of allfor qua lity of tone when
, ,
hearing the instru ment If he can see the pla yer manipula te the
.
stops so m u ch the better ; b u t he ca n hear changes of an y impor

,
ta nce in the tone He will find hims elf a ble with very few tr ia ls
.
, ,
to tell whether the deep sixteen foot stops are present or a bsent ;
-
a n d he m a y even learn to detect the p resence a n d pr ob a ble a mou nt
of mu ta tion stops There are not ma ny sp ecia l points of fin ger

.
techniqu e for him to wa tch ; the performer s tou ch mu st simply be ’
clear enough and qu ick enoug h to get a clea n cu t entra nce of the
, ,
-
wind into the pipes ; while he pla ys the ped als with a heel an d toe - -
movement tha t does not challenge a ttention But if the pla yer .
handles his registra tion properly he will give br oa d effects and ,
bu ild up gr and clima xes tha t fu lly j u stify the orga n s cla im to a ’
regal title .
THE human voice (Germa n Sti m m e; Fr ench voi x; Ita lian voce)
, , ,
is an instru ment of the sa me typ e as the oboe or bassoon These .
instru ments have wha t is known as a dou ble reed mou thpiece ; an d
-
in sim ilar fashi on the thr oa t is provided with two m embra nes called
the voca l cords which swing towar d and a wa y fr om ea ch other
,
when produ cing a tone an d let ou t su ccessive a ir puffs of the re

,
-
qu isite nu mber per second f or the pitch of the note su ng .
The lu ngs an d the m u scles contr olling them su pply the necessary
ha led withou t im pediment B u t when the voca l cords are in a ction

.
,
closing the throa t except for the releas e of air puffs the m u scles -
,
controlling the lungs m ay be in definite a ction forcing the a ir ou t,
if a tone of any volu me is to be obta ined .
The mu scles governing the lu ngs act in three wa ys The dia .
p hra g m a
,
b roa d fl a t ar ched muscle a t the b ase of the lu ngs con
-
,
tracts down ward to inhale air and rela xes u pward to let the a ir be
,
exha led or even pu shes upward in ma king a tone The rib mu scles
,
.
-
another sort of inha la tion m a y be ma de by lifting the chest an d

elonga ting the lu n gs u pward by mea ns of the shoulders There is a .
grea t dea l of discussion as to wha t is the best method of brea thing

for singers ; b u t m a ny of them are now a greed tha t an enlargem ent
of the lower ribs helped by a slight ba ck expa nsion an d ra ising of

,
-
the shou lder bla des is the proper method of inha la tion The stu
-
,
.
dent m a y tr a in his ba ck in brea thi ng by inh a ling in a sitting posi

tion leaning forward u ntil the fa ce a lm ost touches the knees After
,
.
the inha la tion the burden of a ction in tone pr odu cing is shifted to
,
-
the dia phra gm which contr ols the tone best dur ing exha la tion
,
.
B rea thing by the dia phra gm is the m ost wholesome procedure in

ordinary life ; b u t the singer mu st tra in for specia l results .
The larynx whi ch m a y be felt as the Ada m s a pple is the

,
’
-
,
a pp ara tus a t the top of the wind pipe (tra chea ) tha t a cts as vib ra t
-
ing mou thpiece in produ cing a tone The la rynx consists of severa l .
ca rtila ges u nited by mu scles and covered by membra nes the W hole
, ,
being su spended from the hyoid or tongue bone , , .
Lowest of a llis the cri coid car tila ge na med from the Greek to ,
show its resembla nce to a Signet ring This is joined to the top of
-
.
the windpipe by a cir cular liga ment The widest (highest ) pa rt is .
in the ba ck .
The thyr oid ca rtila ge is mu ch la rger It rests on top of the cri .
coid a n d forms the ma in p art of the Ada m s a pple It is not a ’

-
.
,
complete ring b u t is sha ped mu ch li ke two square shields fa cing

,
diagonally forward The ba ck ends are joined by the thyr o hyoid

.
-
membra ne Fr om the back ends rise rod like projecti ons connect
.
-
ing the car tila ge to the hyoid bone At the u pper front part of this
.
car tilage is the flexible tongue known as the epiglottis When we .
swa llow food the epiglottis bends ba ck to let the food pass over it
, ,
a cr oss the top of the lar ynx to the gul let or (esophagus whi ch is
, , ,
behind the windpipe .
On top of the high ba ck part of the cricoid ca rtila ge are two little
hillocks known as the a rytenoid cartilages On top of these are the .
two very sma ll Santorini ca rtila ges an d beside the arytenoids are ,
the two tiny Wrisberg ca rtilages .
The vocal cords are membra nes one on ea ch side of the l arynx
, ,
looking not u nlike the ha lves of a drum membrane with an open ,
slit or passag e ca lled the glottis extending from front to b ack

, , .
When the cords are loose this slit is more like a round hole The
, .
front end of the cords is a tta ched to the thyr oid ca rtila ge a n d the ,
back ends are united to the arytenoid cartil ages one to ea ch When , .
the cords are tightened by the mu scles governing the cartil a ges the ,
slit becomes narrow enou gh to ma ke the air esca pe in the intermit

tent puffs needed to produ ce a tone The cords are sm ooth m em .
branes of gra yish white color though infl a mma tion m ay ma ke

-
,
them red or cover them with lu mpy nodu les .
Above the vocal cords are two so ca lled false voca l cords and -
,
between the two pairs are recesses known as the Morga gni pockets .
The use of the false cor ds and pockets is not clearly un dersto od .
Some think they direct the tone upward throu gh the thr oa t Others .
believe tha t they make the tone quality soft and ri ch Still others
- .
Ada m s a pple whi ch carries the fr ont ends of the c or ds rises a lso
’
-
, , ,
a n d ta kes a stiffer an d stiffer position demanding more and more ,
mu scul ar effort To sing hi gh notes in the chest register (with chest

.
qua lity ) is very fa tigu ing The chest notes in a ma n s voice ha ve

.
’
the fulness a n d qua lity obta ined in ordina ry shouti ng .
If the singer uses the so ca lled hea d register he will obta in a tone
-
,
of m u ch sm oother qua lity To get su ch hea d tones the throa t

.
,
must be left la x an d the nose open Su ch tones are often developed

, .
by hu mming thr oug h the nose In these the a u thorities tell us the .
, ,
voca l cords vibra te more in a la tera l dir ection like a p in tha t is .
stu ck in a wa ll and twa nged The hea d register requ ir es none of.
the fa tig uing stiffening of the throa t tha t is needed for chest notes .
It has a mu ch sm oother qu ali ty of tone being almost li ke the falsetto ,
voice in ch ara cter In rea lity the falsetto is simply a very high pa rt
.
,
of the hea d register The hea d tones ha ve nothi ng of the gru ff char
.
a cter of the shou t b u t h a ve the smoother lighter qu a lity of a whine

, , .
The good singer will u se the hea d tones as mu ch as the na ture of

hi s voice perm its With men thi s blendi ng of a ma ximum of hea d
.
,
qu a lity with the tone m ay be done at allpitches b u t more especially ,
in the high ones Sir Morell Mac kenzie said tha t sopranos use a
.
max imum of chest register while contra ltos depend mu ch more on

,
hea d qua lity for their high notes B u t thi s sta tement is ma ny yea rs .
old and proba bly the sopra nos now ma ke a mu ch grea ter use of
,
the hea d register th an formerly .
Oertel stu died hea d tones by means of an instru ment ca lled the
a rra ngement of mirrors ena bling an observer to see into the thr oa t .
The former is b ased on the idea of a revolving pla te wi th a hole in

it permitting vision only when the hole rea ches a c erta in spot in
,
its pa th of revolu tion If the str obosc ope revolves for exa mple
.
, ,
2 50 times a second an d the voca l cords under the l ar n goscope are

,
y
vibra ting 2 51 times a second then ea ch revolu ti on of the strobo
,
scope will show the cor ds in a position slightly a dva nced from tha t
seen previously In this wa y a sort of movi ng picture is obta ined
.
showing the voca l cor ds in action a ppa rently a t the ra te of one vi

bra ti on per second By us ing this Oertel fou nd tha t in hea d tones
.
,
the voca l cor ds were divided into segments lengthwise the segments ,
THE VOICE 3 95
In the la ter sections on tu bu lar instruments it is shown tha t the ,
as the pitch The voca l cor ds

. are c ontrolled by mu scles while the
,
the voca l cords give any ra te of vibra tion tha t they ca n an d the ,
le ngth of the vi bra ting air column will vary in a ccorda nce with their
-
ra te B u t where the a ir wa ve in a cl ar inet f

.
-
or insta nce is four ti mes , ,
the length of the tu be tha t of a vocal tone m ay be many more

,
times the length from voca l cords to lips Yet there is som e short .
cu in g of the a ir colum n in the thr o a t as the pitch is ra ised

- With .
chest tones the thyroid ca rtilage shortens the air space by rising
,
-
as the pitch rises ; a n d chest sing ers often thr ow the hea d b a ck f
- or
high notes For hea d tones there seems to be a lowering of the u pper
.
,
pa rt of the la rynx towar d the cords produ cing the sensation of ,

“
drinking in the tone
”
.
All thi s no doubt leads to ra ther abstruse considera tions There .
is however mu ch room for further investiga tion of the larynx in

, ,
a ction ; an d the rea der m ay not find it a miss to ha ve these hints
of wha t the investiga tor s problems are like ’

.
From the hear er s point of view too the above items m ay be of

’
, ,
valu e He can wa tch wha t method of brea thing a singer adopts

. ,
or te ll whether he or she blends hea d an d chest tones ski l fu lly .
Voices are cl a ssified in many ways Taki ng them in genera l divi .
sions from the bottom up we have the basso profu ndo the basso , ,
ca nta nte the ba r itone the ten or e robusto the (lyric ) tenore di gra zi a
, , , ,
the contr alto the mezzo sopran o and the fu ll sopra no

,
-
,
.
The voice of the basso profu ndo is fu ll and deep while tha t of the ,
bas so c a nt a n te is smoothe r a n d mo re fl u ent Sim i lar ly the ten or e .

,
r o bus to h a s a voi c e of he r oic p r opo r tions while the ly r ic teno r (ten or e ,
di gra zi a ) has less str ength b u t more smoothness an d sweetness of

,
tone The sa ccha ri ne qua lity of the lyric tenor s tones is apt to grow
.
’
“
monotonou s ; an d it cau sed Von B irlow to remark tha t Tenor is ‘
not a voice b u t a disease The tru e contra lto (alto ) voice too
,
”
. , ,
is broa d a n d str ong in qua lity while tha t of a m ezzo soprano with
,
-
a l m ost the sa me ra nge is more lyrica l Sopranos ha ve the same divi .
sion the str ong voices being su ited to the dra ma tic school while
,
,
the m ore flu ent an dsmooth voices of the so ca lled colora tu re sopra nos -
ca n be m a n a ged with the most brill ia nt flexibility The la st na med -

.
voices are those tha t are displayed in the runs embellishments and , ,
ra pid pas sa ges of the conventiona l m a d scen es in Ita lia n opera of

-
the Rossini or Donizetti school .
Men s voices sing mu sic in the G clef an octave lower than it is

’
wri tten .
Voca l execu tion is a ma tter in which the singer must keep up

constant pra ctice In the pia no field Ru binstein is a lleged to have
.
,
sa id IfI neglect pra ctice one da y I know it ; two da ys my friends

, , ,
”
know it ; and three da ys the public knows it Somethi ng of the
, .
sort is true of the singer a lso .
The singer mu st not only pra ctise execu tion b u t he must develop ,
tone qua lity as well Where the pia nist ca nnot vary his tone color
.
-
,
the singer ca n modify his tones noticea bly by pra ctice A good .
voice is in part a na tu ra l gift ; but it m ay be much improved a nd ,
in some ca ses singers ha ve a tta ined su ccess withou t it Thus Lud .
Wig Wul ln er renowned f

, or his render ing of Germa n art songs ob -
,
<
ta ins his effects by his ma stery of technica l ma nagement and ad ,

“
vertises himself as the singer withou t a voice ”
.
When judging of a singer the listener m ay firs t of allnote the

,
qua lity of his voice If the performer is a m an the voice m a y be of

.
,
either lyri c or rob ust style ; if a woma n her tones m a y be broa dly ,
dra ma tic or m a y ha ve the pure clea r qua lity of the voix bla nche
, ,
”
,
the clean cut somewha t cold tone color shown by certa in colora ture
-
,
-
B rea thing a nd brea th ma na gement are worthy of notice Does .
the singer brea the na tura lly with only the slightest pause and no
, ,
a pparent effort ? Or does he ma ke har d work of it ? Also does he

,
pa use for brea th at the proper times or does he let his inha la tions
,
divide the phrases wrongly ? In some songs there is little cha nce ,
for the voca list to go a stra y In the old H a ndel a irs however su ch
.
,
“
,
as Ev ry valley in The Messia h there are long rou la des in

’
, , ,
which any misj u dgment wou ld receive its fu ll share of prominence .
The qu a lity of tone is kept a t its best if the tone is given proper
resona nce by the nose a nd more especia lly by the mou th We hear
, .
“
m ny te che s tell their pu pils to focu s the tone on the teeth
a a r ”
.
This does not mea n th a t the teeth ha ve a ny share in the tone b u t ,
tha t the stu dent is to let the tone resound clearly and not be sm oth
ered by the mouth or throa t .
WHILE the piano demands the maximum a moun t of effort from
the performer the violin ( German Gei ge; French vi olon ; Ita lian
, , , ,
vi oli n o) is the instru ment th a t is ca pa ble of the grea test v ar iety of

expression Like the huma n voice it m a y echo every em otion
. ,
.
The origin of the violin as alrea dy intima ted is shrou ded in

, ,
mystery The reba b of Ara bia the ra vonastron of India the early
. , ,
Welsh ha rp known as the crwth or even the primitive instru ments ,
of Africa m a y ha ve pla yed their pa rt in its development Greil

,
.
sa m er a B e nch a u thority now cla ims tha t it m a y ha ve come from

, ,
the kithara beca u se of the expa nsion of one of the la tter s sides
,
’
to a violin like body in certa in early mediaeval specimens

- .
The term fiddle also viol is derived from the Latin fidzcula
'
, , ,
meaning a stri nged instru ment The ea rly viols whi ch ca me into .
,
genera l use in the tim e of the Jong leurs were fla tter in sha pe than ,
the present violin Their tone was different being less incisive an d
. ,
brilliant b u t m ore ca lmly sweet a n d pla intive Viols of various

,
.
sizes rema ined in use some time a fter the violin ha d developed .
When the early sixteenth century mu sic is revived for modern ears
-
,
the viols are often u sed in pla ce of violins an d with very plea sing ,
effect if heard with harpsichord for exa mple , .
G a spar o da Sa lo and the Ama ti fa mily were pioneers in violin

ma king the former living in the Tyrol an d the la tter in Crem ona
, .
An drea Ama ti the pioneer in the C rem ona ma nu fa cture was born
, ,
in 1520 His two sons Antonio an d Geronimo continu ed the work

.
,
b u t it was brou ght to grea ter pe rfection by the la tter s son Nicolo
’
.
The la st named was the tea cher of the grea test of violin ma kers
- -
,
Antonio Stra divarius (1650 Another fa mou s fa mily of violin

ma kers was tha t of Guarneriu s of whom Joseph (1683 ,
ca lled Del Jesu is kn own throu gh ha ving one of his instru ments
,
used by the grea t Pa ga nini Other fa mou s violin ma kers were the
.
-
Magg in is the Ruggieris the Gua da gninis the C eru tis an d Storioni
, , , , .
THE VIOLIN 3 99
The violins of these men are va lu ed for their excellence of tone .
This comes in pa rt from age or ra ther conti nued use ; beca use the
,
constan t vibra tion of the violin box makes it give tones of con
-
sta ntly incr eas ing ful ness an d pur ity B u t ag e is not the only qu ality
.
,
else all the old instruments wou ld be equ a lly good There were .
secrets in the ma king and using of the varnish the seasoning of the ,
wood a nd so on These points or others of the sort are sti ll open

, .
, ,
to discovery an d modern ma kers som etimes pr odu ce unusua l re

,
su lts Thus a fa mou s New York firm whi ch exhibited som e of its
.
,
new violin s a t a Vienna fair was refu sed the prize a t first on the
, , ,
grou nd tha t its instruments were too good to be rea lly new .
The chief parts of a violin are the body an d neck ma de of maple ,
or pine ; a thin wooden bridge of ma ple su ppor ting the str ings ; a n ,
ebony b ar into which the stri ngs are knotted beyond the bridge ;
a n ebony fin g er board over which they run ; a peg box in which
- -
,
the ends of the stri ngs are wra pped arou nd pegs th a t are u sed for
tuning ; an d the four str ings themselves The strings are ca lled .
ca tgu t ; b u t in the instrumenta l field a t leas t the ca t is innocent

, , ,
as the str ings come from the sheep or the goa t when not a rtificia lly
ma de The deepest str ing is wou nd with wire With the violin
. .
comes a bow of horseha ir a n d a meta l or wooden cla mp (the mu te

, ,
or so rd i no ) The bow is dra wn over the stri ngs to set them in mo

.
tion whereu pon the vibra tions are transferred by the bridge to
,
the body of the instrument whi ch a cts as a sounding boa rd an d

,
-
,
vibra tes in sym pa thy with the stri ng b u t mu ch more powerfu lly , .
The m u te is stu ck on the bridge in clothesp in fas hion when in use -

,
a nd dim i nishes the vol u me of tone by lettin g less powerfu l vibra
tions rea ch the soundi ng box The mu ted tone is pecu liarly sweet
-
.
as well as soft When the mu te is to be pu t on or ta ken off the com

. ,
poser alwa ys pu ts some rests into the player s pa rt so tha t he m a y ’

,
have ti me to dig the mu te from his vest pocket and a dj ust it on

the bridge or to reverse the process
, .
cen ding order beginning with the G j u st below m iddle C Since

,
.
ma king a str ing shorter ca u ses it to give a higher tone the pla yer ,
m a y get tones of higher pitch tha n tha t of the whole str ing (open
string ) by pressing his fin ger on it a t different dista nces from the
,
e
p g
-
box ; in which m sc the pa rt of the str ing between the br idge
4 00 THE B OOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWLEDGE
and the pla yer s finger is wha t vibra tes an d gives the tone In prin
’
.
c iple it is si m ple b u t in p ra ctice the p

,
r ocedure is va r ied a n d d iff
i
cult The violinist s left ha nd which is used to finger the stri ngs
.
'
, ,
is tra ined to a most delica te perfection of a ctivity a perfection ,
tha t is inj ured by the slig htest bruise so tha t the pe rformer m a y ,
not indu lge in a nything so violent as bas eba ll for instan ce The use , .
of the bow too dema nds a perfect a dj u stm ent of arm wrist hand
, , , , ,
an d fingers So it mu st ha ve been a very ignora nt m an who said

. ,
”
when asked if he cou ld pla y the violin I don t know ; I never tried ,
’
.
The violinist when pla ying su pports the neck of his instru ment
, ,
in the hollow between the thu mb and first finger of his left ha nd .
This brings his four fingers over the str ings in su ch a wa y tha t any
one of them m a y press the str ing a ga inst the fing er boar d kn own -
,
“stopping ” the string When the hand is nea rest to the peg
as .
box it is in wha t is called the first position By moving in toward

,
.
the body of the violin so tha t ea ch finger gives a note one tone
,
higher tha n before it rea ches the second position In o r din ary
,
.
p la ying six positions are u sed

,
For the u pper positions or f or any
.
,
note stillhigher on the E stri ng the fingers must do some rea ching-
, ,
as the body of the instru ment prevents the ha nd from moving in
as a whole In Beethoven s time the com pa ss of the violin was ’

.
considered to be one tone over three octa ves Sin ce then the com .
posers ha ve ca lled for still higher notes from it ; and Wa gner in ,
the mu sic depicting the Holy Gra il in the prelu de to Lohengr in ”

,
dema nded un usua lly high tones whose thin clear qua lity blended , , ,
with flu te notes ga ve an excellent picture of celestia l bliss

, .
In this case Wagner us ed wha t are known as harmonics besides ,
employing the ordinary tones H armonics known a lso as over .

,
tones or upper partia ls are formed when a str ing of the violin is
,
ma de to vibra te in fractiona l par ts instea d of in one la rge swing

a long its entire length To produ ce su ch an effect the pla yer
.
,
tou ches the str ing lightly a t a certai n point instea d of pressing it
down firmly If he touches the string in the middle it vibra tes in
.
,
ha lves sou nding an octa ve higher tha n if it vibra ted as a whole

, .
Iftou ched one thir d of its length from the peg box end it vibra tes
- -
,
in thirds giving a still higher tone ; and the pitch m a y be still fur
,
ther ra ised by ma ki ng the str ing divide into fourths fifths etc , , .
The pla ying of harmonics is one of the poin ts in which a good

very su ccessfu lly the rustling s an d murmurings of the forest Such .
procedure (divi s i) is common now wi th all the orchestra l instru

'
ments and prod u ces a much broa der or more massive tone tha n
,
the older method of scoring for un ison par ts .
The violin tremolo which is so often hea rd in our melodra mas

,
when the villa in is a bou t to kill the heroine or some other blood ,
curd ling event ta kes pla ce is produ ced on a single tone by swinging
,
the bow ra pidly to an d fr o on the stri ng This e f fect was ori gin a ted .
by Monteverde in the seventeenth centur y ; though if he had

known to wha t ba se u ses it wou ld come he might ha ve refrained ,
from inventing it .
The vibra to is used to give a series of a pparent swells and su b

si den ces to a single s m ooth tone It is ca used in rea lity by slig ht .
regul a r ch anges in pitch f or in p r od u cing it the p l

a yer swa ys his
,
ha nd rhythmica lly a nd more or less ra pidly while keeping his fin ger
Sta cca to notes which are short and qu ick m a y be prod u ced by
, ,
the stopping of the bow on the strin g in whi ch ca se the tone cea ses ,
a t once
“ “
Su ch a sta cca to is ca lled déta chée or martella
.
”
,
An other sta cca to is pr od u ced by letting the bow drop on the

stri ng and reboun d qu ickly by its own elas ticity This is known as .
“ “
the flying sta cca to or arco sa lta ndo
”
.
When the strin g is lightly brushed and the b ow lifted off it b e

“
tween ea ch tone the so ca lled spicca to is pr odu ced
,
” -
.
The violin str ings m a y be plu cked like those of a guita r This , .
“ ”
proced ure known as pizzica to m a y be used for guita r like ac
, ,
-
com p a n im en ts but it has a mysterious a n d stri king effect th a t is

,
va lua ble for its own sake a lso Skilfu l solo pla yers will sometimes
.
give pieces tha t dema nd pizzica to effects in combina tion with

bowin g ; an d while a tone of the us ua l sor t is going on they will b e ,
seen to plu ck a string a lso with one of the free fingers of the left
ha nd The pizzi ca to lik e the tr emolo was inven ted by Monte
.
, ,
verde .
A tone pr odu ced by ta pping the strin g with the ba ck of the bow
“ ” “
is ca lled col legno mea ning with the wood This effect is too
, .
lig ht for solo use and is rar e even in or chestra l work

, .
The mu te or sordino has been mentioned a bove The mu ted

, , .
tone is too smoothly sweet for lengthy use but in short pa ssages ,
THE VIOLIN 403
it ma kes a good contras t to the more brilliant tones of the unmu ted
Tril ls are produ ced by a ra pid a lterna tion of two notes the lower ,
one being held or consisting of an open tone while the upper one
, ,
is pla yed an d released very quickly .
The glissando is the effect produ ced when a finger is slid a long
the str ing while the bow is pla ying on it This procedure an d others .
are often b urlesqu ed in vau deville b u t when p r operly us ed ar e de ,
E m bellishments of variou s sorts su ch as turns tr ills mordents , , , ,
a nd ra pid ru ns are mu ch used in violin mu sic The pla yer s left ’

.
,
ha nd is continua lly in a ction and a close wa tch of i ts nim ble fingers

,
will show a consta nt overcom ing of difficu lties tha t are not a llrecog
nized as su ch by the ear a lone .
The violin is ca pa ble of expressing every emotion from the ,
deepest pa thos to the wildest gayety or the utmost frenzy Its use .
as a solo instru ment is widesprea d a nd it pla ys the most i m po r ,
ta nt part in the orchestra It lends itself to the expression of every

.
sha de of feeling and while many instruments have only one or two
,
distinctive tone colors the violin possesses them all

-
, .
A very grea t dea l of this expressive power depends on the per

former s use of the bow This is a ma tter of life long a ttention from
’ '
.
-
the student s earliest da ys The fingers stop the stri ngs to get the
’
.
correct pitch ; b u t it is a lwa ys the infinite variety in the speed an d

pressure of the bow tha t brings ou t the tone quality The broad - .
and bea u tifu l notes of a n Ysa ye or a Kreisler depend wholly u pon
the correct an d artistic use of the bow .
In the orchestra the first of the violin pla yers known as the
, ,
Concertmeiste r ranks next to the condu ctor him self and shou ld
”
, ,
be a ble to replace the la tter if necessary He is a lwa ys a performer .
of high merit an d best a ble to pla y the solo passages tha t a bou nd
,
in modern scores .
Som etimes special ti mings of the violin are used Thus Sa int .
“ ”
Sa ens in his D anse Ma ca bre depicting the skeletons da ncing
’
, ,
a t midnight ha d a solo vi olin tu ned with its u pper str ing a sem i
,
tone fla t This ga ve a pecu liarly weird effect when Dea th bega n

.
to tune u p his violin for the skeletons da nce Pa ga nini wou ld often ’
.
tune allhis stri ngs a semitone too high and finger the pieces a ,
sem itone lower tha n they were written combining the correct pitch
,
with the brilliance obta ined from tight strings M a ny others ha ve .
used specia l ef fects in tuning.
When the la y m a n a ttends a violin recita l he willbe a ble to notice

,
many of the points enumera ted here He will almost surely

.
mu ch dou ble stopping ma ny harmonics pizzica to passa ges and

-
, , ,
other bits of technica l displa y These he m ay follow in par t with

.
the eye by wa tching the fingers of the pla yer s left hand B u t the
,
’
.
a rtist s chief glory is to be j u dged by the ear If he shows brea dth

’
.
a nd purity of tone tru e exp ressive power rea l delica cy of feeling

, , ,
and a n emotion a l warmth th a t is well marked wi thout being
duly exaggera ted then he is truly grea t

, .
4 06 THE BOO K OF MUSICAL K NOWLEDGE
The viola pla ys the third pa rt in the string quartet whi ch con ,
sists of a first and second violin a viola anda violoncello Thi s does , , .
not mea n tha t it is a lways below the two violi ns in pitch for the ,
stri ng quar tet depends upon interest and variety in the lea di ng of
its four parts and sometimes the viola m ay be playing the hi ghest
,
note of a chord In orchestral work the viola has much the sa me

.
duty It is often ca lled u pon for its specia l tone color but u sually
.
-
,
it is found pla yi ng in four pa rt ha rmony with the first an d second

-
violin s an d the vi olon cellos In the eighteenth century its role was.
more humble an d it was often compelled to follow the bas s viol

, .
Yet Glu ck ga ve a str ong exa mple of its power in his Iphi genie en
Tauride In tha t work Orestes pursued by the M es sink s down
”
.
, ,
overcome in prison ; b u t the gloom y mu tteri ng of the violas shows

tha t hi s rest is due not to pea ce of mind but to exha usti on , .
The vi ola d a m ore is not rea lly a vi ola b u t belongs to the old Viol
’
,
type an d is nearly obsolete now It ha d seven ca tg ut stri ngs and

, .
seven steel strings vibra ting in sympa thy with them Its sweet .
tones are ca lled for in the mu sic of B a ch s time b u t are very infre ’
,
qu ently dema nded in l a ter works Loef fler however used them in .
, ,
“
his Mort de Tinta giles ”
.
An a ttempt has b een ma de to su bstitu te for the present viola an

instru m ent with brighter tone A Germa n mu sicia n named Ritter .
brought ou t a large a ffa ir which he ca lled the vi ola alta b u t which

, ,
the mu sica l world now knows as the Ritter viola It is ha lf as la rge .
a ga in as the or dinary viola For this rea son its tones are brillia nt
.
a n d r esona nt as its size gi ves the requ ired depth in pitch wi thou t
,
the need of ha ving the stri ngs thickened Orchestra s ha ve not .
a dopted it beca use it is too la rge ; a n d only men wi th very long

,
a rms ca n pla y it As a whole music is the most conserva tive of the

.
,
ar ts ; an d even a su ccessfu l innova tion is not a dopted f or ma ny
years .
The Violoncello or cello (Germa n Vi oloncell; French vi ol

,
’
oncelle; , ,
Ita lian vi oloncello) ta kes the fourth part a mong the strings both
, , ,
in the qua rtet of solo instruments and in the orchestra Of course .
in the la tter ca se a ny instrument m a y be u sed for a solo or obbltgato

passa ge whenever a composer desires to ma ke its tone color promi
,
-
nent b ut in tu tti passages when a llthe instruments pla y together

, ,
it takes the low notes of the string grou p The na me shou ld never .
I M A N D O LIN
.
, 2 L UT E , 3 I A D A M O RE 4 VI O L I N 5 BA NJ O 6
V OL
’
, . ,
I A
V OL ,
I
7 V OL O N C E L L O ;
. 8 G U ITAR ,9 H ARP
. 10 C O N T R ABA SS
,
from the instruments he used and ma de them spea k ou t in their ,
most cha ra cteri stic tones .
In solo execu tion a l lthe technica l points of the violin are pra e
,
e on the cello There are however certai n lim ita tions Thu s
’
tica b l .
, , .
dou ble stopping is regu la ted by the size of the instru ment an d in
-
,
terval s p ra ctica ble on the violin or viola are often impossible on the
’
cello Arpeggio chords for the cello m u st be written wi th du e re
.
’
ga rd for the size of the hu ma n ha nd and genera lly inclu de a t leas t ,
one open str ing Trem olo vibra to an d glissa ndo ef

. fects are ea sily , ,
obta ined The m u te can pla y its part Ar co sa lta ndo a n d other
. .
devices of bowing are perfectly a pplica ble The pizzica to is excel .
lent as the long strings ofthe cello give a fu ll tone when plu cked
,
’
.
Ha rmonics of good qua lity m a y be pla yed especially on the u pper ,
string where they r esem ble mu ted violin tones in effec t Artifi
, .
cia lha rmonics on the cello are limited by the performer s r ea ch

’ ’
.
They are not often ca lled for thou gh Ver di u sed them very eflec ,
'
“
y in the Nile scene of Mda
”
tivel .
The cello is a fa vorite instrument in orchestra l expression Cheru

’
.
bini wrote thr ee rea l parts for his cellos in the opening scene of his ’
O pe ra Fa n iska
”
.
“
Rossini ca lled for five solo cellos in the Willia m ’
Tell Overture though the pa ssa ge is now genera lly arra ng ed for
”
,
one The cello is very effective with the voice a s in the song Be
.
’ “
,
thou fa ithful u nto dea th from Mendelssohn s ora torio Sain t

” “ ’
,
Pa u l .
Cello playi ng was of slow growth as the old six stri nged vtolda
’
,
-
ga m ba was hard to displ ace B u t the mor e powerfu l cello tone ’

.
blended better with the violins a nd the instrument ca me into use ,
in the time of Corelli an d Tartini while Ha ydn and others pla ced ,
it in the stri ng quar tet The French pla yer Du port intr od u ced .
chroma tic fingering an im porta nt step forwa rd, 8 0 well did .
Du port pl a y the cello tha t Volta ire sa id to him Y ou ma ke me

’
believe in mi cles ; or you ca n crea te a nighti nga le ou t of an ox

ra f ”
.
At this time it was cu stomary for pla yers to displa y their a bility
by pe forming difficu lt violin pieces su ch as Tartini s Tri lle du
r “ ’
,
”
Dia ble on the cello B u t the most wonderfulma ster of the in
,
’
.
str um ent was by a llodds Adrien Fra n c ois Serva is who lived u ntil ,
186 6 His compositions are tr emendously difficul

.
t like those of ,
OTHER BOWED INSTRUMENTS 4 09
The contra bass or dou ble b ass or dou ble bas s viol (Germa n
,
-
,
-
,
Kon trab ass; French con tre basse; Ita lia n con tra basso) form erly
, , ,
known in Ita ly as the violone is the la rgest of the bowed instru ,
ments Its size which is its most str iking fea ture was em phasized
.
, ,
by the old English cu stom of giving trios with one su ch instru

ment ; the tra velling perform er wou ld pla y on it an d a dd a second ,
part with his voice while a thir d pa r t ca me fro m the voice of a boy
,
concea led in the instrument The English contra ba sses u sed to ha ve

.
thr ee strin gs b u t tho se now in large orchestra s ha ve four They are

, .
tu ned in fourths to the notes E A D an d G the first being the , , , , ,
lowest E on the pia no The compa ss runs nea rly to middle C By

. .
com m on consent contra ba ss mu sic is written a n octa ve higher tha n

,
the a ctu a l pitch to a void the u se of m a ny extra lines below the

,
staff (leger lines ) It therefore sounds an octa ve lower than it is

.
Specia l tu nings are sometim es dema nded Th u s Berlioz a dvises .
tha t ha lf the contra ba sses be tuned differently from the rest Wa g .
“
n er a t the beginning of his Rheingold has the contra ba ss pla y
”
, ,
ers tu ne their lowest strings to E fla t which is held as a su ta ined - s

,
ba ss for wa vy harmonies tha t represen t the flowing of the river .
Beethoven went even further down a n d ca lled for a low C a , ,
fa ct which led the Germa n Ka rl Otho to bring ou t a five stringed -
contra b a ss with C for its lowest tone The thickness of the stri ngs .
necessita tes grea t strength to stop them ; a n d dou ble stopping is -
a l m ost i m possible u nless one of the to n es com es from a n open
string In orchestra l work of course the contrab a sses m a y be

. , ,
divided into parts as a t the beginning of Tscha ikovsky s Pa thetic

,
’
Sym phony .
”
The tone color of the contra ba ss is hea vy gruff ponderou s It

-
, , .
ta kes the ba ss part in the orchestra b u t it m a y be u sed in solo pas ,
sa ges with telling significa nce It m ay a lso be u sed to burlesqu e the .
effects of lighter instru m ents In swift pa ssa ges it ca n never be en .
tirely clear ; for its long hea vy strings are slow to ceas e vibra tin g
,
.
Yet Mendelssohn in his setting of the l14th Psa lm has the con
, ,
trab ass pla y sixteenth notes a t a metronom e mark of 116 f

- or a
qu arter note giving a ra te of 464 notes per mi nu te in the pla ying

-
,
.
Another hard nu t for the contra b a ss pla yer to cra ck is the aecom
“ ”
p a n i m en t to Moz ar t s song Per qu esta bella m ano
’
in which ,
the chord effects an d high notes su ggest th a t the music mi ght ha ve

been pla yed two octa ves lower tha n written .
Solo pla ying on the contra ba ss wou ld see m a t first sight to ha ve

al lthe del ica cy th a t an elepha nt wou ld displa y while d ancing The .
contra bass ha rmonics are of little va lu e ; the mu te produ ces no

ch ange in qu a lity ; the repea ted notes an d tremolo are effective
enou gh an d the pizzica to exc ellently strong ; b u t the tone qua lity
,
-
seems too hea vy for solo work Yet there ha ve been grea t solo per .
formers on the contra ba ss su ch as Dra gonetti or B ottesini Dra , .
g on etti possessed a fine instr ument u pon which he cou ld obta i n ,
ma ny stri king effects It was with this contra ba ss tha t he im ita ted
.
the a ppr oa ch of a thunderstorm sca ring the monks of San Giu sti na , ,
near Pa du a until they ca me ou t of their cells in the dea d of night

, .
The pizzica to has been well u sed by Weber in the over tu re to ,
D er Freischutz in which piece it gives a stri kingly sombre effect

”
,
just after the openi ng horn qu artet R ossini in the overture to Wil .
,
liam Tell divi d es the contra b asses to obta in effects of pizzica to

,
an d bowing combined Another fa mou s use of the contra bas s piz

.
zica to is fou nd in the Symphonie Fa nta stiqu e of Berlioz where the ,
hero after being led by jea lou sy to murder his sweetheart is m arched
, ,
“
to execu tion Ba ch used the contra bass well in Ye lightnings ye
.
,
thu nders a n d Glu ck employed it in glissa ndo passa ges to im ita te

”
,
the barking of Cerebu s in Orpheu s B u t B eethoven who br ought

”
.
,
ou t most wonderfu lly the possibilities of his instru ments was the ,
first to mak e the contra bass im porta nt in the orchestra At the end .
ofhis Fou rth Sym phony is a ra pid contra b a ss p a ssa ge th a t dem ands
'
al lthe pl a yers ski ll

’
.
When this work first ca me out Weber often at od ds with the , ,
more seri ou s and irascible Beethoven wr ote a sa tire on the contra ,
ba ss p assa ge which was printed in a mu sica l periodica l He pic

, .
tured a concert h a ll in which this symphony ha d j u st been per

,
fo rmed After the departure of the mu sicia ns the instruments

.
,
ca me to life and bega n to hold an indign a tion meeting a ga inst the

,
merciless composer who for ced them to do su ch h ard work When .
the sma ller instr uments ha d a ir ed their grievances the contra b a ss ,
arose gra vely a n d sa id

“
Your tr ou bles m a y be rea l enou gh ; b u t
, ,
wha t do you think of mine ? Instea d of letting me proceed in a qu iet

a nd or derly ma nner as befits my dignity this intolera ble composer
, ,
TH E BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
The contraba ss then m ay be u sed for the most part as a hu mble
, ,
drudge givi ng the bass parts of the orchestra l mu sic B u t it has

,
.
ca pa bilities and the grea t composer will sometimes give it passages

,
tha t are of the utmost importa nce and significa nce.

XL VI
PL U C KE D—
STRIN G I N S T RUM EN T S
OF those instruments whose strings are plu cked instea d of being

rubbed by a bow the most impo rta nt by f
, ar is the ha rp (Ge rma n ,
Ha rfe ; French ha rpe Ita l

, ia n arpa ) It undou btedly origin ated
’
, , .
from the twa nging bow string of ea rly sa va ges ; and the na nga a
-
,
modern form of negro harp is pra ctica lly a bow with five strings
,
instea d of one Nearly a llthe a ncient ra ces ha d ha rps of som e form ;

.
a nd as the harp was the best instrument known in old ti m es its ,
use was a scribed to celestia l beings as well as m orta ls The an cient .
ha rps va ried in Size an d nu mber of strings ; b u t as they la cked the

vertica l pillar tha t ma kes our ha rp a tria ngle they mu st ha ve been ,
har d to keep in tune The Hebrew harp or Kinnor was prob a bly
.
, ,
copied from the Egyptia n instrument while the Greek word

kithara has been tra nsla ted indifferently as harp lyr e lu te or , , ,
gu ita r
.
The Irish cla im to ha ve orig ina ted the harp Undou btedly the .
o rienta l harps were ea rlier thou gh the Roman legions brought the
,
I rish harp ba ck from B rita in Its use in the Apu lia n city of Arpi
.
m a y ha ve given the instrument its na me though Max M uller cl a im s ,
a Teu tonic origin f or the term The a ncient ra ces of the east ga ve
.
the instrum ent variou s na mes while the Germanic tribes knew it ,
under its present a ppell a tion .
The old Irish ha rp in its la rgest form ha d three rows of strings

, , ,
two ou ter rows of twenty nin e ea ch giving dia tonic tones while the
-
,
middle row of twenty ga ve the chroma tic interva ls The instrument .
existed in other forms a nd as la te as 1608 we find Monteverde ca ll

,
“
ing for a dou ble ha rp evidently with two rows of strings The
”
,
.
tri ple form l asted u ntil nearly 1800 .
The old la ws of Wa les mention the use of the harp as one of three
points tha t distinguished the freem a n from the sla ve ; and pretend
ers were often discovered by their u nskilfu l use of it Only the king . ,
his musicia ns and the gentlemen of the rea lm could own a harp ; and
,
Sal ves were forbidden even to tou ch the instrument The ha rp was .
exem pt from seizur e for debt as its loss was presu med to mea n de
,
gra da tion to the ra nks of the sla ves The Welsh mu sica l festiva ls .
,
or Eistedf odds were orig ina lly very impor ta nt af

, fa irs participa ted ,
in by those who ha d rea ched the ra nk of chief minstrel C a ndida tes .
ha d to p a ss a th ree yea rs initia tion an d other periods of p ra ctice

’
-
,
for higher degr ees .
The Anglo Sa xons cherished the harp an d respected the wander

-
,
ing minstrel As early as the year 49 5 when C olg rin was b esieged
.
,
in York his br other went through the hostile ca mp disgu ised as a

,
minstrel to get the informa tion tha t ena bled him to relieve the pla ce .
A simila r story is told of King Alfred who disgu ised himself as a ,
harper to enter the D a nish ca mp At festiva ls it was cu stomary for .
the guests to Sing an d play in turn Once the poet C a edmon who .
,
ha d neglected mu sic f or more purely intellectu a l a ccom plishments ,
fou nd himself u na ble to pla y when his turn ca me in su ch a ga ther

ing ; whereu pon he rose from the ta ble a n d went home to hide his
shame .
The Minnesingers of Germ a ny ma de frequ ent use of the harp ,
instea d of the guitar tha t the Trou ba dou rs sometimes fa vor ed The .
effect m a y be seen in Wa gner s in which the con ’

~
testa n ts indulge in a tourn a ment of song .
In England the lu te an d viol gra du a lly repla ced the ha rp while ,
the spinet an d virgina ls which were sma ller forms of the harpsi
,
chord drove it still fur ther into obscu rity Yet in 172 0 H a ndel
, .
“
ca lled for harp mu sic in his ora torio Esther the parts being per ,
formed by two Welsh ha rpists .
The invention of peda ls for the harp has been a scribed to Hoch
brucker in 172 0 a nd Pau l Velter in 1730 The modern concert
, , .
harp however is the work of Seb a stia n E rard who perfected it in

, , ,
18 10 This has wha t are kn own as dou ble a ction ped a ls The harp
. -
.
is tu ned in the sca le of C fla t when its strings a re open There are

-
.
seven peda ls one for ea ch note of the sca le Pressing a ped a l ha lf

, .
way down will ca use a set of meta l pins on revolving discs to cl a mp

al lthe stri ngs giving tha t note a n d ra ise the pitch a semitone by ,
shortening the length of the string Thu s for the key of C allthe .
peda ls wou ld be depressed ha lf way ; while for A fla t as an insta nce

- -
, ,
the peda ls for C F and G would be pressed down the others not
, , , .
Tim e hath l a i d his ha n d u pon m y heart,
Gen tl y , n ot sm itin g i t,
B u t as the ha r per l a y s his open p al
m
U pon the strin gs , to dea den the ir vibration .
If the harp strings are plu cked near the end instea d of the middle ,
a more twa ngy tone with more overtones is the resu lt

, H arp trills , .
are possible b u t not mu ch used

, The harp glissa ndo is a sweep .
a long the str ings The tr emolo or repetition of a single note is oh

.
, ,
ta ined by tuning two a dj a cent stri ngs to the sa me pitch except ,
for the notes D G an d A In simila r fashion a ha rp m a y be tuned

, , .
so tha t a sweep of its stri ngs will give the chord of minor thirds in
stea d of a sca le The harp has the fu llest a n d richest tone of a llthe
.
plu cked string instru ments and is well su ited to a ccompany the
-
,
vorce .
B a ch did not use the early harp an d H a ndel ga ve it very few ,
tria ls Beethoven employed it only once in Prometheu s Weber

.
”
,
.
wou ld not use the i m p roved har p in a ny of his opera s ; b u t Spohr

wrote mu ch for it This m a y ha ve been a ma tter of domestic as
.
well as mu sica l harmony ; for he marri ed the harpist Dorette Scheid

l er a n d wrote ma ny sona ta s f
, or h arp a n d violin in which she took ,
the former instrument while he pla yed the la tter Berlioz in his .
,
Childe Harold Symphony produ ced bell ef fects by combining ha rp

,
a n d horn or ha rp a n d flu te Across the cha nnel Cowen u sed mu ch

.
,
harp work to a dd loca l color to his Welsh Symphony .
To da y the harp has given way to the more popu la r pia no ; b u t in

-
Erard s time it held its own Onc e its popu l a rity was threa tened
’
.
by the g uitar when a tr ou pe of Spa nish pla yers toured Engla nd ;

,
b u t E rar d was equ a l to the occa sion He bou ght a la rge nu mber of .
gu ita rs an d presented them wi th a printed method to clerks shop

, , , ,
girls a n d so on When the fas hiona ble people sa w the new instru
, .
ment in the han ds of su ch humble folk they a t once ga ve u p ,
their newly formed pla ns of lea rning it an d continued to b u y Erard

-
,
harps .
In 1898 the French firm of Pleyel Wolff Co brought out a chro , .
ma tic harp Its str ings are arra nged in two sets chroma tic an d
.
,
dia tonic ; and they sla nt so as to cr oss ea ch other in the middle This .
instrument has good tones as its strings are a lwa ys open an d need
, ,
no peda ls ; b u t it has not become very popu lar as yet .
The guita r is not considered to belong to the orchestra Some .

PL UCKED—
STR ING INSTR UMENTS 4 17
times it is used for specia l effects as in the a ccom pa niment of Alm a

,
“
viva s air in Rossini s B ar ber of Seville ; b u t the grea t composers
’ ’ ”
ca ll f or it never Paga nini who once ga ve u p the violin for the

.
,
g ui ta r while he was gu est of a cer ta i n noble l a dy wr ote quar tets ,
for str ings with guitar ; b u t these wor ks ha ve not ma de a ny grea t
impression The gu ita r tones are ra ther too soft for combina tion or
.
orchestra l work ; so they are u sed chi efly in solos or to a ccom pa ny

the voice .
The gu ita r has Six strings of which three are u su a lly ca tgut and
,
the others (the lower thr ee ) ma de of silk wou nd with fine wire They .
are tu ned in fourths with one third giving the notes E A D G B , , , , , ,
a nd E in as cendi ng o rder The lowest E as wr itten is the one j ust

.
below middle C b u t the guitar is a tra nsposing instru m ent a n d

, ,
sou nds an octa ve deeper tha n the wri tten part For Sha rp keys .
the str ings m a y be tu ned to E B E G sha rp B an d E On the neck

, , ,
-
, , .
are fr ets (little horizonta l ridges ) to show where the stri ngs are to
,
be pressed The fingering is done by the left ha nd ; the li ttle finger

.
rests on the fa ce of the instr u ment while the other three fingers ,
take the u pper stri ngs an d the thu mb the lower ones The str ings .
are plu cked by the thumb a n d fingers of the right ha nd a n d m a y ,
be pla yed either in the chord sty le or in more open ru nning fashion , .
The tones of the instru m ent are drea my an d mela ncholy in cha ra c
ter The gu itar like the ma ndol in an d ba nj o is too often devoted
. , ,
to common pla ce mus ic ; b u t there is a good gu ita r repertoire and ,
Ha wan an u ku lele is a sma ll instrument of guita r l ike sha pe an d -
tone quality .
The ma ndolin comes in severa l forms b u t the most usua l one has ,
four p a irs of strings tu ned like the violin stri ngs The lowest pa ir
,
.
are ca tgu t covered with silver wire the next two coppe r the thir d , ,
pa ir steel and the u pper ones ca tgu t They are pla yed by a pick
, . ,
or plec tru m The ma ndolin ca n give chords b u t is more effective

. ,
in ra pid melodic work Its tones are thin and ta ngy in qu ality b u t
. ,
origina l an d str iking enough in effect Com p osers ca ll for it occa .
“ ”
sion ally a
, n d Moz ar t u sed it in Don Giova nni to a ccom pa ny that
a morou s hero s serena de though nowa d a ys the violin pizzica to is

’
,
Thi s passa ge figured in an a necdote of Joa chim the g rea t vi olin ,
ist He wa s to pla y it once a t Leipsic ; but j us t before he b ega n some

. ,
one proba bly a conserva tory pu p il ma naged to get some split p eas
, ,
into the sounding box of the instrument Instea d of the u sua l

- .
da inty pizzica to runs the soloist prod u ced an unexpected series of

,
su dden ra ttlings This illu stra ted the fa ct tha t the tone of the in
.
strument is ca used by the vibra tions of the sounding box and n ot -

,
the strings a lone ; b u t proba bly the a rtist was too sur prised a t the
tim e to ca re mu ch a bou t a coustica l principles .
The ba njo is essentia lly an America n produ ct Some derive it fr om .
the bandore an d others from the Senegambia n ba nia b u t where

, ,
ever the na me ca me from the instru ment was perfected in the ,
United Sta tes It ca rries a negro suggestion b u t is more used in

.
,
rea lity by white men tha n by negroes It consists of a fla t ta mbour .
ine like parchment sound bo ard (if the term board is permissible )
- -
,
held by a fla t hollow cylinder of meta l ; a long neck with frets ; and ,
five strings The la tter are tu ned upward from the A j u st below
.
middle C an d give in as cending order the notes A E G Sh arp

—
-
, , , , , ,
B and E The B ass tu ned to B style is the sa me except tha t the

,
.
- -
lowest string is ra ised a tone Six str inged b a njos exist b u t are not .
-
,
common The ba njo quality is ra ther ti n pa nny The instrument

.
-
.
has not entered the or chestra .
The Russia n ba lala ika is a three stringed a ffa ir with a tr ia n gula r -
wooden sound box This instru ment comes in variou s Si zes It is

-
. .
not powerfu l in solo work ; b u t ba nds composed of ba l a l aika s have

an excellent effect Its tone resembles tha t of the guitar
. .
The lu te is now obsole te b u t was an important instr u ment two ,
or thr ee centu ries a g o Sometimes it had a large pear sha ped body
.
-
,
an d as ma ny as thir tee n or more pa irs of str ings As ea ch p ai r had .
to be tu ned into unison as with the mandolin to day Ma ttheson ,

-
,
cla imed tha t if a lu te pla yer lived to the a g e of eighty he mu st ha ve

-
,
spent sixty yea rs of his life in tuning his instru ment Eliza betha n .
Engla nd ha d some gifted lute composers such as Dowla nd and ,
Ford The lu te ga ve rise to systems of mu sica l writing known as

.
ta bla tures which represented the music by some chara cters other
,
tha n the usua l staf fnota tion For the lu te the ta bla tures consisted .
,
of nu mbers showing where the stri ngs were to be fingered The lute .
music was light in character but very da inty and a ttractive , .

X LVII
FL UTE AND PIC C OL O
THE grea t a ntiqu ity of the flu te and its prom inence in Roma n ,
mu sic has been a lrea dy described It mu st be kept in mind how

,
.
,
ever tha t the term flu te as used by the a ncien ts often inclu ded
, , ,
instru ments with reed mouthpieces of variou s sorts like our ob oes , ,
cla rinets etc , .
In old tim es som e of the flu tes were held stra ight ou t from the
mou th a n d pla yed by direct blowi ng into the tu be This type was
, .
known as the flu te a bec and afterwards ca lled bea k flu te from its

- -
,
resem bla nce to a bir d s bea k Som etimes su ch a flu te wou ld bra nch
’
.
into two tu bes in whi ch ca se one m ay ha ve pla yed a drone ba ss

,
-
a ccom p a ni m ent .
The u se of the fl u te in the Gr ecia n ga mes has been a lrea dy men

tion ed Fl .u te pl a ying was considered p art of the necessa ry edu
-
ca tion of the rich G ree k you ths Grea t flu te pla yers grew very .
-
popu lar a n d the a ccou nt of their riva hi es rea ds very mu ch like the
,
story of opera singers disa greements in our own da y At one tim e

’
.
Alcibia des checked the growing popu larity of the flu te som ewha t ,
r efu sing to pla y the instru ment beca u se he fear ed tha t the la rge
mou thpiece wou ld spoil the sha pe of his mou th His prestige was so .
grea t tha t he a ltered the fa shion for a tim e ; b u t som e u nknown flu te

ma ker obvia ted the difficu lty by produ cing a flu te with a sma ller
m ou thpiece tha n u sua l Flu tes were mu ch p rized the most o rna te
.
,
ones selling for su m s as grea t as thr ee thou sa nd dollar s The sa l .
aries of the best pr ofession a l pla yers were a lso very large One of .
them Nichom a chus ea rned by his pla ying enou gh money to b u y

, ,
a n i rm n ense collection of jewel s Even thea tr ica l flu te pla yers were .

-
well pa id receiving more from the choregu s (dir ector) tha n a llthe
,
members of the chorus Thi s mu st ha ve been a comforta ble sa lary ;

.
or the Athenia ns ha d a pr over b sta ting tha t the wa

f y to ru in a m an
was to ha ve him ma de a choregu s .
Egypt ha d its flu te music a lso In the year 2 80 B C Ptolemy . .

