Міністерство освіти і науки України

Тернопільський національний педагогічний університет

імені Володимира Гнатюка

кафедра англійської філології та методики

навчання англійської мови

ІНДЗ
з теоретичної фонетики

Підготувала
студентка
групи АМ-33
Козак Софія

Перевірила
Остапчук І.І.

Тернопіль 2022
Lecture 3. Syllabic structure of English

1. Types of transcription
2. Syllable as a phonetic/phonological unit.
3. Syllable formation theories.
4. Types of Syllables.
5. Rules of Syllable division
6. Functions of the syllable

Types of transcription

Phonological Phonetic
one symbol per 1 one symbol per 1
phoneme allophone

/ /

in teaching in research

Phonological Phonetic
IPA

Syllable as a phonetic/phonological unit- is a minimal pronounceable unit into

which phonemes show a tendency to cluster or group themselves.
1

purely articulatory unit

the smallest pronouncable unit

functional

chain of phonemes of various quality, the

distribution of which follows special rules

The nucleus of the syllable is a vowel, but the presence of consonants is

optional.
 Syllable Definition

 Articulatory – the pitch sound is in the centre of syllable and

is under the tension.
 Auditory – number of syllables in a word is determined by
the number of peaks of prominence.
 Phonologically – can influence the rhythm of a language, its
prosody, its poetric metre and its stress patterns.

Syllable formation theories

o expiratory/chest R.Stetson Based on the assumption that expiration in speech is a

pulse theory year – 1928 pulsating process and each syllable should correspond
(was criticized) school – Ameri- to a single expiration. In short, one expiration in
can, Harvard speech should correspond with one syllable.

Each sound is characterized by a certain degree of

o sonority theory
o acoustic theory
O structuralist theory
O.Jespersen
sonority which is understood as an acoustic property of a
sound that determines its perceptibility.
R.Jakobson
Study of the acoustic characteristics of speech, including
analysis and description of speech.
Saussure These phoneticians consider to group all the sounds
Rosetti pronounced by native speakers into phonemes according to
Hala the two laws of phonemic and allophonic distribution.

o theory of muscular Shcherba

Sounds that are pronounced with intensification of muscular
tension tension are termed pitch sounds. The syllable is an arc of
(was criticized) articulatory tension. The pitch sound is a centre of the syllable.

o loundness theory Zhinkin The syllable is an arc of articulatory effort. The arc of
loudness of perception level is formed due to variations of
the volume of passage which is modified by contraction of
its walls.

Types of syllables

-According to the placement of vowels at the end:

open (C+V) closed (V+C)

ends in a vowel [ai], [hi:] etc. ends in a consonant [m...n] man
-According to the placement of the consonant at the beginning

covered (C+V) (приголосна починає uncovered (V+C) (приголосна

склад) закінчує склад)
-According to the position in the word

 Initial (початковий)  Ultimate (кінцевий)

  Medial (середній)  Penultimate (передостанній)
 final (останній)  antepenultimate (третій з
кінця)
- According to the position of the stress

Pretonic- претонічний Tonic- тонічний Posttonic- Atonic- атонічний

(переднаголошений, (наголошеий посттонічний (ненаголошений)
передує наголошеному) склад) (після
наголошеного)
-According to the structure

fully open (повністю fully closed covered at the covered at the

відкритий) (повністю beginning end (закритий
vowel sound only закритий) (закритий на вкінці)
vowel between початку) v+c
consonants c+v
c+v+c

Syllable formation

C+V V+C(С) C+sonorant V

The most universal structure for syllable

VC
CVC CV
 4 Types of syllables

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZgOMdP-J2Tw
open (CV) closed (VC) V+r V+r+e

as in ABC as short sound long sound mostly as

A- Ei æ ɑː diphthong
O- ou ɔː ɔː ɪə
E- i: e ɜː eə
I-ai ɪ iː aɪə
U- ju ʌ uː

blame left firm rare

[[pale system nerve score
cube stop sport tyre

Syllable structure

Початок
Ядро
Кода

Peak/

Following the peak

 Syllable division

1. A syllable boundary is found wherever there is a word/morphological boundary:

displace[,dis 'pleis] become [bi 'к٨m] countless ['kauntləs] hardware ['ha:dweə]
CVC-CSVC, CV-CVS, CVSC-SVC, CVC-SV.

2. Consonants are syllabified with whichever of the two adjacent vowels is more strongly stressed:
farmer ['fa:m ə], agenda [ə 'd3əndə]
It they are both unstressed, it goes with the leftward one:
cinema ['sin əmə], delicious[di 'lisəs], deliberate [di'libərət]

3. The English diphthongs are unisyllabic, they make one vowel phoneme, while the so-called triphthongs are
disyllabic, because they consist of a diphthong + the neutral vowel/schwa:
table science flower
CV-CS CVVSC CSV-V

4. The English affricates cannot be split:

catching ['kætƒiŋ]

5.Sometimes a syllable consists phonetically only of a consonant or consonants. If so, a

consonant is a sonorant /m,n,l/

6.The IPA provides a special diacritic [.] to show syllabicity.

7.Phonetic (spoken) syllables must not be confused with orthographic (written) syllables

Syllabication- is a process of dividing a word into syllables.

Lecture 4. 1. Word accent as a component of the phonetic structure of a word.

1. The nature of English Word stress.

2. Linguistically relevant degrees of word stress.
3. Word accentuation tendencies and basic stress patterns of English words
(accentual types).
4. Functions of word stress.

Word stress- is a singled out syllable because of change in force.

type of stress factors perception Languages

tonic/musical pitch level Meaning of the words depends on Chinese, Japanese,

the pitch level of the syllables Vietnamese, Swedish
dynamic loudness
Stressed syllables are louder than the
unstressed. Swedish

qualitative vowel quality Stress doesn’t depend on

intensity alone. English, German

quantitative length of syllable Vowels in the stressed syllables

are always longer than vowels in Russian
the unstressed one.

English word stress functions

constitutive It helps to organize syllables into a definite language unit with

accentual structure.
identificatory The stress helps the listener to decode the information
adequately.
distinctive The stress is capable of making difference between the