FLUTE AND PICCOLO 42 1
Phila delphu s ga ve a grea t festiva l a t Alexa ndria with singers kith , ,
ara pla yers a n dflu tists a mounting to six hu ndred in a l

, , l A cen tury .
la ter Ptolemy Physcon was a grea t pa tron of flu te mu sic He evi

, .
“
y ha d hi s fu ll shar e of tempera ment ; for on ma rrying his
”
den tl
brother s wife he killed the la tter s son an d a fter a la ter marri a ge
’ ’
,
with his niece (then his step dau ghter) he despa tched a llthe fa m -
ily Pr ob a bly he r egar ded m u sic as a sola ce for fam i ly tr ou bles

. .
After a nother centur y ca me Ptolemy Au letes fa ther of Cleopa tra , ,
“
his surna me of flu te lover showing his fondness for tha t instru
” -
ment .
In Rom e flu tes were used on a lmost every pu blic occa sion They
, .
were employed a t fu nera ls b u t the ostenta tion an d lu xu ry of these ,
events grew so grea t tha t a la w was pa ssed limiting the nu m ber of

flu te pla yers to ten a tea ch fu nera l The flu te was u sed a lso as a pitch
-
.
pipe ; ma ny grea t ora tors inclu ding Ca iu s Gra cchus wou ld ha ve a

, ,
sla ve sta nd behind them while they spoke and sou nd a flu te a t , ,
inter va ls to give them the proper pitch for their decla ma tory efforts .
In med iaeva l tim es the flu te was ra ther oversha dowed in im por

ta n ce by the harps and viols of the Trou ba dours B u t it contin .
ued in use nevertheless in both the stra ight and the tra verse form
, .
The la tter in whi ch the tu be is held sidewise beca me known gra d

, ,
u al ly as the Germa n fl u te The old English bea k flu te was known

.
“
as the recor ders a n d is mentioned by Sha kespea r e in H a mlet ”
.
,
The recorder type of flu te ha d a large hole in the tube cover ed with ,
thin bla dder giving it a distinctive tone color In the time of Henry
,
-
.
VII it wa s desc ribed as produ cing the best ef fects in the m iddle reg
ister b u t ma nifold fingering and stops bringeth high notes from
,
its clea r tones ”

.
Another roya l devotee of the flu te was Fr ederick the Grea t In .
1728 while still cr own prince he hea rd the fa mou s flu te pla yer
, ,
-
Quantz a t Berlin and was so ca ptiva ted tha t he arr a ng ed im m edi

,
a tely to ha ve the grea t performer visit him periodica lly a n d tea ch
him the flu te The old king Frederick I was a narrow martinet

.
, ,
who cared nothing for a rt so the lessons were ta ken u nder difficu l ,
ti es Once the king threa tened tha t if the lessons were not stopped
.
he wou ld brea k the flu te over hi s son s hea d an d ha ng the tea cher ’

.
It is pretty sure tha t he wou ld ha ve done this ; for once when the ,
prince ran a wa y from his fa ther s harsh rule the la tter ha d him con ’
,
4 22 THE B OO K OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
dem n ed to dea th as a deserter a nd spared him only a t the interces,
sion of the E nglish a m ba ssa dor It was therefore with no little fear .
tha t the roya l pu pil a n d his tea cher sa w the old ki ng a pproa ch dur
ing a la ter lesson All tha t sa ved the situa ti on was a friendly chi m
.
ney u p which Qua ntz was forced to cra wl B u t better da ys were in

,
.
store and when the prince beca me king he ma de Qua ntz the cour t
,
com poser Frederick was a good mu sicia n a n d com poser himself

.
,
writing opera s a n d pla ying the flu te with m u ch tas te For aecom .
p a n ist he ha d a nothe r f a mous p r otegé C ar l Philip Ema nu el ,
B a ch a son of the grea t John Sebas tia n B a ch

,
.
The old form of concert flu te (Germa n Flote; French fldte; Ita l , ,
ian flau to) was a slightly ta pered tu be with a la rge hole nea r one
, ,
end servin g as mou thpiece a n d six fing er holes near the other end
,
-
.
With the fing er holes closed the flu te sou n ds D a bove mi ddle C

-
, ..
As the tone is produ ced by the vib ra tion of the ai r colu mn in the -
tu be the opening of the fing er holes begin ning farthest fr om the

,
-
,
‘
mou thpiece will continu a lly shorten the colu mn of a ir a n d give

, ,
higher tones The six holes are so loca ted as to sou nd the dia tonic
.
sca le of D There are a lso keys which m ay be pressed resu ltin g in

.
,
the form a tion of sharps an d fla ts Two extra keys give the D fla t . -
an d C below the lowest D By increa sing the force of blowing the ‘

.
,
pla yer ca n ma ke the a ir colurrm divide into ha lves giving a new

-
,
sca le an octa ve hi gher tha n the fir st one ; a n d still ha r der blo wing
ca uses a fu rther su bdivision an d higher notes yet The com p ass of
, .
the fl u te is ra ted a t three octa ves The a ction of the flu te an d other .
wind instru ments is described in deta il in the cha pter on Acou stics ”
.
On the old flu te it was ra ther har d for the player to ma n a ge a ll

the holes an d keys To do a wa y with su ch difficu lties Theoba ld
.
,
Boehm improved the flu te in 1832 by a new system of rings an d

, ,
levers in combina tion with keys which brou ght the fingering into
, ,
mu ch sm a ller spa ce th an before The Boehm fl u te has a cylindrica l .
tube .
When Boehm took his improved instru ment to show to Rossini ,
he found th a t composer sha ving While wa iting in the a nteroom ; .
Boehm started to demonstra te the worth of his invention by pla y

ing a llsorts of trills runs an d rou la des inclu ding ma ny tha t were
, , ,
impossible on the older instru ment Rossini listened with growing .
wonde and a t last rushed in wi th the so a p still on his fa ce You

r “
, .
on the other ha nd a dmir ed the sm ooth fl u te tones very grea tly

,
.
In his Reform a ti on Sym phony when he wi shed to form a gra dual ,

“
climax on the chora le Ein feste Burg ist u nser Gott he star ted
”
,
by giving the m elody to the flutes a lone a n effect th a t was r ea lly ,
too soft althou gh the la ter climax of course brou ght fu ll power
,
.
Among solo fl u te composers the name of Ku hla u is so p rominent,

“
tha t he has been ca lled The Beethoven of the Flu te A m ore ”
.
recent fl u te devotee was the poet Sidney La nier who m a de the ,
ra ther too p a rtisa n p rophecy tha t the time wou ld com e when or
chestras wou ld h a ve as m a ny fl u tes as violins Two flu tes were .
enou gh for the early clas sica l com po sers but now three a n d even , ,
fou r are u sed in the sta ndar d or chestras

,
.
There are a t present no flu tes of lower compa ss tha n the one here
described The flau to d a m ore which sou nded a minor third lower
.
’
,
tha n our fl u te is now obsolete M a ssenet ha d a ba ss flu te ma de a

, .
,
fourth lower th an ours b u t it is not in common use It is proba ble

, .
th a t this deep instru ment in the flu te fa m ily will b e a su ccess for ,
the soft smooth qu ality of its tone sou n ds well in the low notes
, .
It is som etimes ca lled the a lto flu te .
There is a flu te rarely u sed which is a semitone higher th a n the

, ,
ordin ary flute This is ca lled the D fla t flu te from the pitch of its
.
-
,
lowest note There is a lso a n instru ment with E fla t for its lowest
.
-
note This is ca lled the tierce flu te an d its crysta lline tones were
.
,
“
well u sed by Ga de in The C rusa ders In keeping the fingering .
the sa me on allthree kinds of fl u te the pitch will vary ; and in order ,
to ma ke the pitch the sa me when dif ferent flu tes are u sed the fin ,
gering mu st be varied Thu s the fingering for C wou ld give E fla t

.
-
on the E fla t flu te ; an d in order to ma ke this flu te a ctua lly sou nd

-
the C the fingering for the A below wou ld ha ve to be u sed Th u s

, .
its part mu st be written a t tha t sa me interva l below where it is

to sound in or der to prevent a ltera tions in fingering This point
, .
wi ll be more fully trea ted in connection with the cla r inets .
The piccolo (Germa n klei ne Flote; French p eti te flate; Ita li an

, , ,
h lf size flu te giving tones an octa ve a bove those of the flu te Its

a -
, .
“
fu ll Ita lia n na me flauto pi ccolo mea ns simply little flu te It is a
,
”
, .
FLUTE AND PICCOLO 4 25 .
p art In the orchestra the pi c colo is sometimes intercha ngea ble

.
,
with one of the flu tes the flu te pla yer using the sm a ller in strument
,
-
for a time As the piccolo tra nsposes u p a n octa ve he fingers it

.
,
tras ha ve a separa te pla yer for the piccolo The compa ss of the .
piccolo is nearly thr ee octa ves It begins with D ins tea d of C (an
.
octa ve a bove the lowest flu te D ) a n d extends u p to the highest B ,
on the pia no Any tone a bove tha t is too piercingly shrill to be use
.
f
ul .
As the la st sentence suggests the piccolo is the shr illest of the ,
orchestra l instr u ments Its keenly b rillia nt to ne color is a lmost

.
-
a lwa ys ca lled f or in pic turing wild frenzied merriment or inferna l ,
revelry Like the flu te it has three distinct registers Its lower

.
, .
octa ve is too wea k an d hollow for orchestra l use ; its second octa ve
is bright a nd joyous ; while its u pper notes ha ve the piercing qu a lity
“
tha t gives the inferna l su ggestion to this imp of the orchestra .
The hi gh notes m a y a lso give a m artia l effect as in Meyerbeer s ,

’
“ “
Hu g uenots and in the ca dence of Beethoven s Egmont Over
” ” ’
“
ture Glu ck in hi s Iphigenie in Ta ur is pictur ed the frenzy of
.
,
”
,
the ba rbarous Sc ythia ns by u sing piccolo with violin ta m bourine , ,
a n d cymb a ls Beethoven ma de rising notes on the piccolo portra y

.
the wind in the storm of his Pa stora l Sym phony Bu t it ca n have .
“
softer u ses as in the aria Ye pretty warbling choirs from Han
, ,
“
del s Acis and Ga la tea
’ ”
.
Usua lly one piccolo is more tha n enou gh for its purpose Bu t .
Weber by using two a third a part pr od u ced an inimita bly dia bolic
, ,
“
sneer in C aspar s drinking song from Der Freischutz Spontini
’
-
”
, .
,
“
in his Ferna ndo Cortez u sed two piccolos with a lmost every
”
, ,
thin g else tha t wou ld ma ke a noise to picture the march of the ,
Mexi ca ns Berlioz who was very fond of exa ggera ted inferna l pic
.
,
tu r es ca lled for three piccolos in the thir d part of his Fa u st an d

,
”
,
even a dded the shrill tones of an E flat clarinet -

.
There are two tra nsposing pic colos giving still higher tones ; but ,
these are r estri cted to m ilita ry ba nds .
The fla geolet is a sm a ll an d shr ill survi va l of the old stra ight flu te -
ty pe It is not u sed in the orchestra thou gh Mozart in his Ent

.
, ,
ii hrun g a us dem Sera il called for a fla geolet in G sou nding a

”
f , ,
4 26 TH E BOO K OF MUSICAL KNO WLEDGE
The tiny an d innocent a ppea ra nce of the fla g eolet once misled a

non mu sica l minister who u sed it to illu stra te his point He was
- .
speaking of bu ilding a cha ra cter thorou ghly in its sma llest deta ils,
“
an d mentioned the or chestra as an exa mple . D uring a certa in
“
rehea r sa l he sa id the dir ector su ddenly ra pped on his desk to
”
, ,
dema nd a ha lt an d sa id Fla geolet you were silent In the m idst

, ,
‘
, .
’
of a llthe mingled sou nds he ha d noticed the a bsence of one tiny

,
flag eol et .
”
Unfortuna tely for his illu stra tion tha t one little in
,
stru men t cou ld ma ke more noise tha n a lm ost a ll the others to

gether ; a n d none b u t a dea f m an cou ld fa il to note the difference
between its presence and a bsence in the musi c .
penetra ting quality still somewha t nasa l ; while the highest notes are
,
thin a nd more piercing As the oboe resembles a shepherd s pipe

.
’
,
it is admira bly su ited to portray ef fects of p as tora l simplicity It .
is also used to picture ru stic merriment Still a nother effect aris .

,
ing from the artless simplicity of its tones is th a t of pa thos an d grief , .
The older oboe reta ined in so m e foreign orchestras is fu ller a nd

, ,
more nasa l ; but the lighter tone of our instrument is amply effec
tive and has been aptly likened to a silver threa d in the orchestral
,
web of sound .
Unlike most wind instruments the o boe demands less th a n the ,
natural amount of brea th The pla yer therefore has too little work
.
, ,
for his lungs ; a nd in long p a ssa ges he must p a use to exh a le before
ta king breath to sta rt again The older composers often wrote long .
oboe passa ges which the performer has to divide into sections
, .
Schu ma nn once ma de the sa me error ; a nd in the second of his three

Rom ances for oboe a nd piano there is a passa ge of eighty four bars -
withou t a rest .
There is not mu ch solo music for the oboe In a ddition to the .
Schu ma nn pieces there are six concertos for it by H andel ; one by

,
Moz a rt now lost ; another by Ka lliwoda ; and a four movement

,
-
trio by Beethoven for two oboes a nd a n E nglish horn Among re .
cent com posers Arthur Foote has prod u ced a set of three pieces
,
for oboe a n d pi a no .
In orchestra l music the situ a tion is dif ferent a nd the incisive ,
tone of the oboe makes it a favorite The scores of H a ndel are fu ll .
of striking p assa ges for it a nd in his time it ca me near being a rival

,
to the violin The old com posers in fact had many more wind in
.
, ,
stru m ents th a n we use a n d sometimes there were nearly as m a ny

,
oboes as violins With H aydn the oboe 18 more of a solo instrument

.
,
in light and playfu l melodies It 1s often u sed a ntiphonally with .
the bassoon in the musette like trios found 1n his symphonies ; b u t

-
“
it is em ployed a lso in The Sea sons to represent the crowing of
'
”
“
the cock Sa int Saens u sed it in simil ar fashion in his D a nse
.
-
’
M a ca bre where the da nce of the riotous skeletons com es to a n

,
ab ru pt end a t d a wn Moza rt employed the oboe freely a n d in his

.
,
Twelfth Mass (providing he wrote th a t work ) there is a fa m ou s

solo passa ge for it Gluck used the oboe effectively in his operas
.
to represent p athos .
1 BA SSO O N , 2 O BOE ; 3 BA SS C L A RI NE T ; 4 BA SSE T H O RN ,
5 A R I NE T
CL ,
6 . O L D FL UT E 7 A
S XO P H O NE 8 E NG L I SH H O RN , 9 B O E H M F L UT E
oboe di ca ccia a fifth (sometimes a sixth ) below our instru ment

,
.
This was in use as la te as H a ydn s day an d we even find Rossini ’

,
“
ca lling for it in his Willia m Tell Overtu re to im ita te the alpine
”
,
“
horn when giving the Ra nz des Va ches thou gh this p assa ge is
”
,
now given by the English horn .
The English horn (Germa n Engl isches Ho m; French cor a ngl

, a i s; ,
Ita lia n com o i nglese) is sim ply an oboe ha lf as large a ga in as the

,
sma ller instru ment ; a n d in consequ ence of its size its pitch is a ,
fifth lower When the oboe pla yer ha d to ta ke the Engli sh horn
.
a lso the music f

,
or the l a tte r was wr itten a fifth higher tha n it was
to sou nd so tha t the oboe fingering cou ld be us ed while the size of

, ,
the instrum ent ga ve the low pitch desired Thus for a piece in D .
the English horn part wou ld be wr itten a fifth higher in A but , ,
wou ld sou nd in D At present a separa te m an is needed in large or

.
chestras f or the English horn so the p ar t cou ld be wr itten in the

,
proper key a nd pl ayed by him a ccordingly ; b u t the cu stom of using

the tra nsposition has not yet been cha nged .
The English horn is not rea lly a horn but is named from the old ,
shepherd s pipe u sed in Engla nd a n d known as the hom p ipe This

’
.
“
is mentioned by Chau cer in his Romau nt of the Rose in the, ,
lines
de an d f ou l
C on tr ove he wol ,e f
ay l
e,
W ith horn pipes ofC ornewaile ”

.
The word controve mea ns to compose a n d has the sa me root as ,
“ “
Trou vere Some claim th a t the instr u ment was the cornpipe
”
.
”
,
ma de from cornsta lks j u st as the cha lu mea u was na med from the
,
La tin colum ns a reed B u t the corn m a y a lso come from the La tin
, .
cornu a horn as is the ca se with the word c o rnet

—
.
, ,
The na tura l sca le of the English horn is tha t of G ma jor starting ,
j ust below middle C It has extra keys which extend its com pa ss
.
downwa rd to E Its u pward limit is the B fla t two a n d a ha lf

.
-
octa ves higher The lowest sca le of G comes from the na tura l
.
tones ; the next sca le is produ ced from the first overtone obta ined ,
by harder blowing ; while the highest notes are obta ined by cross
fingering opening the b olas near the mou thpiece and stopping
, ,
others to obta in still shorter vibra ting a ir colu mns

,
- .
The tone qu a lity of the English horn is qu ieter and more solid
tha n tha t of the oboe In pla ce of the oboe s a ppea ling p a thos we
’
.
OBOE AND ENGLISH HORN 43 ]
have here a drea my m ela ncholy The middle an d lower register is .
es pecia lly fu ll rich an d sonorous The earlier ma sters u sed this

, , .
instrument very li ttle It is now a dmitted to B a ch s mu sic b u t

.
’
,
only to repla ce the oboe di ca ccia H a ydn and Mozart ca lled for .
it a very few times Beethoven m a y ha ve used it in the trio with

.
two ob oes b u t more prob a bly ca lled for an oboe di ca ccia Schu
, .
bert Weber and Mendelssohn did not write for it a t a ll It wou ld

, , .
ha ve been m ost a ppropria te a fter the storm in the Pa stora l Sym

phony instea d of the cl ar inet horn combin a tion th a t Beethoven
,
-
used Schuma nn a voided the English horn for the most part b u t
.
,
“
he ga ve it one prom inent pa ssage in his M a nfred where th a t
”
,
“
hero hears a shepherd s pipe in the Alps The pipes in the libera l
’
.
a bou t whi ch the he r o p a u ses to mora lize are well rep r esented
”
air, ,
by the English horn Cowen u sed the instrument excellently in .
his Sca ndin a via n Symphony where it depicts the loneliness of the ,
impressive fiords The Fr ench com posers showed m ore apprecia tion
.
of the instr ument an d Meyerbeer gave it du e pr ominence in the

,
“
fou rth act of his Hu gu enots Wa g ner u nderstood its use in
”
.
pa stora l scenes an d in Ta nnhau ser when the her o emerges

,
”
,
from the Mou nta in of Venu s he finds an excellent English horn ,
pla yer tending sheep in the fields near by An exp ressive English .
horn them e is fou nd in the slow m ovement of Dvorak s bea u tifu l ’
New World Symphony In m odern orchestra s the E n glish horn

”
.
is regarded as indispensa ble Sibelius uses it most a d m ira bly in his .
“
Swa n of Tuonela a mythica l bird tha t sings m oum fully while
,
floa ting on the River of Dea th .
There ha ve been a ttempts to make dou ble b a ss oboes deeper -

,
tha n the English horn ; b u t these ha ve not yet been su ccessfu l A .
sm a ll oboe in E fla t fou nd in some ba nds is a m inor third higher

-
, ,
tha n the ordinary instr ument .
The mu sette is an instru ment somewh a t like a b a gpipe b u t with ,
two pipes where the la tter has thr ee It has the very pen etra ting .
qua lity of the sm a ll dou ble reed instruments The b ag pipe which - . ,
has two tu bes giving a dr one b a ss while the third or cha nter pla ys -
, ,
the melody ha s been fou nd in ma ny forms su ch as the ordin ary

, ,
Highla nd ba gpipe the old Germ a n Sackpfeife the French cornem use
, , ,
the bi gnou of B ritta ny the C a la bria n za m p ogna an d the old Irish

, ,
ba gpipe allblown by the mou th ; while the French m usette the

, ,
Lowla nd ba gpipe an d some other forms were blown by the
, ,
bellows .
The Heckelphone ma de by the Germa n Heckel is pra ctica lly a

, ,
baritone oboe nearly an octa ve lower tha n the ordinary oboe Its
, .
dou ble reed is between those of the English horn an d the b a ssoon
in size The Hec kelclarin d invented by the sa me ma ker has the
.
, ,
single reed of the clarinets It was intended for the English horn
.
“
solo in the third a ct of Trista n The taroga to is a nother conica l
”
.
wooden pipe with cla rinet reed a n d has been used for the sa me pur
,
pose .
the highest to the lowest they a lter the pitch of a ny written note
,
by thir ds The highest clef is the so ca lled French violin clef pla c
.
-
,
ing the G a bove m iddle C on the lowest line of the sta ff This clef .
is not u sed now The u sua l G clef pu ts this G on the second line of
.
-
the sta ff with m i ddle C on the first line below Then there is a set
,
.
of C clefs pla cing middle C on the variou s lines of the sta f

-
,
f With .
C on the lowest line we ha ve the sopra no clef ; on the second the ,
mezzo sopra no ; on the third the a lto ; an d on the fourth the tenor
-
, , .
The ba ritone clef brings the F below middle C on the third line of
the sta ff; while the ba ss clef pu ts this F on the next line a bove tha t ,
next to the top line The G clefa n d the b a ss clef are u sed in pia no
.
~
mu sic b u t for orchestra l work some of the others are ca lled for
, ,
nota bly the a lto a n d tenor clefs Any cha nge of clefs has for its .
object the keeping of the notes on or nea r the sta ff so tha t there ,
will be no need f or ma ny extra lines (leger lines ) a bove or below
the sta ff The C clefs were often employed in old voca l mu sic
.
-
.
R apid passa ges on the bassoon sou nd best in its na tu ra l key of

G or in closely rela ted keys Trills ar e pra ctica ble thou gh not on
,
.
,
every note Sta cca to notes ha ve a good effect as in the a llegro

.
,
of Beethoven s Fou rth Sym phony B u t in genera l the tone color of

’
.
-
the instru ment is so striking tha t the composer need only write
passa ges of straightforward cha ra cter for it withou t ma ki ng it do ,
technica l tr icks .
In C a m b ert s Pom one given a t Paris in 1671 we find the

’
, ,
ba ssoon u sed merely as a bass in stru ment B u t the intr od u ction of .
still lower instru ments a n d the impr ovement in the bassoon s

,
’
upper (vox hu ma n a ) notes has left it free for specia l effects

, .
“
H andel used the ba ssoon little thou gh in his Sa u l he ga ve it
”
,
effective phr ases when the Witch of Endor ra ised the ghost of Sa m
uel B a ch som etim es let it do a little m ore tha n reinforce the ba ss
.
part B u t it did not com e into its own u ntil the tim e of H a ydn who
.
,
used its expressive u pper notes very freely Mozart employed its .
com ic effects in the G minor symphony by ma king it imita te a

-
,
violin figur e .
Beethoven showed unusua l fondness for the bassoon and it was ,
rea lly his fa vorite instrument He ca lled for it continua lly a n d evi
.
,
den tly u nderstood its tone colo r a bsolu tely In the first movem ent
-
.
of his Eighth Symph ony it is used with exquisite humor ; b u t its most
THE BASSOONS 43 5
comica l ef fects are shown in the scherzo of the Pastora l (sixth ) Sym
phony In this is a pictu re of village revelr y in which a rustic ba nd
.
,
ta kes pa rt The ba ssoon p la yer of the ba nd is inspir ed by the occa

.
sion an d perha ps by something more definitely exhila ra ting He is

"
, .
depicted as ha ving seen better da ys being now condem ned to pla y ,
on a n instru ment which has only three keys left These keys give .
F C an d F in descending order ; a n d the bassoonist com es in hea vily

, ,
with them every time they are needed an d even indulges in them ,
once or twi ce when they cou ld be sp ared .
The hu mor of the grea t com posers wou ld form a b ook in itself ,
a nd not the leas t impo rta nt pa rt of it wou ld be tha t dea ling with
the com ica l effects they ha ve prod u ced with the instr uments Thu s .
“
Moza rt once wrote a Mu sika lischer Spass or m u sica l joke in
”
, ,
which he pictur ed a you ng com poser stru ggling to write an am bi

tiou s piece The wea k chara cter of the them es a n d the flimsy a t
.
,
tem pts a t developm ent are duly portra yed ; a nd a t the end when
, ,
the neophyte tr ies to intr odu ce the complex form of a fu gu e he is ,
soon ta ngled u p an d has to cover his retr ea t with a blare of noise

, .
Wh ere Beethoven u sed the ba ssoon in ra ther grotesqu e fashion ,
Mendelssohn ha ndled it more da intily The l a tter com poser ga ve .
“
the b a ssoon ma ny hits of inim ita ble humor in his Midsu mmer
Night s Drea m mu sic Most noticea ble a mong them are the qu a int
’ ”
.
clowns march for two b assoons a third a part ; the im ita tion of a
’
ru stic b a nd in the fu nera l ma r ch with the b a ssoon ma king a l u di

,
erous ca dence by itself on a low note ; a n d in the overture the b ra y , ,
ing ofthe tra nsformed Bottom .
Wa gner s sense of hu m or wins unbounded a dmira tion and in his

’
,
Mastersingers of Nuremberg it is worthy to ra nk with tha t of a

Sha kespea re or an Ar istopha nes The libretto which he wrote is.
, ,
su ch a su perb co m edy tha t it ha s become a textbook in the Germa n

schools B u t the score too is fu ll of delightfu l pa ssa ges su ch as
.
, , ,
the ta pping of Sa chs s ham m er while he listens to Beckmesser the

’
,
confu sion of themes in the riot scene the discorda nt horn of the ,
wa tchmen the pa infu l a ttempts of the bea ten Beckm esser to sit
,
down or the la tter s fearfu l and wonderfu l efforts to recollect the

,
’
melody of the prize song B u t the wood W ind s share of fu n comes

.
-
’
in the long prelu de Here the story of the opera is foresha dowed
.
,
and the music shows how the n arr ow m a sters fa i l a t first to recog
nize the freer geniu s of the hero Wa lther who tri es to enter their , ,
gu ild in order to win a bride After Wa lther s first song has been .
’
sug gested the ma sters them e reasserts itself It is given to the

,
’
.
wood wind grou p a n d ma de to sou nd inimita bly fussy a n d self

-
,
conceited Fra gm ents ofWa lther s tria l song recur b u t are con
.
’
-
,
sta n tly inte rru pted by bits of the m a sters theme u ntil ther e is
’
,
pra ctica lly a free fight in the orchestra ca lmed only by the a ppear ,
a nce of Wa lther s second tria l song which the ma sters ultima tely
’
-
,
crown with a prize In allthis the ba ssoon pla ys a most prominent

.
part .
The French composers used the ba ssoon freely Cheru bini writ ,
“ “
ing a grea t solo for it in his Médée Meyerbeer in Robert le
”
.
,
Dia ble used the hollow middle register with blood curdling effec t
”
,
-
in the scene where the hero plu cks a b ra nch of cyp ress from his
mother s gra ve a mid the ghosts of fa ithless nu ns Berlioz with his
’
,
.
,
“
usu a l wholesa le tendencies ca lled for seven b assoons in his Dam ,
na tion de Fau st B u t he showed th a t he knew the instrument by

.
“
his u se of it in the fourth movement of his Symphonie Fa nta s
tiqu e where it gives a wonderfu l picture of the insistent foot
”
,
steps of the cr owd su rging a bou t the victim on his wa y to the

sca ffold Ambroise Thom a s em ployed the ba ssoon to represent
.
“
C a lib an in his b allet The Tempest a n d our own Pr ofessor John
”
,
K Pa ine did the sa me in his sym phonic poem on tha t su bj ect

. .
A more recent French composer to use the b a ssoon wi th infinite

“
hu m or is Pau l D u ka s In his Apprenti Sorcier pictu ring the
”
.
,
ma gicia n s pu pil who ma de a broom produ ce a torrent of wa ter

’
b u t forgot how to shu t it off various skips an d p assa ges on the ,
ba ssoon lend an inim ita bly co m ic fla vor to the rushing of the wa ter
an d the gro n a ppr ehen sions of the unlucky a pp rentice .
There is a sma ller size of b assoon known as the b a sson qu inte ,
becau se it sounds a fifth higher tha n the ordinar y instru ment It .
is u sed as a tra nsposing instru ment and therefore mu st be wr itten ,
a fifth lower tha n desired to a llow of the sa me fin gering as the usua l

,
instru ment It is not u sed in the orchestra a n d is not of grea t im

.
,
porta nce since its u pper register is mu ch like the tone of the English
,
horn .
The contra b a ssoon (double ba ssoon ) is a still larger an d deeper

instrument of the double reed fa mily It has a ta pering tube a bout
-
.
L
THE CL ARINE TS
WHIL E the instruments of the oboe fa mily ha ve two bits of reed

in their mou thpieces the clarinets ha ve only one This is a broad
, .
strip narrowing a t the top to a very sha rp edge It is a tta ched to

,
.
the mou thpiece of the instrument by two meta llic ba nds provided
with screws The pl ayer presses the end of the reed a ga inst his
.
lower lip while performing and the vibra tions of the reed ca use the
,
a ir colu mn in the tu be to vibra te a lso a n d p r od u ce the tone

-
, .
The early instr u ments known as shawms and proba bly some of ,
the old Greek a u loi were of this ty pe Bu t the clarinet as we know

, .
it is due to Joha nn C hristopher Denner of Nuremburg who per , ,
fec ted it in 16 9 0 This instru ment was improved by Sta dler of

.
,
Vienna a n d by Sa x of Paris ; but it is not sui ted for the Boehm sys
, ,
tem of keys The ma in part of its tube is cylin drica l which has
.
,
some effect ; b u t the size of the reed is rea lly responsible While the .
fl u te an d oboe act like open pipes the clarinet beha ves like a stopped
,
pipe cl osed a t one end One result is a d eeper pitch the clarinet
, .
,
sou nding an octa ve below a flu te of the sa me size ; while another

ef fect is found in the fa ct th a t stopped pipes do not give the odd
nu mbe red ha rmonics This point is expl a ined in the cha pter on
.
“ ”
Acous tics The first ha rmonic a n octa ve a bove the norm al tone
.
,
in pitch is used to get a second octa ve sca le in the flu te or oboe ;

,
b u t it does not exist on the cl arinet The over blo wing in the l a tter .
-
ca se ca u ses the a ir colu mn to vibra te in thirds instea d of ha lves

-
,
giving a rise in pitch of a twelfth instea d of an octa ve Thu s a fin .
gering based on octa ves mu st be supplemented in some wa y .
The clarinet (Germa n Kla ri nette; French cla ri nette; Ita lian
, , ,
cl a ri no) has six fin g er holes pl ayed by thr ee fingers on e ch h nd

-
, a a .
These give the scale of G ma jor a fifth below tha t of the flu te , .
There a re extra keys to close holes a t the end a wa y from the mou th
piece thus lengthening the air colu mn an d lowering the compa ss
, -
to the E below middle C The usua l keys for sh arps and fla ts are
.
THE CLAR INETS 43 9
present completing a sca le from G to F sha rp By overblowing

,
- .
the lowest E the B a twelfth a bove it is produ ced ; but between the
,
F shar p and the B are four semitones which mu st be obtai ned by

-
speci al devi ces One of these is produ ced by lifting the thumb off
.
an extra fing er hole while the other three are provided f

-
,
or by keys
which Open holes near the mouthpiece The fingering begins a gain .
a t the twelfth instea d of the octa ve while the highest tones are pro ,
duc ed by cross fing eri ng

- .
The com p ass of the clarinet is from E below middle C to the C

three octa ves a bove it This com p ass is divided into four registers
.
,
though som e au thorities spea k of only three The natural sca le .

,
“
som etim as inclu ding the medium notes with special keys is
”
,
called the chalumea u reg ister after the obsolete instrument of that
,
name It has a rich fu ll an d som ewha t reedy tone The a cu te reg

.
, ,
.
ister is the sca le which the keys obta in from the harmonic of the
twelfth ; while the upper register incl u des the highest notes .
Wi th its many registers the cl arinet is a lso ca pa ble of many gra

,
dati ons in power of tone This ma kes it the most expressive of the
.
wood wind grou p Owing to the complex fing ering it is har d to pla y
-
. ,
the C clarinet in keys conta ining ma ny sharps or fl ats M any tr ills .
are pra ctica ble b u t in certa in sign a tures so m e of these become im

,
possible as the finger wou ld h ave to skip from key to key R a pid
, .
pa ssa ges in the mediu m register are im practica ble beca u se of the
“
fingering ; while p assa ges tha t cross a n d recross the brea k or ,
change in pressure of blowing ca n never be pla yed a t a llswiftly

, .
In these changes there is a lwa ys da nger tha t the tone m a y brea k

“
into harsh noises ca lled cou acs
, .
To obvia te these difficulties the clarinet is ma de in several,
pitches The one alr ea dy described is ca lled the clarinet in C For

. .
fla t keys there is a B fla t cl ar inet sou nding a tone lower ; a n d for

-
,
sharp keys an A clarinet a mi nor third lower As the Germans

,
.
sp ea k of our B fla t as B (our B being ca lled H ) Germ a n scores will

-
,
ca ll for the B clar inet meani ng wha t we know as the B flat instru
,
-
The two lower clarinets are tra nsposing instru ments The same .
fingering th a t gives C on the C cl ari net wou ld give B fla t an d A on -
the tw o lower instruments So to keep the fingering the sa m e the

.
, ,
part for the B fla t clarinet is written a tone a bove where the instru
-
ment will m ake it sound an d for the A cla r inet a minor third a bove
,
.
The sa me pla yer will use these different instruments in different

pieces ; so tha t here a t lea st the tra nsposition is still of use to the
, ,
pla yer B u t modern perform ers cou ld dispense with it ; an d ma ny

.
efforts a re now being ma de to do a wa y with su ch tra nspositions ,
a n d h a ve a llparts written as they sou nd even thou gh the pla yer ,
has to a lte r his fin gering At present if a piece in D ca lls f

. or the A ,
cl arinet the p art mu st be written in F (an d fin ger ed for F ) to sound

in D For a piece in E the A clarinet wou ld be fingered as if for G
. , ,
thu s ma king the pla yer figur e for only one sharp wherea s four ,
sharps wou ld be necessary ifthe C clar inet were u sed B u t if the .
cl arinet p art were written in E an dm ea nt to sou nd there the pla yer , ,
u sing the A cl arinet co u ld pl a y it j u st as eas ily as he wou ld know

, ,
insta ntly th a t he wou ld need the G fingering a ny wa y .
It will b e seen from a llthis tha t orchestral keys unlike those on ,
the piano are limited by the na tur e of certa in instr uments The
,
.
keys with few sharps or fl a ts are most pra ctica ble Of course other .
considera tions guide the com poser su ch as bringing ou t the best ,
r egisters of certa in in stru ments ; b u t he ou ght not to ca ll f or su ch
keys as G fla t or D flat or B for exa m ple Some of Liszt s Hun

~
,
-
, , .
’
ga ria n Rha psodies when ta ken from the pia no an d scored for or
,
c hestra are purpo sely tr a nsp osed to ma ke the instr u menta l wo rk

, ,
Com posers favor the B fla t clarinet and a fter tha t the A clari
-
,
net beca u se both of them ha ve a sweeter an d richer tone than the

,
instrument in C The tone color of the clarinet is weird an d sombre

.
-
in the cha lumea u register and fu ll a n d clear in the second sca le

, .
The clarinet like the oboe is influ enced by hea t a n d the pla yer
, , ,
mus t blow into the tu be to warm it u p before he star ts The process .
of tu ning a n orchestra is not the m ost a greea ble in the world a l ,
thou gh a Chinese dignita ry once a ppla u ded it a n d preferred it to

the la ter nu mbers tha t he hear d The oboe as a lrea dy sta ted gives .
, ,
the pitch by sou nding a prolonged and repea ted A The string .
pla yers then get their A strings to this pitch a fter which they tune
-
,
the others in a series of empty fifths an d fou rths tha t wou ld shock
a h armony tea cher
“
Then the clarinetists begin tootling on t heir
.
”
instru m ents to warm u p the tu bes an d a dj u st them to the pitch

, .
The other wood wind instruments do the sa me while gru nts from
-
,
b u t he is not a llowed to rest even then An extr a movem ent shows .
his reception into the inferna l regions In this movement the E .
fla t clarinet a ids the piccolo in ma king the revels trul y sa ta nic The .
F clarinet still more piercing was formerly employed by Germa n

, ,
milita ry b ands ; while tha t in A fla t the shrillest instr u ment in exist -

,
ence is u sed in Au str ia

,
.
Tenor clar inets exist which tra nspose a fifth a nd a sixth down
,
war d b u t the former is p ra ctica lly the sa me as the b a sset horn

, .
The ba sset horn thu s bea r the sa me rel a tion to the C clarinet as the
Engli h horn does to the ob oe The b a sset horn is a tra nsposing
s
.
instrument with a compa ss beginnin g an octa ve below middle C

, .
It is less brillia nt than the clarin et b u t has a sombre richness of ,
tone well su ited to r eligiou s or fu ner ea l su bjects Mozart u sed it well .
in his Requ iem in which the only r eed instru ments are two b asset
,
horns an d two bassoons He em ployed it a lso in the temple scene of

.
The M a gic Flu te ”

.
The b a ss clarinet is a still larger a n d deeper instrument of this

fam ily It has a crook for the mou thpiece an d a la rge bell a t the
.
other end The usua l form sou nds a n octa ve below the B fla t cla ri
.
-
net It is trea ted as a tra nsposing instrument sou nding a ninth

.
,
lower tha n written A b a ss clarinet in C exists a nd Wa gner ca lled

.
,
f or a deeper one in A The compa ss of the B fla t in strument ra nges

.
-
from the D nearly two octa ves below middle C to the F an octa ve
, ,
a n d a ha l f a bove th a t C The highest notes are seldom u sed The

. .
lower register corresponding to the cha lumea u of the cl arinet is

, ,
the best It is excellent in combina tion a n d m a y be ma de to ha ve

.
,
either the weird qu a lity of the cha lu mea u or the solemn effect of
“
a n or ga n pipe It has been well used by Meyerbeer in his Hu g ue
.
nots an d it even ta kes the melody for a time in the coron a tion
”
“
ma rch from his Pr ophete ”
.
In r ecent years a Parisia n m aker n a med Besson has p r od u ced a

clarinet an octa ve deeper tha n the preceding kn own as the ped a l ,
clarinet This instrument ca n rea ch the lowest D on the pia no

. .
Like the double reed the clarinet reed has been a da pted to brass
,
tu bes The resu lting instru men ts are kn own as sa xophones from
.
,
the na me of their inventor Adolphe Sax The sa xophones come in , .
severa l sizes a n d r esemble the cl ar inets in a ppea ra nce

, The sa xo .
phones ha ve ta pering mb es an d un like the cla rinets ca n pr oduce , ,

THE CLARINETS 443
l
al the overtones The fingering therefore resembles tha t of the
. , ,
ob oe There are in a ll twelve varieties of sa xophone in the six

. ,
of sopra nino soprano a lto tenor baritone an d bass All

, , , , , .
the instru ments except the one in C are tra nsposing They .
mu ch used in the French milita ry ba n ds but ha ve not entered the

,
“
orchestra Geva ert describes the saxophone color as a voice rich
.
and penetra ting the ra ther veiled qua lity of which p arta kes a t once
,
of the cello the English horn an d the clarinet with more fu lness of
’
, , ,
tone Thus it wou ld a lmost seem to be an orchestra in itself

”
. .
“
Bizet in his ever bea utifu l Arlésienne mu sic wrote a charming
,
-
”
,
melody for the a lto sa xophone in E fla t with orchestra ; but up to

-
,
the present very few have followed this lea d .

LI
HORN S, TRU MP E TS AND C ORNE TS ,
THE wood wind grou p of instruments derive their tone fr om the

-
vibra tion of reeds even the flu te being considered to ha ve a n a ir

.
reed or spa ce of com pressed a ir near the blow hole a cting like a
,
-
r eed. In the bra ss instrum ents there is no su ch device The pla yer .
presses his lips a ga inst a bra ss mou thpiece and blows thr ough a ,
narrow opening between them Ifhis lips are l oose no tone will
.
,
r es u lt ; b u t if he stiffens them they vibra te r egu lar ly a n d tra nsmit

, ,
their vibra tions to the a ir colu mn in the tu be By incr eas ing the .
stiffness of the lip s the pla yer ca n m a ke them vibra te more qu ickly
, ,
a n d c a u se the a ir col u mn to su bdivide giving overtones

-
While , .
only a few su ch overtones a re u sed in the wood wind grou p (oh -
ta in ed by increas ed force of blowing ) a mu ch l arger nu mber of ,
overtones ca n be produ ced on the bra ss instrum ents In the so .
ca lled n a tura l instrum ents su ch as the bu gle or the Wa ldhorn

,
(forest horn ) these overtones (h a rm onics ) are the only notes tha t
,
ca n be obta ined On the va lve in strum ents there are va lves (keys )
.
which a ct by thr owing in extra sections of tubing an d lowering the

pitch Still other bra ss instru m ents su ch as the tr om bone a n d slide
. ,
tru mpet a re m a de with inner a n d ou ter tubes so tha t the length of

, ,
tu be used ca n be a ltered by pu lling or pu shing as with a telescope , .
The mou thpiece of the bra ss instruments is a meta l cu p or cone , ,
a ga inst which the lips a re pressed .
The simpl est b ra ss instru m ent is the n a tu ra l horn or Wa l dhorn , .
This is merely a tu be with a m ou thpiec e Horns of this sort h ave .
been known from a ncient tim es They were much u sed for m ilitary
.
signa ls and in the middle a ges for hu nting ca lls The si m plest
, .
horn of to day the post horn consists of a m ou thpiece an d a

-
,
-
.
stra ight tube The hu nting horn was bent in a single cu rve a t first
.
-
,
and l a ter on in a threefold cir cle so th a t it cou ld be hu ng on the

,
shou lder Lou is XV with his master of the hu nt systema tized

.
, ,
the horn ca lls g iving a mea ning to ea ch an d m aki ng some of them

-
, ,
qu ite intri ca te .
HORNS , TRIM ETS, AND CORNETS 445
The horn (Germ a n Horn ; French cor; Ita lia n corno) was us ed
, , ,
as a n o rchestra l instru m ent b y Scar l a tti B a ch an d H a ndel while , , ,
Gossec introd u ced it in Paris It see m s str a nge to think tha t the .
horn was opposed a t first ; for now its smooth tones are highly prized
a mon g the or chestr a l colors Yet when it fir st enter ed the o rchestra
.
,
it was considered coarse a n d vu lgar a nd u nfit to m ingle with the ,
more delica te violins a n d oboes .
The na tura l horn withou t keys or va lves is a n expa nding tube

, , ,
curved u pon itself having a ta pering mou thpiece a t the narrow

,
end a n d a large bell or exp anded opening a t the other end When
, , , .
the play er pu ts his lips firm ly a ga inst the m ou thpiece an d blows

to m a ke them vibra te he produ cas only the harmonic series with
, ,
ou t ever being a ble to get the fu nda menta l note from which the
harmon i cs are derived Thu s a tu be eight feet lon g shou ld give the
.
C two octa ves below m iddle C ; b u t the eight foot horn (C a lto ) - -
sta rts with the C only one octa ve below middle C which is the first ,
harm onic of its series This se ries consists of the following notes
.
,
in a scending order : C G C E G B fla t C D E F sharp G , , , , ,

-
, , , ,
-
, ,
a n d so on in decrea sing inte rva ls It m a y be sta ted in pa ssing tha t .
the bu gle ca nnot sou nd even the first ha rmonic with a n y good
effect b u t begins with the second Thu s its tones ha ve inter
,
.
va ls corresponding to the notes G C E a n d G in a scending , , ,
or der .
The la ck of intermedia te notes in the lower register of the na tura l

horn prevents the solo pla yer from getting a ny rea l melody B u t .
as h o rns exist in ma ny keys orchestra l compo sers could ca ll for ,
horns in severa l keys an d combine them into chords The C a lto

, .
-
horn little u sed now is the highest of the fam ily a nd is written as
, , ,
it sou nds The lower horns tra nsposing downward in a ccorda nce
.
,
wi th their pitch a re in B fla t a lto A A fla t G F E E fla t D C

,
-
, ,
-
, , , ,
-
, , ,
a n d B fla t b a sso the la st tra nsp osing downwar d a m a jor ninth

-
, .
The na tura l horns are provided with crooks of variou s sizes or in ,
rar e cas es a slide which m a y a lter the length of the tu be an d eu

,
a ble the p la yer to get a llkeys .
The lowest horn is eighteen feet long As longer tu bes give more .
overtones it follows tha t the comp ass of the lower horns is grea ter
,
tha n tha t of the higher ones B ut the low notes sound best on the .
shorte r instru ments The na tural tones are best on the horns in
.
F E an d E fla t Extrem e interva ls are not ea sy on the horn as
, ,
- . ,
they imply a su dden an d grea t change in force of blowing a n d stiff

ness of lips Trills are pra ctica ble only in the high register the com
. ,
p ass of these horns being nearly three octa ves .
The beau ty of the horn tones is seen in nearly every orchestral

piece Among the m ost fa mou s exa mples is the grea t horn p a ssa ge
.
“
in the scherzo of Beethoven s Heroic Sym phony In the fina le
” ’
.
of Schu bert s C m a j or symphony these instru ments com e in softly

’
-
,
“
like horns of elf la nd fa intly blowing a nd gra du a lly swell into
”
-
, ,
“ ”
the richest of harmonies The horn qu artet in Der Freischutz .
is another well kn own exa m ple ; an d still a nother is found in the

-
thir d movement of Mendelssohn s Ita lia n Symphony ’

.
The performer must infl u ence the tones of the horn by inserting
his ha nd into the bell more or less deeply a nd rela xing his lips, , .
The lowest open note can thus be lowered by severa l sem itones the ,
new notes being ca lled fa ctitiou s or artificia l The upper ha rmon , .
ics are similarly trea ted and for deep insertions the tone is ca ll ed ,
stopped or mu ted Su ch tones have a veiled qua lity but when

,
.
,
blown lou dly becom e very harsh an d ug ly M u ted horn tones a re .
freely u sed to picture evil as when Fa ust is asked to sig n the con ,
tra ct with Mephistopheles in Gounod s opera or when Siegfried ,

’
,
is killed in the second act of Wa gner s

,
’
M assenet fou nd a clever use for muted horns when he let them
represent the cra cked vill a ge bell in the Angelus movem ent of his
“
Scenes Pittoresqu es .
The va lve horn now repla ces the na tura l form an d gives tones ,
tha t are a lmost as good thou gh some difference is ca used by the ,
va lves or ventils These are three in number The first valve

, . .
throws into use enou gh extra tu bing to lower the pitch a tone ; the
second will lower the pitch a sem itone an d the third a tone an d a , ,
ha lf The first two pla yed together give a bout the sa me resu lt as
.
the third b u t are so m etimes used in preference as the thi r d is pla yed
, ,
by a wea k finger The largest interva l between two horn tones is

.
the fifth between the first a n d second h armonics Aga in ta ki ng the .
C horn as an illu stra tion this interva l will be from the lowest C ,
to the G a bove it Now on the va lve horn the second va lve will
.
lower the G to F sharp ; the fir st will lower it to F ; the third (or the
-
first a nd second ) to E ; the second and third to E fla t; the first and

,
-
44 8 TH E BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWL EDGE
In Monteverde s tim e we find two kinds of tru mpet the clarino
’
,
( cl ar ion ) a s m a ll high inst

,
ru ment a n d the tr omba larger a n d
, , ,
deeper The m u sic of Ba ch an d H a ndel shows this distinction the

. ,
“ “
so ca lled as er ta king the u ppe r pa rts while the Pr inci
”
Cl a rin b l
'
-
,
“
p a lb la ser g’
a ve the lowe r notes The C la ri n b l

a ser
”
ha d a sh a llow .
mou thpiece by the a id of which they cou ld give the most brillia nt
,
pa ssa ges In the cla ssica l peri od of Ha ydn Mozart an d B eetho

.
, ,
ven the tru mpet was less pro m inent Wa gner employed it well in
,
.
some of his opera s though it has not rega ined its old time bril ,
-
l ia n ce The tru mpet like the horn is pr ovided with a mu te a

.
, , ,
pea r sha ped a ffa ir th a t ca n be held in the bell in pla ce of the per
-
form er s fist Mu ted tru m pets are not mu ch u sed though Wag ner
’
.
,
ha d them imita te the tiny trumpets of the toy ma kers gu ild in

’
-
Die Meistersinger The u sua l color of the tru m pet is bold a nd .
marti a l an d its ringing fa nfares ca n be heard ea sily through the

,
tones of a n entire orchestra .
The older com posers were fond of writing duets for voice and
“
tru mpet Su ch a d u et for ba ss is The trum pet sha ll sou nd in
.
”
, , ,
“ “
H a ndel s Mes sia h Another insta nce is the song Le t the bri ght
”’
.
sera phi m this ti m e for sopra no The tru mpet does not a l wa ys
, .
win in su ch a com parison Thu s the grea t basso La b la che could .
domin a te a n entire orchestra with his voice The fa mou s tenor .
Farinelli once ou t sa ng a trumpet an d held his tones mu ch longer -

,
tha n those the tru m peter cou ld give Mrs Billin gton the fa m ou s . .
,
English sopra no so exceeded the tru m pet in volu me of tone tha t

,
once a condu ctor a nd tr umpeter a lmost ca me to blows beca use of

the l a tter s ina bility to ba la nce her voice
’
.
The na tura l tru mpet has been modified by slides an d by va lves .
Thoma s Harper a fa mous English tru m peter of the eighteenth cen

,
tury u sed the slide tru mpet in which the tu be has a dou ble joint
, ,
so tha t it ca n be elonga ted slightly like the trombone though dra wn , ,
towa r d the pla yer The slide can be u sed to correct certa in harmon .
ics th a t a re ou t of pitch with our sca le su ch as the sixth a nd the ,
tenth which wou ld be the B fla t a nd the F sharp in the series from

,
- -
C given a bove The va lve tru mpet has three va lves similar to those
, .
,
of the horn The old florid passa ges ca n be rea dily pla yed with the
.
a id of the va lves b u t the na tur a l (open ) tones are still the best in
,
qua lity Wa gner has u sed a ba ss tru m pet a va lve instrument an

.
,
HORNS TRUMPETS AND CORNETS
, , 44 9
octa ve deeper th an the usua l form ; b u t its tones la ck the nobility of

the hi gher trum pets .
The cornet known a lso as the cornet a pistons is a ta pering bras s

,
- -
,
tu be a little over four fee t in leng th and with a bore tha t is notice
,
a bly wide in proporti on Its na tur a l key is B fla t though crooks

.
-
,
m a y b e used to set i t in A A fla t or G It is trea ted l

,
-
ik e the trans
, .
posing instruments ofthe wood wind h aving i ts p art wr itten in C

-
,
when the key in which it is set is used The sma ll size of the com et .
ma kes it sound an octa ve hi gher tha n the trumpet in the sa m e key .
Thus when the trum m t an d cornet pla y the sa me sca le the com et ,
is gi ving lower ha rmonics bas ed on a higher fu nda m enta l note th an

, ,
tha t of the trum pet Fr om this it follows th a t there will be fewer

.
cha nges of blowing on the com et an d more notes in a given sca le

, , ,
derived from a single harm oni c This is the ca u se of the grea t

.
fl u ency shown by the cornet in com parison with the tr um pet The
p
.
cornetist can give ra pid passa ges tril ls an d other em bellishments

, ,
with grea t eas e .
The tone color of the com et is below tha t of the tru mpet in va l u e
-
.
Where the trumpet tones are bold an d clea r those of the com et ,
sound bla ta nt an d vulgar a lthough the skilfu l cornetist will ma ke

,
its notes sound fa irly a greea ble Cornets are so mu ch ea sier to pla y
.
tha n tru mpets tha t ma ny sm a ll or chestras ma ke this su bstitu tion ;

b u t when a rea lly good condu ctor com es a long he will insist on ,
the co et and reca lling the t mpet The tone color of

m ru i .
I
-
the com et is du e in part to the width of its tu be an d in part to its ,
mou thpiece whi ch is a deeper cu p than tha t of the trum pet Some
,
.
ti mes the performers pu t a com et mou thpiece on a trum pet tube .
The cornet has been u sed brillia ntly in Ita lia n opera The French .
co m posers ha ve a t times em ployed the instrument for its own color ;

b u t it has never bee n rea lly a ccepted in the orchestra B erlioz .
,
with his u sua l fondness for novelty tr ied cornets and trum pets in ,
com bina tion He cla imed tha t this ga ve a good effect b u t la ter
.
,
c o m posers ha ve not a greed with him Mea nwhile the flu ent char .
a cter of the co m et ma kes it a fa vorite a t popu lar conce rts where it ,
has no rea l riva l .

L II
TRO MB ONE S AND TUB AS
THE trombone like the trumpet is of ancient origin The prin

, ,
.
c ipl e of the slide or elonga tion of tu bes within tu bes has been
, ,
a scribed to Tyr ta eu s in 68 5 B C a n d even to the mythica l Osir is

,
. .
,
.
Su ch slides ha ve not been found in a ncient relics b u t the early ,
wr iters describe them Ar ca dius writing in A D 2 00 u sed as a simile

.
, . .
,
the contri va nce tha t cou ld ma ke the a utos elonga te Another an .
cient passa ge a ttri bu ted to Apu leius sta tes tha t when the cha nnels
, ,
( ca n a les ) of the tru mpet (tu ba ) are mov ed in or ou t by the r ight

ha nd different mu sica l sounds a re prod u ced
,
.
At the close of the middle a ges tr ombones were well known in ,
Germa ny H a ns Menschelbeing a celebra ted trombone ma ker in

,
152 0 A centu ry la ter Pra etoriu s ga ve pictures of tr o m bones in

.
,
sizes corresponding to the a lto tenor bas s an d contra ba ss instru

, , ,
ment Ba ch used these va riou s sizes as well as a still sma ller so

.
,
pra n o tr ombone The sopra no trombone stood in B fla t its first -

.
,
harmonic being a tone below middle C This like the other forms .
, ,
was som etim as used to reenfor ce the voice pa rt in concerted music .
The a lto tr om bone was a fourth lower in F The tenor trombone , .

,
the one u sua lly em ployed now is a fifth lower yet in B fla t with its
, ,
-
,
first harmonic a ninth below middle C ; while the ba ss tr ombone is

in G F or E fla t Wa gner ca lled for a contra ba ss trombone an
, ,
-
.
,
octa ve belo w the tenor form With the use of the sli de it ca n get
.
,
down to the lowest E on our pianos ; an d this tonal growl is fou nd in

“
the opera of Sieg fried ”
.
The na me tr om bone (Germa n P osau ne; French trom bone; , ,
Ita lia n trom bone) comes from trom ba and mea ns a large trumpet
, , ,
j u st as violone mea ns a large viol The old English name of sa ckbu t

.
is sa id to ha ve been derived from the Moorish word saca buche mean ,
ing pu mp ; an d this term is dec idedly expressive in su gg esting the

pla yer s motions as he dra ws the slide in or ou t This slide is entirely
’
.
sepa ra te from the rest of the instru ment It is a long tube doubled .
on itself in the form of a narrow U Both ends of the U fit over .

The use of the slide m a kes fa irly ra pid pa ssa ges possible on the
trom bone especi a lly if they lie largely in one harmonic series a n d
, ,
can be blown withou t mu ch ch a nge of position Pa ssages th a t de .
mand the same harmonic in different positions or th a t do not ha ve ,
a n y a b ru pt cha nge in blo wing are limited in speed onl y by the ,
strength of the performer s a rm as he moves the slide Ra pid exec u

’
.
ti on m a y be u sed by a solo pla yer to da zzle a n au dience ; b u t in

orchestra l work the tr om bone is trea ted more slowly .
The trombone is a most i m porta nt instrument in picturi ng heroic

emotions as its tones in orchestra l work m a y be ma de gra nd an d
,
noble It m a y portra y a l m ost every br oa d em otion from sa cr ed

. ,
ca lm to the wildest stra ins of ma rtia l glory It has a lso a por tentou s .
a n d threa tening qua lity an d its sombre tones are thu s excellently
,
fitted for tra gic effects a lso .
The threa tening color of the tr ombone has been well used by
“
Glu ck to a ccom pan y the choru s of the Furies in his Iph igenie in
“
Ta uris In his Alceste a lso they give a wra thfulchord in re
.
, ,
spo nse to Al ceste s defia nce of the powers of dea th Mozar t ob

’
.
ta in ed a simil ar ef ect in Don Giova nni where tha t hero s riba ld

” ’
f ,
invita tion to the sta tue of his victim to su p with him bring s an
u nexpected a ccepta nce a mid tr ombone chords of solemn warning
, .
The im pressive qu a lity of the tr ombones is present a lso in the relig

“
iou s service of The Ma gic Flu te Beethoven knew something of .
the instrument b u t did not use it in his earlier works It entered the
, .
sym phonic orchestra when he wrote his Fifth Sym phony ; b u t here as ,
in the Sixth it does not pl ay a n importa nt p art When Beethoven s

, .
’
career was nearly over in 182 3 he put m any ea ger qu estions to a

, ,
visiting trom bone pl a y er inqu iri ng espec ia lly a bou t the use of the
,
instru m ent in high p a ssa ges His resu lta nt knowledge is shown in .
the Ninth Sym phony a nd in a letter tha t he wrote afterwards to his

,
pu blisher Schott H a ving occa sion to ma ke a com pla int in the letter
.
,
he ended it with a few lines of ha lf hu m orou s a bu se and a dded to his -

,
signa ture a trombone tri ll with the word m i na cci a ndo (threa ten
,
ing l y ) on a bit of sta ff scored f

, or the sixteen foo t b a ss instru ment -
.
Mendelssohn a dmired the trombone very mu ch reserving it for the ,
most solemn occa sions Schu ber t obta ined good effects by u sing soft
.
trombone tones a ga inst the str ings The wholesa le Berlioz in pic .
,
tur ing the Da y of Judgment in his Requ iem ca lled f or four extra ,
TROMBONES AND TUBAS
groups of brasses inclu ding tr om bones His score req u ir ed a com
, .
pl ete ba nd of str ings fo ur flu tes two oboes fo ur cla rinets eight

, , , ,
bassoons a n English horn twelve bras s horns four cornets sixteen

, , , ,
tenor trombones two tu ba s four ophicleides twelve tr umpets

, , , ,
sixteen kettledru ms two ba ss drums thr ee pairs of cym ba ls a nd a

, , ,
gong , certa inly enough instru ments to represent the cra ck of

doom Trom bone chords ma ke an a dmira bly tri umphant effect in
.
“
Liszt s Ta sso
’ ”
.
A va lve trom bone exists which has no slide b u t obta ins its scale , ,
by m ea ns of ventils or pistons simila r to those u sed on the other

, ,
brass instru ments This is eas ier to pla y tha n the slide form and
.
,
a dmits of more ra pid execu tion But this a dva nta ge is m ore th a n .
offset by its inferiority of tone color For this reas on most orchestras -
.
do not use it ; and it is found chiefly in milita ry bands .
The modern tuba (Ger m an Tube; French tu ba ; Ita li a n tuba ) , , , ,
like the tr ombone exists in ma ny sizes There are six of these

, .
,
sopra no a lto tenor bari tone bas s an d contra bas s The sm a ller
, , , , , .
members of this fa mily are not found i n the or chestra b u t ta ke pa rt ,
in mi lita ry ba nds especia lly in France un der the na m e of sa x

, ,
horns The tenor tuba and a sma ll bored ba ritone instrum ent are
.
,
-
,
ca lled a lt horns The two lowest ins truments are known as tubas
-
.
,
and u sed in modern o r chest r a l scor es .
The ba ss tu ba or bo m bar don is the u su a l form employed It

, , .
c ons ists of a ra ther wide ta pe ring bra ss tu be cur ved in a fa irly short ,
and rou nded oblong an d pr ovided with a mou thpiece like th a t of

,
the trom bone It has the usua l pistons or va lves b u t is provided

.
, ,
with an extra one tha t lowers the pitch a fourth The four pistons .
thu s ena ble the pla yer to pr odu ce a sca le of a n octa ve below an y
given open tone on the instru m ent Sometimes a combina tion of .
pistons will throw a tone off its proper pitch b u t as the tuba is ,
pla yed with compa ra tivel y loose lips the perform er ca n corr ect su ch ,
tones by regu la ting his blowing In pa ssing it m a y be sa id of va lves .

,
tha t as a genera l rule they inj ure tone qu ality som ewha t by ma king
the air colu mn pa ss thr ou gh too ma nycurves ea ch piston lengthen
-
,
ing the tu be by ma king the air go thr ou gh a short a dditiona l curved

section of tu be .
The bas s tu ba ca n give the lowest E fla t on the piano and sta nds -
,
in the key of tha t note Its deeper tones are full and so m ewha t .
,
forcible a lmost bru ta l in qua lity Its compass exte nds up ward
, ,
.
a bout two a n d a h alfocta ves A form of tenor tu ba kn own as the .

,
eu phoni u m sou nds a fifth higher in the key of B fla t andis in uni

, ,
-
,
son with the tenor trombone Its notes are wea ker tha n those of .
bombardon The contra ba ss tu ba is an octa ve lower th an the eu

.
p h o ni um a nd gives
,
g ruff hea vy notes W a gne r ga ve a n impetu s to
, .
the use of tuba s ca lling for five in his Trilogy Here the two ba ss
, .
tubas are in F instea d of E fla t Thep rb a has been used as ba ss for -

.
three tr ombones in four part harmony It often ta kes the bass pa rt - .
of the bra ss grou p sometimes in u nison with the deeper trombones ;

,
a nd it has even been em ployed as a bas s f or strings .
The tu ba has not the smooth qu ality of the trombone b u t its ,
gruff harshness can be ma de very effective !Wa gner employed this .
“
tone color in the first a ct of Die Wa lkii re to picture the fierce
-
”
,
chara cter of Hunding The wea ry Siegmund driven by storm a nd.

,
pursu it has ta ken refuge in Hun ding s forest hut Soon the foot
,
’
.
steps of the returni ng warri or are hea rd ou tside ; and j u st as he eu

ters the door the four tu b as pla y the short pregna nt motive tha t
, ,
represents him in t he music The ef fect of these tu b a s by themselves .
“
is im pressively sa va ge In Siegfried when the hero has found the
”
.
,
la ir of the dra gon tha t redou bta ble monster u tters many drag onine
,
curses on the tu bas before meeting a well merited dea th

,
-
.
The grou p of keyed bu gles was a t one time mu ch in evidence but ,
is not now found in the orchestra Its most prominent member was .
the ophicleide used u ntil recent years b u t now su perseded by the

, ,
tu ba The na me ophicleide is derived fr om two Greek words mea n

.
ing key an d serpent which describe the instrument a ppr opria tely
, ,
as it ha d a cur ved form a n d was pr ovided with keys Alto ophi .
clei des exist but their qua lity was u nplea sa nt an d their pitch in a c
, ,
cura te Ba ss ophicleides in C a nd in B fla t were frequ ently em

. -
ployed while a contra bass form still deeper dem a nded excessive
, , ,
lung power The ophicleide tone is powerfu l and obtr usive and
.
,
d oes not blend well with other instru ments which is one reas on why ,
it has given way to the tubas B u t it is often fou nd in old scores In . .
fa irly recent times Schuma nn used it in his Para dise an d the Pen
but its most famou s employment is in Mendelssohn s Midsu m ’
m er Night s D rea m music where it gives a comica l pic ture of the

’”
,
snores produ ced by Bottom the wea ver in his drunken slumber .
LIII
INSTRUMEN TS or PE RC U SSION
THE preceding instruments h a ve been more or less su ited to me

lodic work an d ha ve been pla yed by bowi ng plu cki ng or blowing
, , , .
Besides these there are a la rge number of instru ments which are
simply stru ck with a dru mstick ha mmer or similar object and , , ,
which are m ostly inca pa ble of melody l Instruments tha t are stru ck .
are known as per cu ssion instr u ments a n d sometimes a ll u ded to in ,
an orchestra as the ba ttery The ins tru ments of percu ssion m a y be

.
further divided into those tha t ha ve a definite pitch and those tha t
do not .
By far the m ost im porta nt are the kettledrums (Germa n P au ken ,
French ti m bales; Ita lian

,
These consist of hollow hemi
,
spheres ofcopper su pported on tri pods a n d covered with a parch

, ,
ment ca lled the hea d This hea d is a tta ched to the body of the dr um
.
by a meta l ring in which are scr ews tha t m a y be u sed to tighten or

,
loosen it The kettledru m or sim ply d rum as it is often ca lled in

.
, ,
the orchestra has a defin ite pitch in spite of its drum like char
, ,
-
a cter ; a n d the screws ar e u sed to tu ne it .
Not only does the kettled ru m ha ve pitch b u t a ski lfu l pla yer ca n ,
ma ke its tone vary in qua lity a lso Two pa irs of dr u msticks com e .
with it one pa ir of wood a n d the other with tips of fa irly soft sponge
, .
Sometim es a third pa ir tipped with lea ther is u sed ; while Stra u ss

, ,
once ca lled for birch r ods These different kinds of stick give dif
.
erent sorts of tone ; a n d the performer ca n al so vary the tone by

'
f
stri king a t different pla ces A stroke near the Side gives the sharpest
.
a n d b rightest tone while one in the middle is d u ller

, The u sualspot .
chosen is a bou t ha lfwa y between these two The drum m a y a lso be .
mu ffled for which pu rpose it is covered by a piece of cloth which

, ,
will dea den a nd shorten the tone .
In the orchestra are a t lea st two kettledru ms of dif ferent sizes ,
an d pitches pla yed by one pe rformer The larger drum ca n be

‘
, .
tu ned to an y note of the fifth between F and C an octa ve below ,

l
. SN A RE D R UM ,
T R I A NG L E 3 C H I NE SE G O NG 4 G L O C K EN SP I E L ; 5 C A ST AN ETS
2 , , . ,
6 . XY L O P H O NE 7 K ETT L E D R UM S 8 BA SS D R UM 9 C Y M B A L S 10 C E L E STA
, .
, ,
. .
system of levers ; but it has not proven a su cc ess Pfundt also pub .
i shed a kettledrum method He beca me a ble to produce remark

l .
a bly fine tones Once however he crea ted an unusua l ef

.
, fect He , .
was very miserly an d d unn ed a fel low performer unmercifully for

,
-
the return of a sma ll loan The la tter fina lly brought the money in
.
penn ies and sprea d them secretly around the rim of the drum ; so
,
tha t Pfun dt s fir st stroke was followed by an unexpected shower of

’
The kettledrum mer has few notes and long rests in or chestra l
musi c He should coun t these but in pra ctice he either knows the
. ,
mu sic or has a bit of it wri tten ou t to give him the cue or g ets the
, ,
signalfrom the conductor There is a story tha t the kettledru mm er

.
of Richter s Vienna orchestra could count a utoma tica lly which eu

’
,
a bled him to go ou t f or refreshment in long pa u ses a n d retur n on
ti me ; but it sounds a little a pocrypha l There is no rea l solo reper .
toire for the instrument Yet the English drumm er Gordon Clea ther
.
wrote a concerto f or kettledru ms a nd ra pped it out in front of the ,
orchestra on six drums of vari ous pitch The Germa n composer .
Tausch wrote a similar work ca l lin g for five drums .
Pa derewski has perfected an a ffa ir tha t he ca lls the tonitru one ,
which he has used in some of his works to imita te thu nder B u t the .
new instru ment has not replac ed the kettledrum f or this pur pose .
The su bject of storms su ggests the wind ma chine used by Richard ,

“
Stra uss in his Don Quixote This contrivance borrowed from .
,
the thea tre consists of a simple sheet of ca nva s held a gainst a re

,
volving cylinder As the cylinder in crea ses in speed the rea listi c
.
,
sound grows higher in pitch andvi ce versa It is used in the passa ge

, .
representing Don Q u ixote s blindfold flight in the a ir

’
.
The bass drum (Germa n grosse Trom m el; French grosse ca isse;
, ,
Ita lia n gran cassa ) has not the definite pitch of the kettledrum
, .
Ba ss drums are used f or their ai d in a rhythmic ca pa city They are .
pla yed with different sticks one sm a ll an d one la rge ; while the ,
French ha ve a stick ca lled the m a illoche which is held in the middle ,
by the pla yer a nd has a knob on ea ch end A roll on the ba ss drum .
m a y a lso be given with the kettledrum sticks Berlioz Verdi a nd .

, ,
others ha ve tri ed to obta in defini te pitch on the bass drum but ,
without su ccess .
INSTRUMENTS OF PERCUSSION 4 59
(G erm a n Hei ne
, Trom m el; Fre n ch t
a m b ou r; Ita lia n t
a m bu ro) ,ca n , ,
be suita bly used for ma rtia l scenes It ca n give both si ngle ta ps an d

.
long rolls and ca n ai d in worki ng up grea t clim a xes su ch as the

, ,
“
scen e of the benediction of the ponia r ds in Meyer beer s B u gu e
’
nots An oddly du ll andra ttling sound ca n be pr od u ced by pla ying

.
”
A medi um sized dru m exists known as the tenor drum The

-
, .
ta mbourine (B asqu e drum ) is prac ti wlly a very fla t M wi th one

end open It is stru ck by the ha nd though the performer m a y vary
.
,
thi s effect by rubbing it with his th u mb It has bits of meta l a t .
ta ched which give a jingl

, ing noise when it is struck The ta mbo uri ne .
is used in connection with Spa nish or gypsy eflec ts while Ber lioz '
“
employed it a lso in his Rom a n Carn iva l Over ture and his Childe
Ha rold Symphony
”
.
Bells (Germ an Glocken ; French cloches; Italia n ca m pa ne) are

, , ,
used when desir ed as ins truments of definite p itc hg Wa gner in his

, , ,
“
Parsifa l has a stri king four toned bell figure b u t in this ca se the
”
,
-
,
sounds come from steel ba rs stru ck by ha mmers Some composers .
ha ve used a pia no note from behind the scenes to give bell effects .
Tscha ikovsky s overture ’

whi ch celebra tes the Ru ssian vic
tory over Na poleon was first given a t an outdoor festiva l with rea l
, ,
ca thedra l bells joining in the j u b ila nt fina le Long steel tu bes are .
often used for be ll notes An a ctua l bell m a y be used in so m e ca ses ;

.
b u t the tone of a la rge hel lis not a lwa ys pur e .
The Glockenspiel or ca rillon is a set of fla t steel pl a tes giving a

, , ,
series of sweet bell li ke tones when struck with a m a llet The be ll

,
- .
harmonica in which mu sica l glas ses are str u ck has a som ewha t
, ,
simila r tone The Glockenspiel ca n give entire melodies though ea ch

.
,
of its stri ps ca n only soun d a sing le pitch Moza rt u sed its sa ccharine .
“
tones in his Ma gic Flu te ; a n d Wagner ca lled for them in the
”
“
slumber scene of Die Wa lkii re as well as a t the entra nce of
”
,
“
the toy m a kers guild in Die Meistersinger The usua l compa ss
-
’ ”
.
of the Glockenspiel is a bou t two octa ves beginning an octa ve a bove ,
mi ddle C b u t written an octa ve lower than it sounds

, .
The celesta is a modern bell instr ument looki ng mu ch like an ,
upright pia no with the u pper four (form erly five ) pia no octa ves .
strument to str ike steel pla tes pla ced over wooden resona tors
,
.
460 THE BOO K OF MUSICAL KNOWLE DGE
Tsch aikovsky em ployed the celesta with good effect in his Ca sse
Noisette m u sic The du lcitone or ty pophone is somewha t like the
. , ,
celesta b u t less powerfu l

,
.
The gong or tam ta m is sometimes hea rd with the orchestra

,
-
, .
Like m a ny larg e bells it does not pr od u ce a pure tone but gives a

, ,
“
note tha t is blended with a m ixtu re of so ca lled b y tones Its ” - -
.
sharp an d noticea ble ef fect has been employed in representi ng any

su dden ca ta strophe Soft strokes on the gong produ ce a weir d re
.
“
su lt Meyerbeer has ca lled for them in Robert le Dia ble to go
.
”
,
with the rising of the ghostly nu ns ; and Rossini u sed them in Semi
ra m ide
”
when the tomb of Ninu s opens to Show tha t monarch s
,
’
spirit .
Still an other bell like tone comes from the tri a ngle (Germa n Tri
-
,
a ngel ; Fr ench tri a n gle; It

,a li a n tri a ngolo) Th is is a s m a,
ll stee l b ar .
bent into tri a ngu lar Sh a pe which is held on a string and pla yed by
,
a pencil like r od from the inside

-
Its high tinkling note has no very
.
,
definite pitch It is used whenever a tinkling effect is desired an d

. ,
som etim es merely to mark rhythm Its proper pla ce is in ra ther .
lig ht m usiclthou gh it rs found m scores of H a ydn Beethoven a n d , ,
Schu ma nn Weber u sed it to a dd color to the gypsy scenes in his

.
Preciosa Its most importa nt occurrence to da te is in Liszt s

.
’
pia no concerto in E fla t where it sta rts a theme by a nnou ncing its

-
,
rhyth m in solo notes .
Cymba ls (Germ an B ecken; French cym bales; Ita lia n pi a tti ) con
, , ,
sist of a pa ir of rou nd meta llic pla tes ma de of copper an d tin to be , ,
clashed together by the performer They are of Orienta l orig in .

,
coming from either N key or Ara bia Sometim es they are pla yed .
by the ba ss dru mmer with one of the pa ir of pla tes tied to his in
,
stru ment ; b u t a better tone is prod u ced if they are held in the ha nds
a n d stru ck a ga ins t ea ch other sl a ntingly Their notes a re often con .
sidered the sa me as those of the b a ss dru m which are with a do u ble ,
stem when the cymba ls are desir ed a lso The lou d tones of the cym .
bals do not last very long b u t they m a y be stopped a b rup tlyi fthe
,
pla tes are held a gainst the performer s coa t Su ch lou d str okes give ’
.
a n excellent suggestion of comba t or of wild revelry Wa g ner u sed

, .
them thu s in the Venu s scenes of Ta nnhau ser In the sa me pla ce

” '
he pr odu ced a mysteriou s tremolo effect by ha ving the two pla tes
ra ttled together softly Elsewhere he has crea ted new effects by a
.
PART V
SPECIAL TOPICS
Domeni co Scar la tti was the pioneer in the early Ita lian school ,
intr odu cing ma ny new effects One of these was cross ha nd work .
-
.
When he grew old and fa t and una ble to rea ch acrm ea sily he
, ,
dropped the cross hand work from his comp ositions Sca rla tti met
- .
H andel a t Venice in one of the usua l competitions A dra w resu lted

,
.
a t the h arpsichord b u t H a ndel was a warded the victory a t the orga n

, .
It is sa id tha t a fter this event Scarla tti wou ld cross himself when
ever he heard H andel s na me menti oned
’
.
Muzio Clementi was a leader among the early pia nists his ,
Gra du s a d Pam assu m being still consider ed a valua ble tra ining
”
in techniqu e for the student .
Mozart was a child prodigy in pia no pla ying as well as composi ng ,
a n d tra veled a bou t with his sister under p a tern a l care givi ng con , ,
certs when only six years old When he rea ched the ag e of twenty
.
,
“
one critic sa id of him Mozart plays with grea t power and reads
, ,
wha tever is pu t before him ; b u t tha t is a l

ltha t can b e sa id B eecke .
is far grea ter La ter on however Rieder spea ks of Mozart s bold

.
”
, ,
’
“
flights of fancy hea venly harmonies and skill in improvisa ti on
, , .
Mozart and Clem enti indu lged in one of the usu al competitions ,
“
a fter which the l a tter set to work to u nite Moza rt s singing touch ” ’
with his own technica l skill .
A concert given by Moza rt a t M antua shows tha t geniu s was ex

p ec ted to displ a y itself in m a ny wa ys The p r ogram me inclu ded a .
sym phony of his own ; a pi a no concerto to be rea d by him a t sight ; a

sona ta to which he should a dd vari a tions with repea t in a new key ; ,
the words of a song which he shou ld sing improvising both melody

, ,
a n d a cco m p a niment ; theme s given by the au dience upon which he ,
would m a ke a sona ta a nd a fugue ; a tri o for which he would im

provise the violin p art ; a nd a nother of his symphonies .
Fra nz Duschek was a Vi ennese pia nist of the Mozart school An .
other was Anton Eberl who imita ted Mozart s sty le of composition
,
’
so well th a t his works were someti m es sa id to be by Moz art .
Another of this school was Joha nn Nepom u k H u mmel who stud ,
ied with Moz art when you ng Hummel once visited John Field in .
St Petersbu rg As his name was not a nnounced he pretended to

. .
,
be merely a hu m ble stra nger a nxiou s to hea r the grea t Field The
, .
la tter pla yed for a time and then thou ght of ha ving some a muse
,
b
ment by ma king his visitor pla y Fi eld expected the stru mming and .
SO ME FAMOUS PIANISTS 467
stumblin g of some four th ra ter ; but instea d he hea rd a most bril

-
,
lia nt performa nce which ma de him cry ou t You must be Hum

, ,
mel . Field pla yed in a ra ther sua ve fas hion well suited to the ,
smooth style of his own noc turnes .
Beethoven disp la yed the brea dth of the Clementi school He .
showed pa ssiona te strength a n d ma de techniqu e a mea ns to an end

, .
Beethoven improvi sed wonderfu lly an d the passing na ture of his ,
extem porizations must be a grea t loss to art .
D aniel Steib elt was a p recociou s virtu oso His la ter Show pieces .
-
h a ve ca used him to be ca lled a ch arla ta n b u t he ha d rea l technique , .
Once he cha llenged Beethoven to a contest ; but he ran a wa y a fter

hea ring the grea t com poser pla y .
Johann La disla u s Du ssek was the first to sit sidewise on the sta ge .
He introdu ced the harmonica or set of musica l gl asses invented by ,
Benj a min Fra nklin

Joha nn B a ptist Cra mer was Beethoven s favorite —perha ps b e
.
’
,
ca u se he devoted himself to Beethoven s works C ra mer Showed ’

.
enou gh sp iri t a t first b u t when he grew older his work was ca lled
,
“
dry woo den harsh an d withou t ca ntilena
”
.
, , ,
Joseph Woelfl another riva l of Beethoven ha d very large ha nds

, , .
He too cou ld extemporize rea dily ; a nd once when a passing b a nd

, , ,
disturbed his tem po he changed the rhythm to sui t tha t of the b a nd

, ,
an d kept with it u ntil it was ou t of hearing C zem y spoke of .
“
Woel fl distingu ished f
,
or b ra vura pl a ying ; Gelinek popul ar b e ,
cau se of his brillia nt and elega nt ex ecu tion ; a nd Lipansky a grea t ,
sight r ea der renowned for his pla ying of the B a ch fu gu es

,
”
.
Czem y was a good pia nist b u t better known as a tea cher as his
, ,
“
mu ch u sed Velocity School wou ld indica te Among his pu pils
-
.
were Liszt Th alberg and Q u een Vi ctoria

, , .
Ferdina nd Ries Beethoven s pu pil a dopted his master s powerfu l

,
’
,
’
methods of expression The critics often spoke of his rom a ntic fire
.
,
b u t his empha tic ma nner led one of them to ca ll him a wood chopper
a t the pia no Ries composed sona tas and concertos andwrote in
”
.
,
teresti ng reminiscences of Beethoven .
Fra ncesco Pollini was a Mozart pu pil who beca me prominent in
Ka lkbrenner was nother child prodigy and grew up into a bril

a ,
ia nt if ra ther mechanical performer The Englishma n Ciprian i

l , , .
4 68 THE BOOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWL EDGE
Potter excelled him in exp ressive power Kalkbrenner invented .
a gu ide b ar to su pport the wris t b u t it was not of gr ea t use

- Me , .
cha n ica la ids to the ha nd h a ve never seem ed rea lly effective Schu .
ma nn tried to strengthen his fou rth fingers by a pu lley a nd weight - -
system b u t only su cceeded in injur ing his ha nd This was the

,
.
world s ga in as it drove him into com position Few pi a nists excel

’
,
.
in this field thou gh Liszt an d Ru binstein m an aged to do so

,
.
Usu a lly the pia nist is too bu sy to com pose well while the composer ,
does not pl ay enou gh to be a grea t pia nist The l a tter case is illu s .
trated by Schu bert who has been mentioned as brea king down
,
severa l tim es in one of his own fa ntasias .
Ignaz Moscheles who lived u ntil 1870 was held foremost in his
, ,
day He was precise exa ct an d vigorous in his pl a ying with ac

. , , ,
cura te a ttention to rhythm an d a ccent These qu a lities were well .
su ited to the m ore importa nt cla ssics which he fa vored He cou ld , .
not apprecia te the nu ances of the roma ntic school as exem plified by ,
Chopin a n d Liszt Mendelssohn was one of his pu pils an d a dm ir ers

. .
Chopin s pl a ying was es sentially soft a n d delica te Even in his

’
.
mom ents of fiery ardor his fortissi m o was less tha n tha t of Moscheles
, ,
a n d mu ch less th a n Liszt s A critic ca lled Chopin s perform a nce

’ ’
.
“
light a n d a iry a n d said tha t his fingers seemed to glide sidewise
, ,
as if al ltechniqu e were a gl Chopin was n a turally a m aster

”
issando
of the ru bato tha t his works dema nd —an exp ressive retarding or
.
hurrying of the m elody over an a ccomp a niment tha t goes on stea d

ily In pl ayi ng as well as by his compositions he fa irly earned the
.
, ,
title of the Poet of the Pi a no ”

.
Stephen Heller was a nother performer of excessive refinement .
He was too sensitively orga nized to be a stea dy su ccess in pu blic ,
b u t when in proper mood he pl a yed with mu ch gra ce a n d viva city .
Like nearly allthe pia nists he comp osed for his ins trument pro , ,
du c ing works tha t Show m u ch sentiment a n d poetr y .
Adolf Henselt was a pia nist of phenom enal power an d exp ression .
His lega to was rem arka bly good a n d he com posed specia l studies ,
to develop a l arge r ea ch in this style His other works inclu de a .
concerto ma ny excellent é tudes a nd some a ttractive solo pieces

, , .
He was alwa ys nervous a t concerts a nd retired from pu blic pl a ying ,
in l a ter life When a ppear ing wi th a n orchestra he wou ld rush on

.
,
a t the l as t insta nt ; and once he ca used grea t a musement by forget

4 70 THE BOO K OF MUS ICAL KNOWLEDGE
ha ve bro ad sweeps of melody combined with grea t antiphonal
effects for a ccompani ment His ori ginal works too Show the grea t
.
, ,
ness of the new style whether in the broadly power fu l sona ta or the
,
“
more delica te Sermon to the Birds .
Liszt was a grea t a dmirer of Paga nini and did for piano wha t ,
Pa ga nini did for violin that is wrote pieces of su ch brilli a n ce

, ,
a nd dif ficu lty tha t his successo rs have sometimes been hardly
a ble to m aster them Liszt s hands were not u ndu ly l arge b u t the
’
.
,
ra pidity of his skips ma de some of his hear ers think th a t he had an

“
unheard ofrea ch In 1839 Liszt employed the words piano
- .
,
r ecita ls as a new title f or his solo concerts

”
.
As sta ted in a preceding chapter Liszt a lwa ys ma de it a point to,
uphold the dignity of the mu sicia n s position B u t the day ha d gone ’

.
by when it was possible for geniuses to receive the indig nities tha t
were hea ped u pon Mozart When Pr incess Metternich as ked Li szt
.
if he had done well on a certa in tour a n d he replied M ad a me I , , ,
a m in mu sic not bu sine s s the remark was not nearly so bold as if

”
, ,
it ha d been ma de six or seven deca des earlier The French Revolu .
ti on a n d the dis turb a nces of 1848 ha d helped individua l freedom .
Beethoven was far more independent in rea lity ; and when some one
ta lked du ring a du et given by him a nd Ries at Count B rowne s ’
hou se he stopped a bruptly a nd said I play no more for su ch

, , ,
hogs ”
.
Henri Herz was one of the first grea t pianists to tour America .
He pl ayed his own works for the most part which were su perficially ,
brillia nt Once at B altimore he expressed a willingness to im

.
, ,
provisc u pon themes given by the au dience ; but tr ou ble arose for ,
severa l dozen people tried to give him their favorite theme by

whistling singing or Shouting it In New O rlea ns he arranged a
, , .
piece for eight pianos and sixteen performers When one of the .
players did not a ppear in time for the concert he impressed the ,
services of a la dy from one of the boxes She sa id she could not pla y .
,
b u t he told her tha t she wou ld only need to go throu gh the motions .
B u t he forgot a c erta in p assa ge where al lparts ha d a rest ; a n d the

a u dience was plea santly sur p rised by seeing her continue in dumb
Show while the other pl ayers were silent .
Gottscha lk was more su ccessfu l in meeting a similar difficu lty at

Sa n Fra ncisco One of his fourteen performers fell ill an d was re
.
,
SOME FAMOUS PIANISTS 4 71
pla ced by an insistent su bsti tute who cou ld not play at allwell In .
order to a void trou ble Gottscha lk had the ha mmers rem oved from
,
the su bstitu te s pi ano j ust before the concert Gottschalk pla yed
’
.
in a roma ntic style well suited to hi s own works which were mostly ,
exotic tone pictures of pecu li ar cha rm su ch as Le B a na nier

-
, ,
“L a S a va ne ” and so on .
,
B u t the grea test pia nist to tour Am erica was Ru binstein He .
was a pl a yer of leonine tempera m ent an d showed the most tr em en ,
dou s emotional power He was not a lways a ccur a te ; a n dwhen a la dy

.
au dito r once bega n to cover him with gushi ng a du la tion b e re ,

“
marked M ada me I cou ld give a nother concert with the notes I
, ,
left ou t When he forgot p arts of his selections he wou ld som e

.
,
times proceed to improvise u ntil he cou ld get b a ck to a la ter section

of the piece in qu estion He ma de variou s tours wi th the violini st
.
Wi enia wski Once in Boston the p a ir drew a very sm a ll au dience ;

.
, ,
and on being as ked if they wou ld retur n f or a nother concert Wie ,

“
nia wski replied We fear tha t if we did so we Shou ld get ou t of the
,
ha bit of pla ying in pu blic Bu t they retur ned a fter all an dha d the
”
.
,
pleasure of a ppearing before a mu ch l arger au dience Ru binstein s .

’
brother Ni colai was a grea t pia ni st also as well as a condu ctor an d ,
com poser .
Theodor Les chetizky known as a world famou s tea cher was ,

-
,
as socia ted with Ru bins tein a t first an d toured E urope before set ,
tling in Vi enna He pl ayed his own pieces a mong others

.
, .
Ha ns von Bu low was a pu pil of Liszt who beca m e renowned

partly by pl aying his master s works ; b u t his tas te was eclectic an d ’
,
he cou ld excel in allschools His techniqu e was a dm ira ble a n d hi s . ,
rem arka ble memory was of g rea t service to hi m He arra nged his .
progra mmes in a wa y th a t a lmost a l ways helped to im prove pop u lar

kn owledge a n d ta ste It is a n inter esti n g physi ologica l fa ct tha t he
.
was unmu sica l d uri ng chi ldhood his mu sica l ta ste appearing a t the ,
a g e of nine af ter he ha d received a severe blow on the hea d This

,
.
blow it was after wards fou nd res u lted in some so rt of lesion on his
, ,
brain which must ha ve ha d the effect of maki ng it sensitive to

,
vibra tions It wou ld be has ty to a dopt a rule tha t u nmu sica l people
.
should be knocked on the hea d ; b u t in this ca se the blow seem ingly

ch a nged its vi cti m into a music lover -
.
C arl Tausig the son of a pia nist was Liszt s best pu pil and ga ined
, ,
’
,
su ch as tonishing contr ol over the keybo ar d tha t he a ctu ally out
shone his m a ster in certa in ca ses Tausig was a thorough mu sician .
in the best sense of the word endowed with a sym pa thetic tou ch , ,
passiona te power of expres sion a n d rea l ar tistic ba l a nce His tech , .
“
niqu e was so rema rka ble tha t Liszt once ca lled him the in f allible ,
with fingers of bras s When an ambitiou s you ng pi a nist once

.
“
pl ayed ra ther poorly for Liszt the l a tter excl a im ed Su ch pl a yin g !
, ,
And for m e who have heard Tau sig so often ! Cosim a afterwa rds
,
”
,
“
Mm e Wa gner sa id of Tausig He has no tou ch no individuality ;
.
, , ,
he is a carica tu re of Liszt B u t this was in Tau sig s early stu dent

”
.
’
da ys before he ma tured ; an d no dou bt Cosima was p artia l to Liszt

,
beca use he was her fa ther Tausig died a t the ag e of thirty . .
Willia m M as on deserves mention for his val u a ble work in ra isi ng

the taste of our own cou ntry After stu dy with Mosc heles D rey .
,
schock an d Liszt he ma de a well deserved name by his pl a yin g and

, ,
-
tea ching .
A cur iosity among pia nists is Count Geza Zichy of H u ngary , .
When seventeen years old he lost his right arm in a hu nting a cci ,
dent B u t his love for mu sic did not let thi s prevent hi m from b e
.
com ing a famous pianist He stu died with Liszt u ntilhe beca me
.
a gr ea t a rtist The reper toire of m u sic for the left h a nd is fa irly

.
la rge ; an d he increas ed it by writing a nu mber of left ha nd pieces -
f or his own use .
Those pia ni sts now before the pu blic m ay well b e left to the tender
mercies of the criti cs Som e of them grow fam ou s as specia lis ts in the
.
works of one com poser like De Pa chmann who p refers Chopin s

, ,
’
works So m e like Rosentha l an d Godowski are in the virtu oso

.
, ,
class becau se of their astou nding mas tery of techniqu e although ,
they m a y not be la cki ng in expressive power Others like B u soni .

, ,
are best in intellectua l a n d cl as sica l wor ks Pa derewski s grea tness

’
.
is shown by the fa ct tha t he is not a speci alist b u t su cceeds in all ,
schools an d styles .
Am ong the wom en pi a nists Cl ara Schuma nn won hi gh regard , ,
not alon e for her a bility as a performer b u t for her service in ma king ,
her hu sb a nd s works known to the pu blic E rnst Pau er hi msel fa

’
.
,
grea t performer m a de a list of the twelve grea test pia nists a t the
,
middle of l as t century a n d inclu ded three wom en , Cl ara Schu ,
ma nn Mme C lauss Szavardy and Ara bell a Goddar d Miss God

, .
-
, .
LV
SOME FAMOU S SIN GE RS
A LITTLE over two centuries ag o a young student of singing went ,
to a famou s Ita lia n tea cher for lessons The tea cher a ccepted the .
pu pil a n d wrote hi m ou t a set of exercises for pra ctice Althou gh

,
.
these exercises cover ed no more than a Single p age the pu pil was ,
kept a t them for a year At length he mu stered u p courage enou gh

.
“ ” “
to ask When m ay I sing ?
,
Not yet was the reply a n d more
”
, ,
work on the exercises followed In a nother year the pu pil repea ted .
his qu ery b u t received the sa me a nswer

,
Not yet Still a thir d
”
,
.
year was spent on the exercise Sheet su ng with syll ables instea d of ,
“
vowels Ag a in ca m e the qu es tion When m ay I sing ? This time
. ,
“
the tea cher a nswered Y ou are now the gr ea test singer in Ita ly
,
”
.
The tea cher was Porpora the singer Farinelli Som e dou bt has been
, .
cast upon this anecdote ; b u t it des erves to be tru e if only as a n ex ,
a mple showing s tudents how va l u a ble it is f or them to stick to their
exercises .
Farinelli sa ng in the operas of H andel an d ma de a tremendous ,
“
su ccess in Engl and An enthu si as tic wom an once spoke of One
.
God one Church an d one Fari nelli Yet he was not the only
,
”
, .
one though perh a ps he was the grea test of his cl ass Sen esino was
,
”
.
a nother fa vorite in Engl a nd a n d was m a de the r ecipient of m any

,
a ttentions an d l au d a tory verses Caffar elli too grew f am ou s All .

, , .
of thes e stars belonged to the extinct cl as s of m ale sopra nos who ,
were prevented by surgery from ha ving the u su al ch a nge of voice

, ,
du ring youth One of them B em acchi fou nded a fa mou s singing

.
, ,
school .
With the a du l a tion th at singers of both sexes received it was no ,
wonder tha t som e of them indu lged in riva lri es worthy of spoiled
children Even tod ay the singers do not alllove one another with
.
genu ine fervor In H andel s ti me the grea test disa greem ent ca me
.
’
,
between the two most fam ou s sopra nos Fra ncesca C uzzoni and ,
Fau stina Bor doni E a ch of thes e two su pplemented an enthusiastic

.
SOME FAMOUS S INGERS 4 75
e stimate of her own powers by a low Opi nion of her riva l s ; an d the ’
matter beca me so pu blic tha t the London opera goers took Sides -
.
The two principa ls actually ca me to blows and bore m arks of ea ch ,
other s prowess when sep arated Cu zzoni finally held the field a lone
’
.
,
f or Fa u stina m arri ed the com po ser H as se .
Cu zzoni was i m perio us to a l l b u t she met her ma tch in H a ndel

, .
Once when he ha d everything rea dy for her a t a certa in rehearsa l

, ,
she refu sed to go on H a ndel held her ou t of the window a n dthrea t

.
,
ened to drop her u nless she consented to Sing In her position (a very .
a eri a l one ) she fou nd hersel f una ble to decline an d ga ve in as gra ce ,
fu lly as she cou ld Su ch ca prices on the part of the Sin gers were o nly
.
a na tura l resu lt of grea t pu blic a du l a tion C u zzoni s pop u l a rity m a y

’
.
“
be shown by the fact tha t the dr ess she wore in Rodelin da was ”
a dopted as a n a tion a l u niform of feminine you th a n d bea u ty .
Eliza beth Weichsel better known as Mrs Billington is held to

, .
,
ha ve been the grea test singer ever born in Engl and Like Farinelli .
,
she cou ld ou t sing a tru mpet a nd excel the tru m peter in length an d
-
power of tone Sir Joshua Reynolds pa inted her in the attitu de of

.
listening to an angel choir a bove her ; whereu pon H a ndel sa id ,
“
Tha t is a mistake ; you Shou ld have pa inted the angels listening
to her ”
.
A singer with an u nu su a l range was Lu crezia Ag uj ari who lived ,
toward the end of the eighteenth century She was prob a bly the .
highest sopra no ever known The ordinary sopra no singer can rea ch
.
the second G a bove middle C With tha t G begins the so ca lled a lt

.
-
octa ve ru nning u p to Fs harp j u st below the next G Most high

, .
“
Sopra nos thi nk they are doing very well if they ca n r ea ch D or E in
al t with a to ne of fa ir qu a lity Ag uj ari cou ld sing not only the a l

. t
octa ve b u t the one a bove it the a ltissimo as far as F
, , the highest
, ,
F on the pia no Mozart who heard her sa id tha t these high notes
.
, ,
were pure a nd of good qua lity .
In the beginning of the nineteenth centur y Angelica C a ta l ani was ,
the lea der of the colora ture singers She cou ld give em bellishm ents
.
a n dfior i tu ri with su ch eas e th a t she often sa ng orn a te solos intended
for the violin Her a ccurac y in this cau sed the Par isi a ns to nick
.
“
name her L instru m ent C a ta l ani She ha d a most m arvellou s
’
.
’
a ccura cy a n d cou ld sing Six distinct interva ls within the co m p a ss of

,
a semitone She ha d little artistic conscience and wou ld stoop to

.
,
almost a nything to ca tch the pu blic ; b u t her pri va te car eer was
marked by u prightness a n d generosity .
Hen rietta Sonta g was a n other fa m ou s singer of the sa m e period .
C a ta lan i Said of Sonta g She is first in her style b u t her style is not
, ,
the first This remar k shou ld have been som ewha t of a boo m era ng
.
”
,
or Sonta g s style was si m il ar to C a ta l

’
an i s
’
f .
Giu ditta Pasta was a more a dm ira ble ar tist if not a grea ter ,
voca list Her voice was origina lly wea k lim ited a n d u na ttra ctive ;
. , ,
b u t har d a n d fa ithfu l work ena bled her to obta in a comp a ss of over

two octa ves a n d a rich fu lness of tone She never entirely equ alized .
al lher notes ; b u t she ga ve them a dra m a tic Significa nce f ar beyond
the power of even those who were endowed with better voices She .
was the first to introdu ce r ea l a cting into opera the most conven ,
tion algestu res h a ving served befo re her a dvent .
Mm e M ari a M alibran a nd Mm e Pau line Viardot were both

. .
d au ghters of M a nu el G arcia the elder an d Sisters of the you nger ,
m a n of tha t n a m e All four were fa mou s singers The fa ther was

. .
exception ally long lived dying in the twentieth century a t the a ge

-
,
of a hu ndred a n d one .
The elder G arcia was a very severe disciplinari an and sometimes ,
wou ld even bea t his d au ghters The neighbors occa siona lly hea rd .
shrieks issu ing from the singer s home ; b u t they Shrugged their ’
shou lders an d sa id It is only Monsieu r Garcia tea ching his dau gh

,
ters to sing ”
.
a M a ri a s débu t was b rou ght a bou t by his severity When she was
’
.
seventeen he was ca lled u pon to Sing in a certa in performa nce of

,
“
Rossini s Otello ; a n d he insisted on her ta king the p art of Des
’ ”
demona She declined becau se little time was left for her to prep are
.
,
for it ; b u t he m a de her go on a n d thr e a tened th a t if she did not do

,
her best he wou ld u se his wea pon which was a r ea l d a gger Na turally , .
she obeyed ; b u t in the l ast a ct which he ga ve with grea t intensity

, ,
she ha d a renewed a ccess of fear She cried ou t in terror For God s .

,
’
sa ke do not kill m e ; b u t the au dience thought this only a bit of

,
”
re alistic a cting a n d a ppl au ded her wildly

, .
M alibra n s voice was very intra cta ble but her fa ther s excellent
’
,
’
tu ition enabled her to overcom e its defects with the a id of consta nt ,
pra ctice She ha d a very l arge ra nge covering both sopra no a nd

.
,
a lto registers ; a n d this ena bled her to ch arm by var iety of eff ect .
478 THE BOOK OF MUSICAL KNOWL EDGE
under the m a nagem ent of the la te (an d great ) B arnu m Lind was .
a nother exa mple of the val u e of ha rd work D uri ng her youth she .
overworked her voice ; and when she ca me to Garcia for lessons she ,
“
b roke down in trying to Sing for him He sa id It would be useless .
,
to tea ch you for you ha ve no voice left She persua ded hi m to try
,
”
.
to bring her voice b a ck ; b u t she ha d to start over at the very begin

ning with sca les voca lises a n d brea thing exere1ses In ten months
, , , .
the da mage was more tha n rep a ir ed Her devotion to work is shown .
by the hours She spent in pra ctising the pronu nci a tion of one Germa n
“ ”
word , zerschmettert .
Mendelssohn a dmired Lind grea tly Expecting her to sing in his .
“
Elij a h he pu t into the solo Hear ye Israel a high F Sharp a
”
,
”
,
-
,
tone especi ally resona nt in her voice B u t she cou ld not com e a fter .
al l a n d the prim a n d pr ecise C ara dori All a n who repl a ced her
,
-
, ,
“
fou nd the solo not l a dylike C arlyle wrote of Lind s performa nce
”
.
’
“ ” “
in La Som n am b u la She seem ed to me a very tru e clea n gen
, , ,
u in e little crea ture with a voice of extr a or din ary extent

, She .
sa ng a cte d etc with consu mm a te fidelity b u t ha d u nfortuna tely

, , .
, ,
nothing b u t mere nonsens e to Sing or act C arlyle thu s showed hi m

”
.
self a better critic th a n most au thors a n d a r efr eshing contras t to ,
“ “
R u skin who spoke of The M as tersingers as b ab oon hea ded
,
”
-
s tuff ”
.
The n ame of Adelina Patti brings memories of perennial farewell

tours She gave a concert as recently as 19 08 which seems wonder
.
,
fu lwhen one r em em bers th a t her débu t occurred in 18 59 Su ch a .
long career is a m azing a n d means that the Singer mu st h ave ta ken

,
grea t care of her health besides ha ving a strong constitution to begin

,
with Pa tti s voice in its prime was of the most bird like clearness
.
’
, ,
-
an d flexibility She ha d no very high idea ls of art b u t as a colora

.
,
ture Singer she charmed two continents for five deca des Her sister .
C arl otta was more dram a tic but did not ha ve a long career , .
The hea lth of singers is a valu a ble commodity tha t dema nds
mu ch care They mu st a void ca tching cold a n d keep a wa y from
.
,
draughts a n d dam pness Even the moisture of a new hou se m ay.
“
prove harm fu l ; a n d the Sp a niards ha ve a sa ying tha t runs Give ,
your newly bu ilt hou se for the first year to your enem y for the sec ,
ond to your friend a nd sta y in it you rself only when the thir d has
,
”
come M any singers ta ke excessive car e of their diet thou gh here
.
,
AD EL IN A P A I II
' ' ‘
Su ch tribu tes were fa irly earned ; for Lu cca was endowed with orig
in a l geniu s a n d ha d a symp a thetic voice tha t imparted vita lity
,
to the tamest rOle Her expr essive voice a n d im passioned a cting

.
“
ma de the critics spea k of her as tra nscendenta lly hu m a n ”
.
Certa in Singers have grown fa mou s by being identified with a

composer One of these Sophie Ar nou ld deserves mention for her
.
, ,
singing in Glu ck s operas She displ ayed a wit a n d vivacity tha t

’
.
ca ptiva ted our own Fra nklin When Piccini was brou ght to P aris .
as a riva l to Glu ck a n d bo th composers set the sa me li b retto

, ,
“
Iphigeni a in T auri s Ar nou ld helped to m ake Glu ck s work a
”
,
’
su ccess When her rival in the Piccini work showed tra ces of in
.
toxica tion it was she who sa id This is not Iphigenia in T auris but
, , ,
Iphigenia in Champa gne ”

.
Wilhel m ine Schroeder Devri ent was identified with the ea rlier -
Wa gneria n perfo rm ances She was the first to show the possibilities .
of rea lly dra m a tic Singing an d she a lways ma de her voice ec ho the ,
em otion of the text or situ ation In her early years she scored a grea t .
“
su ccess as Leonora in Beethoven s Fidelio At first She nearly
” ’
.
broke down with sta ge fright b u t the au dience thinking th a t her , ,
emotion belonged to her tra gic p art was lou d in its a pplau se She , .
evidently was not a gain trou bled with sta ge fright In this Opera she .
has to give the sta rving Floresta n a crus t of b rea d ; a n d once when ,
he forgot to take it she ha d coolness enou gh to whisper Wh a t s the

, ,
’
ma tter ? Do you wa nt it bu ttered ? It is well to get p ast the d a ys

”
of sta ge fright b u t a du e a m ou nt of ner vou sness is not at a llb a d if

,
it keeps the singer ea ger to do the best possible work .
Lilli Lehma nn is now remem bered by her Wa gneri a n r6 1es ; b u t

she excelled a lso in the sm oother style of Mozart a nd the Ita lia ns ,
and P ari s critics ga ve high p ra ise to her Slow col ora tu ra Her Wag .
neria n car eer like tha t of the De Re szkes No rdica and others
, , , ,
showed tha t Wagner s m u sic did not need to be howled b u t cou ld

’
,
be given with smoothness a nd good method as well as expressive
So m e of the ma ny Wagneri a n Singers who deserve mention are

Niem a nn Van Dyck Schott Winkelmann Fi scher Scaria B ra ndt
, , , , , , ,
B rema a nd Tern ina Most devoted of them a ll if not a bsolu tely

, .
,
the best Singer was the fu ll voiced Ama lia M a tem a Her work
,
-
.
a t B a yreuth a n d el
sewhere was a lwa ys intended to further the
SOME FAMOUS SINGERS 1
c omposer s cause ; and her la ter pover ty ca u sed partly by her gener
’
,
osity to needy rel a tives shou ld be a ma tter of repro a ch to Wa gner s

’
,
widow .
Singers seem to grow either very rich or very p oor Their large .
salaries are fa irly earned not merely by excellence in perform ance

, ,
b u t by the long years of fa ithfu l study tha t p recede it So m e are .
well b a lanced enough to strike a n a vera ge ; b u t too many are either

-
spendthrifts or misers The spendthrifts however do more good

.
, ,
tha n the miserly ones Once the hu sb a nd of a close fisted Singer was
.
-
“
asked how the p a ir spen t their leis ur e hour s We econom ize in the .
morning was the reply a n d then we h ave a light lu nch a nd go on

,
”
,
econom izing M a tem a was not one of these

”
. .
Am ong the men the English Singers m u st be given fu ll credit for

,
their excellen t pronu ncia tion Incidenta lly we shou ld not a ttem pt .
,
opera in English u ntil every mem ber of a ca st can ma nage tha t lan
gua ge withou t any foreign a ccent .
An early school of ba lla d Singing was well represented by In -
“
cl edon whom Tha ckeray pra ises highly in The Newcom es
,
”
.
B ra ha m exem plified the sa m e school at a l a ter da te a nd fou nd a n ,
ea sy method of getting rid of his sa l ary by tryi ng to ma nage a n

opera compa ny of his own A story of B rah am will illu stra te the .
tri cks so m etimes pl ayed by mem ory Once he cou ld not remem ber .
“
how to beg in Sa lly in ou r a lley a popu l ar fa vorite tha t he ha d
”
,
“
su ng hu ndr eds of times Finally he sa id I ve forgotten the first
.
,
’
i ne ; wherea t nearly the entir e au dience sa ng it at him Su ch

”
l .
la psesm ay come from excitem ent or overwork .
Sim s Reeves was a nother famou s b a ll a d Singer known also in -

,
opera His au diences cou ld not be su re of his appeara n ce u ntil he

.
a ctu a lly ca me on the sta ge ; for he wou ld b rea k a n enga gem ent if
he were not in best form Another singer who took good care of .
his voice was B rign oli Once when a Boston au dience a pplau ded
.
,
him vociferou sly the m a na ger su gg ested a n encore sa yi ng tha t

, ,
“
the pu blic insisted Wha t do I ca re replied B rignoli; and he
.
”
,
“
pointed to his thro a t sa ying This is m y ca pita l
, ,
.
Singers are u su a lly trained from early you th ; b u t they are som e
tim es discovered l a ter in life Su ch a cas e was tha t of the ca b driver
.
-
Wachtel son of a sta ble keeper Once a t an opera tic perform ance
,
-
.
, ,
the tenor was a bsent as one of his arias b eca me du e When Wachtel .
said he cou ld sing the a ir he was taken to the stage ; not bec ause
,
people believed him but beca use they thou ght it would be a good
,
joke to ha ve fun a t his expense But Wa chtel turned the joke u pon .
the others by singing so well tha t he was reta ined in opera His .
fa vori te rOle was The Postilion of Longjumeau in which his early

”
,
training as cab driver enabled him to be wholly tru e to life

- .
One m ay close this very brief survey by an a ccount of the re

“
viva if not discovery of B arron B erthaldas an Opera Singer
”
, ,
a n event well remembered in Boston The Metropolita n com p a ny ha d .
a nnou nced Lohengrin Rothm ii hlwas to have ta ken tha t celestial

”
.
hero s p art ; b u t when the ti m e ca me he was not in condition to ap

’
,
pear Alvery was sent for b u t felt too comforta ble or too com atose
.
, , ,
to lea ve his room Consterna tion reign ed after this until some one
.
,
remembered tha t B erthald who ha dsu ng in Lohengrin six yea rs

”
,
“
before was appearing in Bonnie Prince Charlie a t the C as tle
,
”
,
Square Thea tre At once the director rushed to tha t theatre nearly
.
,
a mile a wa y a n d requ isitioned B erthal

, d An understu dy r epl aced .
him in the light Opera an d he was bu ndled into a ca b hea ded for the
,
old Boston Thea tre the ho m e of gra nd opera for many sea sons On
, .
the way B erthald sta ted that he ha d not su ng a note of the rOle of
,
Lohengri n for Six years ; b u t the ma nagement wou ld not listen to

a ny objections a nd insisted on ta ki ng the ch a nce th a t he would
,
remember the p ar t He was coa ched on the way hu rried into his
.
,
shining armor and sent ou t u pon the sta ge After only an insta nt s
, .
’
hesita tion he plu nged into the work a nd carried it throu gh to the
, ,
end su ccessfu lly .
With this p arti al list of celebrities the singers m ay be dismissed , .
Those who desire to pursu e the su bject farther will find materi al of
recent date in Henry T Fi nck s Su ccess in M usic ; while the older
”
.
’
“
celebrities are trea ted in H C Lahee s Famous Si ngers ” ’
. . .
an d pl a ying with the most a mazing ra pidity correcting the fa lse ,
pitch of the strings by his fingering The startled Corelli cried ou t .

,
Sir they ca l
,
l m e a n archa ngel !Arca ngelo]; b u t you must be an
ar ch devil
- .
Giu seppe Torelli belonged to the sa m e period He helped Corelli .
to develop the concerto a n d the concerto grosso in which a sin gle ,
instru m ent or a grou p of instru m ents was pl ayed ag ainst a concerted

orchestra l or other a ccom pa ni m ent Other Itali a n com poser per .
-
formers were M arini Fonta na La urenti a n d Antonio Veracini ;

, , ,
while Germa ny produ ced B rieg el Schm elzer Pesel Wa lther a n d , , , ,
others Lu lly was a violinist when he first won recogni tion in Pa ris
. .
Giu seppe Tartini who lived u ntil 177 0 sh ared with Corelli the
, ,
honor of being a violin pioneer He u nited C orelli s finished style .

’
with more vi gor p assion a nd da ring ; an d at the sa m e tim e he de

, ,
vel op ed a f ar m o re a dv a nced techniqu e in h a ndling embellish m ents ,
ra pid p a ss a ges a n d dou ble stopping

, He com posed m a ny fa mous
-
.
works .
Ita ly still continu ed to hold the l ea d in the nu m ber of fam ou s

violinists From the l a te sixteenth to the l a te eighteenth century
.
,
Ita ly was preeminent in mu sic thou gh B a ch a n d H a n del ha d fore

,
sha dowed the coming of Germa n su prem a cy It was this early ex .
c ellen ce of It a ly in contrast to its l a ter sterility th a t m a de Von

, ,
“
B ii l
ow sa y Ita ly was the cra dle of mu sic
, a n d r em a ined the ,
cra dle ”
.
The eightee n th century sa w Italy s lea dership in the violin world ’
u pheld by su ch m asters as Viv a ldi Fra n cesco Vera c in i Gem ini a ni , , ,
Loca telli Tessarini a n d So uris Viva ldi exp a nded the concerto to
, , .
orchestra l Size Ge m ini ani wrote a n early violin method b ased on

.
,
C orel i s ideas Vera cini was an intense pl a yer of the T a rtini school
’
l . .
Loca telli was one of the first to u se violin tricks an d specia l tunings
in pu blic ; while Somis served as a link between the Ita lia n a n d French
pla yers Fra nce produ ced Lecl a ir a nd Gu ignon the l a tter of whom
.
,
beca me unpopu l ar by tryi ng for a mu sica l m onopoly Germ a ny was .
the home of PisendelJoha nn Graun Fra nz Benda Joha nn Stam i tz

, , , ,
an d the Ita li a n Gi ardini .
Towar d the end of the century the lea dership bega n to p ass , .
Pu g n a ni u pheld the bro a d Co relli school in Ita ly W hile Na r dini ,
followed the brilliant Tartini sta ndards Grea ter tha n either was .
VIOLINISTS AND VIOLIN MUSIC 4 85
Pug nan i pu pil Viotti ca lled the fa ther of modern violin pla ying
’
s ,
-
.
B u t Viotti wen t to Par is a n d star ted a school there The m e m bers

, .
of this Par is grou p were Rodolphe Kreu tzer the Germ a n born artist ,
-
to whom Beethoven dedica ted the Kr eu tzer Sona ta ; Pierre Rode ”

,
of broa d a n d sym pa thetic tone ; a nd Fra n cois B a illot Rode s friend ,

’
a n d riva l The works of these m en are of great va lu e to day a n d

.
-
,
their brea dth of tone ma de them the m ost artistic pl a yers of their
tim e The m ore showy technica l Side ha d been r epresented by
.
“
Pierre Gavi niés ca lled by Viotti the French Tartini Ita ly ha d
,
”
.
a n a m a zing technic a l virtu oso in Lolli of Berga m o Leopold Mozart

, .
m ay be m en tio n ed a m o n g the Germ a ns thou gh he spent m ost of ,
his l a ter life in gu iding his p recociou s a n d fa m ou s son Another Ger .
m an vi ol irrist of Slightly l a ter d a te was An dr ea s Ro m berg com

, , ,
poser of sym phonies an d other works .
The violin repertoir e by this tim e was of a m ple proportions Its .
valu e too is Shown by the frequ ency with which m odern pl ayers
, ,
draw u pon the old m u sic for their program m es Kr eisler won a .
“
grea t su ccess with C ou peri n s Cha nson Lou is X III et Pa va ne
’ ”
,
a nd followed it by pieces fro m Pu g n a ni a n d others of his ti m e b e ,
sides the u su alTartini displa y Ysa ye scored a tre m endou s triu m ph

.
with a Vita li Chaconne for violin a nd orga n a nd su pplem ented it ,
by a n interesting Vivaldi concerto The old violin mu sic has nea rly
.
as mu ch cl as sica l va l u e as the fu gu es of B a ch h a ve in the pi a no reper
While the Paris sc hool developed expressive power Ita ly a dded ,
to her celeb rities the grea test technical m aster of the violin tha t
.
the world has ever seen Nicolo Pa ga ni n i He was not m erely a .
virtu oso for he Showed sym pa thy an d p a thos i n Slow work as well
, ,
as m a tchless b rilli a nce in ra pid p assa ges His up s a n d down s of life .

,
a n d his stra nge persec u tions in co m bina tion with his m arvellou s
,
a bility a n d odd pe rsonality m a ke his life r ea d like a ro m a nce

,
.
Paga nini was born a t Genoa in 1782 He was com pelled to pra c .
tise withou t m a ny periods of res t ; an d if he ha d not loved the violin ,
he m ight have been turned a ga inst it by p arenta l h arshness As .
it was he soon bega n to spend mu ch tim e an d p a tience in m aster

,
ing new difficu lties of his own invention This persistence a n d .

,
faithfu l practice were prob a bly responsi ble for his a ma zing tech
,
ni que Yet many thought him possessed of some speci al secret

. .
In after life while he stopped a t a certa in hotel a guest peeped in

, ,
a t hi m to discover this sec ret ; b u t instea d of finding a nythi ng u n
u su al the obser ver sa w o nly a ta ll thin m a n fingering cer ta in vi olin

, ,
chords repea tedly withou t u sing the bow In his l a ter d ays Pa ga
, .
,
nini tra ded on the repu ta tion tha t the su pposed secret ga ve him .
It is a stra nge fa ct tha t he ma de his pu pil C a tarina C olcag no pl a y

with as tonishi ng brillia nce when She was only fifteen ; b u t his own
grea t knowledge of tec hniqu e would a cc ou nt for his a bility to im
par t it .
He began to pl ay in pu blic hi mself at the ag e of thirteen Three .
years la ter he ra n a wa y from hom e a n d developed a taste for dis

,
si p a ti on a n d gambling He devoted some years to the guita r in

.
,
consequ ence of the preference of a noble la dy at whose castle he

stayed The result shows in his qu ar tets for stri ngs an d guita r
. ,
recently revived After this he returned to the violin an d bega n

.
,
to investiga te the use of single stri ngs This procedure arose in p art .
from his a dm ira tion for a certain l a dy for whom he wrote a n d ,
pla yed love dialogues between the first a n d fourth stri ngs His
- .
grea t fa cility on the G string was developed at this tim e On a cer .
ta in occa sion the brea king of a n E String during a concert com

,
-
pel led him to pl a y a nu m ber of difficult pieces on the rem a ining
three strings .
The persistence with which stra nge stories followed Pag a nini
was most m ar ked Even to day innocent men are sometimes m a de
.
-
victims of waves of popular persecu tion ; b u t a mong the cr edu lous

Ita lia n peasa ntry of a century ag o a lmost an y story wou ld find ,
believers The most com m on idea a bou t Pa ga nini consisted in a

.
certa inty tha t he was a ided by the devil ; an d not a few of his hear
ers cl a imed to h a ve seen tha t sa ta nic individua l sta nding beside
the performer and helping him .
Paga nini s excellence on the G string was expl a ined by another

’
story It was claimed th at in a fit of jealousy he ha d murdered his

.
mistress in consequ ence of which he had spent eight years in prison

, .
He was a llowed to keep his violin ; b u t the da mpness of the cell

caused the u pper stri ngs to brea k finally lea ving him only the ,
G string ; an d upon this he was co m pelled to pl ay if he pl a yed at

-
,
al l The simplest investiga tion p roves this story not only false b u t
.
,
impossible He lived at home for nearly sixteen years ; and with the
.
VIOLINISTS AND VIOLIN MUSIC 48 7
exception of the guitar period dur ing which he was ea sily tra ced , ,
he was consta ntly before the pu blic If he com mitted su ch a crim e .
before becomi ng a pu blic per form er he mu st have done it a t the ,
ma ture ag e of eight and ha d hi s fa m ily an d frien ds a gree to pre

,
tend tha t he was a t hom e stu dying Yet in sp ite of its u tter lack of .
possibility the story persisted

, .
Pa ga ni ni s tec hniqu e was wonderfu l enou gh to make the credu

’
lous ones believe tha t he m us t ha ve ha d so m e unu sual a id whether ,
from the devil or from som e other obliging spirit The player s .
’
persona lity helped to su sta in the idea of stra ngeness ; for he was
ta ll thin an d p ale with brusqu e m anners tha t heightened his
, , ,
ca da verou s effect His techniqu e does not appear su perhu ma n

.
when looked a t from the sta ndpoin t of present da y vir tu oso pl ay -
ing ; b u t it m u st ha ve seem ed tr em endou sly stri king in contras t

with the lesser a ttai nments of his peri od His a bility is proved by .
m a ny a necdotes One of these rel a tes tha t the Nea polita n artists
.
,
jea lou s of his fa me engaged the you ng com poser D a nna to wri te
,
a vi olin piece b ristling with unheard ofdifficu lti es ; a n d when Pag e - ,
ni ni arrived they asked him to rea d the piece Pa ga nini saw the
, .
trap they ha d set ; b u t his a bility was so grea t tha t the merest gla nce
a t the work ena bled him to pl a y it with the u tm ost ea se His p ro .
ficien cy in dou ble stopping harmoni cs left h a nd pizzica to an d

-
, ,
-
,
G str ing wo rk m u st h ave been m arvellou s to j u dge fro m his com

-
,
positions as well as his press notices His use of very thin strings .
proba bly ga ve him a m as tery over harmonics A fa vorite trick of .
his a lrea dy m entioned was to tu ne his instrum ent a sem ito n e sharp
, , ,
a n d tra nspose the m u sic a sem itone do wn thereby getti n g the proper ,
pitch of a work b u t an u nusu ally b rilli a nt qua lity of tone

, .
Pagani ni has been ca lled ignoble selfis h self indu lgen t a n d m i , ,

-
,
serl y These a ccu sa tions are not devoid of tru th ; b u t on on e occa

.
sion he showed a m ost excellent a n d discrim i n a ting gener osity It .
was in Par is a n d he was a t a concert where a new wo rk was given

,
a sym phony by the young a nd stru ggling co m poser n a m ed B er
li oz Pa ga ni n i was so im pressed by the work tha t he sent to its

.
com poser the su m of twenty thousa nd fra ncs It is sa id tha t self .
indu lg ence an d the use of a qu a ck medicine brou ght on his last

, ,
illness a nd dea th which took place in 184 0 His body was re

, .
f used bur i al a t Nice a n d was ta ken to Par m a f or interm ent

, His .
4 88 TH E BOOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWLEDGE
f avorite violin a large Gu arneriu s has been kept on exhibition in
, ,
a Showcase b u t would p rob a bly be in better condition if pl a yed

,
u pon .
There were other Ita li an violinists after Pa ga nini su ch as Poll e ,
dro b u t none of overwhel m ing prominence M u sic ha d rea ched a

,
.
peri od of deca dence in Ita ly a n d the pu blic could a ppreci a te noth

,
ing higher tha n the conventiona l works of the Rossini style Even .
the Par is sc hool declined with the dea th of its lea ders ; and for a
,
tim e the sceptr e p assed to Germa ny .
Lu dwig Spohr who brought the Ge rma n school into its lea der
,
ship drew awa y from the sensationa l style inau gu ra ted by Pa ga

,
nini an d ma de brea dth an d expressive power pro m inent once more

, .
A symphonist of som e grea tness a n opera com poser of rom a ntic ,
tendencies he wrote a nu m ber of violin concertos a n d brou ght tha t

, ,
form well a long to the large Size a nd prom inence tha t it now dis
pl ays His excellence as a com poser was som ewhat veiled by m an
.
n erism s su ch as an excessively chr o m a tic style

, .
He com posed a nu mber of works for violin a n d h arp the l a tter ,
instru m ent being pl ayed by Dorette Scheidler whom he married , .
Spohr died in 18 59 which brou ght the school to within six deca des
,
of the present wri ting .
Other Germa n a nd Au stri a n m asters were Joseph Mayseder ,
Joseph Bohm Joha nn Kalliwoda an d Wilhelm Moliqu e while

, , ,
Karl Lipinski was a Pole Ign az Schu pp anzig h who preceded Spohr
.
,
in point of time was a friend of Beethoven

, .
A French grou p of the tim e inclu ded Alexa n dre Bou cher An ,
toin e Ha b en eck J a cqu es M a z as a n d others B u t after the Ger

, , .
m a n school ha d flourished the sceptre p a ssed to Belgiu m ,Charles .
Au guste de B eriot the first of the Fra nco Belgi a n school held the
,
-
,
forem ost ra nk in his day a n d continu ed the orna te a n d brilliant

,
style of Pa ga nini Fr om the contra st between his work a n d Spohr s

.
’
it is still held tha t the Germa n school is solid where the Belgi an is
brillia nt ; b u t these distinctions no longer exist Thu s Henri Vieu x .
tem ps the su ccessor of De B eri ot in Belgium was still brilli ant

, , ,
b u t showed m or e br ea dth .
The Germa n school was carried on by Ferdinand D avid and

Joseph Joa chi m D avid was concertmas ter in the Gewa ndha us
.
Orchestra which Mendelssohn reorganized a t Leipsic Li ke Vieux .

Cha conne which is a sta nda rd tes t for violinists is sa id to be
, ,
unriva lled.
Other grea t violinists visit us from time to time b u t ea ch of the

,
a bove thr ee has a t times been consider ed pr i m us i nter pa res

. This
arti cle is not intended as a ca ta logue b u t a ims merely to give a gen
,
eral ou tline ofviolin developm ent M any other names m ight ha ve

.
been m entioned in the p ast as well as the present ; b u t there is not

,
spa ce for them here Those who are a live should not feel slighted
.
by the omission ; an d those who are dea d are not l ikely to protest .
LVII
ORC HE STRATIO N
I
T HOUGH ma de u p of different instr uments the orchestra m a y be ,
rega r ded as a u nit from the point of view of com poser condu cto r , ,
a n d a u dience
/ The cond u cto r s Sh ar e in the m a tter will be trea ted
’
.
in a special chapter b u t it has seemed worth while to explain here a

,
p art of the com poser s work an d certain points tha t the a u dience
’
,
m ay look f or when h eari ng o rchestra l mu sic .
Z The orchestra of B ac h a lthoug h it ha d m a ny i nstru ments now

,
obsolete did not give qui te the effec t of the fu ll modern orchestra
, ,
as it l a cked ma ny of the deeper instru ments su ch as the tu b as , ,
contra b assoons an d so on IB a ch s music therefore is not overp ow

, .
’
, ,
ering in ef fect b u t flows along na tu ra lly a n d sm oothly The con

, .
trapun ta lchara cter of his mu sic (written as if in p arts instea d of

chords ) makes this fl u ent quality particu l arly noticea ble In some .
cases the m odern instruments replace the obsolete ones .
H a ndel s a nd B ach s scores were often merely ou tlined or only

’ ’
,
partially filled ou t In this music the com poser was often the lea der
.
,
a n d sa t a t the h arpsichord or o rga n where he cou ld arra nge his

, ,
own harmonies to su it him self For modern purposes some of the .

,
“
old scores have ha d to be filled in by more recent com posers
”
.
Thu s in the ca se of the ora torio The Messi ah whi ch is given

”
,
widely even to day there are two su ch refurbishings as a lr ea dy

-
, ,
stated , one by Mozart an d one by Robert Fra nz

The scores of classica l a n d modern tim es are com plete ha ving ,
been wholly finished by their composers ; a n d from them the stu dent
ca n tra ce the growth of the o rche s tra .
The sym phonies of H a ydn an d Mozart led to those of Beethoven ,
who is the grea t representa tive of the classica l period The cl assi .
ca lo rchestra c onsisted offirst an d second violins viol as cellos ’

, , ,
contra b asses flu tes som eti m es a piccolo oboes cl arinets b as

, , , , ,
soons , horns trumpets som etim es trom bones an d kettledru ms

, , ,
.
With these the co m poser cou ld give all the effects he desired .
Taking only the nine symphonies of Beethoven we find su ch diverse ,
pictures as bir d calls in p astora l su rrou ndings a thu nderstorm the

-
, ,
funera l march of a dea d hero or the noble a ntiphonal di alogu es of

,
the Ninth Symphony Modern com posers h ave m any m ore instr u
.
ments ; b u t they do not give grea ter music in spite of its growing ,
complexi ty Mendelssohn a n d Schu m a nn continu ed to use the

.
cl assica l forces with few changes ; b u t a fter them Berlioz Liszt , ,
an d Wagner developed the l arger orchestra Our h a ving a l ar ge .
orchestra does not Show tha t the sm a ller one is out of da te ; for
B ra hms in the l a tter h a lf of the nineteenth century kept to the
, ,
cl assica l forces and showed tha t they were amply su fficient for
,
the crea tion of noble music .
The scores of the cl assica l period Show the use of sim ple tone
colors or com bina tions of color There is none of the mixed impres .
,
sion istic q u a lity th a t ca me l a ter The instruments sta nd ou t b y.
“
themselves in fa irly clear contrast to the mingled world of sound
,
in which modern composers work Am ong ma ny exam ples one .

,
m a y qu ote the oboe in Beethoven s o rchestra l fu nera l m arch ; the

’
contra b ass in the fina le of his Ninth Symphony ; the cl arinet in

Moz art s cl arinet symphony ; the horns in the closing them e of the
’
finale of Schu bert s C m a jor symphony ; or the im pressive cl arinet

’
-
passa ge before the coda in the fina le of Mendelssohn s Scotch Sym ’
phony This use of simple colors in clear fas hion ch aracterizes the
.
cl assica l mu sic .
While the cl assica l composers often divided a n instrum enta l p art ,
giving two notes instea d of one to a Single kind of instru ment they ,
did this m ostly in clima xes for fu ll orchestra a nd did not keep it u p ,
long B u t modern com posers using Wa gner a nd Liszt as models

.
, ,
h ave indu lged m u ch more freely in this divided writing sometimes ,
giving severa l notes a t once to nearly ea ch ki nd of instrument The .
modern orchestra too is mu ch l arger tha n th at of cl assica l times

, , .
Where Beethoven a n d B ra hm s wou ld use only twelve or thir teen

sta ffs the ra dica l of to da y will wri te on m ore tha n twice th a t num
,
-
.
“
her As sta ted elsewhere there is a p a ssa ge in the Heldenleben ”
, ,
of Richard Stra u ss where tha t com poser writes on thirty different

,
sta ffs a n d inclu des as m a ny as forty Six different notes in a single

,
-
chord .
In su ch modern mixtures of tone the instrumenta l colors are ,

Vi oloncello All emotions but with a more mascu line effect
. ,
tha n those of the violin .
Contra bass Ponderous portentou s or som etimes comica l by

.
, ,
reas on of its hea viness .
H arp . Celesti a l or ecsta tic effects or minstrel a ccom p a nim ent , .
Fl u te .Gentle mel a ncholy in the lower register ; brilliance in

the u pper .
Piccolo Wild frenzied gayety or infernal effects ; sometimes

.
, ,
u sed f or milita r y su ggestion .
Oboe . Ru stic ga yety ; artless innocence ; gri ef a n d pa thos .
English horn D rea m y mel a ncholy ; suggests shepherd s pipe

.
’
.
B assoon E arnest a n d som bre in lower register or grotesqu ely

.
,
com ica l ; weird in m iddle register or like a cry of hu m a n p a in in ,
Contra b assoon Deep i m pressive like a n orga n pipe

.
, , .
Clarinet Eloqu ent an d tender in mi ddle regis ter spectral in

.
,
B ass clarinet So m bre (B asset horn the sa m e with rich tone )

. .
, .
Horn . Roma ntic su ggesting forest scenes an d hu nting calls

, ,
or u gly a n drep u lsive when m u ted .
Trumpet Bold and m artial

. .
r/ Irom b on e
‘
Solemn im pressive or menacing
.
, , .
Tu b a B ru ta l a n d powerfu l .
Explosive rhythmi c or ca pa bl
.
Kettle dru ms
- . e of portrayi ng , ,
a nxiety a n d su spense .
Other dru ms Military effects . .
Cym b als Su ited to the cl ash of ba ttle or wild festivity

.
, .
Glockenspiel Tinkling sweetness

. .
Celesta Ef
. fect of light melodiou s bells .
Ta m bourine and Tria ngle Spa nish or Gypsy effects festivity .

, .
With th ese colors a t hi s disposa l the modern com poser is a ble to ,
crea te ma ny odd ef fects a n d fa irly definite sugg estions While the .
older composers wrote pur e music for the most p ar t their more , ,
recent su ccesso rs h a ve b ecome l argely devoted to p r ogra mm e mu sic ,
or mu sic th a t tells a sto ry or por tra ys a n event tha t must be de
scribed on a printed progra mme For this the m any instrumenta l .
colors are indispensa ble .
When the au ditor hears orchestral mu sic of the cl assica l school ,
he m ay expect clear stru cture logica l developm ent of them es , ,
ar tistic effects of contras t a n d well b a l a nced work withou t exa g

,
-
g era tion
. In the ra dica l m odern mu sic he m ay look for m ore im
pressionism more effects of blended colors tha t are to b e ta ken
ORCHESTRATION 49 5
as a whole and not analyzed into the sim ple colors th at ma de them
, .
He m ay still seek for artistic symmetry a n d contrast but in a freer ,
form than before Much of the m odern a u ditor s tim e is ta ken u p in

.
’
looking a t his progra m m e to wa tch for coming events in the orches

tra. If he ca n tell j u st when Don Qu ixote encou nters the wind
mills or when Mraczek s two b a d boys of the orchestra Max an d
,
’
,
Moritz are chas ed for killing pou ltry he will feel happy with the
, ,
h appin ess of one who solves a pu zzle su ccessfu lly B u t tha t is not .
tru e musicalenjoym ent The au ditor will do well to lea rn the plot
.
of the piece before he hears it ; b u t even then he Shou ld be entitled

to look for good mu sic a nd not merely follow a string of effects
,
with a view to seeing wha t they mea n If the co m poser has not
.
given good mu sic he has failed in his du ty Two exa m ples from
, .
“
Strau ss will prove the point His Don Q u ixote varia tions pic
.
”
,
turing tha t hero s a dventur es are fu ll of a ttem pts a t su ggestion

’
, ,
su ch as the flock of sheep the a ir trip the u psetting boa t a n dso on ;

,
-
, ,
b u t the music is not essentia lly a ttra ctive On the other h a nd his
.
,
“
Dea th a nd Tra nsfigura tion contras ting the vain struggle a gainst
”
,
dea th with the gloriou s a potheosis beyond m a y be a nalyzed j u st

,
as litera lly (one co m m enta tor has fou nd two fever them es ) b u t is -
,
performed a n d a pplau ded frequ ently becau se its m u sic is gra nd .
Some of the instrum enta l colors m ay seem a little arbitrary to

the beginner ; b u t a fter he has learned to pick them out as well as a
composition will permit he will see tha t they have a basis of accu
,
racy With these the composer mu st do his best ; a ndif he ha ndles

.
them properly they will glow upon the ear with a llthe warmth
,
tha t the colors of a Titi an Show in their a ppeal to the eye .

LVIII
C O N D U C TIN G
THE of condu cting in the se n se of timekeeping is very an

art , ,
cient In the thea tres of Grecia n tim es the du ty of lea ding fell
. ,
Upon the choregus who kept the rhythm by ta pping a n iron Shoe
,
on the floor of the sta ge In the Middle Ages a ccou nts Show the
.
,
E m peror Charlem agne bea ting tim e in sim ilar fashion by ta pping , ,
with a wooden sta ff Even down to the p resent the violinist who
.
,
lea ds a sm all orchestra when not pla ying himself will condu ct by
, ,
tapping on his violin with the how .
This method of ta pping was held responsible for the dea th of

Lu lly in the seventeenth century At the perform a n ce of one of his
,
.
works a Te Deu m celebra ti ng the French king s recovery from

, ,
’
sickness the com poser who was condu cting m a de su ch fra ntic
, , ,
flour ishes with his ca ne th a t once he stru ck his gou ty foot instea d
of the floor Infl a m m a tion followed an d neglect allowed it to turn
.
,
into ga ngrene which p roved fa ta l It m ay thu s be sa id th a t Lully

, .
died of condu cting .
In the mu sic of H a ndel the com poser (or condu ctor) u su a lly pre
sided by sitting a t the harpsichord where he cou ld fill ou t the har ,
monies a n d gu ide a llthe effects H a ndel won ear ly notice by step .
ping to this post of honor a t a H am bu rg opera perform a nce when

Keiser the r egu l ar condu ctor was a bsent dodgi ng creditors Som e
, , .
times the orga n was u sed instea d of the h arpsichord especi ally in ,
the sa cred works of B a ch .
H aydn an d Moz art did a wa y with this h arpsichord p rocedu re ,
a n d the co n du ctors of their works whoever they wer e cou ld p a y , ,
com plete a ttention to lea din g the performers H a ydn condu cted .
his own m u sic for Pr ince Esterha zy in whose servi ce he r em ained ,
f or m a ny years It is Sa id tha t o nce when the princely p a tr on

.
,
thought of disb a nding his orchestra H a ydn wrote a nd led a sym ,
phony in which the pl a yers were a llowed to ceas e one b y one pu t , ,
ting ou t their lights a n d dep arting from the room until only the ,
only a hu ndred and sixteen men and ha d them allconcea led in a ,
su nken spa ce in front of the sta ge .
Wagner was a gifted condu ctor a n d the insight this ga ve him ,
into the tri vial na ture of certa in Ita lia n operas m ay h ave helped in
lea ding him to write better music himself He was among the first .
to condu ct freely from mem ory withou t us ing the score This m a y, .
sometimes be done by relying on the men a little an d remem bering ,
only a genera l ou tline su fli cient to enable the lea der to give cu es

,
to certa in instrum ents a t the right ti me B u t Wa gner ha d ma ny .
scores completely memorized When he first tried this pr ocedure

.
,
with Beethoven s Ninth Symphony his men were disposed to ridi

’
,
cule him ; b u t he ch allenged any of them to pl ay a p as sa ge from

any p art a n d showed his knowledge by continu ing the p ar t a fter the
,
pl ayer ceased .
Von B ulow as lea der of the Meiningen Orchestra went so far as

, ,
to ha ve his pl ayers mem orize their own p arts He was most p a ins .
taking in his a ttention to deta ils of Sha ding phras ing a n d so on , , .
His men beca m e so proficient tha t once when he was un avoida bly ,
“
l ate they began the p rogra m m e in his a bsence pl aying the Ta nn
, ,
hau ser Overture withou t any condu cto r and finishi ng it su ccess
”
,
fu lly j u st as he ca me in .
In general com posers ma ke poor condu ctors Some of those al

, .
rea dy mentioned a re exceptions ; b u t there are severa l reas ons f or
the rule To begin wi th composers are seldom broa d enou gh to

.
,
j u dge the m u sic of a llothers properly ; a n d we see Spohr ra ting the

Beethoven symphonies as du ll an d uninspired Then too m any .
, ,
composers l a ck the needed execu tive a bility When condu cting .

,
they are ap t to listen drea m ily to the music instea d of guiding it .
Schu ma nn was especially given to this p roced ure It is said of .
Richter who beca me a grea t condu ctor tha t when he first took u p
, ,
orchestra l lea dership he burned allhis compositions an d ma de a

, ,
cu p of coffee over the fire .
Among B ench condu ctors La moureux and Colonne grew i a ,
mous in the l a tter part of l ast century In Germ a ny Levi a ndMottl .

,
were followed by Weing artner M a hler Nikisch Strau ss Mu ck , , , , ,
Fi edler a nd others M ahler was rem ar ka bly grea t being able to

, .
,
give to a piece a continu al flow of nuances tha t wou ld make old ,
works seem new a nd come with the force of a revelation Wein .

CONDUCTING 499
g artner is best known in opera where the Italia n Tosca nini also ,
deserves m en tion Richar d Stra u ss inclines to powerfu l effects a n d

. ,
Hausegg er is a nother of the sa m e school In ou r own cou n try .

,
Theo dore Thom as deserved the hig hest praise for his earnestness
in edu ca ting pu blic taste .
A condu cto r pla ys u pon the orchestra j u st as a pi a nist pl ays u pon

his instru m ent Where the la tter m ay g ive a m axi m u m of ten notes
.
a t o n ce a n d cau se his fingers to give ea ch note the p roper em ph asis

, ,
the form er will ha ve a nywhere from twelve to thirty different kinds

of instru m en ts to look a fter a n d will em phas ize the different p arts
,
“
by m ea ns of his beat He is a lways responsible for the rea ding
.
”
of the piece the sha ding given to it the nua nces of speed the
, , ,
com p ara tive em phas is pl a ced on the different p arts a n d so on , .
Here tra dition is som etim es a guide The cl assica l works for in .
,
sta nce are to be ta ken in a fa irly straightforwar d m a nner withou t

, ,
a ny a tte m pt a t ex a gg era tion of effects The sa m e is tru e of the .
cl assical pi a no repertoire a n d we find Pa derews ki ca u si ng m u ch

,
argu m ent by pl a ying the Beethoven son a tas with ru b a to which ,
mea ns li ttle ca prices in the ti m e of a piec e Whenever a condu ctor .
“
tri es to m odernize a Beethoven sym phony in this wa y he l ays
”
,
himself open to j u st criticism a lthough M ahler som etim es did this ,

.
Sir Fr ederic H Cowen in a n article on co n du cti n g p rinted in

.
,
The Mu sici an s G u ide gives a nu m ber of ru les for the condu ctor
” ’
, ,
which m a y well be m ention ed here .
First of all the cond u ctor m u st possess a distinct an d reliable

,
bea t so tha t the pl ayers m ay know definitely wha t motion he is

,
ma ki ng a n d from this wha t resu lt he wa nts

, .
The condu ctor m u st of course have a goo d m u sical ear to en

, , ,
a ble him to single ou t a n y tone of the o rchestra f or p u rposes of ,
correction or altera tion .
He m us t have a thorou gh working knowledge of allthe instru

ments u n der hi m This does not mea n tha t he Shall be a star p er
.
form er on a llof them ; usu ally su ch knowledge of one or two is a ll

th a t he possesses B u t he m u st know a t least how a llthe ins tru
.
ments are played an d be fa mili ar with their com pass color a n d

, , ,
cap a bility in ea ch case The condu cto r will find it usefu l a lso to
.
, ,
be a good pianist ; while he surely needs a clear voice to give direc

tions even if not tra ined as a singer
, .
500 TH E BOOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWLEDGE
He m u st be a ble to rea d an orchestra l sc ore a n d m as ter its con,
tents qu ickly This is a m a tter tha t dem a nds tra ini ng for the nu m
. ,
b er of staf fs a n d vari ety of clefs used to sa y nothing of the tra ns

,
po sing instru m en ts m a ke a score very com plica ted The rea der
,
.
will rem em ber tha t the viol a is written in the a lto clef the tr om ,
bone som eti m es in the tenor clef a n d the other deep instrum ents in
,
variou s wa ys a ccording to the pitch u sed ; while the cl arinets not

,
in C the English b orn the horns not in C a n d som etim es other

, , ,
instru m ents tra nspose the written note to variou s interva ls The
,
.
condu ctor m u st not m erely rea d the notes of a score b u t he m u st ,
be a ble a lso to j u dge wh a t effects will be p rodu ced by the instru

men ta l com binations u sed .
The condu ctor m ust u n dersta nd the m u sic he is lea ding an d be ,
a ble to exp r ess its intellectu a l or spiritu al m ea ning .
He m u st ha ve a fu ll com m a nd of light a nd sha de or varia tions ,
in speed or dyn a mic force ; he must be a ble to m a ke his men bring

ou t the s e v ari a tions ; a n d he mu st be a ble to phrase artistica lly .
The b a l a ncing of phrases a n d p assa ges in j ust the proper wa y makes

al lthe dif ference between a performa nce tha t is m erely p assa ble
an d one th a t is excellent The condu ctor m us t also h a ve a correct
.
idea of tem po One condu ctor will ta ke certa in m ovem ents slower
.
or fas ter th a n a nother m an will do ; a n d n a tura lly one cas e gives
better results th an the other Here again tra dition helps with the
.
old works in which exaggera ted sp eed or slowness is ou t of pl a ce

, .
For the r est the p ace is l argely a ma tter of individu a l te m pera m ent
, ,
thou gh of course it is regu l a ted in a genera l way by a com poser s ’
directions Thus if a com poser calls for a n a dag io it is necessarily

.
,
a slow m ovem en t ; b u t so m e condu cto rs will m a ke it Slower th a n
others do The n a ture of the m u sic is often u seful as a guide Show

.
,
ing whether or not there is to be a ny exagg era tion of p a ce Som e .
tim es the com poser shows the exa ct p ace by u sing a metr onome
“
mark pu tting a t the begi nning the letters M M (Maelzels met
,
”
. .
’
r on om e) a n d a figur e with a note of definite v al u e T his will Show .
th a t the val u e of the note given shou ld occur a certain nu m ber of

tim es to the m inu te the nu mber being shown by the figure u sed
, .
Of course this a ppli es only to the average p ace as there will be ,
p as sa ges to be ta ken faster or slower as the condu ctor s ideas or

,
’
the composer s m arks dema nd

’
.
a ccord a nce with the points given a bove In the first pl ace does he .
,
make good progra mmes ? Does he pick ou t interesti ng novelties ,
an d b a l a nce them aga inst well kn own m aster works in su ch a way

- -
as to ga in the most pleas ing effect ? Then one m ay ask is he a , ,
good j u dge of tem po ? Does he take the slow movem ents too slow ,
a n d dra g even in ra pid m ovements or vi ce versa ? Then comes the ,
al lim porta nt qu estion of rea di ng Are his contras ts in force exag

- .
gera ted or minim i zed ; does he make his changes in force gra du ally
or a b ru ptly ; in speed also does he overdo or underdo the con
, ,
tres ts an d does he ma ke cha nges too ra dically or not ; is his phras

,
ing properly exp ressive an d su ff i ciently varied to a void monotony ;

,
does he contr ol his forces well ; does he ever indu lge in over exagg er -
a ted effects in a n ill j u dged a tte m pt to be ori gin a l ; does he b ring

,
-
ou t i m porta nt them es clearly ; a n d is the su m tota l of his effects ,
the rea ding of the piece as a whole spiri ted an d beau tifu l or du ll , ,
an d ineffective ? These are a few of the m a in qu estions th a t a n au di
tor m a y ask himself while listeni ng to an o rchestra l perform a nce .
If the condu ctor is good if he performs grea t mu sic with deta iled
,
care sym p athetic understa nding an d du e enthusia sm then one

, , ,
m ay tru ly a d m it tha t a symphony concert becomes a rea l feast of

rea son a n d flow of sou l .
Opera condu ctors are not always j u dged by the high sta nd ard of
symphonic work ; b u t so m e of them h ave rea ched the first rank ,
nevertheless as Weingartner a n d Tosca ni ni prove Op era condu e

, .
tors have trou bles of their own as they have to keep pla yers a nd ,
soloists together or guide the chorus besides a ttending to the in

, ,
str um ents .
The points of condu cting a nd the qu estions enu mera ted a bove
, ,
apply to opera condu cto rs b u t in a lesser degree th a n to symphonic

,
leaders The opera condu ctor is not too a nxi ou s for delica te nu a nces
.
,
which are som eti m es lost in a large au ditoriu m ; b u t he tries ra ther

to keep the forces together in a rendering tha t sha ll be spiri ted a n d
striking .
On the whole then the condu ctor earns his sa lary even when tha t
, , ,
sa l ary reaches fancy figures His is the bra in tha t guides the entire
.
orchestra ; and his is the ability tha t lea ds it to success .

S OUND is caused by a disturb a nce of the a tmosp here which then ,
trans m its itself ou twar d through the a ir This ta kes pl ace by having
.
ea ch disturbe d air p article pu sh the one beyond it so tha t the dis

-
,
turb an c e tra vels o u twar d som ewh a t like a str oke throu gh a line of
billiar d b a lls or a n engine s pu sh through a tr ain of loosely cou pled
,
’
Sou nd is either tone or noise the former b eing distinguished from

,
the l a tter by consisting of regu l ar vibra tions where noise is irreg u

,
lar. The pu sh of the air p articles cau ses hearing by strokes on the
-
ear drum whereu pon certa in nerves ta ke the sensa tion to the bra in
, ,
which records it as sou nd The bra in a lso notes the pitc h of the
.
sound which depends on the nu m ber of vib ra tions (im p a cts ) p er

,
second The hu m a n b rain ca n hear su ch vibra tions on ly between

.
the lim its of 16 per second a n d per seco nd from nearly ,
a n octa ve below the pi a no to over three octa ves a bove it Vibra .
tions th a t are below the lower lim it com e to the ear as separa te
pu ffs if heard a t a ll; while those a bove the high lim it are tota lly
,
inau dible The u pper limit varies with different people so tha t
.
,
som e Ca n hear tones which others ca nnot Certa in a nimals su ch

.
,
as the ca t ha ve a mu ch higher ra nge th a n m a nki nd

, .
One m ay p au se here to pa y his respects to the qu estion of the

su pposed rela tion between color a n d pitc h Light waves differ .
wholly from sou nd wa ves in being a distur b ance of the ether In .
sou nd the octa ve a bove a note has twice as ma ny vibra tions as

,
the note itself ; an d j u dged by this principle the visible color sca le
,
-
,
from red to vi olet is less tha n a n octa ve the violet ha ving more
, ,
vibra tions tha n the red in a bou t the proporti on of 73 to 46 Light .
waves too are incomp ara bly m ore frequ ent a nd travel mu ch
, , ,
faster tha n sou nd waves From allthi s we m ay dra w the conclu

, .
sion tha t there is no rel a tion between color a nd tone M a ny mu si .
c ia ns h ave a ssocia ted the two ; b u t as we m a y n atura lly expect ,

from our conclu sion su ch as soci a tion is merely a m atter of individ
,
ualidea s tha t h a ve no r ea l b asis in f a ct

,
Investiga tion will show .
that those who associa te cert ain colors with certa in tones differ
hopelessly a mong themselves as to which color goes with a ny given
note .
Sou nd will travel in other condu ctors tha n a ir It m ay be con .
du cted thr ou gh solids though the vibra tions then ha ve to com e

,
through the air in the ear tu be to be a u dible In wa ter sou nd - .

,
travels nearly four tim es fa ster th a n in air This fa ct is a pplied .
in the su bm arine bell sign a ls now being a dopted for lightships

a n d other su ch pl a ces Stea mers a re equ ipped with u nder wa ter -
.
r eceivers one on ea ch Side a tta ched to telephone receivers in

, ,
the pilot hou se When the hell is equ ally a u dible throu gh both
-
.
r eceivers then the stea m er is pointed dir ectly towar d the lightship
, ,
and can figur e its proper course from th a t fa ct .
The speed of sou nd in a ir is a bou t 112 0 feet p er second It tr avels .
a little slower in dry we a ther th a n on d a m p d a ys b u t is m or e clearly ,
a u dible It tra vels qu icker throu gh a ir of low pressure tha n throu gh

.
high pressu re a ir Thu s when the barom eter has fa llen j us t before
-
.
,
a storm the ordinary sou nds of d a ily life su ch as whistles car t

, , ,
rum blings a n d so on will sou nd mu ch lou der th a n u su a l

, , .
A sou nd wa ve resu lting from a n im pu lse commu nica ted to the

,
a ir is of a perfectly definite length f

, or each pitch a n d m a y be fig ,
u red exa ctly if we know the pitch Such a wave will consist of crest .
a n d trou gh the impu lse of pressure tha t strikes the ear dru m
,
-
,
a n d a lower p ressur e followi ng it h a lf wa y between the p ressur e ,

-
crest in front a n d the next one coming after it If a tone has 3 5 vi .
b ra tions a second a n d sou nd tra vels 112 0 feet a second a sim ple
, ,
division will show us tha t the length of ea ch wa ve from one ,
pressure impu lse to the next is 32 feet Deep tones with long
-
, .
,
Sou nd wa ves do not tra vel a n y fas ter th a n others ; b u t they pen
-
,
etra te f arther as shown by oce a n ste a mer whistles

, The dista nce to -
.
which sou nd will tra vel varies grea tly with a tmospheric conditions .
Tynda ll showed the existence in the air of wha t he ca lled a cou stic
clou ds which a id or hinder the p rogress of a tone when present
, .
These clou ds form and change so qu ickly th a t their a ction m ay be

noticed du ring the tolling of a bell Some of the bell str okes will .
-
sound lou d a n d clear while others j u st before or just a fter them

, , ,
tones or harmonics or u pper p ar ti a ls an d blend with the m ain or
, , ,
fu ndamenta l tone whenever it is sounded Their p resence m ay be .
shown by a simple experi ment with the piano If separa te pieces of .
pa per are l aid on the strings for ea ch note a nd any low note then ,
played lou dly wi th the dam per pedal held those u pper stri ngs th a t ,
correspond to the pitch of the overtones (except the irregular sixth

one ) wi ll begin to vibra te of them selves an dwillshake offthe p apers , .
The seri es of overtones sta rti ng from any C as an example will b e

, , ,
in ascending order C G C E G B flat C D E F sh arp G A

, , , , , ,
-
, , , ,
-
, , ,
B fla t B C The F sh arp the high A an d the first B fla t will be

-
, , .
-
, ,
-
somewha t off pitch from our sca le The first ten of the ser ies are .
enou gh for allpra ctical use .
The presence of these overtones in varying a m ounts is what

cau ses the difference in tone color between different instruments -
or voices In stri ng ed instruments the quality m a y be vari ed in

.
a ccor d a nce with the pl a ce where the stri ngs are bowed pl u cked or , ,
struck The nearer to the mid dle the hollower the tone will be ; the
.
,
nearer to the end the b righter the tone The former cas e gives few
, .
an d faint overton es while the l a tter makes them more nu merou s

,
a nd stronger If there are too many overtones the qua lity willbe
.
,
incisive an d tin p anny lik e th a t of the ba njo or of a wom ou t

”
-
,
-
pia no An old piano m ay be altered by having its ha mmers tipped

.
with new an d soft felt or by ha ving the old felts j abbed with a
,
needle u ntil soft enough If h arp str ings are plu cked near the end
.
-
instea d of near the centre their tone will lose fulness and becom e ,
too twangy A plu cked stri ng gives the most overtones especi a lly
.
,
ifpl u cked by some hard su bsta nce like the pick of a ma ndolin .
The vibra tion of strings alone is not powerfu l enou gh to ca use

mu ch of a tone They are therefore strung over bridges or su p
.
,
ports which carry the vibra tions to a sound box or sou nding
,
-
board The mu te of the violin when in use opera tes by cl am ping

.
, ,
the bridge a n d preventing it from vib ra ting freely so tha t the vi ,
b ra tions rea ching the sou nd box are wea ker tha n u su al an d give a -
,
softer tone Power of tone depends u pon a m plitu de of vibra tion

.
,
an d the mu te lessens this The sou nd box mu st be open to the air

.
-
,
to allow free vibra tion Sou nding boa rds are of cou rse exposed to
.
-
the air a n d need no holes

, .
Pythagoras regul a ted the intervals of the dia tonic sca le by a

ACOUSTICS 507
fra ctiona lsystem giving wha t is known as the sca le of na ture In .
this the vibra tions of the notes compared with the keynote were , ,
in the following ra tios

Nine to eight for the second degree .
Five to fou r for the thir d degree .
Fou r to three for the four th degree .
Three to two for the fifth degree .
Five to thr ee for the sixth degree .
Fi fteen to eight for the seventh degree .
Two to one for the octa ve .
By this scale consideri ng a certa in C to have 12 0 vibra tions a

,
second the sca le a bove it wou ld be D 135; E 150 ; F 160 ; G 180 ;

, , , , ,
A 2 00 ; B 22 5; a n d C (the octa ve) 24 0 vibra tions a second Sharps

, , , .
a n d fl a ts were held to be near er to their notes th a n a t p resent a n d ,
not coinciding so tha t A flat wou ld be higher than G Shar p for

,
- -
,
insta nce in the ra tio of 12 8 to 12 5 The ra tio between a note a n d

, .
i ts sharp was as 2 5 to 24 This sca le sou nded very sweet a n d a ttra e

.
tive It l as ted with Slight changes u ntil after A D 1700 In thi s

.
, , . . .
scale the whole tones are of two different sizes the ra tios being 9 to
-
,
8 an d 10 to 9 For this r eason it was not possible to m odu l a te into

.
,
keys with many sharps or fl ats withou t ma king a piece sou nd ou t

of tu ne Willa ert ha d su ggested a cha nge in the Sixteenth century ;
.
,
b u t hi s idea was not ta ken u p until a bou t 17 00 when W erckm eister

—
,
( 164 5 1706 ) suggested a division into twelve equ al se m iton es As .
previou sly sta ted B ach li ked this idea and gave it perm anence
, ,
“
by wr iting the two volu m es of his Well Tem pered Cla vi chord ”
-
,
ea ch volu m e containing a prelu de an d a fu gu e in every possible

“
key The new scale which is in use to day is known as the tem
.
,
-
,
pered sca le ”
.
The a cou stic principles governing air colu mns in tu bes are a little -
more difficu lt to the beginner tha n the stri n g l aws ; b u t they m a y

be u nderstood by comp aring the row of particles in a colu mn to the
loosely cou pled cars of a long freight tra in Tubes like the oboe .
a n d flu te a n d a l
lsi m il ar pipes a cting like open tu bes (su ch as the
,
b rasses ) have a wave length twice the length of the tu be Ta ki ng

, .
the freight train as an exa m ple su ppose the engine gives a pu sh , .
This pu sh tra vels down the tra in which corresponds to the tu be , ,
until it rea ches the end Then the la st car tends to lea ve the tra in
.
,
b ut is su ddenly hau led up short by its cou pling It thu s exerts a .
pu ll a nd the pu ll tra vels ba ck up the tra in towa rd the engine When

,
.
this pu ll rea ches the engine the engine is pu lled in u ntil it bu m ps

,
the nearest ca r a n d pus hes it The pu sh then travels a long the

,
.
train as before .
If we suppose that the engine like the vibra ting mouthpiece of a

,
tube ca nnot move far from one spot we m ay imagine that the en
, ,
gine s first pu sh hadmade it rebound so that it rea ched the b ack end
’
,
of its sp a ce j ust as its push was transm itted to the farthest c ar It .
then gives a pull a t its end j u st as the farther car is tra nsforming
,
the push it received into a pu ll The engine s pu ll a n d the pu ll .

’
from the other end tra vel along the tra in u ntil they meet They even .
p ass each other an d continu e on thou gh we ca n i m agine the middle

,
c ar not m ovi ng when equ ally p ul led from opposite Sides The tra in .
,
then has two pu lls tra velling throu gh it in opposite directions

, ,
which are tra nsformed into two pu shes when they rea ch the end .
Som ething Sim il ar h appens in the tu be of a n open wind instru

ment The reed mou thpiece or the pla yer s lips or the im a ginary
. ,
’
,
a ir reed th a t is su pposed to be formed in a flu te gives a p u sh which

-
,
tra vels down the tu be to the open air beyond As the pu sh goes ou t .
of the tu be it sends a pu ll b a ck throu gh the tu be j u st as the l ast

, ,
car did in the c as e of the tra in Mea nwhi le the reed has vibra ted
.
b a ck a n d produ ced the pu ll a t its end j u st as the engine did When

, , .
the pu ll from the other end comes b a ck it finds the reed ready to ,
p ush a ga in a n d start a new vi bra tion

, .
0
While the pu ll goes b a ck throu gh the tu be the originalpush has ,
ha d ti m e to tra vel ou t through the air a dista nce eq u a l to the tu be s

’
length As it is this dista nce a wa y from the bottom of the tu be

.
when the next pu sh is given a t the top (m ou thpiece ) it follows tha t ,
there will be twi ce the length of the tube between su ccessive pu shes .
This constitu tes the wa ve length Thu s we know tha t if we ma ke a

-
.
flu te of su ch Size as to h a ve a two foot colu m n of vibra ting air -

,
the wa ve length will be four feet ; a n d if sou nd tra vels 112 0 feet a
-
second there will be in the flu te tone 2 80 su ch wa ves or vibra tions

, , ,
per second .
We a lso know th a t the a ir a t the ends of the tube is in m otion

a t consta nt p r essu r e while the p a rticles in the m iddle like the m id
, ,
dle c ar of the tra in are u nder varying pressur e first higher an d then
, ,
in principle the two voca l co ds cting like
,
r a a do ble eed mouth
u -r
A few more bits of imagina tion will ena ble the stu dent to finish
with the su bject of tu bes In pla cing holes an d keys on the wood
.
wind instruments these holes are pl a ced a t the proper dista nces to
,
ma ke the a ir colu mn of the different fra ctionallengths needed for

-
the pitch of the sca le Thus opening a hole three fifths of the dis
.
ta nce from the m ou thpiece to the other end wou ld ra ise the pitch a
major sixth ; two thir ds would rai se the pitch a fou rth an d so on , .
As with stri ngs the vibra tions of air colu mns vary inversely as their
,
-
length To get lower notes than u su al holes near the end of the
. ,
mou thpiece are closed lengthening the air colu m n The D fla t a nd

,
- .
-
C of the flu te are insta nces The holes for these are left open . ,
an d closed when needed ; while the other holes are na tu ra lly closed ,
a n d opened when needed .
The form a tion of over tones to the exclusion of the fundamenta l ,
cau sed by incre ased force of blowing makes the air column su b ,
-
divi de into fra ctiona l p arts Wherever there is free motion at con
.
sta nt pressure we m ay ta ke su ch a point as a centre of vi bra ti on

, ,
h alfway between the points where there is change of pressur e b ut

no motion In an open tu be su ch free motion is fou nd a t ea ch end
.
, .
When the air col u mn divides in h alf there will be two ch a nging
-
,
pressure points a t one fourth an d three four ths the length of the
,
tu be ; one being a t high pressure while the other is a t low pressu re ,
an d vice ver sa The consta nt pressure a nd free m otion points are

.
- - - -
a t ea ch end a n d in the middle of the tu be

, Simil ar su bdivisions for .
higher overtones always ha ve free m otion points a t ea ch end of the -
tu be no ma tter how ma ny more are part way a long the tu be ; an d

,
from thi s we see tha t allovertones are theoretica lly possible in open
tu bes .
If a stopped tube is im a gined it will be Seen tha t the stopped ,
end is a lwa ys a point of changing pressure an d no m otion while ,
the open end is a point of free motion an d consta nt pressure Now .
if we su ppose a wa ve length of h alf the usu a l Size giving the octa ve ,
tone of the first harm onic this wa ve length will be twice the tu be
,
-
length instea d of four tim es its length The condition for a wave
, .
length of twice the tu be was fou nd to be tha t the tu be mu st be open

a t both ends with the po int of no motion but v arying p ressu re
,
ACOUSTICS 511
in the middle Si nc e this condition is not true of the stopped tu be

.
,
whi ch is closed a t one end it follows tha t the octa ve harmonic,
ca nnot form Also any other harmoni c tha t needs to ha ve b oth

.
,
ends of the tu be open ca nnot form in a stopped pipe On the other .
ha nd those harm onics will a ppear in a stoppe d pipe which ha ve a

, , ,
wa ve length of su ch proportion to the tu be tha t one end m a y b e a

no m otion point with ch a nging p ressu re while the other end m a y
-
, ,
be a consta nt pressure point with fr ee motion A li ttle fig uring

-
, .
will show tha t su ch dista nce between points of no motion will be

two thi rds the tu be length or two fifths or two sevenths or any
, , ,
fra ction with an odd nu mber ed denomin a tor As the cha nge from
-
.
a point of high pressure to one of low pressure (fro m cr est to tr ou gh )
is only h alf a wa ve length it follows tha t the whole wa ve len gths

-
,
-
will be four thirds four fifths four sevenths the length of the
, , ,
tu be and so on As the funda m enta l wa ve length was four times

, .
-
the tu be length it follows tha t the h arm onics tha t ca n form will
-
,
ha ve wa ve lengths one third one fifth one seventh etc as long

-
, , , .
,
as the fu nda menta l wa ve length As the fu ll harmonic series

- .
has fra ction al wave lengths of one ha lf one thi r d one four th
-
, , ,
one fifth etc it will be seen tha t the odd nu mbered harmonics
, .
,
-
are a bsent from a stopped pipe only the even nu mb er ed on es ,

-
The tone qua li ty of pipes is a lso influ enced by their Sha pe narrow ,
ones being m ore brilli ant tha n wide ones and conica l tu bes more ,
brillia nt tha n cylindrical ones because the over tones are present ,
in a l arger proportion .
The orga n as sta ted in a previ ou s ch apter is sometim es provided

, ,
with a dou ble ra nk of pipes instea d of a single one to produ ce a , ,
trem olo eflec t For this pur pose one set of pipes is slightly fla t of
.
the other set Tha t m ea ns tha t its wa ve lengths are Slightly longer
.
- .
As two pipes sou nd for a key one fro m ea ch set the vibra tion , ,
pu ffs from the two being u nequ ally far apart will rea ch the a u ditor
, ,
a t di ffer ent inter va l

s thou gh the intervalfor ea ch pipe is constant
,
.
The idea m ay be illu stra ted by ima gining two hammers bea ting ,
one four tim es a second a n d the other five tim es Their strokes .
will coincide once a second When the vibration puffs coincide .

-
,
a t r eg ul ar interva ls they stri ke the ear with increas ed force j u st

, ,
as the doubl ed ha mm er stroke would do Su ch increases in power

- . ,
512 THE B OO K OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
o ccurring a t regular interva ls are known as bea ts They m ay b e,
.
hear d when pia n o strings get ou t of tu ne with one a nother .
The sou nd of a tu be or pipe as sta ted a bove is not du e to a ny , ,
a ir cu rrent p as sing thr o ug h it b u t m erely to the pipe s a bility to

’
-
,
reenforce the vib ra tions a t its mou thpiec e For this reason the .
pipe m a y be s ai d to vibra te sym p athetica lly or in synchr onism , ,
with the m ou thpiece Yet a sa pient reporter once ma de a clear

.
blu nder in this m a tter which he m u st ha ve ma nufa ctur ed ou t of

,
W hole cloth In a certa in city a l arge pipe on one of the well known
.
,
-
orga ns beca m e out of order a n d wou ld not sou nd A m ou se it

, .
,
seems ha d loca ted a hom e near the flu e mou thpiece of the pipe
, ,
a n d thu s interfered with the forming of the vib ra tions Here the .
“
reporter got in his fine work describing the a f fa i r a t length a n d
”
, ,
sta ting tha t the pipe continu ed silent u ntil the fullest p ressure was
pu t on after which there was a su dden burst of noise an d the
, ,
mou se s nest flew ou t a gainst the ceili ng If the reporter ha d known

’
.
the n a ture of flu e pipe vibra tions he wou ld ha ve seen tha t they are
-
,
not due to a ny strong air current a nd tha t su ch a n obstruction

-
,
cou ld not ha ve been blown ou t in the way tha t he claimed .
The vibra tions of su ch a ir colu mns are sa id to synchronize with

-
those formed a t the mou thpiece As al rea dy sta ted a ny vibra ting .
,
object near the mou thpiece will ca u se a tu be to sou nd provi ded ,
tha t the vibra tions are of the sa m e pitch as those tha t the a ir colu mn -
ca n give If they are of a ny other ra te the tu be will not respond

.
, .
This vibra tion in sym p a thy with so m ething else vib ra ting a t the
sa m e ra te is ca lled synchronis m The sou nd boar ds a n dsou nd boxes .
- -
of the string instru m ents are a ble to synchr onize with different
tones thu s r eenforcing allnotes pl a yed on su ch instru ments Those
, .
instrum ents tha t ha ve a second set of strings vibra ting in sym ,
p athy with the first depend u pon this synchr onism The strings
, .
corresponding to the overtones of a piano note whenever the note ,
is held by the da m per peda l will vibra te in sym pa thy with those
,
overtones This synchr onism is qu ite a delica te ma tter a few vi

.
,
b ra tions too mu ch or too little ca using it to va nish a lmost wholly .
Objects in a room will often vibra te in synchronism with a certa in

tone The writer rem embers a voca l du et hear d in priva te a t which
.
, ,
the sou nding of a high note ca u sed a g as globe to be sha ttered into
fragments The hea t from a g as fla m e will sometimes cra ck su ch a
.
514 TH E BOO K OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
length or width of the bu ilding in which the orga n is set up The .
air in the roo m will vib ra te in symp a thy with su ch notes a n d m a ke ,
them seem stronger tha n the rest ; a resu lt tha t the ma ker obvi a tes
by wea kening the tone of the pipes in qu estion It is possible to .
voice a piano to su it the room or hall conta ining it .
The acou stics of halls is a m a tter not well u nderstood In Pa ris .

,
the hall of the Conserva toire is old irregular a n d ba dly ventil a ted ;
, ,
b u t it is excellent a cou stic a lly a n d the au thorities will a llow no

,
improvements for fear of inj u ring this excellence The Troca dero
,
.
,
a lso in P aris was bu ilt on the idea th a t sou nd wou ld be reflected

,
like light ; b u t it proved a failure Sou nd tra vels through the air
.
somewha t as wa ves progress in the ocea n It will bend around .
corners a n d obsta cles a nd thus differs from light in its action The
‘
.
,
excellence of buildings wi th semi oval roofs su ch as the Salt La ke

-
,
City Ta bern a cle is du e to the fact tha t the sou nd wa ves swish along
,
the curves with the impetu s th at wa ves show when wa shing u p a

sloping beac h The a ncients m ay have known more a bout a coustics
.
th a n we do ; for the rem a ins of their open a ir buildings show sea ts-
sloped a t an a ngle tha t helps the acou stic effect .
Echoes are som eti mes a source of trou ble A certa in Boston .
church when taken over from the bu ilders was fou nd to ha ve a

, ,
perfect echo which naturally rendered prea ching i m possible in the

,
bu ilding The church members cou ld not remedy the defect An

. .
other set ofowners who bou ght the edifice a t a low figure finally
, ,
elim ina ted the echo by floo a nd roof a ltera tions com bined with
r
,
the stringing of wires and the bu il di ng of a gallery Bu t the entire .
“
proceeding was a rule ofthu m b affa ir a nd showed that we still
” - -
,
have mu ch to learn a bou t architectura l a cou stics .

LX
H OW TO RE AD M US I C
I N an earlier cha pter the rise of nota tion was di scussed Here
, .
the nota tion of to day is described for the benefit of those who wish
-
,
to learn to rea d the notes fro m the printed pa ge .
The notes on the pia no are named by grou ps of twelve ca lled ,
octa ves The thirteenth note u pward from any given note (cou nt
.
ing the given note as one ) is ca lled the octa ve of th a t note ; while
the thirteenth note downward from any given note is the octa ve
below it .
On pi ano an d orga n keyboards the grou ps of twelve adj acent ,
keys cons ist of five bl a ck ones a n d seven white ones There is a .
bl ack key between white ones except for two pl a ces in the grou p .
As a resu lt the five bl a ck keys seem grou ped in two a nd in three

, ,
with a white key between the bl ack ones in ea ch cas e .
The white note j u st below the grou p of two bl ack keys is known
as C . The letters A B C D E F an d G are u sed to na me the
, , , , , ,
white keys The deepest notes are a t the left the highest a t the
.
,
right as one fa ces the keybo ar d E ach A is of course the second .
white note below ea ch C ea ch D the fir st white note a bove the C s

,
’
,
a n d so on .
E a ch bl a ck key is kn own either as the sh ar p of the white key

j ust below it or the flat of the white key j u st a bove it
, .
For writing or p rinti ng these notes a sta ff of five p arallel lines ,
is u sed A sign rep resenting a letter

. a note ) is pu t on one of
the lines of this sta ff to show the position of the note na m ed This
, .
sign is ca lled a clef Both the lines a nd the spa ces of the sta f
. fare
used so the position of a note on one of these lines or spa ces will
,
determ ine wha t note it is .
Three clefs are u sed signifying the F below middle C of the piano
, ,
middle C itself and the G j us t a bove middle C

, .
On fu ll sized pia nos the lowes t note is A This A with the B fla t

-
, .
,
-
and B j us t a bove it are known as belonging to wh a t is ca lled the

,
su b contra octave The C s from left to right are known as contra
- .
’
, , ,
grea t sm a ll one line two line three line four line a n d fi ve line
, ,
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
.
Middle C is the sa m e as one line C The eleven keys next a bove - .
ea ch C are described by the s ame a djective u sed for the C Thu s we .
ca n l oca te a n y note on the pi a no by its na me gr ea t F th r ee line ,

-
D sh arp two line A fla t etc

-
,
The so ca lled intern a tion a l pitch
- -
, .
-
gives two line C vibra tions p er second while philosophica l

-
,
pitch gives it 512 Concert pitch is varia ble b u t a lwa ys high. ,

.
The sign for a sh ar p or a fla t is pla ced before the note the staff ,
lines an d sp a ces being devoted to the white keys The sign for a .
sharp is it an d for a fla t b The sign for a dou ble sharp som e

, ,
.
-
,
ti mes u sed is x The sign for a dou ble fla t is simply two fla ts bl

, .
) , .
When a ny of these signs have been in force a nd are to be neu tra lized ,
a single n a tura l sign is used The na tura l sign is h For a single . .
sharp after a dou ble sharp is u sed ; and for a single fla t after a ,
dou ble fla t til ? is u sed ,

.
Illu stra tions are now given on st affs u sing the thr ee different ,
clefs .
Middle
ef
G cl .
C .
in e
On e-l
—
Two-line
D sharp .
One-lin e
A-fia t .
Di aton i c sca l
C D E
e ofC
F G
.
A B C
C C lef(al
to) . Middle C . l A -na t
Sm a l . O n e-line B . i n e E fla t
O n e-l — . lF sha rp
Sm al — .
ef
F Cl . Middle 0 . Sm a l
lF-sha rp . G rea t B-fl at . G rea t F. G r ea t D -sha rp .
The F clef is now usua lly fixed in position thou gh it has been u sed ,
on the thir d line of the staff inste a d of the fourth In its regul ar , .
pl a ce it is ca lled the b ass clef while on the thir d line it is known as ,
the b aritone clef The C clef m a y be pla ced on the first (lowest)
.
,
second thir d or fourth line of the sta ff in which case it is known

, , ,
respectively as the sop ra no mezzo sopr a no a lto or tenor clef The ,

-
.
, ,
G clef a lwa ys pla ces one line G on the second line of the staf f though -
,
518 THE BOOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWL EDGE
Seconds thir ds sixths or sevenths are sp oken of as major minor
, , , , ,
a nd sometime s a ugm ented an d dim inish ed .
From C u pward to B or a ny other seventh of tha t size is a major

, ,
seventh ; from G u p ward to F or any seventh of tha t size is a minor , ,
seventh ; while from C sharp upward to B fla t or an y seventh of- -

,
tha t size is a dim inished seventh From C to A G to E or any

,
.
, ,
sixth of tha t size is a major sixth ; from C to A flat or G sharp to E

,
-
,
-
,
or E to C or any sixth of th a t size is a minor sixth

, Theoretica lly , .
,
from C sh arp to A fla t would be a diminished sixth ; b u t this wou ld

- -
be the sa me in size as a p erfect fifth B rowning in A Tocca ta of .

,
“
G alu ppi wrote of Sixths dimi nished sigh on sigh ; b u t tha t
”
,
”
, ,
woul d be a su ccession of fifths in rea lity a n d su ch a progression was ,
strictly forbidden by the h armony tea chers To resu me the in ter .

,
valfro m C t o E D to F sh arp or a ny thir d of tha t size is a ma jor

,
-
, ,
t hir d ; while fr om C to E fla t D to F C sh arp to E or a n y thi rd of

-
, ,
-
,
tha t size i s a minor third From D to E G to A E to F sh arp or

, .
, ,
-
,
any second of tha t size is a m a jor second (whole tone ) ; fro m E to F

, ,
G to A fla t C shar p to D or a ny second of tha t size is a minor sec

-
,
-
, ,
ond ; while from F to G sharp or any interva l of th a t size is an ~

, ,
a ugmented second Some illu stra ti ons are given below

. .
3 3 8
a a g '
5 ' m a
g g “g ?
i; E
.
8 :
’ .
l “
5 3
‘
u u
g !
f 5 8 :
? “ 5
.
22 SE E: fig 5g a g a 52 : as a
a s
"
5 s
z fs é s é ms q a
9
G a m : a sa n e
; s s a s se s s
The se ca lled ma jor sca le sta rting with an y one of the twelve
-
,
notes in the octa ve cons ists of the followi ng interva ls in a scending

, ,
order tone tone semitone tone tone tone sem itone The
, , , , , , .
sca le of C ma jor is ther efore C D E F G A B C an d consists , , , , , , , ,
wholly of white keys B u t when we a tte m pt to form a ma jor sca le

.
on a ny note other th a n C we find tha t some bla ck keys m u st be ,
used to keep the sca le intervals correct Thus the sca le of G major
-
.
needs F sharp instead of F ; while the sca le of F ma jor needs B flat

- -
instea d of B The sharps or fl a ts needed for a ny given sca le (key )

.
are p u t with the clef a t the beginning of ea ch sta ff a n d are kn own ,
in tha t place as the sign a ture The keys needing sharps are G D A .
, , ,
HOW TO READ MUSIC 519
E B and F sharp The sha rps needed nu mber from one to six in
, ,
-
.
,
the following ord er F sha rp C sha rp G sha rp D sh arp A -

,
-
,
-
,
-
,
sharp and E sharp the las t being rea lly the note F The key of G
,
-
, .
dema nds F shar p ; the key of D F sharp and C sharp ; a nd so on

-
,
- -
.
The keys needing fl a ts are F B fla t E fla t A fla t D fla t and G ,

-
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
fla t the l as t being the sam e as F sharp The fl a ts needed in o rder

,
-
.
, ,
are B fla t E fla t A fla t D fla t G fla t an d C fla t the l as t being the

-
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
~
,
-
,
same as B The key of F needs B fla t; the key of B fla t needs B fla t

.
- - -
a n d E fla t; an d so on -
The keys of C fla t a n d C sharp exist b u t .
- -
,
a re rarely u sed .
Any shar ps or fl a ts used elsewhere tha n in the signa ture are

ca lled a ccidenta ls These rem a in in force to the end of their m eas .
ure ; they m ay affect a note held from one measure into the next .
U sua lly an a ccidenta l is held to affect any octa ve of the note al

tered; b u t such octa ve notes shoul d rea lly have the a ccidenta ls
wri tten in Accidentals shou ld be u sed in al
. lcas es where a ny pos
sible dou bt might be ca u sed by their a bsence .
E-nat .
E ach ma jor sca le has rela ted to it a minor sca le which keeps ,
the same signa tur e b u t begins an d ends two scale degrees below the ,
major sca le i e a third below or a sixth a bove Thu s C major has

, . .
, , .
the sca le of A minor as its rela ti ve scale D ma jor has B minor A , ,
fla t m a jor has F minor an d so on , .
If a sca le is named only by its keynote the ma jor sca le is mea nt , .
There are two varieties of minor sca le the ha rm onic a nd the me ,
lodic The harmonic minor has the interva ls of tone semitone tone
.
, , ,
tone sem itone a ugmented second an d sem itone The harmonic A

, , ,
.
minor sca le wou ld thus be A B C D E F G sharp and A The , , , , , ,

-
, .
melodic m inor has different intervals in two cases a ccording to ,
whether the sca le ascends or descends Its as cending intervals are .
tone sem itone tone tone tone tone and semitone The melodic
, , , , , , .
sca le of A m inor as cending will therefore consist of A B C D E, , , , , , ,
F sharp G sha rp a nd A In d escending its notes are A G F E D

-
,
-
, .
, , , , , ,
52 0 THE BOOK OF MUS ICAL KNOWL EDGE
C B a n d A The rel a tive minor of a ny ma jor sca le begins on the
, , .
sixth degree of the la tter So m e exa m ples are given below . .
D-m i n or , ha rm oni c . C -m i n or , ha rm oni c .
C m in or , m elodi c .
—
B m i n or , ha rm on i c .
B - m i n or , m el
odi c .
The choice of a key is not m a de a t ra ndom On the pia no high .

,
keys are more brillia nt lower ones more solid In voca l m u sic the
, .
,
ra nge of the voic es mu st be considered In the orch estra ma ny in .

,
strum ents are eas i est to pl a y in those keys th a t h a ve the fewest
sharps or fl ats .
So m e mu sicia ns associa te certa in em otions with certa in keys .
Su ch idea s are merely individual whims a nd no two sys tems a gree , .
The major a n d minor sca les a re the ones com monly u sed in our
mu sic ; b u t others exist a nd are som etimes em ployed by composers
, .
The Gregoria n sca les or tones h ave been described in the section
, ,
on the evolu tion of m u sic They are still em ployed in the services
.
of the C a tholic Church At times a com poser will introdu ce m usic

.
wri tten in these sca les to give a rel igiou s effect or su ggestion
, .
The H u ngaria n gypsy sca le has been used by Schu bert Liszt , ,
Pa derewski a nd other com posers This sca le is like the harmonic

, .
minor with a n a dditional au gmented second a nd sem itone instea d

,
of two tones Its interva ls correspond with those of a scale con

.
sisting of A B C D shar p E F G sharp and A It effects are

, , ,
-
, , ,
-
, . s
as ma ny lines as there would have been fla gs on ea ch separa te note .
Any note m ay be repl a ced by a rest which indica tes a pau se of a ,
certa in dura tion The vari ous notes with their Am erica n n ames
.
,
a bove an d English na m es below are given on pa ge 52 1 E a ch note

, .
is followed by a rest of the same va lu e as the note 2 56 th notes ha ve .
been used b u t are u ncommon Beethoven and others have used

,
.
12 8th notes .
So ca lled
- cadenza notes have no definite valu e b u t are ,
grou ped together by joined stems to fill a certa in spa ce as a whole .
These m ay b e fou nd in the works of Liszt Chopin a n d others The , ,

.
notes u su ally fill one or more mea sures thou gh it is not a lways ,
necessary to compress them into exa ct time The resu lt is a free .
running phras e which the performer m ay ta ke a t a ny su ita ble p ace

, .
C a denz a notes are a lways printed in a sm aller size tha n ordinar y

notes .
Artificial grou ps m ay be ma de by joining an u nu su al number of

notes with a slur an d pl a cing a bove it a figure equa ling the nu mber
,
of notes This mea ns th a t su ch a nu mber of equa l notes m u st be

.
played in the tim e valu e of the pla ce tha t they occu py in the meas
-
ure An ar tificial gr oup usua lly occu pies some simple fra ction of a
.
mea sure or of a bea t

, .
The simplest of su ch groups is one consisting of two artificial

notes to repla ce three normal ones The two are written in the next.
larger denomination than the three an d joined by a slur with the ,
figure 2 above it .
The slur which will be discu ssed la ter is a slightly curved line
, ,
placed horizonta lly or nearly so a bove or below the notes tha t it is

, ,
intended to influ ence .
Most com mon am ong artificia l grou ps is the triplet in which ,
three notes are pla ye d to repla ce two The three are wri tten in the .
same denom ina tion tha t the two would have It is p ossible for a .
triplet to consist of two notes the first ha ving twice the va lu e of the
,
other or vi ce versa
, .
By artificia l grou ping four notes m a y be made to repl ace three

, .
Any nu m ber of notes m ay be ma de into a n artifici a l grou p Bu t .
if the nu mber is large it is cu stomary to write the notes as ca denza

,
notes with no figure a dded a bove

, .
The sextolet is a group of six notes replacing four of the same de

How TO READ MUSIC 52 3
nomina tion The true sextolet is taken either as one group with the
.
,
a ccent on the first note of the six or as thr ee grou ps of two notes
, ,
bringi ng a n a ccent on the first third a nd fifth notes A sextolet

, , .
tha t divides into halves is wr ongly written and shou ld have been ,
ma de into two tr iplets Even the grea test composers h ave been care
.
less in this ma tter a nd have m ade this mistake hu ndreds of times

, .
So m e exam ples of artificial grou pings are given here in single ,
Tri plets. Dou b let .
Septolet. Septol
et .
x
Se tolet, c orrec tl
y pla yed . L ar g e grou p .
The m easure consists of a valu e tha t is determ ined by figures

placed at the beginning of a piece or a t a ny pl ace where a cha nge in
,
valu e is desired In the la tter ca se it is u sua l to let the figures com e

.
,
j ust after a dou ble b ar line or an u nu su ally thick line

,
.
The figures are alwa ys in the form of a fra ction the upper num ,
b er showing how m a ny notes of a certa in va lu e m a ke u p a meas u re ,
a nd the lower nu m ber telling wha t th a t va l u e is Thu s 4 4 m ea ns .
measu res of a valu e equ a l to four qu arter notes ; 3 8 means m eas

ur es of a va lu e equa l to thr ee eighth notes ; a n d so on The fra ction .
4/ 4 is equ a l to u ni ty which wou ld be sim pler to write ; b u t the

,
form er m u st be u sed becau se it im plies accents in certa in p ar ts of

,
the m easur e The sign

. u sed to repl a ce is not the let
ter C b u t two thirds of
,
a cir cle In the old d ays the m onks
.
held triple rhythm perfect beca u se it su ggested the holy Tr in

,
ity ; and they represented it by a circle Even (dou ble) rhythm .
was only two thirds of the triple rhythm an d was represented by ,

th a t mu ch of the complete cir cle The 4 4 rhythm is kn own also .
as comm on time F or tim .e the sign i s used a n d f

o r ,
tim e or The rhyth m is

E ll b eve a n d the 4 / 2 is
ca lled a a r ,
“
som etimes spoken of as long a ll a breve .
In even rhythm s the m easur e divides na tura lly into halves ; but
in the sim plest cas es the h a lves themselves are sing le bea ts When .
the halves su bdivi de evenly one might spea k of the rhythm as

dou ble even rhythm thou gh this distinction is not m a de Even
,
.
rhythms incl u de a nd
Triple rhythm s are those in which the m eas ure divides n a turally
into three bea ts They inclu de 3 /1 .
an d 3 /
,
16 .
Com pou nd even rhythms are those in which the measure divides
into h alves or qu arters a nd these in tu rn divide into thr ee p ar ts
,
.
Exam ples of su ch rhythm are

and 2 4 16 .
Compou nd triple rhythms are those in which the m easure divides

into thirds and ea ch p art su bdivides a ga in into thir ds Ex am pl es
,
.
of this are 9 /4 and 9 / 16 Even 18 78 has been u sed an d ac

, .
,
cented like a 3 /4 measur e with dou ble triplets .
Pecu liar rhythms are those in which the measu re divid es into five
or seven p arts They inclu de . an d
At first sight it would seem that the nu mber of bea ts in a measu re

wou ld determ ine its speed an d tha t the printing of these bea ts in
,
notes of l arger or sm a ller denomina tions wou ld denote the p ace .
As a ma tter of fa ct a 3 8 piece with a slow tem po mark might be

,
slower than a 3 / 4 piece with a ra pid tem po m ark ; b u t u su ally the

sm a ller denomina tions call for grea ter sp eed a n d a certa in lightness ,
of style .
Com plex rhythm s occur in certa in compositions These are m a de .
by the pl aying together of measures ma de u p of dissim il ar rhythms .
Accents in m usic are either na tura l or ar tificial The na tura l ac .
cents are those th a t come a t definite tim es to show the rhythm of

the measure Ar tifici al a ccents are those tha t are marked especia lly
.
,
by certa in letters or signs .
In the simple even rhythms with two bea ts to the meas ure the
, ,
first bea t is accented slightly The same is tru e when there are
.
An increase in power is called for by the word crescendo or its ,
a bb revia ti on cr esc followed by a long dotted line extending until

.
,
the desired clim ax of power is rea ched Su ch a gra du al increase in .
power m a y be ca lled for a lso by the use of two lines tha t start from
a single po int an d diverge gra du a lly to show increas ing lou dness .
For the reverse ef fect a gra du a l softening m a y be ca lled f

,
or by the
words decrescendo or di m i nuendo or by the a bbrevia tions decresc or ,

.
di m followed by the dotted line of desir ed length ; or the softening

,
m ay be m ar ked by two lines th a t sta rt a little dista nce ap ar t an d

gra du ally converge to a single point .
An incre ase of p a ce is ca lled for by the words pi n m osso A grad .
u alincre ase is ca lled f or by the word accel era ndo or its a bb revia ,
ti on accel A su dden decre ase of p a ce is dem anded by the words

.
m eno m osso; a n d a gra du a l decre as e by the wor d ri ta rda ndo or i ts

a bb revia tion ri t A nu mber of the most importa nt terms u sed in
.
music have bee n defined in the following chapter and they m a y be ,
investi ga ted whenever necessary .
The tem po marks showi ng a bou t wh a t genera l speed is desired

, ,
are ta bul a ted here f or reference From the slowest to the fas test .
,
they are grave gravely hea vily ; la rgo larg ely broadly ; la rghetto
, , , , ,
less bro a dly ; ada gi o slowly ; a nda nte fa irly slow m oving ; a nda nti no
, ,
-
,
less slow than a nda n te; m odc ra to a t a modera te p a ce a llegr etto some , ,
wha t lively ; a llegr o lively fas t ; presto very fast ; a n d prestissi m o

, , , ,
fas ter yet the most ra pid tempo of all Anda nte and anda nti no are
, .
'
not u sed in their strict Italia n sense .
The ar tificia l accents are those tha t have to be marked in espe

cial ly wherever desired The two signs Aan d both ca ll for a lou d
.
a c cent .Either one m ay be used in a com position ; b u t if both are

used a t different places in the same piece then the form er calls for a ,
lou der accent tha n the la tter Accent is implied by stacca to or by an .

,
extra stem on a note Accent is ca lled for by the letters sf sfz or

.
, ,
fz which are a bb revi a tions of the word sforza ndo or for za ndo
, The .
letters sfiz coming from the su perl a tive sforza ndzssi m o dema nd a
' '
, ,
very lou d accent The letters fp call for a lou d note or chord fol
.
, ,
lowed by softness The letters sfp indica te a very lou d note followed
.
by softness The letters rf or rf

. z co m ing from the word ri n ,
forza ndo mea n a fa ir a m ou nt of fu lness withou t excessive lou dness

, .
The ten uto mark consisting of a d ash above a note signifies a cling
, ,
ing expressive accent The m a rcato a da sh with a dot below it

, .
, ,
im plies the sa me sort of accent b u t the note is to be slightly sepa

,
ra ted fro m these before a n d a fter it The p orta m en to which might

.
,
better be ca lled the dem i m a rcato consists of two or m ore notes

-
,
u nder a slur with dots over ea ch note a n d benea th the sl ur

, In this .
case ea ch note is given the clinging a ccent and slight separa tion If .
only the second of two suc h slurred notes has a dot over it the first ,
note receives the clinging a ccent a n d is held to its fu ll leng th while ,
the second note is lighter a n d shorter a lm ost stacca to A famou s , .
“
pia no tea cher once expla ined portam ento to a pu pil by sa ying Pla y ,
the notes as if you were trying to give a lega to with one finger "
.
The word stacc a to im plies tha t a note is to be shortened and ,
g iven with a qu ick releas e The sta cc a to effect is m ost often ca lled
.
for by the u se of a dot over e a ch note th a t is to be so tre a ted Some .
times a thin vertica l wedge is used instea d of the dot Ifb oth dot
, .
an d wedge are fou n d in the sa me piece then the wedge c a lls f or a ,
more a bru pt stac ca to tha n the dot Sta cca to u su ally implies some
.
degree of a ccent ; and in a few cases the dot ha s been u sed to indica te
accent withou t sta cca to The opposite of sta cca to is lega to which
.
,
me ans a sm ooth well connected style of pla ying

,
- .
When the rhythm of a piece is altered a nd a false rhythm su b ,

“
stitu ted briefly a n d u nexpectedly the process is known as synco
,
T he odd accen ting of so m e rag tim e m u sic is re ally syn

”
pa tion .
-
c op a tion though not al

, lsyncopa tion is rag tim e The resu lt m ay be -
.
rea ched by severa l dif ferent m eth ods A long note m a y be written .
on the u n a ccented par t of the m ea sure so tha t it has to be held over ,
the pla ce where the accent wou ld come Accents m ay be placed on .
the unaccented p art of the m easure The accented notes m ay be .
made short while tenu to m arks are pla ced over the una ccented
,
notes Rests m ay be written on the accented bea ts of the m easure

.
,
a n d notes or chords on the u na ccented p arts Short slurs m ay be .
used to connect unaccented notes with the a ccented notes tha t

follow Fi nally notes m ay be written so tha t they begin on the sec
.
,
ond half of a bea t a nd extend beyond the next accent In allca ses
, .
,
the syncopa tion shou ld not be carried on for a long time for if ,
continu ed too far the false rhythm will seem to be the true one .
Exam ples of the different methods of obta ining syncopa ted effects
are given on p a ge 52 8 .
The slur is a slightly curved line pl a ced horizontally (or nearly,
so ) a bove or below the notes it is intended to a ffect The long slur .

,
extending over m ore tha n two notes ca me originally from violin ,
pla ying in which it is used to m ark the notes to be pl ayed by a

,
single bow stroke It was then a dopted for voca l mu sic to show
-
.
,
how ma ny sylla bles were to be su ng a t a brea th In pia no mu sic the .

,
long slur m ay show either the notes that ma ke u p a phrase or a ,
lega to style It m ay be u sed a fter sta cca to work to show a resu m p

.
,
tion of ordinary pl aying even withou t any marked lega to

, .
The short slur over two notes has som e especi al rules If the
, , .
notes are sm a ll the first one is a ccented a nd held for its fu ll length
, ,
while the second is m a de lighter and shorter B u t if the notes ex .
ceed qu arter notes in length the sec ond one mu st n ot be sh or tened

, .
If the second note is longer tha n the first the slur shou ld be trea ted ,
simply as a lega to m ark In a ny ra pid passage a short slur is to re

.
,
ceive only a slight a c cent .
The sl ur is u sed a lso to bind together two notes of the same pitch ,
in which ca se the two are pl aye d as one When the slu r is u sed for .
this purpose it is ca lled a tie a n d pl aced so tha t its ends a l m ost

, ,
tou ch the notes tha t are to be joined tog ether .
Any note m ay be lengthened by h alf its va lu e if a dot is pl a ced

directly after the body of the note If two dots are u sed the note is
.
,
lengthened by a h alfa nd a quarter of its va lu e Examples of dotted .
a nd tied notes are given here .
equa ls f
fl
é
Two dots in the two middle sp a ces of the sta ff as shown in the ,
ma rgi n are u sed to indica te the repea t of allor par t of

wha t has gone before The two dots are a lwa ys pl aced j u st a
,
before a dou ble b ar which m ay have extra marks a bove a n d below

,
the sta ff to a ttra ct a ttention Ifno previous dots are found the
.
,
The letters 8m over a sta ff show tha t the notes benea th the mark
are to be pl a yed a n octa ve higher tha n wri tten If the letters a pply .
to more tha n the note over which they occur they are extended by a ,
dotted line which stops a t the point where the printed pitch is to be
,
resumed Som etimes this resumption is marked by the word loco

. .
The sign 80a bassa below any note or notes mea ns tha t they are to
be pla yed an octa ve deeper than written B u t the words can 8m .
basso im ply th a t the note s are to be pla yed as written with the a ddi
tion of the octa ve below in ea ch cas e .
The abbrevi a tion ped is u sed to signify the pressing of the da mper
.
pedal which ra ises allthe dampers from the st rings ofa pia no and
, ,
a llows the note pl a yed to resou nd continu ously An as terisk is used .
to show where the pedal is to be released an d the dam pers dropped ,
b a k u pon the stri ngs In som e America n editions ofmu sic the
c
.
,
dura tion of the pedals use is shown by a horizonta l line below the
’
mu sic with short u pward vertica l lines m arking the beginning an d

,
ending of the ped als use Incidenta lly this pedal shou ld not prop
’
.
,
erly be spoken of as the lou d peda l The soft ped al is ca lled for by .
the words u na corda an d its use discontinu ed by the words tre corde
, ,
as explai ned u nder the word corda in the ch a pter on the pia no .
Rests a nd notes should be grou ped to follow the bea ts as closely

as possible With the notes this m ay be done by tying the stems so
.
,
as to show the prope r divisions of the measur e In u sing rests cer .

,
ta in rules are followed Thu s when the first or l ast ha lf of a m ea sure

.
is filled by two u nequ al rests the l arger one shou ld com e first , .
Dotted rests are not often u sed by m odern com posers though they ,
are sometim es fou nd When the first tw o of three bea ts are filled by
.
a rest one sign is u s u ally employed ; b u t f

, or the las t two bea ts in a
grou p of three two separa te rests are requ ired In a mea sure of
, .
four be a ts one rest is us ed for the first or l as t two b u t two rests are
, ,
needed for the second a nd thir d bea t In orchestra l mu sic rests .

,
often cover ma ny mea sures Below is given the sign for the four .
’
4 b a rs '
2 b a rs 7 b a rs
'
23 b a rs
'
res t r es t res t rest

HOW TO RE AD MU SIC
b ar est in connection with the other illus tra tions The use of
r , .
figures to show the number of bars rest is illustra ted also ’

.
E m bellishments consist of gra ce notes trills mordents an d tu rns , , , .
The long gra ce note is ca lled the appoggi a tnra from a word m ea n ,
“ ”
ing to lean ; and it cons ists of a note of sm all body wri t ten b e ,
fore a nother an d blending or lea ning into the note tha t follows it
, .
The g ra ce notes are not given any tim e valu e in the printe d meas -
ure b u t their tim e val u e is taken from the note a gains t whi ch they
,
-
are printe d The long gra ce note is genera lly wri tten as half the
.
val u e of the note tha t it m odifies So m e teac hers give the long .
gra ce note its printed va lu e shortening the next note by the same
,
a mou nt B u t this ru le does not a lwa ys hold Other m usici ans sa y

.
.
tha t the tim e shou ld be divided evenly between a long gra ce note
an d the note with whi ch it is printed This ru le too is not u ni .
, ,
versa l If the l arge printed note is followed by a nother of the sa me

.
pitch then the gra ce note is allowed to ta ke a lmost the entire tim e
,
of the note aga ins t which it is printed Before a dotted note the .
gra ce note is given two thirds of the total val u e Long gra ce notes
-
.
are most u s ua l in voca l m u si c .
The short gra ce note or acciaccatu ra is na m ed (in Ita lian ) from a

, ,
“
word m ea ning to squash ; an d the short grace note is literally
”
squa shed into the note af ter it agains t which it is written The , .
short gra ce note as sta te d a bove has no tim e val u e in the printed
, ,
-
measu re It is m a de as short as possible an d its tim e valu e ta ken

.
,
-
from the note following it Most beginners a bstract the time for the
.
short gra ce note from the precedi ng note ; b u t this is a m ista ke .
The short gra ce note is printed as an eighth note with sma ller body ,
tha n usua l a n d a diagona l line through the flag a n d the stem As

, .
the las t m entioned lin e is the chief diflerence between long and
'
short gra ce notes its prese n ce mu st be carefully observed M any

,
.
misp rints ha ve been m a de in this m a tter a n d the pu pil m u st be on ,
the wa tch to detect them The style of the m usic is often a guide
.
,
for the long gra ce note is slow a n d l a nguishing while the short one is ,
cri sp an d bright Exam ples of long and short gra ce notes are given
.
here with their proper execu tion a dded

, .
W ri tte n Pl
a y ed Pl
a y ed W ri tte n Pl
a yed
The trill is a ra pid and continua l alterna tion of any given note
with the note next a bove it in the sca le The sign for a trill consists .
of the letters tr followed by a short wa vy horizont al line This is

,
.
pl a ced over the note to be u sed in the trill A separa te sign is re .
qui red for ea ch note tha t is to be made into a trill Ifno other sign .
is present the trill alterna tes the note with the next note a bove it in
,
the sca le us ed in the piece B u t the presence of a shar p or a fla t or a

.
na tural indica tes tha t the printed note is to be alterna ted with the
sharp fla t or n a tura l of the u pper note A trill is now genera lly
, ,
.
considered to begin with the printed note thoug h Von B ii low a n d ,
others held tha t it shou ld begin with the u pper note A trill is ended .
by the occurrence of the printed note the note below it and the , ,
printed note a ga in a llin ra pid tem po The trill mu st of course be

, .
carried on u ntil it has filled the time val u e of the note over which the -
trill sign is printed .
Trills are u su ally pl ayed with a dj a cent fingers thou gh sometimes ,
the thu m b a n dm iddle finger are u sed The pia nist Ketten em ployed .
a so ca lled force trill in which he took the a ltern a te notes with dif
-
,
feren t h a nds Liszt u sed a trick known as the va nishing tr ill in

.
,
which a softening trill is ended by the holding of the two notes ,
varied by a n occa siona l light stroke on the u pper note This pro .
cedure works best when the notes are a se m itone a p art in which ,
case the bea ts between the two tones a ppear to continu e the trill in a
most delica te a n d ethereal fashion .
The m ordent derived from a French word mea ning to bite is

,
”
,
“
sim ply a sin gle a lterna tion of notes bitten ou t of a trill The
”
.
morden t consists of the printed note the note above it a n d the , ,
printed note a ga in the three notes pl a yed qu ickly b u t the l ast one
, ,
held to fill ou t the proper time va lu e The sign for the m ordent is
,
-
.
M . As with the trill if no a ccidenta l is present the u pper note is the

, ,
next one in the sca le u sed in the piece ; while a sharp fla t or na tu ra l , ,
means tha t the sha rp fla t or na tur a l of the u pper note m u st be u sed

, , .
The accent m a y com e on the first short note or on the thir d note
, , ,
which is held The Germ a ns ca ll the form er case a P ra ller or

.
,
P ra ll l while they na me the l a tter a Schnel

tri l , l
er Som e su ch dis .
tinction shou ld be m a de in English The inverted morden t is ca lled

'
for by the s ame sign b u t with a vertic a l line dra wn thr ou gh it thu s
, ,
alw . The inverted mordent (which the Germans ca ll simply Mor

B u t ifsuch a dotted note is followed by a nother note of the sa me

pitch then the turn becomes a triplet given in the las t part or the
,
total of the dot s va lu e The triplet as usu al consis ts of the note

’
.
, ,
a bove the printed one the printed note itself a n d the one below it
, ,
.
An inverted turn is ca lled for by the sa m e sign as an or dinary turn ,
with a short vertica l line dra wn through it The inverted tu rn is .
the reverse of the ordinary tur n starting with the note below the
,
printed note inste a d of the one a bove it .
The intervals of a turn are usu ally a tone a bove the printe d note
and a semitone below it B u t with a printed note of the third or
.
seventh degree in the scale the sem itone a bove and the tone below
,
are u sed Tur ns with whole tones a bove and below mu st be indi
.
ca ted by the u se of a na tural or a ccidental a bove or below the turn

sign Su ch a turn is u su a lly fou nd on the second degree of the sca le
. ,
as in Schu m ann s Novelette in F

’
.
Written
Wri tten Written
The b old or ferm ata m is placed above a note (or chord ) to signify
, ,
tha t the note (or chord ) is to be held for a long time usually sev ,
eral bea ts more tha n its printed valu e wou ld indi ca te .
The sign Q is often used to mark the beginning ofa coda so tha t ,
the pla yer m a y repea t a part of a piece an d then j u mp directly to

the coda .
In violin music Vsignifies an u pward bow stroke a nd H a

,
-
,
downward bow stroke -

.
A circle 0 shows the thumb position in Violoncello music

, , .
In orga n pla ying the registra tion or kind of stops to be used is

, , ,
often marked in by the composer with m ore or less com pleteness .
The signs used in peda ling are as follows : Aa bove note right toe , ,
Abelow note left toe a bove note right heel

, . u below note , .
,
left heel A Vcha nge toes U slide toe to next note

.
, .
, .
It has been considered a dvisa ble to add a few facts concerni ng

chords .
A chord consists of three or mor e rela ted tones sou nded together .
Notes which do not belong to a chord b u t ha ppen to be sou nded ,
with it are called non harmonic tones These usu a lly occur in posi
,
-
.
tions next to the proper notes of a chord They are ca lled suspen .
sions when held over from a preceding chord or passing notes when ,
intr odu ced independently .
A major tri ad is a thr ee note d chord consisti ng of a ma jor thir d

-
with a minor thi rd a bove it su ch as C E and G The tones of a ny

, , , .
tri ad from below up are named the root thir d and fifth
, , , , .
A minor tria d has a minor third below and a major third a bove ;
as f or insta nce D F a n d A , , .
A dim inished triad consists of two minor thirds such as B D , , ,
and F .
An au gmented tria d consists of two major thirds such as C E , , ,
a nd G~ sha rp .
An inversion of a chord occurs when one or more of its notes is

transposed a n octa ve If the root is tra nsposed up an octave the
.
,
first inversion is formed ; a n d if b oth root and thi rd are tra nsposed
up an octa ve the second inversion is formed In the first inversion
, .
,
the upper note is a sixth below the lower one : an d the inversion is
ca lled the chord of the sixth or the six chord Similarly the second
,
- .
,
inversion ha ving notes a fourth and a sixth a bove the lowest note
, ,
is ca lled the chord of the six four Thus if C E G in ascending -

.
, ,
order is the tri a d u sed then E G C is the six chord and G C E the
, , ,
-
, ,
six four chord derived from it

-
.
When the notes of a chord are as close to one a nother as possible ,
the chord is sa id to be in close position Bu t when a ny of the notes .
have between them other notes tha t m ight belong to the chord
if pl ayed then the chord is in open position ; as G E C in as cend
, , ,
ing order .
A seventh chord consists of a tri ad with an extra third a dded

53 6 THE B OOK OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE
a bove it ; as G B D F in ascending order As either a m a jor or a
, , ,
.
mi nor third m a y be a dded to an y one of the tri a ds (except a ma jor

third with an au gmented tr ia d ) it follows tha t there are several ,
kinds of seventh chords which are descri bed below , .
In H armony and Thorough B ass the chords are descri bed by -

,
Roman nu m erals The first tria d is tha t of the keynote an d the

.
,
others are nu mbered from the sca le degrees C apita l letters are u sed .
for m a jor tria ds sm a ll letters f

or minor tri a ds a n d f
,
or diminished ,
triads the sma ll letters are u sed with the a ddition of a tiny cir cle ,
like the mark for therm om eter degrees For a n a u gmente d tri a d .
,
the ca pita l letter is used with a little plu s sign a t its upper right
ha nd corner .
The tria ds of any ma jor scale are therefore I 11 iii IV V vi an d , , , , ,

!
vii Those of the harmonic minor sca le are i ii III iv V VI a n d
°
.
, , , , ,
The seventh chord is demanded when the fig ure 7 is pl aced aga inst
the tria d nu m era l The nu m ber 7 withou t qu alifica tion ca lls for a
.
m inor seventh a bove the r oot while 7 with an a postrophe calls , ,
for the m a jor seventh a d 7 f or the diminished seventh Thus I °

n 7
.
,
is the first m ajor tri a d with a minor third a bove it to m ake the ,
dista nce from the root a minor seventh V is the dom ina nt .
7
”
seventh of either a m a jor or a minor sca le IV is the fourth .
ma jor tri a d with a ma jor thi d a bove it The chord i is the first
r 71
.
minor tri a d with a major third a bove it as A C E G sharp , , , ,

-
.
The chord v n is a diminished triad with a ma jor thir d a bove it as

°
,
B D F a A The chord vi
, n d , ,
i 7
.is a dim inished tria d with a minor ° °
thir d a bove it as B D F and A fla t The other chords m ay be

, , , ,
-
.
figured in si ilar fashion The chor d v u or a ny chord com posed

m 7
.
° °
,
of three m inor thirds is known as the diminished seventh chord , .
All the seventh chords are su bject to inversion having three in ,
versions instea d oftw o T a king for ex ample the dom ina nt seventh .
of C which consists of G B D a n d F the inversions are seen to be

B D F G D F—
, , , , ,
- -
G B and F G B D
-
,
-
Ffom the intervals of the
-
,
- - - .
other notes a bove the lowest note in each case these chords are
— — — — —
,
c lled
a for —
in harmony stu dy by the figures 6 5 3 6 4 3 an d 6 4 2 , ,
four part cou nterpoint exercises ea ch p art is expected to ha ve

In -
,
some melodic effect when t aken by itself In su ch a lea ding of the .

54 2 APPEND IX
Al
to (It , ahl to ) Hi gh; in ol
hi gh pa rt a bove the tenor ; now
d days pplied to
'
.
- . a a
owest fem a l e v oi ces or the vi ol
—
the l Another na m e f a . .
Am a b ile (It , ah m a h - b ee l eh) Am ia ble, gr acef ul

, g en tl
'
-
. e . .
Am oro so (It , a h m o to -zo) Ten derl y, lovin g l

’
- - .
y . .
Ancora (It , ahng k o -r ah) Agai n , on ce m ore, yet

’
- .
. .
An da n te (It , a hn ow, even tem po ; l

A sl
. i terally, going .
An da n ti n o (It , a hn da hn tee -no) A httl e l ess sl

ow tha n a nda nt
'
- -
. e . .
An h a ng (Ger , a hn hahn g ) A coda ; an a ppen di x

’
- . .
.
An im a to (It , ah n ee m ah to ) An im a ted; wi th sp iri t

——
’
- - - .
. .
Appassi on a to (It , ah p ahs si o na h to ) Passi ona te , in tense

'
—
- - .
. .
Appog g i a tura (It , ah pod j y a h too rah) Lea n in g n ote ; l

’
ong gr ace not
. e - - -
. .
Arab esk e, arab esq u e A piece w i th a n oti cea bl e desi gn ofto na lem b r oi dery
. .
Arco (It , ahr -co ) B ow , ofvi ol

’
. ins, etc . .
Arden te (It , a hr den teh) Arden t, fiery, v ehem en t

.
-
’
-
. .
Ari oso (It , ah ree-o zo) A short piece hk e a n aria , b u t l

. .
- ess sym m etri ca l For
’
-
. .
”
ar ia , see cha p ter on VocalForm s .
Arp eg gi o (It , ahr ped iyo) H arp-l

’
ik e Playi ng the notes of a chord in swift
.
- -
. .
su ccess on i instead ofsim ultan eously .
As (Ger , ahs) The A fla t

. .
-
.
Assa i (It , ahs Very, extrem el

.
y, m u ch .
Attac ca (It , aht ta hk ka h) Attack , sta rt, g o on ,

-
'
.
-
. beg in the ne xt .
Au b ade (Fr , oh A m orn in g son g , l

. ite rally a da wn song .
Ausdru ck (Ger , ows -drook ) E xpression

’
. . .
B . The sev en th note ofthe sca l

e ofC ma j or . In Germ any, B m eans the n ote we
callB-fla t .
B al
let (Fr .
, b ahl pantom im e story with m usicalaccom panim en t
A .
B ars Verti ca ll
. i n es drawn on m usi calsta f
used to fm easures Now
fs to m ark of .
den ote the m easures al so .
B asso c on ti n u e (It , b ahs -so con teen flu -o) The con tin ua lor fig uredb ass in ol
dm usic
’
-
. . .
B attu ta. (It , b aht too ta h) A b ea t; a m easur e A ba ttu ta , in stri ct tim e

’
- -
. . . .
B ea t A m oti on wi th ha nd or ba ton to g ive the tem po ; a divi si on ofa m easure ; a

.
throbbin g hear d w hen tw o to n es are n ot q u i te ali k e in pi tc h .
B el ca n to (It , b elca hn -to)

’
A pure an d sym pa theti c l
. ega to, the opposi te of .
bra vu ra , oratu r, ag il
col i ta , etc .
Bé m ol(Fr , b ay .An y flat .
B em ol le ( It , b a y m ol l
-
’
eh) Any fia t
.
-
. .
B en , b on e (It , b a yn , b ay -n eh) W el
'
l, thorou g l
. hy . .
B ew eg t (Ger , b e Ra ther fast ; wi th m oti on

. .
B is Tw i ce ; to b e repeated; con tin u ed .
B og en (Ger , b o ghen ) Bow, ofvi ol in s, etc , Also a slur or ti e

’
-
. . . .
B ou r don (Fr , boor A set ofl a rg e sto pped org an pipes

. A drone . bass ac
Br a vu ra (It , b rah voo -rah) Spiri t, sk il

. l, req
u irin g dexteri ty
-
’
. .
Br ea k The c ha ng e between hea d a n d chest reg ister , in voi ces

. . The chang e b e
i
su ccess on , an d n ot s im ultan eously .
B ufl o (It , . boof fo) Com ic ; a singer

’
- . who takes com c i pa rts .
APPENDIX 543
C The first n ote ofthe scal

. e ofC The sign f or co m m on tim e is not rea l
ly .
a C , b u t two thi rds ofa ci rcl

e .
Ca den ce A cl ody or harm ony, en ding a per i od, secti on , or en tire piece,
ose in m el
.
usu ally on the toni c chor d ofits k ey .
Ca den za. (It , ca h den tsa h) An orn a m en ta lsol o p assag e in trodu ced n ear the en d
'
- .
-
.
ofa n instru m en ta lpiece or son g ; the caden za m a y b e wri tten b y ei ther com poser
or perform er .
Ca l
a n do (It , ca h l
ahn do) Becom in g softer an d sl
'
. ower
-
. .
C al
m a to (It , cahlm ah -to) Tra n q u il qu i et
’
-
. . .
,
C alor oso (It , cah l- -

’
o m -zo ) W arm , anim a ted
. . .
C an tab ile (It , ca hn ta h -b ee-l

-
'
eh ) In a si n g ing styl
. e, sm oothly . .
C an tilen a (It , ca hn tee l a y -na h) The m el ody ofa song or pi ece ; a m el

odi ous song ,
'
- -
. .
piece , or passage .
Ca po (It , cah -po) The beg inn ing , the top , or hea d
.
’
. .
Ca pr i cci oso (It , cah pree c hyo - zo ) C a pri ci ousl

- -
’
.
y , f an cif ul
ly . .
C ari ta (It , kah ree -ta h) Feel

’
. in g , tendern ess-
. .
Com b alo (It , chem -b a h-l o) A ha rpsi chor d

.
’
. .
C os (Ger , tsehs ) The n ote C - fla t

. . .
Ch ia r ezza (It , k ee a hr et -tsa h) C learn ess , p uri ty, nea tn ess

’
- .
-
. .
C is (Ger , tsi s) The n ote C -sharp

. . .
C odetta . A short coda or extr a con cl u ding p assag e For coda , . see c ha pter on
”
Song Form s -
.
C ol
ora tu re. (It , . cc -
l o-ra h too -rah)
-
’
. Roulades, em bellishm ents , or orna m en tal
p assa g es in voca lm usi c .
C om e (It , cc -m eh) As, l . ik e, the sa m e as

’
. .
C om m a The dif .feren ce betw een a m a j or an d m i nor to ne in the sc al

e ofn a ture
(ra ti o of81 to
Com odo (It , co - m o-do) Qu i etl y , easil
y , con veni en tl
'
.
y . .
C om pass The rang e ofnotes tha t a voi ce or instr u m en t can give

. .
C on Wi th .
C on cert- Meister (Ger tsa ir t -m y -ster) The chief vi olin ist ofan orchestr a.
’
.
, con - .
C on cer to (It , con A piece ofse ver alm ovem en ts f

. or on e or m ore so l
o
in strum En ts w i th or chestr a (som eti m es on e sol

o instrum en t W i th pi a n o) .
C on certstilck (Ger , con tsa irt -stik ) A con cert-piece ; a con certo
'
- .
. .
C on ti n u o (It , con teen -c c -o ) C onsta n t, con tin ual

'
- .
. .
C on tr a lto L iteral ly, a deeper al

. to O ften used to m ea n alto . .
Ge rda (It , cor -da h) A string In pia no m usi c , u na corda (on e stri n g ) m ean s soft
’
. . .
pedal, while tre corde (three strin gs) m eans a cessa tion ofthe soft pedal Som e .
tim es due corde (two stri n gs) ca l ls for the soft pedal halfway down , b u t in old
tim es, when pi an o n otes never had m ore than two strin gs a piece, it m ea nt a ces
i
sa t on ofthe so ft pedal .
Crescen do (It , . creh -s hen -do) '

. A gra du alin crease in power .
D The secon d n ote in the sc al

. e ofC m a j or Abbrevi ati on f or d al
o or d . .
De. (It , da h) Fro m , b y , through, etc Dal, da tl

. . e, etc , are the sa m e . . .
Da. capo alseg n o (It , da h ca h po a hlsa y n yo) From the beg inni ng to the i
’ ’
.
- - . s gn .
Da lsegno m ea ns from the si gn .
Dec i so (It , da y c hee -ao ) B ol

dl y , deci dedl
’
- .
y . .
Decresc elmo (It , day-creh Gradu al ly dim i n ishin g the power

. .
544 APPENDIX
i ca to (It , day l
Del h to ) Del
. i ca te, sm ooth - ee-ca
'
-
. .
Des (Ger , dehs) The note D fia t

. .
-
.
Destr a (It , deb s trah) Right, ri ght-han d

'
-
. . .
D6ta ch 6 (Fr , da y ta h Deta c hed, stac ca to, in viol

.
-
in m usi c .
, w i t , fro
Di (It , dee) Of
. h m , etc
. .
Di apas on The en tire sca l

. e or rang e A set ofor ga n pipes run ning through the .
en tire k eyboa rd .
Disse , di éze (Fr , dee An y sha rp

—
. .
Dy in g a wa y in to sil
—
u en do (It , dee l oo en do)
’
Dil - - . en ce . .
Di m i n u en do (It , dee m ee n oo en do) Gr adu al ly dim in ishing in power

’
- - - . .
.
Di s (Ger , dees) The n ote D sha rp

. .
-
.
Di vi si (It , dee vee see) D ivi ded, sep ara te d; used w hen a sin gl e grou p ofv oi ces
’
- .
-
.
or instr um en ts is to ta ke two or m ore n otes i nstea d ofon e .
Do (It , do ; like doe

. The syl labl e a ppl ied to the first n ote ofa sca le in sin gi ng ,
etc In the fix ed Do system , Do is a l
. wa ys C The Fren c h use Ut instea d of .
Do in instrum en ta lm usi c .
Dol ce (It , dol c heh) Sweetl

’
y -
—
. . .
en -teh) Mou rn fu l rievin g

'
Dol en te (It , doh l .
, g . .
Dol oroso (It , dolo ro zo ) Sa dl y, sorrowf ul l

'
- -
y -
. . .
D opo (It , do po) After

' -
. . .
Dop pi o (It , dop pee- o) D ou bl e, twofol d; som etim es wi th the oc ta ve a dded

'
-
. . .
Dou b l e (Fr , doo -b l ) An ol d te rm f or a v a ri a tion

'
. . .
Dou cem en t (Fr , doos Sweetl y, sof tl

.
y .
Dr i tta (It , drit -tah) Ri ght, ri ght ha n d

—
’
-
. . .
Droi t (Fr , drwa h) Ri ght, right han d

. . .
Du o , du e (It , doo o, doo -eh) Two

’ ’
. . .
D u ol o (It , doo o l o) G rief, sorrow

'
- -
. . .
“ Ma j or, m aj or key
Du r (Ger , door ; hk e. .
E . Thi rd note e ofC

ofthe sc al ma j or . ian ,
In Ital e or ad m ea ns
Ecoesa is (Fr Scotc h, in Scotch styl
.
, a y-cose .
Ei n f
ac h (Ger , i n e
'
-f
a hkh) Sim ple, plai n
. . .
Em pfin du ng (Ger , em p fin n d -c ong ) Feel

-
’
in g , em otion , sensitiveness
. . .
En erg i co (It , en a if j ee-cc ) En erg eti c , forcibl

. e - -
. .
En sem b l e (Fr , on g som b l ) Un i ty , sm oothn ess, l iterally, tog etherness

’ - -
. . .
En tr ac te (Fr , on gtr
’
Musi c played between the acts
. .
Er hab en (Ger , air ha h b en ) Lofty, el eva ted

' - -
. . .
Er nst (Ger , a irn st) E arnest, seri ous

. . .
Er oi ca ( It , a ir o -ee-ka h) Heroi c
’
- . . .
Er otik (Ger , Nor , ai r-ot Al ove-song ; a n a m orous com posi ti on

—
. . .
Es (Gen ) The n ote E fla t

. .
Espressi vo (It , es pres see -vo) E xpressive ; with exp ressi on

’
~ ~ . . .
Etta , etto (It ) are di m in u tive term ina ti ons . .
Etw as (Ger , et -va bs ) Som ewha t; som e ; a l ittle

’
. . .
The fourth n ote ofthe scale ofC m a j or Abbre vi a tion for forte . .
Pa . The na m e a ppl
ied to the fourth note ofthe scale in sing ing etc .
“
In the fixed
,
Do system , it is al wa ys F .
e (It , f
Fac il ah -chee-l L ight,
'
eh) . . easy.
546 APPENDIX
Kapel l me i s te r (G e r , k a h p ell -m
y -
st er ) Th e di rec tor ofm u si c, a t first i n a church
.
-
’
.
or cha pel , b u t n o w in a n y c ho rus or or chestr a .
Key The l . ever tha t is m oved to m ak e the pi a n o acti on str ik e the strin gs Al ev er .
O pen in g or c l osi ng a hol e in wind instru m en ts A sca le, the k ey be in g the first .
(t on i c ) ,
n o te o f t h e sca le .
Kr t g (
i f i G e r ,
k re f
’
-
t ig h ) P o w er
. f u l , st rong , en ergeti c . .
L Abbre vi a tion f
. or l ef t, or (Ger ) l i n ks, han d . .
L a A syl
. la ble a ppl i ed in sin gin g , etc , to the sixth note ofthe scale . .
Lam en toso (It , l a h m en to - zo)

-
’
L a m en tin g , m ourn f ul
.
-
. .
L an g sam (Ger , l a hn g sa hm )
'
Sl ow The sa m e as l
. ento -
. . .
La g
n u en do I
( ,
t la n g g w en
’
-
do) La n g u ishing .
-
. .
I h h te h) B roadl y, with f ul
’
La g
r a m en te ( ,
It a r -
g a -m en -
. n ess . .
Larg h etto (It , l a hr ge t -to)

-
’
A tem po n ot qu i te so sl
. ow as la r go . .
A sl ow , b road tem po , al m ost as sl ow as grave

'
Larg o (It , l a hr -g o) . . .
Leb haf t (Ger , l ay b -hahf t) L ivel y, q u i c k

’
. . .
Le g ati ssi m o (It , l eh g a h tees see- m o)

’
Extrem ely sm ooth an d flu en t
.
- - -
. .
W ( ,
I 1 h h to) Sm ooth, w i th n o p a u se between n otes
’
a to t e -
g a -
. . .
Leg g i er o (It , l ed-j yaifl -o ) Li ght, del. i ca te . .
Le i den sch a ftl i ch (Ger , 1y - den sha hf

’
tl ik h) Passion a te .
- -
. .
Len to (It , l en - to ) A slow tem po , usu al ly b etween ada gi o an d a nda nte

’
. . .
Li cen za (It , l ee c hen -tza )

-
’
L i cense , freedom ofstyl
. e . .
Li n k e (Ger , l in g -keh) Left, left-ha n d

'
. . .
Loco (It , l o - cc )
’
Place sed to show a return to the pitch ofprinted notes
. . . U a fter
an 8 va tr ans position .
L u ng s (It , l
oo n g g a h) Lon g '
-
. . . .
L usti g (Ger , loos ti g h)

’
Merry, gay .
-
. .
M Abbrevi ation for ma ne or m a i n m ean ing

.
“han d .
,
M M Abbrevi a tion for Maelzels m etronom e

. .
’
.
Ma (It m a h) B u t .
,
. .
Maestoso (It m ah es to zo) Ma j estic sta tely

’
Ma g g i ore (It m ahd—

- - -
. .
.
, ,
j yo reh) Ma j or
’
-
. . .
,
Mai n (Fr lik e m an wi th a nasalsoun d instead ofthe n ) Han d

.
, . .
Man o (It m ah n o) Ha nd .
,
'
-
. .
Marc ato (It m ahr c ah to) Marked a c cented .

,
-
’
- .
, .
Martellato (It m ahr tellah to) Stron gly m arked .

,
- -
’
-
. .
Massi g (Ger m ay sigh) Modera te m odera to .

,
’
-
.
, .
Men o (It m ay n o) Less .

,
’-
. .
Messa di voc e (m a y sa h dee vo che) A gradu alswelling a nd su bsi di ng on a single '

-
’
-
.
to n e in sin gi ng .
Meetoso (It m es to zo) Sadly .

,
-
’
-
. .
Metr on om e A devi ce inven ted b y John Maelzelin 18 15 in whi ch a weighted rod

.
, ,
proj ected u pwa rd swings from side to side in regular tim e to m ark the b eats , ,
ofthe m easure The r a te m a y b e v ari ed b y a m ovem en t ofthe weig ht Fi gures

. .
are pl a c ed on the rod in di ca ti n g w here the w ei ght shoul d b e pu t to ob ta in an y ,
desir ed n um b er of b ea ts per m in u te C om posers som etim es m ark their pi eces .
wi th a m etronom e m a rk ; i e a fig ure a n d a note ofdefini te v al u e showin g tha t . .

, ,
the pi ec e m u st b e played so as to sound tha t n um ber of notes of the given v al ue
in a m in u te .
APPEND IX 7
Mezzo (It m ed zo) The m i ddle ha lf

.
,
'
-
.
, .
Mi (It m ee ) A sylla ble used for the third note ofthe scale in sing ing etc
.
, .
, .
Min acci an do (It m een ab t chyahn do) Threa ten ing ly .

,
- -
’
- . .
Mi steri oso (It m is ta ir ee ofi zo) Mysteriously .

,
- -
. .
Mi t (Ger m itt) W ith .

, . .
Moder a to (It m od air ah to) Modera te tem po between a ndanli no and all
.
, e - -
’
-
.
,
gretto .
Moll Min or .
Molto (It m ol to) Mu ch; extrem ely ; a grea t dea l

.
,
’
-
. .
Moren do (It m o ren do) Dyi ng aw ay g radually .

,
-
'
- . .
Moss o (It m os so) Movem en t m otion speed

.
,
’
- .
, , .
Moto (It m o to) Motion m ovem en t

.
,
'
-
.
, .
Nach dr uck (Ger , nahkh dr ook ) E m phasis .

’
-
. .
Ni c h t (Ger , nikht) Not . . .
Noel (Fr , n o .A C hristm as son g ; derived from n ou vel

les, i i
t d n gs .
Non Not .
O bb li g a to (It , ob bl g ah -to ) A p assa ge ofsu ch im porta n ce tha t it is obl '

.
-
i g a tory,
ee- .
a n d ca nn ot b e om i tted; so m etim es a sol o p assa g e .
Octa v e- m ar ks , 8va , a nd 8va b assa When 80a is pu t over a note , the n ote is to .
b e pl a yed an oc ta v e hig her Al ine extendin g from the 8 va shows tha t alln otes .
un der the b n s are to b e pl a yed an oc ta v e hi g her 8 00 basso , pl

aced u n der a note .
or n otes, tr ans pw es a n oc ta ve down wa rd .
O hn e (Ger , o -n eh) W ithou t

’
. . .
O r g an poi n t, see pedalpo in t .
Ossi a (It , os -see- a h Or )

'
. . .
tee n ah -to) Obstina te, cont nu al i i

’
Osti n a to (It , os .
- - .
, un ceas n g .
Ou (Fr , . Or .
a n do (It , p ahr l
Pa r l a hn do) .
-
’
-
. In p
a s ea ki ng or dec l
a m a tory styl
e .
Pa rti tu r (Ger , p a hr tee . fullscore -

A .
Pa teti co (It .
, p ah ta y tee cc ) Pa theti c
-
'
- - . .
Peda lpoi n t . A susta ined pedalor b ass note o ver whi ch are vary in g , chords an d
ha rm oni es .
Perden dosi (It p a ir den do-zee) Dec r easin g in power, dyin g a way
’
.
- -
. .
,
Pi acere (It pee ah chaii .

,
- -
J-
eh) Pleasure A pi acere, a t pleasu re, as desired
. . .
Pi a n g en do (It , pee ahn j en -do) Pl a in tivel

y, sorrowf ul
—
l ’
—
.
y - -
. .
Pi an issi m o (It , pee a hn ees s ee m o) Very soft Abb revi a ted to pp

’
- . . . .
”
Pi a n o (It , pee a h n o) Soft The na m e pian o, as a pphed to the
-
’
-
. . . instru m ent ,
com e
s from Gr a vicem ba l
o con pia no e for te, m eani n g a keyed instrum en t wi th both
so ft an d lou d tones .
l (It pyoo) More

Pi l .
,
. .
Pl us (FL ; li ke plea pronoun ced with the lips nearly clw ed) More . .
Poco (It po c c ) L ittl i ttle

e a l
'
.
- . .
, ,
P oco a poc o L i ttl

e by l i ttle .
Poi (It po ee) Then a fter tha t n ext

’
- .
.
.
, , ,
548 APPE NDIX
yph on y
Pol . Musi c tha t is com posed ofparts
voices which su pport one an other , or , ,
ody su pported b y c hords

in con trast W i th hom op hon y w hi c h is m el , .
lo (It pon tee chel l

Pon ti c el o) The b ri dg e ofa viol
.
,
in or other string ed instru
- -
'
- .
m en t.
h ) T h y g o v er ofon e n ote in to the n ext,

i
'
Porta m I
( , p
t en to
or ta m e to e ca rr n -
.
- - n - .
so ra pi dl
y tha t the in term edia te n otes are n ot defin ed In pia n o m usi c , tw o or
‘
ur , w i th dots a bove them ; the n otes to b e pl

m ore n otes un der a sl a yed W i th som e
pha sis an d se p ara ted slightly

em .
Prestissi m o (It pres tees see m o) Extrem el y f ast; as fast as possibl

e The q u i ck
’
- - -
. . .
est tem po in m usi c .
Presto (It pres to ) Very ra pi dl y ; qu i cker than a ny tem po ex cep t presti ssi mo
'
-
. . .
,
Pri m o (It pree m o) Pr in cipa l first

’
- .
.
.
, ,
Q u adrat (Ger q u ad .
,
The ig n
s f
or a na tural
.
R Abbrevi a tion in E ng l
. ish or Germ an for right .
Rallen ta n do (It , rahllen tahn do) Maki n g the tem po graduall .

y sl
ow er - -
'
-
. .
Re (It , ray) The syl

. la ble u sed in sin g ing , etc , f
. or the secon d n ote ofthe scal
e . .
ReOh t (Ger rekht) Rig ht right han d.

,
.
,
-
.
Regi str a ti on The com bin a ti on ofsto ps in org an playin g

. .
Ri n f orzan do (It rin for tsa hn do) Rein for ced, ac cen ted .
,
- -
’
- . .
Ri solu to (It , ree-so loo to ) Resol u te bol d

’
- -
. . .
,
Ri tar dan do (It ree ta hr da hn -do) Retar din g delayin g the w e gr adu al
.
, l
y - -
’
.
, .
Ri ten u to (It ree teh n oo to) Reta ined k ep t b ack ; m ore sl

.
,
owl y - -
’
-
.
,
.
Rou lade (Fr roo A flori d voca lphr a se

.
, .
Ru b a to (It roo b ah to ) A style ofplay in g in whi ch one n ote m ay b e exten ded

.
,
-
’
-
.
at the e xpense ofa n other , f

or pur poses ofexpression .
Sa n ft (Ger , sa hnf t) Soft, m il

. d . .
Sa ns (Fr ; sa hn . wi th a n asalsoun d instea d ofthe n ) W ithou t . .
Scale A seri es ofton es, co m prised wi thin an oc ta ve The chrom a ti c scal

.
e on our .
pi an os consists oftwelve eq u alsem itones B y choosing intervals tha t have som e .
tim es on e se m i tone, a n d som etim es tw o (a whol e ton e) , the di a toni c sca l

e is m ade .
See cha p ter on How to Rea d Musi c .
Sch erzan do (It , ska irt zahn -do) Jestin gl

-
’
y .
. .
Sch erzo (It , ska irt zo) A j est, or pl A piece ofl ively tem po and j esting style,
’
-
.
ay .
.
of ten in tripl e rhythm .
Schleppen d (Ger , shl e p -pent)

'
Dr agg in g , drawli ng . . .
Schn el l (Ger , shn el l) Qu i ck , rapi d. . .
Sc i ol
to (It , shee ol l-to) Li g ht, free
’
- . . .
Sc otch sn a p A si xteen th n ote fol . lowed b y a dotte d ei g hth note .
Se (It , sa y) If
. . .
Segn o (It , say -nyo) A si gn

'
. . .
Segu e (It , sa y g weh) It fol

'
. lows ; n ow fol lows
-
. .
Seh r (Ger , sa ir ) Very. . .
Sem pl i ce (It , sem -pl'

ee-cheh) Sim pl
. e, in a p ure styl .
e
Sem p re (It , sem -preh) Al

'
. w a ys ; consta n tly . .
Sen za (It , sen tsa h) W i thou t

’
-
. . .
Sforzan do (It , sf or tsahn -do) Forced, accen ted Abbrevi ated to Sf

’
- . . . .
550 APPEND IX
Veloce (It , vay l . o -cheh) Swif tl
y -
'
. .
Vib ra to (It , vee bra h -to ) Recurrent swel ls a n d su bsiden ces in

'
- . . a ton e
.
Vivace (It , vee vah -c heh) A b risk , a nim a ted tem po

'
-. . .
Voc e (It , vo m heh) The voi ce

.
’
. .
Vorsp i el(Ger , for .

'-
p
s eel . ) A prel
u de ; on e of Wag ner s prelu des
’
, with whi ch he te
placed the opera tic overture .
Wen ig (Ger .
, vay -nigh)
’
. L i ttl
e, a ittle
l .
Z a rt (Ger , tsa hrt) Gen tl

.
y softl
y , tenderl y .
, .
Z i em l i ch (Ger , tseem lik h) Som ewha t ra ther

'
-
. . .
,
Z i erli ch (Ger , tseer l ikh) Graceful n ea t ’

- . .
.
,
Z iig ern d (Ger , tsa y gern d) Retarding, hesi ta ting

.
’
-
. .
APPENDIX B
A C O URSE or STUDY WITH REFERENCES ,
The presen t course is a ppen ded here f

ofstu dy or tw o pur poses It wil
lena bl e .
the g en er alreader to kn ow whi ch are the m ost im porta nt referen ces, or to pursu e
his stu di es b y him sel f; a nd it wil lal so serv e as a b asi s for a m usi ca lcourse in those
col eg es an d hig h sc hool

l s tha t m ay desir e to in cor pora te su ch a course in their c urri e
ul um . The su bj ects tr ea ted in this course in clu de the devel op m e n t of m usi c from
a nci en t tim es, the g r ea t com posers, m usi calform , an d the use ofthe in strum en ts .
Other topi cs m a y, ofcou rse, b e added b y any com peten t tea c her ; b u t those g iven
here wil lform a suf fic ien tl y thorough c ourse in m usi c alkn owl edge a n d appreci a ti on .
H ISTORY
Prehisto ri c instrum en ts .
The na tur alorigin ofinstrum cnts a n d ofsong .
The dru m a n d i ts use .
Flu tes a n d wood-wind instrum en ts .
E arly horns, trum pets, etc .
The l yre, ha rps, a n d other str n g ed nstrum en ts i i in ol d tim es .
C hi nese m u si c .
Ja panese m usi c .
Peru vi an an d Mexi ca n m usic .
Sa v ag e m usi c ofvarious races .
Ri cha rd W al
las chek Pri m i ti ve Music
,
.
Lou is C . Elson , Cu riosi ti es ofMusic .
Mary E . an d W A . . B rown e, Mus ica lInstru ments , and Thei r Hom es .
Egyptian use ofm us c a t i

b an quets etc , .
Royalan dgen eralcu l tiva tion ofm usi c in Egyp t .
Assyr ia n m usi c .
Hebre w poets a n d prophets .
B ib l
i ca linstru m ents .
B ibli ca lsongs and their characte r .
Moder n Music a nd Musi ci a ns .

552
Pythag oras an d his work .
The Greek m odes .
Greek ins tru m en ts .
The Greek dr am a .
The Greek g a m es an d est f ivals .
Rom a n in strum en ts .
H om inen ce ofthe flu te in Rom e .
W . S . Pra tt
, H i story ofMusic .
D B . . Munro , The Modes ofAnc ientGreek Music .
The earl
y congreg at ona lsi ng n g . i i
Am brose an d hi s scales .
The Greg ori an sca les (to nes) .
N eu m e n otation .
The rise ofthe four l ine stad '

-
.
O ther a ttem pts a t a sta fl

'
Cl efs an d thei r ori g in .
H u cb ald an d the Or g anum .
Gu ido ofArezzo an d sol feggio .
E n glish im provem ents .
Arti cl
e Pla in Song , Sta iner an d B arrett s Didi onary ’
.
es in Grove s Dic tiona ry ofMu si c a nd Musi c ia ns

Arti cl
’
.
N iederm a yer an d D Ortig ue, Gregoria n Accom pan i ment

’
.
Poetry ofthe Tr ou b a dours .
Rom a n ces ofthe Trou veres .
Instru m en ts ofthe h ou b adours

' ‘
.
Musi c ofAdam de la Hale an d others .
Anec dotes offa m ous Trou b adours .
Jongleurs and Glee Mai dens .
Poetry ofthe Minn esi ng ers .
Mu sic ofthe Minnesin gers .
The Mastersi ngers .

554 APPEND IX
Il
lustrati ons
Mon teverde La scia tem i m orire from Ar ia nna

, ,
”
.
Sc arla tti Vi olette an d other songs

,
.
y O v erture to Le Tm om phe d A m ou r
’
’
L ull ,
.
Purcell I a ttem p t from love s si ck ness to fly and other songs

,
’
, .
W . F Ap thorp , Opera
. Past a nd Present .
W . J i a n Opera
H en derson , For eru n n ers ofIta l
. .
Ar thur E l
son , A Cri ti ca l H i st
or y ofOpera .
H 8 Edwards, Hi story ofthe Opera

. . .
W H C um m in gs, P u rcell
. . .
The old instru m en ts , cla vi chord, vir g in al

s, ha r psi chord,
The E n glish Virgin a lschool .
Dom eni co Scarl a tti a n d the ha rpsi c hord .
E arly vi ol i n ists a n d their m u si c .
O ra tori o and i ts ori gi n .
The Ita l i an oratorio com posers .
The Germ an choral es .
E arly stri ng and w in d instru m en ts .
Il
lustra ti on s :
Selec ti ons from The Fi tzwi llia m Vi rgi na lCol

lection .
Sc arla tti exa m ples ofso n a tas

, .
”
Lotti song ,
P ur di ce
s te ,
.
C a valiere or a tori o sel

ec ti ons, .
C arissim i ora tori o selecti on s, .
"
C hor al e Ein feste B u rg
,
.
Arti cl
es d n strum en ts
on ol i in The Musici a n , February, 1908 .
N aylor ,
The Fi tzwi l
li a m Vi rgi na lC ol
lecti on .
Arthur Elson , Orches tralInstru men ts and thei r Use .
Mu si caldi ctiona ri es a n d cyclopaedi as passi m , .
C arlE n g el Musi ca lInstru m ents , .
The M Stei nert C a tal. og u e ofK ey ed a n d Strin ged Instrum ents .
THE GREAT C OMPOSERS

(See p ara te n a m es in
se m us i ca ldi cti ona ri es . en cy cl i
op ed a s, etc . )
10 . J ohn Sebastia n B ach

B i ogr aphy ofB a ch.
E stim a te ofB ac h s fug ues.

’
Ba ch s other har p si chord an d cl a vi chord w orks

’
.
B ach s or g an pla yi n g , org an w orks, a n d im p rovisa ti ons

’
.
(su i tes
’
B ach s or chestralw orks , con c ertos,
Ba ch s P as si on
’
a n d other vocalm usi c .
APPEND IX 555
Fug u es, 5, 7 , an d 9 in vol II ofThe

. Wel
lTem pered Cl
-
a vichord .
First Prelu de The WellTem pered Cla vichord fir st without

,
-
, and then wi th the
“Ave Maria m el ody tha t Go u nod set to i t .
Air from Su i te a rra ng ed f

or violin an d piano
, .
Song Mein Glau b iges H erze

,
”
.
Parry fB ach ,
L if
e o .
C F Abdy W il
. lia m s
.
, B ac h .
11 George Frederick Handel

.
H andels ’
instru m en ta lworks .
H a n dels
’
or a tor os . i
Handels ha bit of pla g iar ism
’
.
Reci ta tive Com fort ye and ari a, E v ry valley, from The ,

”
,
’ '
Messiah .
“ iveth from The Messia h

Aria , I kn ow tha t m y Redeem er l ”
, .
O verture to The Messi a h, arr f or pi an o . .
”
Song , An gel s ever b ri ght a n d f a ir , from Theodora .
La rgo, arr f or pia n o . .
“Re v n ”
e g e, Ti m otheus cri es, from Alexa nder s Feast
’
Song , .
Sel ecti on from Six Li ttl e Fug ues .
C F Abdy
. . Wil
li a m s H a ndel , .
“
H a ndels Messi a h
W G C usins ,
’
. . .
Sedl or, The Indebt

ey Ta yl edness o fH andelto Wor ks by Other Com posers .
12 . Franz JosefHa ydn

The i phony and sona ta
r se ofsym .
Ha ydn s biog ra phy

’
.
The socia lposi ti on ofm usi c ians .
H aydn s sym phoni es a n d sona tas

’
.
Hay dn s ora torios a n d songs

’
.
Austrian Na tion a lH ym n .
Song , My Mother bids m e bin d m y hair .
Song , W ith verdure cl

ad .
ecti ons from m ovem en ts

Sel of Sym phony no . 7, in D , in Ten Cel
ebrat
ed Sym
556 APPENDIX
L . Nohl L ife ofHa ydn

,
.
W H Hadow A Croa ti a n Com poser

. .
,
.
P . D Townsend, J oseph H a ydn

. .
13 . Wol
fgang Ama deus Mozart
L ife O fMozart .
C hild prodig ies .
Mozart s son a tas a n d sym phon ies

’
.
Mozart s early operas

’
.
Fa n ta sia a n d sona ta .
”
Son g , The Vi ol et .
O verture to The Ma rria ge ofFi ga ro, a rr f or pi a no duet . .
Song , Voi c he sa pete , from The Mar ri a ge ofFi ga ro

”
.
”
Du et, L a ci da rem l a m an o , from D on Gi ova nni .
’
Sarastro s son g , In di es en heil ig en Hallen , from The Magic
”
Selection from Sym p hony in G m in or , arr f or pi an o du et .
O tto Jahn , L if e ofMoza rt .
B rea k spea re , Lif e ofMoza rt .
E Holm es, L ife ofMozart

. .
14 L udwi g va n B eethoven
.
B iogra phy ofB eetho en v .
Influ en ce ofwom en on com posers .
B eethoven peri ods

’
s three .
B eethoven pi ano sona tas

’
s .
B eethoven s cha m ber m usi c

’
Beethoven s sym phoni es

’
.
Beethoven s o ther w orks

’
.
Il
lustra ti ons
Fin al e ofFirst Sym phony , arr f or pi a no duet . .
First an d thi rd m ovem en t ofFirst Pi a no Son a ta .
Fu neralMar ch from Son a ta , O p 26 . .
First m ovem en t ofWal dstein Sona ta .
So g ,
n Fa i thf ulJohnn ie ”
.
Ari a , Kom m , H ofln un g , from Fidel ”

‘
io .
First two m ovem en ts ofSeven th Sym phony, arr du et
A W Tha yer, L if
. . e ofB eethoven
A Sc hindl
. er , L if
e ofB eethoven .
Grove, B eethoven s Ni ne Sym phon i es

’
.
Vin cent D In dy, B eethoven ’

.
Arthur Elson Woma n s Work i n Music

,
’
.
Nohl B eethoven depi cted by his Contem poraries

, .
E V Elterlein B eethoven s Pi ano Sona tas

. .
,
’
.
558 APPENDIX
17 Ita l
ia n Opera
.
B i og raphy ofRossini .
C ha rac ter ofhis w orks .
B iog ra phy ofDo n i zetti .
C harac ter of his w or k s .
B i og r a phy ofB el
lmi .
C har ac ter ofhis works .
Mercada n te an d others ofthe peri od .
Verdi s l i fe u n til1870
’
.
Verdi s earl
’
y w orks .
Il
lustra ti on s :
Rossin i , son g , Lar g o alfac totu m , from The B ar ber ofSevil

le .
Rossin i , son g , B elRagg i o, from Sem i ra m ide

”
.
Rossini , ov erture to Wi lli a m Tell r

, a r or pi a n o du et
f . .
D on i zetti , song , C om e g en til from Don Pasqua le ’ ”

.
,
B el
lini , song , C as ta D iva , from Norm a
”
.
D on i zetti , sextet from Dad a , arr f or pi ano . .
Verdi , son g , Ah, fors e Iu i , from Travia ta

”
.
”
Verdi , son g , D i quel la pir a , from It Trovatore .
Verdi , tr an scr iption from IlTrovatore .
R A Strea tf
. eil
d, . Masters ofIta lia n Music .
G . P Up to n The Sta nda rd Operas

.
, .
H . S E dw ards L if
. e ofRossi n i , .
P Voss, Vi ncenzo B el
. li ni
C rowest, Ver di , Ma n a nd Musi cia n .
18 . Weber a nd the Rom a ntic School

B iogra phy of Weber .
W eber s operas’
.
Web er s other w orks

’
.
Style ofthe Ro m an ti c School .
Spohr s bi ogr a phy

’
.
Spohr s w orks
’
.
Marschn er an d his works .
O ther m em b ers ofthe school .
Il
lustrati on s :
Selection s from Weber s son atas ’

.
W eber , voca lscena Ag a tha s prayer from,

’
, Der Frei schutz .
W eber son g Sw ord Son g

, , .
”
W eber Perpetu u m Mob i l

, e .
Spohr, “Rose so en c ha n t ng , i ”
from
son g , Z em i re a nd Azor .
Spohr , sol
o sel
ec t on i Ca l
va ry from .
Spohr , sel
ec t on i from sym phony, Consecration fTones
o , arr . f
or pi ano
J . A Fu l
.ler -
Ma itlan d Masters ofGer ma n Musi c
, .
Arthur E lson , A Cr i tica l Hi story ofOpera .
Sir Juliu s B enedi ct Weber , .

APPENDIX 559
Nohl Spohr
,
G Mu enzer Mar schner

.
,
G R Kruse, Al
. . bert Lor tzi ng
19 . Fel
ix Mendelssohn
B i ogr a phy ofMen del
ssohn .
Ag es ofcom posers a t beg innin g an d en d ofc areer .
Mendelssohn s son gs a n d the Son gs wi thou t Words

’
.
Mendelssohn s fu gu es a n d contra pun talworks

’
.
Men delssohn s ora torios

’
.
Men delssohn s sym phoni es and overtures

’
.
Hun tin g Son g , from Song s wi thou t Wor ds N o 3 . . .
D ea th Song , from Son gs wi thou t Words N o 2 7 . . .
“
Song , Au fFl ug el n des Gesa n g es
”
.
Son g , Ueber die Berge steigt sc hon die Sonn e .
Prel u de an d Fu g u e in E m i nor .
“
Song , 0 rest in the Lord, from El
”
ij ah .
Overture , Heb rides, arr f or pi a no du et . .
“ ”
from St Pa ul
Song , Jerusal em , . .
Son g , B u t the Lord is m in dfu l from St Pa ul

”
. .
,
Selec tion from Scotch Sym p hony , arr f or pia n o duet . .
L am padi us, Lif

e o fMendel
ssohn .
e ofMendel
Str atton , L if ssohn .
U pto n , The Sta nda rd Orator ios .
U pton , The Sta nda rd Ca nta ta s .
Men delssohn , Letters; translated b y Lady Wallace .
F Hil
. l er, Mendel ssohn .
20 . Robert Schu m a nn
B iogr aphy ofSchu m a nn .
Professions or whi ch the grea t com posers were

f at first in tended.
’
Schu m ann s son gs .
’
Sc hum ann s pi a n o works .
’
Schu m ann s c an ta tas a n d o pera ti c work .
Schum a nn s cha m b er m u si c
’
.
Schu m ann s sym phon ies, etc

’
.
Clara Sc hu m an n a n d her work .
Il
lus trati ons :
Gril len , from the Pha nta si estit c ke .
“
Son g , Er , der herrl ichste von allen .
“
Sohg , Hi l ft m i r, Ihr Schwes tern ”
.
Sel ec ti ons f rom the Carneva l .
“
Son g , B ra u tl i ed ”
.
“
Son g , Ich grol le ni cht .
Nachtstu ck n o 4 in F . .
Son g , Vol ied

ksl .
Son g , Mon dn a cht ”

.
Sel ecti on from First or Four th Sym p hon , arr . f piano duet
y or .
560 APPEND IX
e a nd Works ofRobert Schu mann

Reissm ann , L if .
J . A Ful
l
.er Schu m an n
-
Ma itlan d ,
.
e, Tol
Schu m a nn s L if
’
d i n His Letter s .
Lou is C El son , H istory ofGerm a n Song

. .
B iogra phy ofC hopin .
Styl e ofhi s pi an o w orks in vari ous form s .
His song s .
His orchestralworks .
Il
lustra ti ons :
Selecti on from Twenty-fou r Preludes .
“
Son g , Were I a birdlin g ”
.
Mili tary Polon ai se in A .
Son g
“ Der Reitersm ann .
,
N octurne in G Op 3 7 no 2 ,
.
, . .
Selecti on from Ma zurkas .
Song
“ Polan d s D irge ” ’
.
,
Selec tions from Sona ta with f un eralm arch .
F Niecks, Frederic Chopi n

. .
Jam es Hun ek er, Chopi n .
Ashton Jonson , Ha ndbook ofChopi n s Wor ks

’
- .
H T Fin ck , Chopi n , and Other MusicalEssa ys

. . .
George Sa n d, Chopi n (letters, etc , coll

a ted) . .
22 . B erl
ioz a nd Liszt
B iography ofB erl
i oz .
B iog ra phy i
ofL szt.
L iszt s pi a no works
’
.
L iszt s transc riptions

’
.
L iszt s orchestralworks and their styl

’
e .
Il
lustra tions :
ioz,
B erl Menuet des Sylphes an d Danse des Feu Follets from -
, The Da m na ti on j
o
i oz,
B erl song , Vil
lan el
le .
Liszt, Li eb estr au m .
“
L iszt, son g , Du bist W ie eine Bl um e .
L i szt, Ca m pa ne ll a .
Liszt, Serm on ofSt Fra nci s to the B i rds . .
“
L iszt, song , Die Lorel ei
”
.
Liszt, Ra koczy Mar ch .
L iszt, selec ti on f rom Rha p sodi e: Hongroi ses .

562 APPENDIX
His operas an d b al
lets .
His shorter w orks .
Il
lustra tions
Ru binste in , Melody in F .
“Du
Rubinstein son g , ,
bist wie ein e B lum e .
“ ”
Ru bi nstein song The Drea m
, ,
.
Ru bi nstein Ka m m en oi Ostrov
,
.
Ru binstei n first two dan ces from b al

,
let m usi c ofFera mors .
“ ”
Ru binstein song The Asra
, ,
.
Tschaik ov sky , Anda nte Ca nta bi l

e f rom strin g q u artet, O p 11, . arr . f
or pi ano
.
“
Tscha ikov sky , song , N ur wer di e Sehn su cht k enn t
”
.
Tschaikov sk y, sel
ec t ons i from Sym phonic Pathéti que , arr . f
or piano du et .
Modeste Tschaikov sky , L if

e ofTscha ikovsky .
Rosa Newm a rch, Tscha ikovsky .
O cta ve Fou qu e, Gl
i nka
ex
Al . McArthur , Anton Rubi nstei n .
B iogr aphy ofW agner .
Populari ty ofRi enzi an d its style .
Advan ces in The Fl yi ng Dutchm a n , Ta nnhauser, an dLohengri n .
Adverse cr i ticism s .
The Nib elu ng en Ri ng .
Parsi falan d Di e Meistersi nger .
The use ofgu i din g m otives, il

l ustra ted b y Act I ofDi e Walkure .
Prayer from Rienzi .
March from Ta n nha us er .
Elsa 8 Wedding Procession

’
, f
rom Loheng ri n .
Son g
“Alb um Lea f ” -
.
,
“Am “
Songs, stil
len Herd a n d Pri ze Song ,
”
from Die Meistersi nger .
Mag i c Musi c tran sc ription from Di e Walkure

Fi re , .
The Forest Rus tl i ng transcrip tion from Siegf

ri ed
, .
Si egfri ed s Fun eralMarch from Di e Gotterdam meru ng

’
. .
Fin ck , Wag ner a nd hi s Wor ks .
Gusta v Kobbe, Wagner a nd hi s Works .
Praeger Wag ner as I Knew

, Hi m .
W a gn er , col
lected l
etters, essa ys, My L ife , etc .
Ju dith G au tier , Wagner at H o me .
Angel o N eu m a nn , P erson alRecol

lec ti ons ofWa g ner .
Va rious m onogr a phs on each ofW agn er s m usi c-dram as

’
.
26 . Vari ous Sym phon ists

B i ogra phy ofB r ahm s .
Sym phoni es an d or chestralw orks ofB ra hm s.

APPENDIX 56 3
His pi an o pieces a n d songs .
B iogr a phy ofRafi .
Works an d m elodious style ofRa fi .
Va ri ous Germ an com posers .
L ife a n d works ofB ru ckner .
Il
lus tra ti on s
C a v atina for vi ol
in an d pi an o .
“
Ra fi , song , Gu te N acht ”
.
Ra fi, Marc h from L enore Sy m p hony, arr f or . pi ano du et .
B ra hm s,
“The Li ttl ”
son g , e D ustm a n .
B r a hm s, son g ,
“Mailied ”
.
B rahm s, ecti on from First Pi an o So na ta

sel .
B rahm s, son g ,
“W ie
bist du m ein e Koni gin .
B rahm s, song Sa pphi c Ode

,
”
.
B rahm s, ecti on from Se cond Sym phony arr

sel , . f
or pi a no duet
.
J . L Erb , Lif
. e o fB rahm s .
H D eiters, J oha nnes B ra hm s

. .
Fel i x Weing artner, The Sym phon y si nce B eethoven .
Philip H Goepp, Sym phonies a nd thei r Mea ni ng

. .
B rahm s, Letters, edited b y Kalb ec k .
27 . Grieg a nd Sca ndi na via n Music

B iogr a phy ofGr eg . i
His song s .
H is shorter pi a no works .
H is or chestralw orks .
Life a n d w orks ofSv en dsen .
L ife a n d w orks ofS n di ng . i

G a de a nd D a ni sh c om posers .
Hal
len and the Sw edi sh school
.
Sibel
iu s a n d the a i sh sc hool
.
G ri eg , An Spri ng .
Gri eg , Ma rch ofthe Dwa rf

s .
Grieg , song ,
“D iePrin zessin .
”
G ri eg , son g , The First Prim rose .
Sin din g , Rus tle ofSpr i ng .
Norse folk-son g , Astri , m y Astri .
”
Norse folk son g The Herder s C all-
,
’
.
Gade Marches f or pi a n o four ha n ds

, , .
Sibel ius son g In g ahll ”

.
, ,
Gri eg Peer Gyn t Su i te arr f

, or pi a n o duet ,
. .
H T Fi n ck , L if
. e ofGri eg
. .
son , Modern Com posers

Arthur E l fEu rope
o .
564 APPEND IX
28 . Stra uss a nd P rogra mm e Music
B iogra phy of Ri cha rd Stra uss .
The scope ofprogr am m e m usi c .
Mahler, Wein g artn er , H a usegger, a n d others.
Stra uss, sel

ec t ons i from
der, Op 9
Sti m m u ngsbil . .
“All
erseel
”
Stra uss, song , en .
Str auss, son g ,

“Tra um durch di e Dam m eru ng .
Str auss, sel

ec t on i from Sym phon y in F m inor, a rr . f
or pi ano du et .
“ ”
W ein g artn er , son g , Li eb esf
ei er .
“Serena de ”
Stra uss, son g , .
Str auss , sym phoni c poem , Dea th a nd Tra ns f

i gu ration , a rr . f
or piano .
Ernest Newm an Richar d Stra uss ,

.
Arthur E lson Modern Com posers ofEur ope

, .
Fm deri ck N iec ks P rogra m m e Music , .
29 . Debussy a nd Modernism
Cé sar Fr an ck an dhi s works .
D Indy an d others
’
.
D eb ussy s w orks, andtheir har m on i c styl

’
e .
Work ofFan ell i , Satie, Faure, an d others, in France .
W ork ofRe ger , Schoen berg , a n d others, in Germ an y .
W ork ofB usoni in Ita ly .
Work ofSc ri ab in e Ra chm anin ofi Stravin sk y an d others in Russi a

, , , , .
Work ofCyrilScott Deli us Holb rooke an d others in England

, , , , .
Il
lustra ti ons :
Fr an ck , sel ecti ons f rom Prel u de, Ari a, et Final .
Debussy , son g ,
”
Rom an ce .
“
Fa ure, song , Les Roses d Isp aha n
’
.
“
Scott, In Lo tus La n d
”
.
“Les
Deb ussy , song , Cl oc hes .
Rac hm a n in ofi , Prelu de in C -sha rp m i n or .
Sa tie, sel
ec ti on f rom Son neri es d a Rosc Croi s
e l c .
Sc hoen berg , sel ec tion f rom Three P i a no P i eces .
“
De bussy , L Apré s Midi d un Fa un e, arr f or pi an o
’
-
’ ”
. .
Lo u is La l
oy , Cl
a ude Debu ssy
Mrs Franz L iebi ch, Cla ude Debussy

. .
G D erepas , C esar Fra nc k

’
Vin cen t D In dy, Cesar Fra nck

’
.
30 . Music i n Russia
Life an d w orks ofB al
aki refi .
L ife a n d w orks ofB orod n . i

APPENDIX
Switzerl an d .
Il
lustra ti ons
E dward Germ an , ecti on

sel from or piano
Hen ry VIII Da nces, f and violin
.
”
Sg a m b a ti , song , Visi on e .
Wolf-Ferrari , song , selec tion from Vi ta Nuova .
B ossi , sel
ec t on i from Sui te Anci enne Op 103 , . .
Hu ber, songs, selec ti on from P eregr i nw Li eder , Op 3 2

. .
beni z, Segui di lla

Al .
Paderewsk i Min u et , .
Fi b ich song Sprin g Longing

, , .
Tin el song Hym n to Poverty from Fra nciscus

, , , .
Sm etana sel ec ti on from H ochzei tszen en

,
Dvolak sel ection from New Wor l d Sym phony arr f piano duet
‘
, , . or .
J A M l
. er-Ma i tl
. a n d, En gli sh Mu si c i n the Ni neteenth Century .
Arthur E l son , Modern Com posers of Europe .
R J B u ckley, Si r EdwardE l
. .
gar .
Albert Sou b ies, Hi stoi re de l a Musi qu e, in the fol lowi n g volu m es : B el

g iu m
B ohem i a , Spa i n Sca ndi na via n Countries Hol la nd, Hungary, P ortugal ,
Swi tzerl
a nd
JZ ub a ty , Anton Dvoi dk
.
Wasiliewski , CarlRei necke .
Pilgrim and Puri tan m usi c .
The rise ofconcerts a n d oper a .
Negro a n d Indian m usic .
Pai ne C hadwick Mac Dowell Parker

, , , , Foote, and other orchestrall
ea ders.
More recent com posers .
C om posers in sm al
ler form s .
Il
lus tra ti ons :
“
Cha dwi ck , song , Allah .
Parker, selec tion from Hora Ncoissi mo , pia no score .
Pa ine , sel
ec t on i from
Gi di pus
'
m u si c arr for piano
, . .
Paine , song , A Farewel l .
Foote , song , Irish Fol k-Son g .
MacDowell, Poem for pian o .
Mac Dowell, OfB re r Ra bbit

’ ”
.
C on verse, C honi ta s prayer, Act It, The Sa cri fice

’
.
APPEND IX 56 7
Herbert, Lul a by from Act III, Natom a

l .
Kel ey , B a l
l let E pisode .
D e Koven, song , C radl

e Song .
C adm an , song , Far ofi Ihea rd a lover s flu te,

’
from Four Am eri can India n Songs .
C hadwi ck, overture Mel pom ene , arr for pia no . .
Louis C Hi story ofAm er ica n Music

. Elson , .
Ru pert Hughes, Conte m porary A merica n Com posers .
Oscar G Sonnec k (m usicall

ibrarian ofCo ngress), Ear ly ConcertL ife in America
.
.
Osca r G Sonn ec k , The Sta r-Spa ngl

. edB a n ner .
Natalie C urtis, The Indi a ns B ook

’
.
Alice C Fletcher, Indi a n Story and Song

.
.
JA Lorna x , Cowboy Song s

. . .
W S B Ma thewa A H u ndred Y ears

. . .
fMusic tn Am erica
o .
(See sec t on on i Musi ca lForm in th s i volum e C El

. L ou is
son s Theor y ofMusic,
.
'
Ernst Pau er s MusicalForm s ’

, and E Pro u t s
.
’
The Fug u e. an d Music alForm s ) .
84 Fig ures, P hrases,

. a nd P eri ods
E xpla in in figure as a single idea oftwo or m ore n otes .
ustr a te b y the first m o vem en t ofB eethoven s fi fth a n d sixth sym phon i es
’
Il
l , show
ing how a fig u re is used to b u i ld u p a work Il lustra te al

so b y the three-no ted fig .
“
ure in Aase s Dea th, from Grieg s P eer Gynt Su ite , the tw o-n oted fig ur e in nearl
’ ” ’
y
every b ar ofSchu ett s R
’
everie , etc .
Et rase as a singl e m d odic idea l ong er thm the fig m e an d pcr hap s m ade up
Il
lustra te phrases by MendeMohn s ’
Song s without Words , Sc hum a nn
’
s Ki nder
szenen, etc .
Expla in period , or them e, phrases The first phrw e

as m ade u p oftwo con tr asted .
,
see m s incom pl ete b y itsel f as if it were a n un a nswered

”
cal led the a n teceden t
, , ,
question The second phr a se cal

. led the conse q u en t
”
seem s to b rin g an a nswer
, ,
a n d a sen se o fcom pl eten ess The phr a ses n eed not b e ofthe sa m e size the con
.
,
se q u en t of ten being l ong er tha n the a n teceden t The consequ en t frequen tl y en ds .
in a ca dence or ha rm oni c cl ose, .
Il
lustra te sin g l e per iods in the Mendel ssohn a n d Sc hum a nn works c ited abo ve;
Expla in tha t a song form m a y consist ofa single period

-
.
ustr a te b y the Germ a n fol k song The B roken Ring ”

Il
l - .
Expla in tha t a ny m usical form m ay ha ve an introdu ction com ing before its struc
'
»
,
ture beg in s or a coda com in g af te r it l

, ike a m usi calpostsc ript or both
, , .
ustra te the singl e period form b y Sc ria b ine s Prel

’
Il
l u de in G da t -
.
betw een the per iods .
Expla in ab o tha t the second period m a y b e wholly new , or m a y ha ve its conse u en t q

56 8 APPENDIX
the sa m e, or n earl
y the sa m e, as tha t ofthe first period In the first case the two
.
period in depen den t form results a n d in the , secon d, the two- peri od form wi th
partia lreturn .
ustra te the two period in depen den t form b y song s su ch as Ann i e La urie and
”
Ill -
, ,
certa in eig ht l
i ne hym n tun es
- .
Il
lustra te the two peri od form wi th p artia lreturns b y son gs su ch as
- Drink to m e ,
” ”
onl y wi th thin e eyes Bonni e Doon a n d certa in hym n tunes tha t show this
, ,
form Sta te tha t either period m ay b e repea ted

. .
State tha t com posers are usu al ly devoted to the idea ofl etting the open ing m a ter ia l
return ei ther w hol

,
ly or in p ar t so tha t the two per iod in dependent form is n ot
,
-
m u ch used in instru m en talm usi c .
ustra te b y Men del

”
Il
l ssohn s first Gon del i ed whi ch is a two period indepen dent
l ’
,
-
form b u t has the m ater ialofthe first per iod suggested in the coda
,
.
Expla in tha t three division form consists ofa period a contrasti ng period or free
-
,
episode an d a return ofthe first peri od ei ther whol

,
ly or w i th a ltered conseq uent , , ,
or condensed to a si ng l e phrase E xplai n tha t such form s m ay ha ve in trodu ction

.
,
coda tra nsi tion p assa g es or r eturn i ng p assag es the l

, ,a tter bei ng p assag es tha t ,
l ea d to the return ofthe first period When the con trasting sec tion is di vi ded .
into antecedent a nd conseq u en t a nd has a fullc aden ce it is c alled a cou nter

, ,
”
them e Ifit shows l
. ess defini te stru c ture i t is ca l
led a n ep isode Som e wri ters , .
sugg est tha t if the m i ddl e sec tion does n ot show a di visi on in to an teceden t a n d
"
conseq uen t i t shoul d b e c al
led a free episode E xplai n tha t when repea ts are .
m ade it is usua lto repea t the first p art b y i tsel

, f or the secon d an d third tog ether , ,
or to m a ke both repea ts Som eti m es however a cou n terthem e is repea ted b y

.
, ,
i tself .
ustra te b y C ha m i na de s ScarfDa nce This pi ece has peri ods ofsi xteen m easures
’
Il
l .
each wi th re pea ts wri tten ou t the m iddl

, e sec tion being a n episode b u t n ot a
, ,
ustra te b y Mendel ssohn s Dea th Song This piece has a n in troduc tion an d coda
’
l
Il .
m ade ofsi m il
ar m a teri al, a n d the sa m e rhythm is used a t the cl ose ofthe episode .
The repeat ofthe first peri od is wri tten ou t, a n d its co nsequ en t extended in the
return The m iddl
. e sec tion is an episode The piece is b rou ght to a cl im ax b y .
y ri cher accom p a n im en t g iven to the first period

the con sta ntl
ustra te b y Men del
.
ssohn s H u nti n After a short in trodu cti on thi s pi

’
Il
l g Son g .
ece
,
shows a first period divided very un eq u ally the first phrase lasting only four ,
m easures whil e the conseq u en t is se veralti m es tha t l

, ength Af ter a n episode the .
,
fi period returns the an tecedent a ppear ing in the left han d There is a long
zz
, .
Il
lustr a te b y Mendel ssohn s Con sol This has an eight-b ar peri od, retur ni ng
’
a ti on .
w ith al tered consequ en t, a n d a six b a r epi sode The separate bi ts a t the be i n n in

-
g g .
an d end are so cl ea rly su gg estive ofac com p a ni m ent to a song tha t they m a y b e
term ed prel u de a n d postl u de, instead ofi ntrodu cti on a n d c oda .
lustra te b y Jen sen s B rida lSong This pi ece has sev enteen m easu res ofin trodu c
’
Il .
tion The first period is sixteen m easu res l

.
on g A secon d peri od (coun terthem e) is .
re pea ted wi th a ltera tions E ighteen b ars ofreturn in p assa e bri

g g ng the return
.
ofthe first peri od B ut instead ofa l tering the conseq uen t, Jensen l
.
et it en d in
the dom i nan t, as before, a n d wrote a nother period to et the piece in to the toni c
g
57 0 APPEND IX
e xten ded b y p
wi th the l
re ea ts, ast occu rrence ofthe first sec ti on consi derabl y
shortened, a n d a b rief coda added Show tha t the first section , ofn ea rl y two p ages,
.
is not in period form , b u t is b uil

t u p ofthe m a teri aloccurri n g in the first few ba rs .
The second secti on , sostenuto, seem s m ore in peri odic styl e resem b l ing a three-pa rt
“
w ith Ani tra s Da n ce ,
’ ”
from
Grieg s Peer Gynt Sui te Show tha t this is ’
Il
lustra te .
practi cally a son g form with a long episode, thou gh it is ron do-like in character
-
.
Note the un usu alprocedure ofprolong in g the an teceden t in the return, instea d of
al tering the conseq u en t, to b rin g the c a den ce in to the proper key .
em en ti s Ro n do in the k ey ofF, in whi ch the first section is b rought

’
Il
lustra te b y C l
back b y the D C m a rk . .
di ni s Pou pée Va l Show tha t this is m u ch l ik e a song~form

’
l
Ilu stra te b y Pol sa nte .
wi th a l ong episode It ha s five b ars of in trodu c tion , a n d a peri od for the first
.
sec ti on The l
. ength ofthe episode, how ever , a n d the un usuall eng th an d rem inis
cen t cha rac ter ofthe coda , are m ore su g g est e ofron do tha n ofson g - orm iv f .
Il
lustr a te b y the sl
’
v
ow m o em ent ofB eetho en s F rst Son a ta Som e callth s a song v i . i
form ; b u t the fi
rst sec t on ofs teen i
ar s seem s two- er od, wh l ix
e the s de sec b p i i i
i pi
t on is too e sod ca lto b e a tr o i i .
Il
lus tr a te b y the Ad a gi o in Moza rt s Sona ta ’
in D , no . fi C ol
15 in the Litol lec t on i .
The Adagio itsel f is in A .
39 . The Second Rondo, etc .
E xpla in that second rondo consists ofa section a side section retur n offirst sec
tion a secon d side section a n d a n other return of first sec tion This A B A C A
, ,
, ,
.
- - - —
stru cture is n ot foun d a m ong the son g form s so tha t even w hen the sec tions are -
,
onl y sin gl e peri ods the pi ece m u st sti l

, lb e c a l
led a ro n do Som e tea chers how .
,
ever cal, lthis singl e peri od ron do a five pa rt son g form

-
B u t the ron do m ay b e - -
.
m u ch l arg er in stru cture ha vin g com pl ete song form s or l

, on g free p assa ges for -
an y on e ofi ts sec ti ons It m a y thus a pproxim a te to the song form wi th two trios
.
-
,
b u t is ofcourse freer in sty l e an d less defin i tel y divi ded in to periods Any ron do .
section m a y b e repea ted sin g l y .
ustra te the singl e period ron do b y Moszkowsk i s Span ish D a n ce Op 12 n o 1

’
Il
l -
, .
, . .
Show tha t i ts five sections are al la bou t eq ua lin im portan ce so tha t i t coul d n ot ,
b e cl assed as a song form wi th sing l e peri od tri o a n d a bbre vi a ted retur n

- -
.
u str a te wi th B eethoven s Fur El i se in w hi ch the first secti on is a three-pa rt

’
Il
l ,
son g form
- .
us tra te b y the sl ow m ovem en t ofB eethoven s Sona t a Pa thétiqu e

’
Il
l .
ustr a te b y Gri eg s Norweg ia n B rida l Processi on

’
l
Il .
wi th on e or m ore si de sec tions tha t coul

d occur m ore tha n once .
ustra te b y Ma r ti ni s Ga votte, Les Moutons

’
l
Il .
E xpla in tha t the structure A-B-A-C -A B -A ha s been used, a ndhas som etim es -
been
l
cal i
ed th rd ron do .
E xpla in the use b y B rahm s ofthe structure A B C B A - - - -

,
i
cons stin g ofm a n sect on, i i
first side sec ti on second si de section first side section
, , , and m a n sec t on i i .
Il
lustra te b y Moza rt s m a r ch Ala Tu rca , in whi ch a i fter
’
l certa n them e is a dded a
eac h se cti on ofthe w ork Show tha t withou t this . e xtra them e the piece woul
d
seem l ike a song form with trio -
.
AP PEND IX 57 1
40 . The Sonata -Al

legro Form i n Maj or
Explain the a -a l
sona t legro form , n am i ng ea ch division ofthe form ,
them e and each
an d g ivin g the keys ofeac h them e in a m aj or sona ta Show tha t this form a l lows .
grea t va riety ofstyl e, excel len t possibil i ti es ofbal a nce a nd con trast, an d an oppor
tu ni ty f or fig ur e trea tm en t .
Il
lustra te the i dea offig u re trea tm en t a n d devel o pm en t b y play ing ag a in the first
sec ti on ofC hopin s N oc turn e in G, O p 37, n o 2

’
. . .
Il so b y the first m ovem en ts ofB eethov en s Fi fth a n d Six th Sym phon ies,
’
lustr a te al
played wholly or in part

—
.
Il
lustra te the sona ta form b y ana l yzing the first m ovem en ts ofse ver al Moza rt
sona tas, a n d so m e ofH a ydn s
’
.
If con veni ent, il lus tra te the ea rl i er sona tas b y ana lyzi n g first m ovem en ts from
Sca rl a tti , Ga l u ppi , Pa ra disi , K
u hn a u , a n d C P E B ach . . . .
Il
lustra te b y a n a l y zing the first m ovem ent ofBeethoven s Secon d an d Third Pia no
’
Sona tas, al so the fir st m ovem en t ofthe W al dstein Sona ta .
Show tha t B eethoven g rew to wa rd freedom ofform , a nd expl a in tha t his last five
sona tas are very free .
In conn ec ti on with Mozart s son atas vem en ts ha ve more

’
, note tha t som e ofthe mo
tha n one cl osin g them e .
41 The So
.na ta -Al
legro Form i n Mi nor
E xplain the e ofk eys
schedul f
or the a -al
sona t legro form in m in or .
Il
lustra te b y a na l i
yz ng the first m ovem ent ofMozart s Son ata ’
n o. 16 in the Li tol
fi
colec tion
l .
Haydn
’
Il
lustra te b y y zin g
an al s Son ata n o. 5 in Ten Cel
ebrated Sona tas .
Il
lustra te b y a nal i
yz n g the first m ovem ent ofB eethoven s First So na ta the first ’
,
mo vem ent ofhis Sona ta Pathétiqu e a nd the first m ovem ent ofhis Fifth Sym
,
Give e ofk ey s
a sc hedul when the secon d them e ofa m in or sona ta a ppears in the
Il
lustra te b y ana l i
yz n g the finale ofBeethoven s First Sona ta ’
, Op 2 , . n o. 1 .
Expl
a in that the rem a n ng i i mo vem ents ofa son a ta m a y b e in variou s form s . Show
the g en eralstyl e ofthe m o em en ts v .
Il
l f
ustra te the m i n u et rom the H aydn an d Mozart sona tas , show ng i tha t itis a song
Il
l e the first
ustr a t ron do form b y the sl
ow m o em en t v from B eethoven s Fi rst
’
Son a ta , or by Moza rt s Alla

Tu rca
’
.
Re fer to the slow m ovem en t ofthe Sona ta Pa thétique as il

lustra ti n g secon d ron do .
arge song form a n d tr io b y the m ovem en t in Tscha ikovsky s

’
l
Ilustra te a l -
Il
l em en ti s Sona tina , Op 36 ,
ustra te b y C l
’
. no . 3 .
Expla in the sona tina-rondo form .
Il
lustra te b y the finale ofBeethoven s Sonata Pathéti que ’
.
5 7?
Descr ibe them e an d vari ations .
Describe the fugue in finale ofLechn er s Suite ’

use ofa the , Op 113
. .
43 OrchestralForm s
.
Expla in tha t sym phon y cl assi caloverture con cert

, o string quartet pi an o trio etc , , , ,
are in the son a ta form though the overture has n o repea t ofthe exposi tion
-
,
.
Describe the Fren ch overture form - .
ustra te b y the o verture t o H an dels Messia h

’
Il
l .
Describe the dr a m a ti c overture .
ustra te b y pi ano arrang em en t ofBeethov en s Egm ont overture

’
Il
l .
Desc rib e the cl a ssi ca lovertu re .
ustra te b y Moza rt s Don Gi ova nn i overture

’
Il
l .
Describe the m edl ey o v erture .
us tr a te b y the ov erture to Herol

’
Ill d s Z a m pa .
Desc ribe the con cert overture .
Il
lustra te b y p art or al lofthe Hebrides overture b y Men del ssohn , .
Desc ribe the W ag neria n Prel u de .
Il
lustra te b y the Prel u de to P ar sifal .
Expla in the sym phoni c poem .
Explain the sco pe ofprogram m e m usi c .
Show i ts wea kn ess b y pl aying Ra m ea u s La Pou l e or som e other su i ta ble pi ece

’
, ,
wi thou t g ivin g its ti tl e ; an d let the hea rers g u ess wha t the m usi c is trying to
44 Da nces, Suites,
. et
c.
Describe the ol d da nces and their styl e .
E xplai n the old dan ce su i tes -

.
Il
l ec ti ons from the su i tes ofB ac h an d others
ustr a te b y sel .
Desc ribe those earl y m ov em en ts tha t were n ot da n ces .
E xpla in the m odern sui te a nd the di verti mento .
e cti on s from B izet s first a n d secon d Su i t ésienne, Grieg s Peer

e Arl
’
Il
l ustra te b y sel
’
Gynt Su i te, Massen et s Scenes Pi ttor esques , etc

’
.
Describe the v ar i ous pi an o styl es g iv en in the cha p te r on Musi calForm , in this

volum e .
Il
l es , su ch as a Chopin Noc turne, a C hopin Mazurk a, Go
ustr a te b y v ar i ous exa m pl
dard s Novel ozza , Sc hu m ann s N ovel yin sky s B erceuse, Ru bi nstein s B ar

’ ’
l ettes, Il
’ ’
e, Tscha ik ovsky s Son g wi thou t Words, Pi ern é s Serenade, Paderewski s

’
carol l ’ '
Melodie, etc .
Expla in p i pa rt wr iti ng instea d ofchord wri ting

cou n ter o n t as - -
.
Il
l d v oca luse ofit b y P al
ustr a te the ol estrina s 0 bone Jesu
’
.
Explai n Madr ig al Motet a n d C horale

, , .
Descr ibe the Mass a n d its di visi ons .
l
Ilustr a te b y Marzials ’
duet, Friendshi p .
574 APPENDIX
this was
wri tte n ig in ally parody on
—
or as a the styl
e.
”
Irish folk son g , The L i ttl e Red Lar k .
E nglish folk-song style, Twi ckenham Ferry .
Am eri ca n folk - song styl e, My Old Ken tu ck y Hom e .
Ar t-son g , Kin g , Isra f el .
Germ an L i ed styl e, Sc hum a nn , Du Ring an m ein em Finger .
Al bert B B ach, Musi ca lEducation a nd Voca lCulture

. .
Albert B B ac h, The Pri nci pl

. es ofSi ngi ng .
H H C urtis, Voi ce B u i l
. . di ng a nd Tone Pl
-
ac i ng -
.
Arthur Elson , The Musici a n s Guide

’
.
Lilli Lehm ann , How to Si ng .
Ferd Sieber , The Voice .
W esley Mil ls, Voi ce P roduction .
W illi am Sha kespeare, The Art ofSi ng i ng .
Sir C harl ey , The Art ofSi ngi ng

es San tl .
H C La hee, Fa m ou s Si ngers
. . .
G B La m perti , The Techn ics ofB elCa nto

. . .
Em ilBehnk e, The Mecha nis m ofthe H u m a n Voi ce .
49 . The P ia n o a nd i t
s P redecessors
Describe the dul c im er, the cl a vi c hord, the virg i na l s, the spinet, an d the
chord, exp l a i ni n g the prin cipl e ofto n e p rodu c ti on i n ea c h .
Desc ribe the sc hool s ofm usi c com posed f or these instru m en ts .
Desc ribe the in v en ti on an d devel op m en t ofthe pi an o, showing how sl owl y it cam e

in to generaluse .
E xplai n the m echanism and action ofthe m odern pi an o .
Give a n i dea ofwha t pi an o prac ti ce i s l ike, contrasting weight and m uscle playing .
E xpla in the vari ous schools ofpi a no m usi c .
Describe the work ofcerta in f am ous pi an ists .
E xplai n what the au di tor should look for a t a piano recital .
Illustra ti ons :
d virg i n alpi ece, Sel len ger s Rou nd (E l iza betha n)

’
Ol .
H ar psi chord m usi c, sel ec tions from D Scarl

’
a tti s sona tas . .
E arly pi a n o style, Hum m el, C aprice .
E m bellished style, Mozart, Ron do in A m in or
—
.
B road pi an o styl e, B eethov en , first m ovem en t ofSona ta Appassi ona t a .
C o n tra pu n ta lstyl e, Men del ssohn , Prel u de a n d Fug ue i n E m i n or .
C hord styl e, Schu m ann , Gri l l

en .
’ “
Modern style, L izst, transcripti on ofSchubert s Hark, hark, the la rk an d The ”
ErlKin g ”
.
H . E . Kr ehbiel
, The Pi anoforte and i ts Music .
APPENDIX 575
History ofthe org an .
Stru c ture ofm odern org a ns .
The c hi ef org an com posers .
How to pl ay the org an .
Som e fam ous org an ists .
Vital
i , C ha conne for violin and organ .
B ac h, St . Ann s Fan tasie an d Fu g ue

’
.
W i dor, Toc ca ta .
Guil m ant, sel ec ti on from org a n sona tas.
Hopk ins a n d Ri m b a ult, The Organ .
ey , The Art ofOrga n-B u il

Au dsl di ng .
La b ee, The Orga n a nd i ts Masters .
Pi rro, B ach a nd his Orga n Works .
O RC HE STRAL INST RUME NTS
(See B erli oz, Orchestrati on , re vised b y Str auss ; Prou t, The Orchest
ra Arthur E lson
,
Orchestral Instru m en ts a nd thei r Use ; C ec il Forsyth, La vignac,
Musi c a nd Musi cia ns, and Musical Educati on ) .
Techn i qu e, tone-col or, an d use ofthe violin .
Vi ol
s a nd Vi ol i
-m us c .
C arlEn gel ,
The Earl y History ofthe Viol
i n Fa m il
y .
Pa ulSto eving , The Story ofthe Violi n .
La hee, Fa m ous Vi ol
i nists .
52 . Other B owed Instruments

Tec hn i que, ton e- col
or , a nd use ofthe viola .
Tec hn i qu e, tone-color , an d use ofthe vi ol

on cel
lo .
53 . Other Stri nged Instru m ents
Techn i qu e, ton e-col

or , and use ofthe harp .
The gu i tar .
The m an dol in .
The b an j o .
L u tes dl
a n d ol u te m us c i .
W H. . ood, The St
Gratta n Fl ory o fthe Harp .
576 APPENDIX
54. The Fl
ute Fa m il
y
Techni que , to n e-col

or, an d use ofthe flu te .
B ass an d other fl utes .
The pi ccolo .
H . Maca ulay t gib b on , The Story ofthe Fl

ute .
55 The Oboe Fa m i l
.
y
Techn i que, ton e-col
or , a n d use ofthe o oe . b
Tec hn i qu e, ton e-col

or , and use ofthe E nglish horn .

or , an d use ofthe b assoon .

or, an d use ofthe con tra b assoon .
56 . The Cl
a ri nets

or , an d use ofthe cl
a rinet in C , B flat, -
The acousti cs oftu bes .
Transposing ins tru m en ts a n d their rise .
Techni qu e, ton e-color , an d use ofthe m il i tary clarinets .
Tec hni que , ton e-col

or , a n d use ofthe b asse t horn .

or , an d use ofthe b ass cl a rinet .
57 . The Hig her B rass Instru ments

H istory ofhorn an d tru m pet playin g .
Tec hni que, to n e-col

or , a n d use ofthe Fren ch horn .
Techn i qu e, to n e-col
or , a n d use ofthe trum pet .
Tec hni qu e, to n e-col

or , a n d use ofthe com et.
Techni que, to n e-col

or, an d use ofthe sa xophones .
58 The Deeper B rass Instru ments

.
Techni que, to ne-col or , and use ofthe trom bones .
E arly tr om bon e pla y in g .
Tec hni q u e, to n e-col

or , a n d use ofthe tu b as .
The W agn er ia n b rass instrum ents .
The o phi cleide ,

p
ser en t, etc .
Kettl
edru m s .
O ther dru m s .
Cy m b als .
Bells a n d g ongs .
C el
esta a n d gl ock enspiel .
60 . The Orchestra as a Whol

e
G ive ta bl
e ofto ne-col
ors ofthe instrum ents .
58 2 INDE X
Sc hu m a n n , Scherzo of Fi rst Au bert Lou i s 258 , ,
phony 32 9 ,
. Au dun dso n Torg ei r 23 1 , , .
Sin di n g Ru stl e ofSp r i ng , , Au lin Tor 234 , ,
Son g s v a ri ou s 3 22 323 , . An li u Va lborg 234

, , .
Tou rs, Ga votte Modem

, ,
3 34 , . Au los 16 ,
.
Anderse n, arl oac hi m , 235 K J . Austr i a n Na ti on a lHym n 93 , .
An dre oha n n , 105 J . Au then ti c m odes 24 , .
Ave Mar i a 3 6 3
,
Andrée, E lr da 234 fi , . , .
i
An er c , Felc e, 53 i . Aver ka m p 282 , .
i
An er c , G o a n n , 53 i v i . Ayres Fre deri c , 305
, .
i
An m u cc ia G o a nn , 52 , i v i .
An sw er , 3 69 B a b yl on ia n m u si c 10 , .
An te c eden t 323 , . B ac h C h ri sto ph, 6 9

, .
An them , 36 2 . B ac h C ar lPh i l
, ipp E m an u el, 75 76, 336 -
,
An ti pov, C on stan t n , 2 69 i 46 5
—
.
Ap ol lo a nd the y tho n , 18 19 P . B ac h, Ha n s, 53 69 , .
A rec a t on ofMu s c , 309

pp i i i B a ch , H a n s the p l a yer 69 , , .
Ap tom m a s B rothers 28 7 , . B a c h J oha n n Am brosi us 6 9

, , .
p
A ule u s 2 1 i , . B a c h , J ohan n C hr isti an 89 , .
i
Ar ab an m u s c , 9 i B ach, J oh a nn C hr istop h 75
—
.
. ,
"
Are j a , Fra ncesc o, 196 . B ac h , J ohn Seb a sti an , 69 75 465 , .
Ar bos, G Fer n an de z, 2 77 . . B a ch , Vei t 53 , .
Ar c hi lei , V ttor a 6 1 i i , . Ba ch W i l
, hel m Fr i ede m a n n 75 , .
i
Arc h tec ton c s, 3 13 i . B a c k er Gr b n dahl -
, Ag a the, 23
2 .
Arc o sa l tan do 402 , . B ac k fal

-
l, 3 85 .
i p
Ar chb sho ofSa lzb u r g , 99 100 , B aerm a n n C a rl , 29
9, .
k
Aren s y, An ton Stepa n ovi tc h, 267 . B a g a tel le 359 , .
Arg en t 60 i B a g pip e 16 43 1 , .
ot Pi erre M
, . ,
i
Ar a , 3 60 . B ail l , a r i e,
Ari a n a et B a r be B l
-
ew , 2 9
5
. B a i n i Gi u se ppe , 55 .
a ki re v , Mi l
,
Ari stox en u s, 29 . B al y Al ex ei evi tc h, 26 1 .
Ar m i de 36 . B al al a i k a 4 18 .
B alfe Mi chaelW i l
,
Arn e M cha el
,
, 106 i . , l ia m , 283 .
Arn e Thom as Au g u st ne 84 i . Bal lad, 34 .
Ar nei ro ose, V sc ou nt d 277 J i . Ba ll ad op era 84 , .
d, Ma u r c e, 302
,
A r n ol i . B al la de 3 58 , .
Arnold Sa m u el, 106 . B al l a ta 358 , .
Y
,
Ar nol d ou r von 26 9
, i , . Ba l l et, 63 , 357 .
Ar nou l d So h e, 480 , p i . Ba l et Com i qu e de l

l a Rei ne 63 , .
p
Ar eg g o, 40 1, 4 15 i . B al ta za rin i 63 . .
pi
Ar , 4 13 . Bal tzel l, W il a rd J
l 305 , .
Arri eta u an E m lo 2 76
, J ii . . B a nc k C arl , , 15 0 .
Ar t ofF ug u e, The, 7 1, 7 2 . B a n durr i a 417 , .
i i
Ar t fic a la cc en ts, 525 . B a n i ster 64 , .
i i
Ar t fic a lg rou s, 52 1 p . B a n j o 4 18
, .
i i
Art fic alh ar m on i cs 4 01 ,
. B a n toc k , Gra n vi l le 28 5 , .
Artsi b ou tc he v, N col a , 2 70 i i . B a r b arossa 3 1 , .
Ar t-son g 3 6 1 , . B a r ba rossa 2 10 243 , , .
vi
Ar dson . B a r ber ofB a g da d, The 19 3 , .
i
Aryten o d c ar t la g e, 3 9 2 i . B a r ber of Sec i l le The 158
Asa n tc h evsk i M c ha el 26 9
.
, ,
, i , . B a rb irea u J a c q u es, 50 , .
Ashton Alg er non , 28 7

, . B ar b i tos 16 18 , , .
Asor, 10 . B ar ca rol le 359 , .
i
Assyr a n m u s c , 10 i . W oldem a r, 149 .
Ath erton Per cy L e e, 302 , . 39 5 .
Atro os 19 p , . B ar l
-
i ne 30 520 , , .
k
Atta c , 3 9 7 . B a rnb y , 2 84 .
Atta i g n ant, 51 . B arn ett,

Attru p K a rl
, , 23 5 . B a rta y , An dreas , 2 80 .
A u b a de 34 359 , . . ett, H om e r N ew ton , 3 02

B a r tl .
Au b er, Da n elFran co s E s r t, 174 i i pi B a rtlett, am es C a rro ll J

, 306 .
IND EX
Bartok Bel
a 280 , , . i
B zet, Geor es, 183 185
g
— .
Ba ss 42 39 5
, , . Bl an g i n i , G i use e, 175 pp
B ass, cl a ri n et, 44 2 Bl a ra m b e rg , Pa u l 268 , .
Ba ss da m p er pedal , 380 . Bl ec h , L eo , 246 , 250 .
B ass dru m 458 , . Bl ey le, Carl , 245 .
Ba sset horn 442 , . Bl oc k x J an , 282 , .
B ass fl u te 424 , . Bl u m , 133 .
B a sso ca n tante 39 5 , . Bl u m en el d Felx 270 f , i , .
B asso p rof u ndo 8 95 , . B lu m en tha l , ac ob , 157 J .
B a sson q u i n te 43 6 i i i i
B a ssoon 17, 433 436 ,
,
— .
.
B oc ch er n L u g , 96
B oehe, Ernst, 245
,
.
.
B a ss trom bon e, 451 . Boeh m u te 4 22 fl , .
B as s vi ol 407 , . B oel lm a n n , Leon , 187 .
B a ti ste An toin e E doua rd, 187

, . B ohm ose h, 488
, J .
B a ton 4 97 , . B o el i
d eu , i oi s Adr en , 170, 174 i .
B a ttery th e 456 , , . i
B o se , O t s B a w el l
, 300
i .
Ba u l du i n , N oel 51 , . B oi to , Arri g o, 164 .
B a ussn ern, W a l dem a r von 246 , .
B a zin , Fra n coi s J oseph 185 , . B om b a rdi 427 , .
B a zzi ni , An to n i o 2 76 48 9 , , . B o m b ardon 453 , .
B eac h Mrs H H A , 304

, . . . . B om b y x 18 , .
B eac h J ohn 305

, , . B on on c i n i Gi ovan ni B atti sta , 79 , .
B ea k fl u te, 420 . B or c h , Ga ston 29 8 , .
B e a ts, 512 . B ordon i Fa u sti na 474 , , .
B eb un g 378 , .
B ec ca ti 60 , . i
B orod n , Alex a n der P or phyr ievi tc h, 2 62
B ec k, 96 . B ortn i a n sk y, D m tr 19 6 i i i
B ossi , Marco Enr c o , 2 76
.
,
B ec k, J oha n n H 2 98 302 . . i .
B ec k er , Rei nh ol d 250 . . B o tte si n i , G o an ni , 164 , 195, 4 10 i v .
B eekm an B ror , 234 , . B otto, B erg o n zo, 59 .
B eethoven , Casp a r 116

B ee thov en , L u dw i g van , 9 3, 108 119 ,
, .
— B ou c her, Al
B ou rr é e, 353
e a ndre, 4 88
.
x .
46 7, 470 4 9 7 , . B ou rg au l t D u cou dra y, L ou s, 2 60

-
i .
B eggaxr s Opem The 84

—
’
, , . B ou sq u et G eor ges, 185 , .
B el li ni Vi ncen zo 160 161

, , . v
B o y , C har l e s Sa m u e l
, 1 57 .
B em b erg H erm an 260 , , . k

B rac ett, Fra n , 305 k .
B el ls 4 59
, . B radb u ry , W l la m B 289 i i .
B ra h a m , ohn , 48 1 J .
B a n ds Geor g 100
, , . B ra hm s, oha nn es, 22 1- 225 J .
B e ndi x , Vi c tor 2 85 , . i
B ra n a rd, 306 .
B en edi ct Si r J u l i u s 283, , . i
B rande s Fri edr c h 300 , i , .
B en n e tt Si r W i l li am Stern dale, B ra ndt C a r ol in e 12 9

B ra n dt, Mar a n n e 480
, , , .
B en oi t P ete r 281
, , . i , .
B erceu se 358 ra n dt B u s am i l y, 2 83 f
g
-
.
B ereso vsk v Ma x i m 196

, .
, , . ra n le, 3 5
B er g er, W i l h el m 2 28 , . B ransco m be Gen a, 304 , .
j
B erli n , 28 3 . B ra u n el f
s, W a l ter, 245 .
B erl ioz Hec tor, 179 181, 497

,
-
. B ra w l 353 , .
B em acc hi An ton i o 474 , , . B r ea th n g 39 1 i , .
B erthal d B a rron 48 2 . B r ec her , Gu sta 245 v

B erton , H enr i Montan 174
.
B re tha u t, Rudol h M ,
, , ,
, . i p p
B erto n P i er r e Mon ta n , 90
.
, . re n ni n am l y , 110 f i .
B erw a l d Fran z, 23 3 , . ne m a , a r e , 4 80 i .
B i g n ou 43 1 , . B re ton , Tom a s, 277 .
B i lli n g s W illi am , 288 re w er , ohn Hya tt 305 J

i n gton Mrs 448 4 75
, .
, .
B il l , , . ri a rd ofA i g n on , 51 v .
B i n c hoi s E g i di u s 4 9, , . i
B r dg e, Sir Fr eder c 284 i k , .
B i rd Ar th u r 2 98
, , . B ri dg e, ose h C ox 284 J p , .
B i sc hof f H erm an n 24 5
, , . i
B r dg es, Robert, 286 .
B i shop Si r H en ry Row l
, ey, 283 . B ri eg el 4 84 , .
B i ttn er, J u l
i us 250 , . B ri g n oli , 48 1 .
584 INDE X
B ri stow , Georg e F 289 .

, . C a n tu s fir m u s, 42 .
B roc kw a y, H ow ard A , 300 . C a n zon e 3 6 1 , .
B ro ekh ov en J ohn A 2 9 9 , .
, . C a p p el e n , C hri sti an , 232 .
B ronsa r t Ha n s von 193 , . C a p ri c c i o 357 .
a n , Mar ia, 477

, ,
B r u ch Ma x 2 27 . C a ra dori Al l -
.
C ara fa Mi c h el
, ,
B r uc k n er An ton , 22 5- 2 27 , . e 175
, , .
B rill ] Ig n a z 2 28
, , . C a rey, Henry, 84 .
B r u m el , A
n toi ne, 50 . C a ri ll on 459 , .
B ru nea u Alf red 259 , , . C a ri ssi m i 6 2 , .
B uc k D u dl
,
ey 300 , . C arm en , 4 7 .
B u gl e , Ca r m en 184 , .
B ul l J ohn 53
, , . C a r n i cer Ra m on , 175 , .
B ul l Ol
,
e 19 5 2 3 1 489 , , , . C a ro Pa u l 228
, , .
B ul la rd F red Fi el d 306
, , . C a ron Phi l , ipp e, 49 .
B ul ow H a ns von 194
, , , 484, 4 98 . C a r p en ter J ohn Al den 3 05 . , .
B un g ert, Au g u st 24 6 249 , . . C a rr eno, Teresa , 2 91, 4 73 .
B u nn i n g H er b ert 28 6 , , . C a rter Thom as 106 , , .
B uon g i orn o Cresc enzo 2 73 , , . C a sa desu s 277 , .
B ur de tt, Georg e A 305 .

, . C a sta n e ts 460 , .
B u rl e sca 354 , . Ca t F ug ue , 76 .
B ur ton Frederi c k R 305, . C a ta l a n i Al fredo, 2 73 , .
B u sc h Ca rl 2 99
, ,
. C a tal a n i A ng el i ca 475 , , .
B u si Al
, essa ndro 276 , . C a tc h 106 , .
B u sn oi s, An thony , 4 9 . C a te l C ha rl
, es Si m on, 175 .
B u son i , Fer r u c c i o 276 472 , , . C a tg u t, 3 9 9 .
B ii sser H enri 260 , ,

. C a tr u f o G i u seppe , 175 , .
B u ttik a y Ak os von 280 , , . C av a l li Fra nc esco, 6 1

, .
B u us J a c het 52
, , . C a v a ti na 359 , .
B u x tehu de D ietri ch , 6 9 , . C a vos C a tteri n o 19 6

, ,
.
B yrd, W i l liam 53 , . C ec i lia Sai n t, 23 , .
B y ton es 4 6 0 , . C el esta , 459 .
B yzan ti ne sca le 520 , . C ell i er Alfred 286, , .
C er u ti f am il y , 3 98 .
C a ba l etta , 358 . C esa ri s 4 7 , .
C a b al lero Fern a n dez, 277 , . C esti , Ma rco An ton i o, 6 1 .
C a b esta i n g W i l ia m 35
l , , . C ha b ri e r, E m m a n u elFra n coi s,
C a b ezon An ton i o 53 , , . C haconn e 3 54 , .
C ac c i n i Gi u l
io 58 , 60
, , . C hadw i c k G eorg e W hi tfiel d, 291- 292 , .
C a c hu c h a 355 . . C halu m ea u 4 27 4 39 , , .
C a den za , 345 . C ha m b er son a ta 4 83 , .
C aden za n otes 52 1 , . C ham ber m u si c 346 489 , . .
C adm a n C h arl es W ak efiel d, 291, 2 9 7

, . C ha m i n a de, C ec i l e 2 60 , .
C a edm on 4 14 , . C hanson 34 4 2 3 6 1 , , . .
Caf fa relli Gaeta no, 474 , . C ha n ts 36 2 , .
C a g non i 2 73 , . C h a rl e m a g ne 2 5 384 496 , , , .
C a g non i An ton i o 164 , , . C har pen ti er Gu sta v e 2 58 , , .
C al a nson , Gi ra rd, 3 9 . C hau sson E rn est, 259 , .
C al la er ts J oseph 282 , . C he 6
, .
C a lza b i g 1 Ra n i ero 8 5 86 , , , . C heliu s H er m an P , 305 , . .
C am ber t Rob ert 63 , , . C hen g 6 , .
C a m p J ohn Sp en cer 302

, , . C heru b i n i L u i g i 170 , ,
C a m pb el lTip ton Lou i s, 305 -

, . C hest reg i ster 39 3 , .
C a m pi on Thom a s 64 , , . C hevi l la rd Ca m i l le 260 , , .
C a m p o Conra do 2 77
, , . C hi a rom on te Fra n c esc o, 164 , .
C a m p ra An dré 83 , , . C hi n ese i nstru m en ts, 5 .
C a m u ssi E zi o, 2 73 , . C hi n ese m u si c 4 ,
C a n a ry 352 , . C hi ta rr on e 59 , .
C a nn a b i c h Christian 96 , , . C ho ir or g a n 385 , .
C an on s, 3 0 48 , 4 9 , 36 7 C hoi r si n i n 24
§
-
. .
,
C a nta ta 3 64 , . C hopi n eri c Fran co is 151

,
-155, 46 8
C a nti cles 3 62 , . C h oral c el o, 383 .
586 INDE X
c roze E m i l e J acq u es , 277 D Ha rdel ot Gu y, 287
’
Dal ,
~
. , .
Da m p er peda l , 380
Di a b el l i 124 . .
D a m p ers 3 80 .
D i a l 3 06
, .
Di a phra g m . 39 1
,
Da m rosch, Fra nk 297 , .

.
D a m rosc h , L eo p ol d, 194 .
Dia ton i c sc al e, 4 , 25 .
D a m rosc h W a l te r J oha nn es 296

, , . D ib di n C ha rl , es 10 6 , .
D ana C harl es Hen sha w 306 D i e pe n b roc k , Alphonse, 283
—
. .
, ,
D a na , W i l ia m Henry 306 D ietr i c h, 52
—
l , . .
D a nc es 18 2 1 351 3 57
, , ,
. D i etri ch, Al b ert 149 , .
Da nea u , N i c hol as 28 2 , . D i L asso O rl a ndo 54 55 , , .
Dah ic a n See P hi l i dor

. . Dil lon , Fan n i e 304 , .
Da ni el s Ma b el 3 04 D Indy Vi nc en t, 2 55- 256

'
. .
, , ,
Dank s Ha rt Pease, 28 9
,
. D i rge, 359 .
Da n na 48 7 D i sca n t 42 , .
D a nae Ma ca br e, 403
,
. D i sc ord 34 , .
Dar g omi szk y, Al exa nder Serg ei vi tch, Di ttersdor f Ka rlD i tters von , 90, 96 , .
19 8 Div er ti m en to,
D ivi si w r i ti n , 40 1
.
D a Sal o, Ga s a ro, 3 98 p 4 92
g
.
.
,
vi
Da d, Felc en, 176 i i . Dob rzyn sk i , 81 .
vi
Da d, Ferd n a n d 488 i . D ohna nyi , Er n st von 280 , .
D a es, W a lord, 287

,
vi f D ok tor a n d Apotheker , 90
one Ma x 2 60
. .
i i
Da V n c , L eon ardo, 82 . D Ol
’
l , , .
D ayas, W H u m hre y, 305 . p . Dol m etsc h Ar nol d, 6 5 ,

.
D e B eri ot, Cha rles Au gu ste, 195, 4 77 D om art Petr u s 4 9 , , .
48 8 .
D e B oi sdefl re Ren é, 2 60
’
, .
Don Gi ova n n 1, 102
D oni zetti , Gaeta n o 161 162 .
— .
De B ou rg es, Ph l on , 50 i ipp . D opp er, C ora , 2 83 .
D e B re l le, vi
erre 2 59 Pi . D oppl er Ar nol d 2 80 , .
e Cl
, ,
Deb u ssy, Ach l l a u de, 2 56 - 2 57 i . D opp l er Al b ert Fra nz, 280

,
.
D efi es, L ou s, 186 i . D oppl er ar l 280 , K , .
ii
Defin t on ofm u s c , 3 i . D oret, G usta v e, 277 .
D e Goes, D am a o, 53 i . D orn H ei n ri c h 149

, , .
D e H a an , W l lem , 2 83 i . D orn O tto, 246

, .
K
De on tak , An to n e, 28 1 i i . D ots 52 7, .
D e K ontski , A ol ln a r e 2 81 p i i , . D ou b l e 3 54 , 386, .
K v
D e o en , Reg nal d, 2 96 i D ou bl e b ass 409 , .
D e L ara , Is dore, 2 87 i . D ou b l e c ou n terp oi n t 30, 36 7 , .
De l a Ru e, erre, 50 Pi . D ou bl e stoppi n g 401 , .
De l a Tour , W l la m , 38 i i . D ow l a n d, J ohn , 53 .
D elC a ra t B ea tr 36 , ix ,
. D ra esek e Feli x 19 4 , , .
v i
D elC a a lere , E m lo, 60, 62 ii . D ra g on etti , D om en i co, 195, 4 10 .
i
Delb es C l é m en t L eo, 186
,
. D ra ke, E rik , 233 .
i
D elu s Freder c , 285
, i k . D ra m a ti c ov erture 34 7 , .
D elRi o o, Teresa , 28 7 . Dra m ati c sop ra n o 3 9 5
i
.
,
D elVa le e Pa z, E dgardo, 2 76 D r essl er , L ou i s R

l
. 306 .
, .
ex a nder,
De Mon t or t S m on 40
T
f i
e
, .
D reyschoc k , Al
Dru m s, 6 , 8 , 4 58 459 — .
D e Mu ri s J ca n 42
,
, , . Dru m si g n al s 8 , .
D enerea z A 2 77 , .
, . D u b ois Theodore 187
, . .
D enn é e C harl es Frederi c k , 30 5

, . D uc a sse Rog er, 260 .
Du devan t Mm e , 152
,
D e Pa chm a nn Vl adi m i r , 472 , . , .
De Ror e C ip ri an , 52 , . D u e c orde 379 . .
Deser t The, 176, . D u f a y, W i l lia m 48 , .
D es E scas Am an ei u s 38 , , . D u k a s, P a u l, 2 59 .
Des Pres, J osq u i n 50 . D ul c i m er 9 3 77 .
D ulc i to n e 46 0
, ,
De ssa u er , J oseph 150 , .

, .
D estou c hes An dr é, C ardinal , 83 . D u m ka , 345, 3 53 .
D é tac hée , 402

,
D u m p , 352
D u n h am H en ry Morton, 302 , 305
. .
Deu sc he, 3 55 . ,
.
D e au q u eira s Ra m ba ud, 36 , . D u n sta b l e J ohn , ,
Devel op m e nt, 33 7 . D u p arc , Henri , 2 59 .

INDE X 58 7
D u pon t Ga b ri el 260 , , . E uri di ce 6 1 , .
D u po r t 4 08 , . E urya n the, 13 0 .
D u p u i s Sy lva in , 2 82, . Vi
E w a ld, c tor 270 , .
D u p u y, 233 . Exposi ti on , 336 , 369 .
D u ra nte Fra ncesc o 82 , , .
Duschek Fra n z, 106 46 6 , , . ii

Fac t t ou s n ote s, 446 .
D use sk Joha nn La di slas 106 , 46 7

, , . Fa g o, 82 .
D voi ak Anton i n , 2 78- 2 79

‘
, . Fa i di t, Gau cel m 36 , .
Dy nam i c m ar ks, 524 525 , . Fa i r i es The, 20 7 , .
Fa i r lam b , a m es Rem n ton ,

g J i
Ea rly Chri stian m u sic 23 ,
-
30 . Fa l i
c h , Sta n sl au s, 273 i .
E a rly i n stru m enta lm u si c , 64 , 83 . Fal setto , 3 94 .
Eberl An ton 106 466

, , , . Fa l se v
oca lc ords 3 92 , .
E c ho org a n 3 85 , . Fal i
t n , R char d, 23 6 i .
E g y ptia n m u si c 10—
E c k ert Ka rl 150 , ,
. Fa m i n tzin , Al e x an der , 26 9 .
12 , . Fa n da n g o, 355 .
E hrstr hm , 23 6 . Fa n el i
l E rn esto 257 , , .
E ic hberg J uli u s 300 , , . i

Fa n n g , ose h Ea ton , 28 7 J p .
E i chhei m H enry, 300 , . Fan tas a 3 54 357 i , , .
E ic hner 96 , . Fara n dol e, 355 .
E i g ht foot ton es, 386

-
. Fa ri n a C a rl o, 483
, .
E lean or ofAcq u i tain e, 33 . Fari n el l, C arl o B i

448 , 474 . , .
E lec tric pian o, 383 . k

Far as Edu ard, 280 , .
Elec tri c organ , 38 5 . Fa rran t, R c hard, 53 i .
Eleg ie 359 , . Far w el l, A rth u r 2 91 302 , , .
E lgar, Sir E dw ard W illia m , Fa u g u es n cen t 4 9 Vi , . .
E lli cott Rosali nd, 287 , . Fa u r é Ga br el r b a n , 257

, i U i .
E loy 4 9
, . Fa u r e, ea n B a t ste , 260J pi .
El sen hei m er , N i cholas, 300 . Faust 182 , .
E lsn er J oseph 151, , . x

Fa u bo u rdon , 26 .
E m belli shm ents 46 5, 530 , . Fa vol a dz Orf eo, 58

'
E m m ett Da n 28 9 , ,
. Fa yr fax , Robe r t, 53 .
E nesco Geor g es 280 , , . i i

Feder c , V n c en zo, 163. i
E ng el Carl 306
,
E ng li sh horn 430 43 1
,
,
.
— .
Feo, Fra n cesco, 82
Ferm a ta, 533 .
.
E n g li sh leadership 25 , Fern an dez, 277 .
E nn a , Au g u st, 234 . Ferra r 62 i , .
E ntr ac te 3 59
’
. F er ra r , C arl i
otta , 164 .
E nvoi on g i n of, 34
, . Ferrar , Ga b r el i la , 260 i .
Fé te de lAne, 58
’
p i g onei on 18 ,
.
E pi sode 3 25 36 9 , , . Féti s Fra n co s ose h, 3.

, i J p
E ra rd Seb a stia n , 414
, . v
Fé ri er , H e nr , 26 0 i .
E rb Josef 246
, , . Fi b i c h, Z den o, 2 79 k .
E rben Rob ert 250 . Fi ddle, der at on , 398 iv i .
Erdm a nn sdorfer, Max von, 246

, ,
Fi delio, 118 .
er Max 245, 498 , 50 1.

.
Er i k ssohn 2 34 , . i
F edl , ,
Erk el Alex ander 280

, , . i J
F eld, ohn , 154, 156 , 46 6 .
E r kel Fra nz, 280

, . Fi el i tz, Al e x a n der von , 246 .
E rla n g er, C am ille 26 0 , . i

F g u re tr ea tm en t, 317- 3 19 .
E rla n g er , B aron Fr édéric, 260 . Fi ltz An ton , 96

, .
Er tel Pa u l 245
, , . i
F n al e 343 ,
.
i k
F n c , H e n ri c h 50 i , .
E sp osi to Mi cha el 287 , , . i

F r st rondo, 331 .
Essenha m ens 38 , . i
F sc her E m l 480 , i ,
.
E sterha zy Pri nce An ton , 92 , . i

F sh er , W l la m Ar m s 306 i i , .
E sterhazy Carolin e 122 , , Fi telb er g , Geor g e 245 , .
F sterha zy P r i n c e N i chol
as, 92 , . Fi tzw ilha m c ol lec t on 53 i . .
tu de 3 59 , . iv p
F e art son g orm , 333
- -
f .
E ug ene On yegi n 203 , . Fla g eol et 425 , .
Eu g en i u s Tra u g ott, 50 , . Fl a g s, 52 1 .
E u phon i um , 454 . Fl a ts, 3 0, 516 .

588 INDE X
em i sh school
Fl s 48 50 ,
— . F url an a , 355 .
oersh ei m
Fl O tto, 300 , . Fu r n i tur e, 38 6 .
on dor , The odor J ohan n 280

Fl , .
Fl i i
or d a , etro 2 73 Pi , . Ga b r iel Ri c ha rd, 245 , .
Fl otow , Fr edr c h von , 186 i i i i

Ga b r el, An drea 52
—
. .
,
Fl u te , 42 0 42 4 . i i
Ga b r el G o a n n , 52 483 , i v i , .
Fl u te, b a ss , 424 . a b ri l ov i tc h O ss , 2 70 , ip .
Flu te a b ec , 420
- -
. ade N el , s W l hel m , 140 i i .
Fl u te -
l p
a yers u n on 20
’
i , . Gadi ta n i a n s n g ers, 2 1 i .
Fl u tes, C h n ese , 6 ; Gree , 16 ; Heb re w i k Ga l ila rd, 3 52 .
10 n ose, 7 ; reh stor c , 7 ; Rom a n , 42 1

, p i i Ga l i tzi n Geor g e, 269 , .
v
sa a g e 7 ; stra g h t 4 2 0 , i , . al o 355p , .
Fl yi ng D u tchm a n The, 2 11 G al u ppi

, B al dassa re, 76 83 ,
—
, .
,
Fl i
y n g sta c ca to 402 , . Ga m es a n c en t 17 19 , 2 1
, i , .
Fl y trac n ota t on 27
-
k i . G an z, Ru dol h, 277 p
Foerster , Adol h Ma rt n, 30 1 Ga rc a , Ma n u el, 4 76
.
,
p i . i .
Foerster, Alb an , 246 . i

G ard n er, H B a lou r, 287 f .
Fo erster, ose h B J p Gasti nel , L éon 186 , .
Fol lvi le, ulet, 2 82 J i . a u bert P h l e 26 0 , i ipp , .
i
Fom n , 19 6 a n ] , Alred R 2 87 f
—
. .
Fon tan a , 484 . i

Ga u t er, ea n 185 J . .
Foote, Ar thu r , 2 93 294 . i

Ga u t er u d th, 2 10 , J i .
Ford, Thom as, 53 . Gavea u x , 173 .
Forl a n e , 355 . Ga vi n ié s, P erre, 485 i .
Form , a l v
u e o f 3 73 ,
. v
Ga otte 353 . .
Foster, Fay, 3 05 . Ga v ron sk y, W o tec h , 28 1 i .
Foster Ste hen C ol ,

ln s, 2 90 p i . Ga y, 84 .
Fou nda t on 386 i , . Ga yn or, ess e L 305 J i .
Fou rdrai n , Felx 260 i , . G eb ha rd, H e nr c h 24 6 i i , .
Fou r foo t ton es, 386 G eda l g e, An dr é 2 60

~
. , .
Fra n ca se, 355 i . ij

Ge er , G esta 23 3 , .
Fra n cesca da B i m i n i 2 05 28 1 , , . Ge sl i er au l , 2 46
, P .
Fr an c hett B ar on Alb er to 2 7 3 i , . . Gel i n ek , 4 6 7 .
Fr a n c k
Cé sa r A u g u ste, 251 2 52
,
-
. i i i
Ge m n a n F ra n c esc o 484 .
, .
k
Fran c , R c h ard 2 77 i , . Ge n era l i Pi etr o 16 3 , , .
Fra n c o ofC ol og n e 28 2 9 , , . Gen e tz, E m l 2 36 i ,
k
Fr a n e H arln g , W 2 98 i
— Gerl a c h , Th eodor 24 6
-
. , . .
,
F ra n z Rob ert, 12 6 127

, . G er m a n , E dw a rd, 28 6 .
Fra u enl ob 3 1 , . G er m an u te 4 2 1 fl , .
i k
Freder c the Great, 7 1, 82 , 42 1 . Ger n she m , Fr edr ch, 228 i i i .
pi
Fr ee e sode 3 2 5 . . G esi u s 53 , .
Freer E l , ea n or 3 05 , . v
Ge aert, Fra n co s A , 282 i . .
Free son a ta , 33 7 , 3 40 . i i i
G ard n Fe lc e, 4 84 , i .
Frei schiztz, D er , 12 9 . i
G g u e, 3 9 352 ,
Fren ch o ertur e, 34 7 v . i
G lb ert, H en ry F , 303 .
Fr ets, 417 . i
G lb erte H a ll ett, 3 06 , .
i
Fr ed, O s a r , 24 5 k . i
G l chr st W l i la m W a l ac e, 300
l , i i .
i
Fr m l, Ru dol, 29 9 f . Gli son , a u l 2 81 P ,
.
ik
Fr s a 3 58 , . i
G orda no, m berto 272 U , .
F rober g er 65 , . Gi r lofthe Gol den West, The, 2 75 .
Fron t n , F i i aolo, 2 73 . P . i
G ttern , 39 .
Frottol a 4 8 , 59 , . Gl adk o w sk a , C on stan t a 151 i . .
Fry W l
, i i
la m H enry , 289 . Gl a zou n ov, Alex an der P orphyri evi tch,
F u c hs Al b ert, 2 77
, . 267 .
F u c h s, Rob ert, 246 . Gl eason Fr eder ck Gra n t, 296

. i .
F u g a to 3 71 , . Gl ee 106 , .
i
—
Fu g h etta 3 7 1 . . Gl ee -m a den s 40 , .
F u g ue 72 36 8 3 73 ; ea rl y orm , 48 ; i n f i
Glere , Re nhol d 26 9 i .
G ln a , M a lI a no tc h, 196 19 7
, , ,
son a ta 344 ; i n su te 354 , i , . i k ik i v vi -

.
Fu g u es ofB ac h, 72 , 371 . i
G lssa ndo 40 3 , .
i
F ur an t, 345 . Gl k
oc en s el , 459 pi .
59 0 INDE X
—
352
n , Fr an z
.
ose , 9 1 96 , 497 J f — .
H orn 8 444 447 ,
H ornem an n E m il 235
,
,
.
, .
1, M chae l 96 , 128 i H or n pipe, 3 2 430

5
1 , .
, .
r eg ster , 3 94 i . H or v a th Geza 280 , , .
H eb rew m u s c , 10 i . Hri m al y, Adalbe rt 280 , .
H ec k elcl a ri n d, 432 . Hu b ay J en o 280 , , .
k p
H ec el hon e , 43 2 . Hu ba y K 280 , .
, .
Heg ar , Fr edr c h 2 77 i i , . Hu ber Ha n s 2 77 , , .
Heg ner , An ton , 29 9 . H u b er ti G u sta v e Leon, 282 , .
H ell er , Ste he n , 155, 468 p . H u cb a ld 25 26 , ,
H el sted a m l y 2 35 f i , . H ue Georg es 2 60
, , .
ik
H endr s, Fra nc s 305 i , . H u g h es Ru p ert 3 06 , . .
i
H en r q u es F n , 2 35 i i . H u hn B ru no 28 7 .
H enry ofMe ssen , 3 1

, , ,
i . Hul l Al ex a nder 29 8
, ,
.
H enr y ofVel dig , 3 1 . B ul la h J ohn Py k e 28 7 , , .
H en sc hel Georg 22 8 , , . H fillm a n del 106 , .
H enselt, Adol, 156 , 4 68 f H u m fre Pelha m 64

y
. .
. ,
H u m m e J ohann N epom u k 106

H en tsc hel Theodor 2 2 9
H erbert, V c tor 2 9 6
,
i
, .
H u m or ofcom p osers 43 5 4 3 6 — , .
—
.
, . ,
H erm a n n Re nhold, 246 , i . H u m perdi n c k E n g elb er t 246 248 , , .
H ern a ndez aol o 2 77 , P , . H u n g a ria n sc ale 519 , .
H ern a n do Ra a el, 2 77 , f . H u ss H enry H ol

,
den 302 . .
H erodot u s 17 , . H u tc heson E rn est 302 , , .
H erol d, L ou s ose h Ferd n an d, i J p i H ya tt N a tha n i elIrvin g 303

, , .
v
H er ey, Arthu r 28 6 . . H ydrau l i c org a n 17 , .
H erz H en r 156 , 4 70
, i , . H yl leste d Au g u st 235 , , .
H eu ber g er R c ha rd 2 28 , i , . Hym n m etres 3 62 , .
H e u m a n n , H a n s, 246 . H ym ns, earl y, 23 .
H ey , 352 .
H i g na rd, Ar st de 185 i i , . Ide Chester 306

, , .
i
H l er , E rnest O sg ood, 305 . Ido meneo, 100 .
i
H ll Edw a rd B ur ln g am e, 303
, i .
i
H l ler, Ferd n a n d 140 i , . II P om o d Oro 6 1
’
, .
i
H l J
ler, oha n n Adam , 105 . Il e x a nder , 26 9
yi n sk i , Al .
i
H m m el Fri edr ch , 132 , i . Im i ta ti on , 30 3 6 7 , .
i
H ndu m u s c , 4 i Im m or ta lK astchei , The, 266 .
i
H nton , Ar thu r , 286 . Im p rom p tu 359 , .
Hi u en 6 , . Im p r oper i a The 55 , , .
H ob re cht, acob 4 9 J , . In cledon , Cha rl es B en j am i n, 48 1 .
Hoc hb r u ck er 4 14 , . In dia n m u si c 29 1 , .
H of fm an , R c hard 300 i , . In gel i u s A GT 2 36 , . .
H of fm a nn , E T A , 132 . . . . Instr u m en talm u si c ea rl y, 64, 485 , .
f
H o fm a n n , L eo old, 97 p Instrum en ta ti on 49 1- 4 9 5
—
. .
,
f
Ho m an n , H e n r c h, 228 i i . Instru m en ts ori g in of 6 9 , , .
H O] R c hard 282
, i , . Interrn ezzi 343 354 359 , . , .
H olbroo e, ose , 285 k J f . In tern ati onalpi tc h, 516 .
H ol d 533 , . In terv al s 517 , .
H ol den , O l er 289 iv , . In tra da 354 , .
H olm es Au g u sta 260 , , . In trodu c ti on 322 , .
H olst, G u sta von , 28 7 v . In v en ti on 3 68 , .
H ol k
yo e, Sa m u el, 28 9 . In v ersion s 534 ,
Holzba u er, Ign a z, 9 6 .
Holzer , 120 . Inzen g a J osé 2 77 , ,
H om er S dn ey 305 , i , . I Pag l ia c 272 .
H om o h ony , 4 7p . Iphi gen i e en Au l

’
ide 86 , .
H ood, H elen , 304

'
. Ip hi gen i e en Twur i de 86 . .
k J
H oo , a m es, 106 . Ip pol i tov lvan ov, Mi chael,
o
H op eki rk H elen , 3 04 , , Iri sh harp 4 13 , .
Hopki n s H en ry Pa tterson 303

, , . Isaa c H e in ri c h 52
, , .
Hopki n son Fran ci s 288 , . . Ieon a rd, N icolo 174

Iva nov , Mi cha el
, .
Hora Novi ssi m a , 2 93 .

, 268 .
INDEX
Jac k s 378 , . Keu rvel s Edouard 282 , , .
Jac kson W illia m 106 , , . K eu ssl

er G er ha rd von 245 , , .
J adassohn Salom a n 141 , , . K ys na m es of 515; u se 519

e , , , .
J adin 173 , . K h va t hi
o 264 n c na , .
J also 355 , . Ki el Fri edri ch 148

, , .
J anne ui n Clém ent 53 , , . Ki e l W il

nz hel m 248 , , .
J arec Hein ri ch 28 1 , . K i m ball Jac ob 289 , , .
J arn efelt Arm as 236 , , . Ki n 6 , .
J ar no Georg 280 , , . K in g 6 , .
Jen sen Adolf 149 , , . K in g O liver 287 , , .
Jim en ez Jeron im o 277 , , . K i ng s Chi l

dr en The 2 47
’
, , .
J ira n ek Aloys 2 80 , , . Ki or 10
nn , .
Joa c hi m J osep h 195 4 18 , , , , 488 . Ki sky Pri ce 110

n ,
n .
K i rc h er Th odo 149
,
J ohns Cla ton 305 , ,

. n , e r, .
John son er bert 306 , , . K i stler Cy i ll 248 r , .
K i thara 16 2 0 2 1
,
J ohnson W i llia m Spen cer , , 306 .

, , , .
J om m elli N i colo 76 82 , , , . K eru lf Halfd 232 , an. .
J onas Em ile 175 , , . i

e n, B n o O scar 2 99 ru , .
J on c ieres Vic tori n 186 Kl au Pau lvo 2 50

Jong leurs 34 39—
, , . en ,
n, .
40 , , . Klindw o th Ka l 19 4 r , r , .
Jo rdan J u les 2 98 , , . K lose Fli edri ch 2 46 250

, , , .
Josefi y Ra fa el 280 , , . K l ghardt Au g st 2 28

u , u , .
Josep hson J ac ob Ax el , , K e1sel Fra n z 280

n , , .
J osq u i n (D es Pres) 50 , . K i ese J li u s 2 45

n ,
u , .
J ota 355 , . K o r Iva 2 50

n r , n, .
J u di th 198 , . Kn ow lton Fa 305 , nn .
J u on Pa u l 269
, ,
. Koc h F i ed i c h 246
,
r r .
J uu l Asg a r 235
, ,
. K oc hetov N ic olai 268 , , .
Koc zalsk i , Ra oul 2 81 , .
b est, H ei nri ch
Kaan Al -
von , 28 0 . K oenn em a n n, Ar thu r, 246 .
Koessl er H a n s 2 2 8 , , .
Kah Rob ert 246

n, , . Kol a tc hevsk i Mi c h ael 2 69 , .
K on in a Georg e 2 69
,
Ka i er Henr i Alf ed
s ,
r , 28 2 . , , .
Ka j an u s Rob ert 23 6 , . Kop ti a i ev Alex a der 2 69 , n , .
Kopylov Alex a der 26 9

,
K aleva l a The 236 , , .

,
n , .
Ka li n ni k ov Vassi l i 269 , . Korb ay Fra c i s 2 80 ,

n , .
Ko d Gu sta v 245
,
Kalkb renn er , Fri edr i ch 152 156 , ,

r , ,
.
K alliw oda Johann , 48 8 , . Kor estche k o Arsen i 268 n , , .
K a m arin sk a i a 34 5, 356 , . Korn Cl ra A 30 5 , a .

, .
K am pf Ka l 245 , r , . Ko n g old E ri ch W olf g a g

r ,
n ,
K am pi e t W aldem a r r , , 2 46 . K oss Hen i g vo 246, n n n, .
K a pfel m a n n Arrhen von 233 , , . Kovarovic K arl 280 , , .
K a r g a n o v Genn ari 2 70 , , . Krak ow ia k 3 56 , .
Ka rg Ehlr t Si eg f ri ed 245
-
e K m er A W alte 305
ra , . r, .
o w i z Mi ec i sl
,
Kra m m Georg 246

,
Ka lr a v 28 1 c , , . , , .
K asa li N i c olai 2 6 9
n , , . Kr ehl Stepha 246 , n, .
K ashper ov Vl a di m i r 26 9 , , . Kreider Nob le 3 05 , , .
Kasta lsk i Alex a n der 2 70 , , . Kreisler F itz 48 9 , r , .
K ast er Geo ges 187

n , r , . K retsc hm er E dm d 2 29 ,
un , .
K a er Ferdi d 105
u , nan , . K re u tzer C o adi 133 ,
nr n, .
Ka un H u 0 246 2 50, , , . Kreu tze Rodolphe 111 175 r, , , , 485 .
K aza tc hen 0 Georg e 2 68 , , . K oeg e E rn est Ri ch rd 300

r r, a , .
K azyn sk i Vi ctor 28 1 , , . K og m a Mrs C W

r nn , . .
,
K eiser Rei nhard 63 77 78 , , , , . Kroh Ilm ari 236 n, , .
K elley Edgar Sti llm an , 300 .
Kelly Michael 106

,
, , . K royer Theodor 2 45 , , .
Kem pter Lotha r 2 77 , , . Kr u g , Arn old 2 28 , .
K erl l 65 , . Kru -W aldse e J ose f 246 , , .
K es W i l l em , 283 . K 6 0 en , Fri edri c k W i l m , 150

hel .
—
,
K e tterer E u g en e 157 , , . Kuh la u Fr i edri ch, 133 , .
K ettl edr u m s, 456 458 . K u hnau , 76 , 33 6 .

59 2 INDE X
K uh rei gen D ie 248 , , . L en ep veu , Cha rl es 260 , .
K u len ka m pf G u sta v 2 50 , , . L eo L eon ardo 8 2

, , .
K u rp insk y, 28 1 . L eon ca va l lo, Ru g g i ero, 272 .
K ur th , O tto, 22 8 . L e P rop hete 178

‘
, .
Ku sser 63 , . L e Roi de L a hor e 2 54 , .
L erou x Xa vi er 2 60
ac he L u i g i , 448 , 477
.
, ,
L ab l , .
L esc heti zk y, Theodor 194 , 3 80, 4 71 , .
L a B ohém 2 75 . .
L esc u rel, J ea n , 4 7 .
L ac hm u nd C ar lV 3 01 , L es D eu x Jou r n ées 171 , .
L a c hner Fra n z, 12 1 14 1 , , .
L es H u g u enots 177 .
L ac om b e L ou i s 187
,
, , .
L e Su eu r J ea n Fr a n cois, 173 .
t Pau l 2 60
,
L adm i ra u l , , .
L evi Herm an n 4 9 8
L a For g e, Fra n k 305
, , .
, .
L eyb a c h , I n a ce, 156 .
L Af ri ca i ne 178
’
L Hom m e
’
, .
L a Ju i ve 176 , .
L i adov Ana tol e, 26 9, .
L a k m é 186 .
L ia p ou n ov, Serg ei 2 6 9
E
, .
L al o , dou a rd, 187 .

L ic hn ow sk y, P ri n c e 110 , .
L am b ord, B en j a m i n, 306 .
L i ddl e Sa m u el 28 7, , .
L am ou reu x , C ha rles 498 , . L i e Si g u rd 23 2 , .
L i eh
,
L a m p e, W a l ter , 2 45 . eseer bot D a s, 2 07 ,

.
L andl er 354 , .
L i ed, 126
L a n g , Mar garet Ru thven, 304
.
.
L if ef or the Cza/ r, 19 7
L a n g e Millier 235
.
Li l ie f ors Ru b en 234
-
.
, , ,
Lil ien tha l A W , 305

’
L a n g u e d oc 3 3 , .
, . . .
L i n d J enny, 477
’
L a n g u e d oi l 33 , .
, .
L a n i er , 64 .
L i ndbl a d Adol f 233 , , .
L an k u 9 , .
L i n db l ad O tto, 23 3 , .
Ls p ar re , Ra ou l 260 , . L i n deg ren , J oha n n , 234 .
L Ar l esi en ne 184 L i ndem a n n , L u dw i g 2 3 1

'
'
.
, , .
L arroc ha 2 76 , .
L i ndpa i n tner P e ter J ose f von , 133 , .
L a ryn g osco p e 3 94 , .
L i n g u a di si 3 3 , .
La r nx 39 1 3 92 3 94 , , , .
L in l ey, T ho m a s, 106
L as a G us ta v 280
, , .
L i n sen Ga b ri el , 23 6
, .
L assa n , 3 58 .
L i p an sk y 4 6 7 , .
L assen , Edua rd 193 , 234 , . L ipi n ski , ar l, 488 K .
L asso see D i Lasso

,
.
L i sc hi n Greg ory 2 69 , , .
L asson Peer 2 32 L i ssen k o N i c ol ai 2 6 9

—
.
, , , , .
L a u ber , J ose f , 2 77 .
L i szt Fran z 188 190 , 4 6 9
, , .
L a u ren ti , 4 84 .
L i tol if, H en ri Ch a rl es 156 .
L a v al
,
l ee , C a l i x a 3 05 , .
Ll oyd C ha rl es H ar f ord 2 84
, .
L a vi g n a Vin cen zo, 107, 163

,
. . L ob ko w i tz Pri nc e , 110 , .
L a w es 64 , . L o b o D u a rte 53
, , .
L a zzari Si l vi o 276 , ,
.
L oca tell i Pi etro 484
es Ma rti n , 29 8
, ,
L eB or ne, Ferna nd 26 0 , .
L oefller, Charl .
L e b ru n P a u l 2 8 2 , .
L oew e, arl 12 7 K
a i r , J ea n Ma r i e 484
, , .
L ecl , .
L O rosci no N i c ol o, 83, 89 , .
L ec oc q Al ex an dre, 175
, .
L o ng r i n 2 13 , .
L ef eb vr e, C harl es Edou ard , L ol li An ton io, 485

, .
L e f eb ure W el y, L ou is J am es Alfred
-
L ol li o 60 , .
L e g a to 52 7 , . Loom i s, H ar v ey W or thi n g ton , 2 98 .
L eg ende, 3 58 . L ortzin g Gu sta v Al ber t, 133

, .
L eg er l i nes 517 , . L o tti An ton i o 82

, , .
L e g ren zi 6 2 483 , , . L ou d J ohn A 306,

.
L eh m a n n , L i l li 480 , . L ou i s Ferdin an d, Pr i nce, 106 .
L ehm an n , L i za 2 8 7 , . Lou i se 2 58 , .
L e Jong l eu r de Notre-Da m e, 254 . L ou re, 3 52 .
L ek eu G u il , la um e 28 1 , . L u cc a Pa u l i ne 4 79
, , .
L ek i doi , 19 . L u dw i g II ofB a v ari a 2 11 , .
L e m a re i ea n 2 60 ,
J , . Lul ly , J ea n B ap tiste , 63 , 4 9 6 .
L en aer ts C on stan t 2 82 , , . L u n db er g L 2 34 , . .
v i
Lend a , E r w n , 280 i . L u n gs, 39 1 .
59 4 INDE X
Melartin E rik 236 . Morha ng es 157 .
Morlac chi Fra ncesc o 163

, , ,
Melc er, Henryk , 28 1 . , , .
Melodra m a , 36 4 . Morley Thom as 53 , .
Morri s da nc e 3 51
,
Melody, 3 11 .
, .
Melos 6 1 3 6 1 . Mosca Gi u sepp e 107 163

, , .
Melvi lle, Ma rg u eri te, 304 Mosc heles Ig na z 14 1 4 6 8

, , ,
Moszkow ski Mori tz 280

, , ,
Melzi C oun t, 8 5 .
, .
Mote t 48 36 2
, ,
Mem brée Edm ond, 186 .

, .
Mottl Felix 4 98
, ,
Mendelssohn, Arnold, 250 .

, .
Mou ssorg sky Modest P etrovi tch 2 63

,
Mendelssohn , Fan ny 13 5 138 , .

,
Mou th a s resona tor 3 9 3

, , .
Mendelssohn, Fe li x , 135- 140, 152 , 497 . .
Mou ton J ea n 53
,
Men g elberg W i llem 2 83 . .
Movem en ts 34 1 348
, , , ,
Mer cada n te Fra nc esc o Sa veri o, 163 . .

,
- .
Meri k an to O skar 236 . Mozart L eopold 98 485 .
Moza rt Ma r ia An na 9 8
, , , , ,
Mera i o C la u dio 52 , . .
Moza rt W olf g an g Am adeus 98 105

, ,
Messa g er André,
,
-
, , , ,
Messi a h The, 8 1 109 , 46 6

M
. .
,
Mestda g h, arel, 282 K . ozar t a nd Sa l i eri 2 6 6 .
Mrac zek ose Gu sta , 280

,
Meta stasio 85, 9 1 , . , J f v .
Metr es ofh m n s, 362 Mu c k K

“ , 4 98
. a rl , .
Metzdorfi c ha rd, 228 . Mu eller, 106 .
Mu eller , arl, 300

,
Meyer b eer Gia c om o 176- 178 , . K .
Mu ffa t, 6 5
,
Meyer-Helm u n d, Er1k , 232 .
Mezzo-sopra n o 395 . Mu nk tell, H elen , 234 .
Murc an a , 355
,
Mi c eli , G i org i o, 164 . i .
Mi elc k , Er nest, 2 36 . Mu sette, 43 1 .
Mi g nard, Alex a nder, 281 . Mu sette tr o, 3 28 i .
Mig non 185 . Mu s c , Ara b an 9 ; Assyr an 10 ; B ab y

i i i .
Miha lovi tc h, 280

, ,
i i ii
Mik orey Fran z, 246
. loh an 10 C h nese 4 de fin t on of, 3
,
— ,
k —
Mi k u li, 281
,
.
. pi
E gy t a n , 10 12 ; Gr ee , 13 2 0 ; He
b rew , 10 ; H ndu , 4 ; r m t e, 3 12 ;
—
i p i i iv —
Mi llet L u i s 277 . Rom a n 20 2 2
Mi lls Seb astian B ac h, 300
.
, , ,
p i
Mi nn esi ng ers 3 1 3 2
,
,
— .
. See a l
us e
so c ha ter h ead ng s
i pi i
r n t n g , 51
-
.
.
Mi nor sca le 519 , Mu ta t on 386

i , .
Mi n u et, 3 53
.
. Mu te, 402 .
Mi n uet for m , 3 2 9 341, 343 . Mu ted horn s 44 6

Mystery la ys 58
, .
Mi rac le p la ys, 58
,
. p , .
Mi rei lle 183 , .
Missa , E dm ond 26 0 , . Nache z Ii va da r 2 80 ' ‘

,
Mi x tur e 386
.
,
. N am es ofk eys 515 52 1 .
Mla da 2 66
, , ,
. Nang a 413 , .
Mlyn a rsk i E m i l 2 70
,
. Nah i no Gi ovann i 53
Modes 14 24 518
, , , , .
, , , . N a pra vn ik E dw ard 2 68 .
MOllllIlg , a rlJ 2 36
, ,
'
K . Na rdi n i Pi etro 484 .
Moliq u e, W i lhelm 4 88
, .
, . Nasa lton es 39 3 , .
Molloy J am es L ym an , 287 . Na tu ra l 30 516

Mom e nt m u si ca l 3 59
, , , .
. N atu ra la c c e nts 52 3
Mon i u szk o, Sta m slau s 2 81
. .
. Na tu ra lhorn 4 44 445 .
Mon si g ny , Pi erre Alex a nder 9 0

, , ,
. Na u m a nn J oha nn G 89 .,
Mon tem ezzi Italo 272

.
, ,
Na v ra ti l K arl 28 0 .
Monteverde C la u di o 6 1
, . . , ,
. Neb el 10 , .
Moonli g ht Son a ta 118

, ,
. Neb elon g J ohan n Hendrik 235 , .
Mé or , E m a n uel 2 50
, ,
. Nedb a l O sk ar 2 80 , .
Moore, Hom er 298

, ,
Nee fe Chri sti a n Go ttlob 108 .
Moore Ma ry C a rr 3 04
.
, , ,
Nef r 9
Morales, O lallo, 277
, , . .
,
. Nei li n g er W i lli am H 2 98 .
Morali ti es, 58
,
N eri Sai n t Phi lip 6 2 , 4 83

Morden ts 532 Nero 2 1—
.
, ,
22
Morel, Au g u ste 186
. .
, ,
N essler Vi ctor 22 9
Morga g ni pock ets, 3 9 2
, .
, , .
. N esvera Josef 2 80 , , .
INDEX 59 5
N etherland Schools 484 0, 28 1 283 — Ol d ron do 334 ,
K
.
,
Netzer 133 ,
. Ol iver, H enry em ble 289 , .
Ol sen O l e 23 2
, , .
O Neill Norm a n 28 7
Neu pert Edm u nd 232
—
’
.
, , . , ,
N eu vi lle Alphon se 282 O pen pipes 50 7 509

Nevin Arthu r 2 97 ,
,
,
.
.
.
O pera 58 6 4 80, 82 , 84 , 160, 364 ; see

,
— ,
,
.
Nevi n E thelbert 29 7 , , . also c ha p te r hea di n g s .
Nevin Geor g e B a lc h 2 9 7
, , . O p h i cleide 454 ,
Nib elu ngen lied D a s 32 2 14 , , , . O pi ensk i H ei nri c h 281 , , .
N i chol]H orac e W adham , 299 , . O p u s n u m bers 110 , .
Ni c odé J ea n L ou i s 24 4 , , . O ra tori o 6 2 363 , , .
N i cola i O tto 133

N i c ola u An ton i o 2 77
,
,
,
, .
O rc h
O rc hestra ti on 4 91 4 9 5 ,
— .
N i cole L ou i s 2 77 , , . O refic e Gi acom o 2 73 , , .
N i elsen C ar] 235 Orfeo, 6 1
—
, , . .
N i em a nn W alter 480 , , . Orf eo ed E ur idi ce 8 5 , .
Ni g g li Fri tz 2 77 , , . O rg a n 17 , 384 3 90
, .
Nik lsc h Ar thu r 49 8 , , . O rg a ni stru m , 3 9 .
N ilsson C hri sti ne 4 79 , , . O rg a n po i n t 3 72 , .
N in i Alessa n dro 163

, , . O rg an u m 2 6 , .
Noc tu r ne 3 58 . . O rth, L i sette E 30 5 .
N Oder m a nn Freshen 23 4 , , . 0 Sa lu ta ri s, 36 3 .
Nog u eras C osta 2 77 , , . O sg ood Geo rg e L a u ri e 306

, , .
Nog u erra An ton i o 2 77 , , . O ste rzee Corn el i a va n 283 , , .
N om e ofKra d1as 17 4 33 , , . O strc i l O ttok ar , 2 80

, .
Nordq vi st J ohan n Co nra d , , O th o , arl, K

4 09 .
Nordraa k Ri chard 23 0 232 , , , . O ti s Phi l

,
o Ada m s 3 05 , .
N oren H ein ri c h 24 5
, , . O tte rstr b m , Thor va l d 235 , .
Norm an L u dvi g 233 , , . O u dr i d C hri stob al , , 2 77 .
Nor ri s Hom er A 303 , .

, . O v erton es 506 , .
N ose as resonator 3 93 , . O v ertu re , v a ri eti es of, 34 7 ; i n ol

d su i tes,
Nose fl u tes 7 , .
N ota tion see c ha pter headings , . O x u b a phoi 19 , .
Note s 29 4 9 515 52 1
, , , , .
N ou g u es J ean 260 , , . P achelbel 65 , .
Nova ek O ttok ar
é
, , Pa c hu lski H enri 269 , , .
Nov a k Vi tesla v 2 80 , , . M i n i Giov a n n i 163

, , .
Nova k ov sk i 28 1 , . P ac i u s Fr edrik 23 5
, ,
.
Novel 34 , . Paderew ski Ig n ac e J a n 28 1 472 , . , .
N ovelette 358 . . P adov an o Ann i b a le 52 , , .
Novellozza 358 Paer Fer dina n do 107

o 4 8 5—
.
. .
, ,
Novovi ej sk i , Fel ix , 28 1 . P a g an in i N i col 487 , ,

.
Pa g e Na tha n i elC li fford 303 , .
Ma x
,
O b erl
ei thn er , von , 250 . Pa i ne J ohn K n ow les 2 90
, . .
Ober on , 13 1 . Pa i si ello G iova nn i 89 , , .
i
O blq u e m o t on 26 536 i , , . Pa l adi l he Em i le 2 60 , ,
O boe Ar a b a n 9 d a m ore 429 di ca cc a i ’

i Pa lestrina Gi ova nn i Pi erlu i gi da 53
—
, , , , , , ,
430 ; E gy ti a n 11; Gr ee 16 ; m odern p , k , 57 .
42 7 43 0 ; tra ns os n g , 43 1 p i . P alico t, Georg es, 260 .
J
O b rec ht acob , 49 , . Pallet 385 , .
i fi
O chs, S eg r ed 245 , . Palm er H R 306 ,
. .
, .
v k
O c ta e m a r , 530 . Palm gren Seli m 23 6 , , .
v
O cta e s, 515 517 , . P an i zza E ttore 2 77 , , .
v
O c ta i n a 378 , . P a n pip es 6
-
, .
O deon , 19 . Pan tom i m e 2 1 357 , , .
Od n g ton W alter, 2 9
i , . Pa n Voyevode 2 6 6 ,
.
O eg li n 51 , . P aqu e D ésir é 28 2 , , .
O ertel 394 ,
. Paradi si , Pietro Dom en i co, 76, 336 .
f
O fen bac h a c q u es, 175 , J . P a ra llelm oti on 25 536 , , .
k
O e g h e m , ea n 4 9 J , .
Ol db e r g , Arn e, 30 3 . P a ri sh Alvars, o
Elias , 287 .
59 6 IND EX
Park er Horatio 2 92 — 2 93
, , . Pharyn x 398 ,
Pa rker J a m es C u tler D u nn 301

, , . Phelp s E llsw or th C 308
,
.
, .
P arra tt W a lter 284 , , . P hi lidor Fra n coi s D a h i ca n

, , 90 .
Pa rry Sir C ha rles H u bert Hasti n gs

, , 288 Ph i losophi c alpi tch 516 , .
P a r sif a l 32 2 19 , , . P hoi ni x , 19 .
Parson s Alb ert Ross, 305 ,

. Phorm i n x 16 , .
Phrases, 32 1
Pa rsons E A , 303
P a rtia lretu rn 32 5, 3 2 8
, . . .
Pi an i sts 38 1 383 — .
Pa rti ta 3 54 , .
,
.
Pi an o, 879 88 3
,
— .
.
P a ski evi tc h 19 6 , . Pi a n o q u ar tet 846 , .
P a sm ore H en ry B i ckford, 303 , . P i a no tri o 34 6 , .
P a sq u i nade 34 Pi cc i n i , N i colo 86 , 89
Pa ssaca g li a 354
,
,
.
. P i c colo 4 24 42 5
,
— ,
.
.
Pa ssepi ed 3 53 , . Pichl 96 2 77
, , .
Pa ssion m u sic 3 64 , . P i er n é H enr i C on sta n t Ga b ri el

, , 2 59 .
Passi on p lays, 58 . P i nelli E ttore 2 76

, , .
P a sta G i u di tta 4 76 P i n su ti C i ro, 2 87

,
P asti c c i o 3 59
, .
,
Pip es org a n 3 85 389 open, 507

.
—
,
—
.
, ,
P astora le 3 59 ,
. stopp ed, 509 511 .
Pa stor elle 34 , . Pi ra n i Eu g en io 2 76
, , .
P a tti , Adeli n a 4 78 , . P i sen del 484 , .
Pa tti C arlotta 4 78
, , . P i tch 809 516
, ,
.
Pa tti son John Nelson 3 03 , , . Pi tt, P erc 2 87 .
Pa u er E rn st 472, , . Pi ttri ch eorg e W ashi ng ton , 245

,
.
Paul l i Si m on Hol
, g er 23 5 , . Pi zzi cato, 6 1 402 , .
Pa u m g a rtn er B ern hard, 2 45 , . P la g alm odes 2 4 , .
Pa u r E m i l 245
, , . Pl a g i au los 18 , .
P a va n e, 3 6 4 . P la i n c ha n t 862
~
, .
P avesi Stefa no 16 3 P la i n son g 28, 8 62

-
Plan er , Mi n na , see W ag ner, Minna

, . .
, ,
P ea se, Alfred E 305 , . .
P edalcla ri net, 442 . Pl an h 34, .
Pedalp oi n t, 3 72 . Plata n ia Pietro, 164 , .
Peda ls, 3 80, 888, 4 14 , 58 0 . Pleyel, Ig naz J osef , 9 6 .
P eda lto n es 451 . P lin y 23

, .
P edrell Feli pe, 277 , . P neu m a ti c orga n , 385 .
Pedrotti C arlo 16 3 , , . P oem s 3 58 , .
P ell éas et Mél i sa nde, 257 . P oen i tz, Fr an z 2 29 , .
P ena losa , Fran c i sc o 50 , . P og oj ev 2 70 , .
P en fiel d Sm i th N ew el l
, 30 3 . . P ohlig Ric h ard 2 9 9
, ,
.
Peni ten ti aldan c es 351 , . Poi se Jea n Ferdi nan d, 186

, .
Penta ton i c scale 4 , . P oi sal 13 8

, .
Pep u sch. J ohan n C hri stoph 84 , . Polacc a 356 , .
Perc ep tion ofton e, 503 505 ,

. Pol din i E du a rd 2 80
, ,
Perc u ssi on i nstru m en ts, 456- 6 1 . Poli zi a n o An g elo 58 , .
K
,
Fer i a l l arlvon , 229 , . Polka , 8 56

P erg er , Ri c hard von 2 2 9 , . Polk a m a zu rka 8 56 , .
P erg olesi Gi ova nn i B a tti sta , 76, 82 , . Polk a redow a 3 56 , .
P eri Ac hi lle, 163

, . Polledro, 488 .
Per i J a c opo 58
, , . Polli n i 467 , .
P eri ods 322 , . Polo Gi tan o 355 . .
P erosi , D on L oren zo 276 , . Polon ai se 856 .
P er osi Mar zi a n o 276

,
, , . Polyc ra tes, 20 .
P etsa i s L u c , 175 , . Polyphony , 4 7 .
P esel, 484 P ol yp hthon g os, 18 .
Fessa rd E m il e L ou i s 260, , . P om a sa n sk i Iva n , 269 . .
Peterson B er g er W i lhelm , 234 -

, . Pom m era, 427 .
P etrella E rri c o 163 , , . Pon c hi elli Am i lca re, 164 , .
P etru c c i ofFossom b ron e, 51 . P opoif, Iva n 2 69 , .
Pfitzu er H a n s, 2 50 , . Popper, Da vi d 195 , .
Pfohl Ferdi na nd, 245

, . Por pora N ic olo Antonio 79, 82 , 9 1, 4 74
, ,
.
Pf u ndt, E rn st Gotthold 4 57 , . Porta m ento, 39 7 527 , .

598 INDE X
Ri chter Fra n z Xa ver 96 , ,

. Ru m m el W a lter Morse 306 ,
, .
Ri chter H a n s 4 98 , , . Ru n g Henr ik 234

, , .
Ri em en sc hn ei der Georg 228 , , . Ru ssell Ale x an der 306 , , .
Ri enzi 207 ,
. Russla n a nd L u dm i l
la 19 7 , .
Ri es Ferdi nan d 46 7
, , . Rusti c Chi ea lry 271 , .
Rietz J u liu s 14 1
, , . Ryder Arth u r H 3 06
, .
Ri g a u don 3 53 , . Ryela n dt J oseph 282 , , .
Ri m sky Korsa k ov N icola i And eievi tch

—
-
,
r
264 26 7 . Saa r, L ou i s Vi c tor 300 , .
Ri ng ofthe s elu n gen , The, 2 10 . Sacc hi ni , An toni o, 89 .
i
R tter, Alex a n der, 194 , 2 38 . Sac hs, Ha n s 33 , .
i
R tte r ola , 406 vi . Sac k b u t 3 9 , .
iv
R é Kin-
u la 3 04 J i , . Sac kpfeif e 431 , .
Rober t la ia ble 176 Sa dko 2 6 6

Sa i n t Ma tthew P assi on , 74
.
, .
Robi n et Ma ri on 35
,
—
.
, .
Rode, Pi
erre , 48 5 . Sai n t-Sa en s C har l es C a m i l
le 252 2 53 ,
Roeder, Ma rt n 2 76
,
i , . Sa k el lari n es Theop hi l u s, 164 , .
Roehr, H u g o, 24 6 . Sa ldoni , B a l ta za r, 2 77 .
Roen tgen , u lu s 2 82 J i , . Sali eri An to n i o 106

, ,
.
B oe sel Ru dol , 24 5
,
f . Sa lm on , Al vah Glov er 305 , .
Roessler 96 , . Sal om a a , Si eg f ri ed 234 , .
Rog ers C la ra a thlee n 304

,
K , . Sa lom on J ohan n Peter , 92 , .
Rog ers, a m es H otc h ss 305 J ki , . Sa lon m u si c , 156 .
Rog er s W n thro L , , i p . Sa lpi n x 16 , .
Roll er boa rd, 385-

. Sa ltar el l o 355 ,
.
Rom an ce, 34 . Sa lter Ma ry T u rn er 304

, , .
Rom a n esc a 3 52 , . Sa lter Su m n er 305

, ,
.
i i i Sa lva yre Gerva i s B e rn ard 186

Rom a n ello, L u g , 2 76
Rom an m u s c , 2 0 22 i — .
.
Sa lzb u rg Ar chb i shop of, 9 9 , 100

,
,
, .
Rom a n za , 3 58 Sa m a r a Spi ro, 164 . .
Rom b er g , An dreas 485 , . Sa m a roflf O l g a 4 73 , , .
Ron dena 3 55 Sam a ze u ilh, G u sta v , 260

—
. .
,
Rondo, 3 3 1 33 5 36 0 , Sa m b u ca 19 , .
Ron g er Flor m on d 175

, i , . Sa m m ar ti n i 7 6 , .
Root Geor g e F 2 89
,
. Sa m son et D a l ila 2 53 , .
Rop artz G u y 259 , . Sa nd Georg e 152

Rosenthal, Mor tz, 472
, , ,
i . Sa n dré Gu sta ve 2 60 , , .
i
Ross , 6 1 . Sa n k ey Ira D , 28 9 , . .
i
Ross C esa re, 2 72
, . Sa ns Sou c i Gertru de
-
, ,
i
Ross L a u ro, 163
,
. Sa n tley , Si r C harl es, 89 7 .
R s n i , G oacch n o An ton o, 6 1, 88 i i i 158 Sa pp ho 20

gé
, .
fi Sa ra b an de 351 , .
Rosth, 53 . Sa rasa te P a hl o 48 9 , , .
Rota , 30 . Sa rri 82
, .
Rote 8 9
, . Sarru sop hon e 43 7 , .
Rou n ds 80 . . Sa rti Gi u sepp e 90

, , .
Sa rtori o 62 , .
Rou ssea u Jea n J a c q u es 83 , , . Sa ti e E ri c 2 57

, ,
Rou ssea u Sa m u el 26 0 , . . Sa tter , G u sta v 2 28 , .
Rou ssel Alber t 2 60 , , .

Sa w yer H a rri et P , 305 , . .
Rozk osny J osef Ri c h ard 280 , , . Sa x h orn s 4 53

-
, .
Rozycki L u dom i r von 2 81 , , . Sa x oph on es 44 2 . .
Ru b enson Albert 233 , , . ca l e B y za nti n e 24 520 c hr om a ti c 517

, , , ,
Ru b i n i 4 77
,
dia tonic 42 5 ; H u n g ari an 519 ; m a i or

Ru b i n stei n An ton 19 9 —
.
,
W
, ,
20 1 4 71 , , . 518 ; 9; ofn a tu r e 70 7 1 50 7 , , ,
Ru b i n ste i n N i cholas 201 205 471 , , , , .

pen ta to c tem p ered 72 ; w hol e , ,
Ru del Geof , f
r ey 3 7 . ton e 52 0 , .
Ru eb n er Corn eli u s 303 , . . Sca l es Gr ee k 14 ; Greg ori a n 2 4

, . , .
Ru efer P hi lipp 282

, . . Scari a E m i l 480
, , .
Ru ete r H u g o 24 5
, . . Sca r la tti Al essa n dro 62 82 , .
Ru g g i eri fa m ily 398 , . Scarl a tti , D om en i co, 75, 82 , 3 36 46 6 , .

INDE X 99
Scena 36 1 . . Seel ewi g 63 , .
ae f 2 69 Seg u edi l l
c
er , .
Sc a efer , D i rk , 283 . Sek l es B ern ha r d 246

, , .
Sc ha lm ei 3 9 , . So l a f /p a l
a ce a g e 48 , .
Sc ha n tz Fi lip von 235 , , . Sel m er , J oh a n n 2 32 , .
Scha r rer Au g u st 2 4 5 , , . Sen esin o 4 74 , .
Sc h a r w e n a , Ph i l 2 80 k ipp , . Ser en ade, 34 3 50 3 58 , , .
Sc ha rw en a , Xa ver , 2 80 k . Serov Al , ex a nder 198 , .
Sc ha u b , H a ns, 245 . Ser p en t, 455 .
Ser va i s Adr i e n Fran coi s, 408

'
Sc h efi er 51 , . , .
i
Sc he dler , D or ette 132 , . Senna P a dr ona 8 3 , .
i
Sc he dt Sa m u el 53 , , . Ser m li a 266
’
Sch ein p flu g Pa u l 245 , , . Seeen P en i ten ti a lPsa l m , 54 .
Sc hel i
ln g E rn est 303 , , . Sev era c D eoda t, 2 60
, .
Sc hen k
2 69 , . Sex tol ets 522 ,
Sc hen k J
ohan n , 105 109
, , . Seyf fa rdt Ern st H erm a n n , 24 5
, .
Sc herzo 155 34 3 3 54
, , , . Sey fri ed I i n von 132 , , .
Sc h ey , u lu s 28 3 J i , . Sg am b a ti i ova n n i 276 , , .
i
Sc h l li n g s, Ma x 2 49 , . Sha r p s 3 0 516, , .
Sc hi ra Fra nc esc o, 164

, . Sha w m 4 2 7 438 , , .
Sc li j el deru p Gerha rd, 232 , . hel ley H a rry Row e 2 9 8, 301

, , .
Sc hm el zer 4 84 . . She p herd Ar thu r 803 , , .
Sc hm tt Fl i oren t, 2 58 , . Sh iel d W il
, li a m 106 , .
Sc hn ec k er, e te r Au g u st 3 00 P , Shou l der s i n b rea thi n g , 39 1 .
i
Sc hn e der Edw a r d Fa ber, 2 98 , 308 , . Si a m ese m u si c , 4 .
i
Sch n tzer Germ a n e 4 73 , i , . Si ao, 6 .
Sc hob er Fra n z von 12 1 , , . Si b el i u s Ja n 2 36 , , .
Sc hoec k
O thm ar , 2 77 , . Sib on i , E rik An ton , 140 .
Sch oe n b er g Arn ol d 245 , , . Si c i l

ia n o 3 55 , .
Schoenefel d, H en ry , 3 01 . Side dr u m 458 , .
Sc hol z B e rn ha rd E , 2 28 . . Si egf ri ed 2 16 , .
Sc hott 4 80 . Si g n a tu re s 518 , .
Sc h otti sc he 8 56 , . Si g n s v a ri ou s 528 584 , , .
Schroeder Devri en t, W l hel

m n e, 480
-
i i . Si lv er C ha rl es 26 0 , .
Sc hr oeter 52 8 79 ,
. Si m i k i on , 18 .
Sc h u b er t F ra n z Peter 12 0- 12 5 , . Si m i lar m oti on 536 , .
Sc h u b erti ade s 122 , Si m on An ton 2 6 0

, , .
Sc hu ett Edu a rd 2 6 9 , , . Si m on etti Ach il le 2 76 , , .
Sc hu l z, oha n n 105 12 6 J Si n di n g C hri sti an 2 32

Si n g i n g 3 93—
.
, , . , ,
Sc hu m an n , C l a ra 144 2 22 4 72 , .
, . 3 94
, .
Sc hu m a n n Geor g 2 4 6 Si n g spi el 6 3 100 105 364

—
.
, , , , , ,
Schu m a nn Rob ert 143 14 8 178 , , , . Si ni g a g lia L eon e 276 , , .
Schu ppa n zi g h Ig na z 48 8 , . . Si r v en te 84 , .
Sc hu ster B ern ha rd 246 , , . Si stru m 10 11 , , .
Sc hii tz H ei n r ch 6 3, i , . Si vori , E rn esto C a m i l lo 489 , .
Sc hu yl er W l la m 806 , i i . . Si x teen f oot tones 38 6

-
, .
Sc h w alm , Rob er t 246 , . Si x ti n e 84 , .
Sc hw ei n sk O p f, 3 77 . Sj é gr en , J oha n n Gu sta v E m i l ,
Sc hw i ndl 96 , . 2 33
Schytté , L u dw g 234 i , . Sk rau p Fra n ti se k 2 77
, , .
i
Sc on tr no An ton o, 2 76 , i . Sk u h er sk y , Fran z Z den k o, 2 80 .
Sc otch sn a 3 56 p , . Sli de trom b on e, 450 .
Sco tt C yri lMe r 28 5

, i , . Slu rs 52 8
, .
Scotto O tta o 51 , vi , . Sm ar eg lia An ton i o 2 73 , , .
Sc ri a b i n e Al e x a n der , 26 9 , . Sm eta n a B edri ch , 277 2 78 -

.
Sm i th Ali ce Mary , 2 87
,
Sea son s The 9 3 , , .
K
.
,
Seb or , a r l 2 80 , . Sm i th D a vi d Sta nley , 3 03

,
.
Sec h ter , S m on 124 i , . Sm i th G er ri t 30 5

, , .
Sec ond r on do 333 , . Sm i th W i l,

son Georg e 305 , .
Seeb a l d Am a la 110 . i . Sm i th so n H a rr i et 179 18 0 , , , .
Seeb oec k , W lla m C 2 9 9 i i . Sm u l ders a rlAn ton 288 , K ,

.
6 00 INDE X
Sm y th E thel 287 , , . Sta n f ord Sir Cha rles Vi l

, liers 288 , .
Sn are dr u m 458 , . Sta n l ey, Al bert A u g u stus, 303 .
Snow M a zde n .The 26 5 , , . Sta n za , 34 .
Sé der m a n n Au g u st 233 , , . Sta tk ov sk y Rom a n 281 , , .
So f t p eda l 38 0 , . Sta v en h a g e n B er n ha rd 283 , , .
Sok a l sk i V l a di m i r 269 , . . Stc h erb a tc h e v N i c ol

a i 26 9 , , .
k
So ol o v
N c ola , 2 6 9 , i i . Steg g a l l Re g i n a l
d 285
, , .
f
Sol eg g o 25 i , . Stei b el t D a n i el 106 46 7
, , , .
i
Sole 173 , . Sten ha m m ar W i l helm , 233 , .
Solom on Edw ard, 286 , . Ste phan Ru di 2 4 6 , , .
Sol on 2 0 , . Stew ar t H u m p hrey John , 803

, .
Sol o or g a n 3 85 , . Sti c k er 3 8 5, .
Sol o vi v
e N c ola , 268 , i i . Stoc k Frederi c k , 299
, .
Sol tys Mi ec i sl ,a v 281 , . Stb lzel 8 2, .
Som er vel l Arthu r 286 , , . Stone Gu est The 19 8 , .
i Sto pp ed ha r m on i c s 40 1
So m s 484 ,
Som m er H ans 2 2 9 ,
.
,
. Sto pp ed pip es 50 9 511 ,
— ,
.
.
Son a ta c ha m b er 4 83 ; c hu rch 48 3 ; c l
,
as , , Stop s or g a n 3 84
, ,
.
si cs l , 9 5,
104 118 33 6 ; ear l y, 6 5, 75 , , Stora c e, Step hen , 106 .
f
76 ; r ee, 2 9 1, 33 7 , 340 Stori on i 3 9 8
—
.
Sona ta a l le r o or m , 33 6 340 f . Stra del la Al essa n dro 62 , .
Sona ta ro n o, 342 Stra de l a a P ra yer 63

l
—
.
,
So n a ta m o em en ts, 33 6 844 v . tra di var i f a m i l 39 8 .
i
So n a t n a 3 42 ,
trae sser , Ew al
i
Sona t n a r on do 34 2 Stra i g ht fl u te 42 0
— —
.
, .
,
f
Son g or m s 324 3 2 7 ; w th tri o 327 32 9 ; i Stra th sp ey 3 56
—
-
.
, ,
W i th tw o tr os 3 2 9 3 3 0 i , . tra u ss Ri c h ard 23 8- 24 3, 4 95, 498

, , .
Son g w thou t w ords 138 3 59 i , , . Stra vi n sk y, Ig or , 2 69 .
So n n ec k O scar G , r ef, 96 , 2 88
. . . . Str etto 3 70
, .
Son n et 34 , . Stretto m aestra l e 372 , .
Son ta g H en r etta , 4 76
,
i . Stri c k la n d L il y, 306 , .
p
So ra n o, 42 3 9 5 , . Stri g g io 60 , .
i
Sord n o 4 02 ,
. Stri n g q u arte t 34 6 , .
Sosten u to edal 380 p , . Stri n g vi b ra ti o n la w s of, 505 , .
Sou n d, 503 . Strob osc op e 39 4 ,
Sou n d b o x es, 506

-
. Stron g Geo rg e Tem p l
, eton , 300 .
i
Sou n d n g b oa rds 3 79 506 -
, , . Str op h e son g 3 6 1 ,
Sou sa ohn h lJ 2 96 P i ip . Str u be G u sta v 299

, .
u m Mu si ea e 42
, , ,
Specu l , . Str u n g k , N ik olau s Ada m , 63, 488 .
p k
S eed m a r s 52 5 , j
Su b ec t 78 369 , . .
S en c er , Fa nn y M , 3 05
p . . Su i te , 349 3 54 , .
pi
S cca to, 4 02 . Su k , J osef 280 , .
pi i
S e r n g , Th eodor e 3 05 , . Su llj y a n Si r Arthu r Seym ou r , 286
, .
p i i
S i n ell N col o 2 72 , , . Su i p on ti c ello 405 , .
pi
S n et, 378 Su m er i s i cu m en i n 43- 4 7
—
. , .
p
S ohr L u dwi g 13 1 13 2 488
, , , Su ter H erm a n n , 2 77
, .
p i i p
S on t n , Ga s a ro L u g P a c i fico, 178 i i . Sv en dsen J oha nn Sev eri n 232
, , .
p k
S or o Geor g es 260
, , . Sw eeli n c k , 53 .
Spri n g da n s, 3 56 Sw el lb ox 38 9
-
, .
Sta ba t Ma ter 3 6 3 . . Sw el lor g an 385 ,
Sta c ca to 527 , . Sy m p hon i c po em ,
ta den , S g m u n d, 68 i s Fa n ta sti que 179 44 1 457

Sy m p ho n i e
—
. .
, , ,
Sta ff 2 7 28 515
. . Sym phon y, 9 6 34 5 ; a s in stru m en t, 8 9 ,
Sta hl b er g Fr tz 2 9 9 , i ,
. a s i n terl u de 354 , .
i
Sta n er Si r oh n 2 84 38 7, J , , . Syn chr on i sm , 512
i
Sta r Pa tty 304
. , . Syn c o pa ti on 52 7 , .
Sta lk o u sk y 2 8 1 ,
. Syri a n c hu r c h 24 , .
Sta m i tz A n to n 9 6 , , . Sy r i n x 7 11 16
, .
Sta m i tz oha n n 96 , 484 J . Syr u s E ph i a i m 24

,
K
, , .
Sta m i tz a rl 9 6 , , .
Sza b a do s B el a 28 0 , , .
Sta m m Thom a s O sw al,

d, 246 . Szek el y, Im re, 2 80 .
602 INDE X
Tsc ha ikov sky Peter Ilyi tc h

, , 2 01 206
-
. Vi n ée Richard 260
, , .
Tsc her e pn i n N ic ola i 2 6 9 Vi ola 73 4 05 4 06

—
-
, , . , ,
Vi olda ga m ba 73 408
V i oli n 9 3 9 8—
T u b a s 453 4 54 , . , , .
T u n n g 44 0 i , . 4 04
, , .
T u r n s 533 ,
. Vi oli n s old 3 99 , , .
T u tko vsk y N c ol a , 2 69 ,
i i . Vi olo nc ello 9 4 06 4 08 , ,
-
.
T w o oot ton es 386

-
f , . Viola 89 8 .
'
i w o p e i i od or m s 324
‘
-
f , . Vi o tti Gi ov an n i B a tti sta 4 84
, ,
T w o ste -
3 57 p . . Vi rg i na ls 378 , .
'
lye C h ri sto her, 53
'
, p . Vir tuoso 380 , .
T vpo p l i on e 46 0 , . Vi sc onti Ni c olo 59 , , .
Ty r ta eu s 20 ,
Vi ta li Gi ova nn i 8 3 383
, , , .
Vita li Tom m a so 483

, ,
Uc c lli i 4 83
.
e n , . Vi ttori a 53 , .
U k lele 4 17
u , . Viva ldi Anto n i o 83 484 , , , .
U a c o da 3 79
n r , Vives Am edeo 2 77
, , .
U pp r pa ti ls e r a , 506 . Vl e esh ou w er Al b ert 2 82 .

, .
Ura c k O tto 2 99 , , . Vletb ad P a tri k 234 , , .
V oc a lc ords 3 9 1 392 3 94 , , , .
Va ku la the Sm i th 204 , . V oc alrondo 36 0 , .
V a lve horn 446 . . V oc alsym p hony 364 , .
V a lverde J u a n 2 77 , , . Vog l H ei n ri c h 12 1
, , .
V a lves 44 6 4 53 , , . V og ler Ab t 99 128 12 9

, , , , .
V alve trom bone 453 Vog ri c h Ma x 2 50

—
.
, , , .
V a n de n E eden J ea n , , 282 . Voi ces 72 39 1 3 97

, . .
Va n der L in den 2 8 3 , . V oi c i n g , 386 , 513 .
Va n der Meu len J oseph 2 82 , , . V olb ac h , Fr tz, 24 6 i

s L eo ol
der P a l d 28 3 ,
p , . Volb orth E u g e n von 2 50 , , .
Va n k k
der Stu c e n Fra n 30 1 , V olkm a nn Rober t 148 , , .
Va n B u yse Flori m ond 28 2 , , . V olta i re on D u p ort 408 , .
Va n Dyc k E rn st H u b ert 480 , , . V olte 3 53, .
Va n G hi zeg hem 49 . Von B ulow see B ulow

Va n Mi lli g e n Si m on 283
, , .
, , . Vorspi el 34 8 , .
Va n t K r u i s M H 28 2 s Vi c tor 28 2
Vreu l
’
. .
, , , , .
V a ria ti ons 342 3 49 , . .
V a rsovi enn e 356 , . W a c htel Theodor 48 1 , , .
Va ssi len k o Se rg e i 2 68 2 6 9 , . , . W a c htlieder 3 1 , .
Va vn nec z Ma u ri ti u s 280 , , . W aelpu t He n drik 282 , , .
V ecc hi O razi o 60 , , . W a elra n t 53 , .
V a lter Pa u l 4 14 , , . W a g en aa r J ohann 283 , , .
V en e ti a n sc hool 52 , . W a g en se i l 96 , .
Ven i C rea tor 363 , . W a g halter Ig na z , ,
V en ti ls 44 6 , . W a g n er C osi m a 2 10 , , .
Vera Schel 26 5 W a g ner Mi n na 2 08 2 09

W a g n er Ric ha rd 3 1 33 18 1 207—
og a ,
.
, ,
-
.
Ve ra ci ni , An ton o 484 i , .
, 220 , , , ,
Vera c i n i , Fra nc sc o 484 i ,

.
V erb on n et, ea n 51 J W a g n er Si eg f ri ed 24 9
—
, . .
,
Verd i
G us e ,e 16 5 16 9 i pp . . W a ldstei n C ou n t 110 , , .
V erhey F H 282 , . . W a lk er C aroli ne 3 05 , . .
Vc r li u lst 2 82 . Wa t/ cure D 18 2 15 , , .
V erse 34 , . W a lla c e W i lli a m 28 5 , , .
Versto vsk y 19 6 , . lVa llac e W i l l i a m Vi nce n t 2 83

, , .
Vi a rdot Ga lois a u ln e 4 77
-
,
P i , . W aller H en ry 3 06 , , .
V i
ib ra t on n a tu r e of, 503 511 , , . W a lteis ha u se n H W von 2 50 ,
. .
, .
V ib ra to 402 , . W alther 484 , .
Vi da l a u lAn to n e 2 60
, P i , . W a ltz 345 354, , .
Vi da l , P erre 37 i , . W a m b a ch Em i le Xa v er 2 82 , , .
Vi eti ng h ov, B ar on B o r s 2 6 9 i , . W an delt , m adeu s, 24 6 .
Vieu x te m p s H e n r 19 5 488 , i , ,
W a nha l ,
2 77 . W a re H arr i et 3 04
, ,
W a rla m ov Alex a nder , , 2 70 .

INDE X
W a rren Ri cha rd Henry ,

3 03 , . W i nk ler Alex ander 2 70 , ,
.
W a rr e n Sa m u e lP row s , 3 05
e
W i n ter P e ter VO ll 13 2
, , .
W i n ter H j elm O tto 2 32

.
,
W a rten see, Sc h n yder vo n 13 3 .

-
, , .
W i ske Mor ti m er 3 05
,
W a se ni u s C a rlG u sta , 23 6 v . , ,
Wa ter Mu si c, The, 78
,
. W i tkow ski G 2 00 , . .
W a ter org an 17 , . W oelfl J ose f 106 46 7

, , , .
W a tson M c hael, 28 7 , i . W oi k o w sk y B ieda u H ec tor -

, v on , 250 .
W ebb 2 84 ,
W olf H u g o 246 24 9
, , , .
W e ber , Aloy s a , 9 8 101

W eb er C a rl Ma ri a von , 12 8 13 1; sa t re
,
i , .
— i
W olf 96 ,
W olf Fe rr a ri E r m a nno 2 73
-
.
, ,
.
o n B ee tho en , 4 10 v . W olf ra m von E sc hen b a c h 3 2 , .
W eber C on sta n c e 10 1 , . W ood 379 , .
W ood Mary K n i g ht 3 04
,
W eer b e c k e, Ca s a r 50 p , .
, , .
W eg eliu s Ma rt n 236 , i , . W oodm a n Ra ym ond H u n ti n g ton 305 , , .
i
W e chse l E lza b eth, 4 75 , i . W ork H en ry C lay 2 8 9
, ,
.
i
W e g l ose h 132
,
J p , . W or m ser Andr é Alpho n se 26 0 . , .
i
W e n g a r tn er Pa u lFelx von , 244 , 498 . i . W orrell L ola C a r ri er 304 , ,
W ei n lig Theodor , 207 , . W o u ters Fra n coi s Adolp he , , 282 .
WellTem per ed Cla vi chor d The, 70, 7 1

-
, . W oy rsc h Fe li x vo n 24 6 , , .
W ennerb u r g G u n n a r , 233 , W ra ni tzk y Pa u l 9 6 , , .
W erc k m ei ster Andrea s 71 507 , , . W u erst Ri c hard 149 .
W esen don c k , Ma th i lde 209

, , ,
, . W ii lln er L u dw i g . , 39 6 .
W esley , Sa m u el 2 84 , . W u rm Ma ri e 287 , , .
W etz, R c ha rd 2 4 6 i , W yn g a er de An toni u s , , 50 .
W etzler H erm a n n Ha n s 24 6 , , .
p
W hel ley , B en a m i n L n coln , 305
'
i . Xyloph on e 46 1 .
i M
,
W h te , a u d ai er e 2 87 i , .
ii
W h t n g Ar thur B a ttelle 301 , , . Y sa y e E ,
u g en e, 489 .
ii
W h t n g G eorg e E lb r dg e, 301 , i .
W hole ton e sca le, 520

-
. Za m ar 9 .
W idéen , 2 34 Z a m pa , 175
W dor C ha rles Ma r e 18 7
. .
i ,
i , . Z a ndona R cc ardo 2 73 i , i . .
i k
W ec C la ra see Sch u m a nn , Clara
, . . Z an ella Am lc a re 2 76, i , .
i k
W ec , Fr edr c h 143 144 i i , , . Z a rem b a S g sm u n d 2 6 9 , i i , .
Wi ela nd the Sm i th 2 10 243 , . Z a rl i n o Gi osef fo, 52

, .
WVi en ia w sk i , Hen ri 19 5, 4 7 1, 4 89 , . Za rzu ela 2 76 , .
W i hto l ose h 26 9 , J p , . Z eelan d a Henr ic u s, 4 7 i . .
W i llaert Adri e n 51 59 , , , . i
Z e sle r Fa n n y B loom field, 304
, .
i
W lli a m ofPo tou , 3 3 i . ki
Z elen s L a d sla u s 2 8 1 , i
K
, .
Wi llia m Tell 159 , . Z elter a rlFr edri c h 126

, i ,
i
W i lls, R c ha rd Storrs, 306 i . h ml e x a n der von , 2 6 9
i nsk y , Al .
W i lson 306
,
. Z e n g er Ma x 2 2 8
W lson Mort m er 304
, , .
i , i ,
. Z i c hy , C ou nt G eza 280 472 , . .
i
W nc hester Tro er , 26 p . Z i en tar sk i, Rom u a l d 2 81 , .
W i n d c hest 38 5
-
. . Z i en ta rsk y , V c tor 28 1 i , .
W i nde rstei n H a n s 2 46 , , . i
Z m m erm a nn Ag nes 287 , , .
i i
W n d n g Au g u st 23 5
“ , , . Z i tli er , 9 4 19 , .
fi n d m ac h ne 458
-
i , . Zoelln er H e n r ch, 246 , 250 , i i .
W i n g e P eer 2 3 2 , ,
. Z u m pog na 43 1 , .
i k
W n elm a nn , 48 0 . Z w eers, B er n ha rd, 2 83 .
T H E L IB RARY
UNIVERSITY O F C AL IFO RNIA
’
Sa n ta B arb ara
T H IS B O OKIS D UE ON
T H E L AST D ATE
ST AMPED B EL O W .
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TH E B O O K O F

HOUG HT O N MIFFLIN C O MP ANY

P u b li shed N o vem b er 1015

of the tona l art an d to fa miliarize himself with the va lu e of the

sica lforms a n d a num ber of su bj ects of sim i la r importa nce

At the sa me time certa in other technica l topics ha ve been in

clu ded While these ha ve been pre sented in su ch a wa y as to be un

derstood by the non m u sicia n they h a ve been given with su fﬁcient

thorou ghness to ma ke the work u sefu l a lso as a textbook It is there .

fore ﬁtted to the needs of students an d tea chers as well as a ma teurs , .

An effort has been ma de to condense the chief points of a gen era l

a dded which will ma ke it su ita ble f

a lso or in a n y institu ti on tha t a ims to give a course in the u nder

sta nding of mu sic .

PART I . THE EV OLUTI ON OF MUSIC

EARLY C HRISTI AN MUSI C

THE SCHOO Is OF COUNTERPOINT

PART II . THE GREAT C OMPOSERS

C HERUB INI AND FREN C H OP ERA

LISZ T AND HIS C IRCLE

B RAHMS AND THE S YMPH ONISTS

XX IX OTHER E UROPEAN N AT I ONS

XXX AMER ICA

PART III . MUSICAL FORM

MELODY AND APPREC IAT I ON

OT HER SONATA MO VEMENT S

THE V OCAL FORMS

PART I V . THE I N STRUME NTS

OTHER BOWED INS TRUMEN TS

FLUTE AND PI CC OLO

TROMB O NES AND T UB AS

PART V . S PEC IAL T O PI C S

L IV S OME FAMOUS PI ANIS TS

L V SOME FAMOUS S INGERS

VI O LI NIS TS AND VIOLI N M USIC

LV I I ORCHES TRAT ION

L X How To R EAD M USIC

B A COURSE OF S TUDY WI TH R EFERENCES

C AN ON ROM AN ANCIENT MANUSCRIP T IN THE BRIT ISH M USEUM

By perm issi on ofThe Pr

PAINE ; C ONVERSE ; MACDOWELL ; HADLEY ; C HADWI CK ; F OO TE ; PARKER

GROUP OF W OOD-W IND INSTRUMEN TS

GROUP OF B RASS INSTRUMENT S

5 Horn ; 6 B ass Tu b a ; 7 C orn et; 8 O p hi cl

G ROUP OF PERCUSS I O N INS TRUMENTS

very early origin a n d wou ld even a llow it a pre huma n existence in

the songs of birds The beginning of huma n mu sic mu st ha ve been

voca l in ch ara cter Herbert Spencer considers song as a form of ex

deﬁnition of Fé tis an d ma ke mu sic a resu lt of em otion ra ther tha n

It seems proba ble th a t the early songs developed from hu nting

a single ca ll or the u nion of severa l Some au thorities think tha t

song wa s ﬁrst a n a ccompa niment to the muscu lar expression tha t

ru d im enta ry ta ngos of the prim itive ra ces .

ofthe notes corresponded to deﬁn ite fra ctiona l par ts of a stretched

Gregoria n m odes described in deta il in a la ter cha pter ; a nd the

sent ha ve been a ltered Slightly to ma ke our twelve equa l semi

tones tha t permit of modula tion from one key to a ny other .

pa rts to form a sca le The Hindu s on the other ha nd us ed sm a ller

tell us th a t when the god Kr ishna ca me to earth he was met by no ,

less tha n sixteen thou sa nd nymphs ea ch of whom sa ng to him in a ,

mode different from th a t of the others If they a l lsa ng a t once the .

b ea rer wou ld cer ta m ha ve needed more tha n huma n pa tien c e ;

fa ta l ta sk b u t took the preca u tion of plu nging u p to his neck in the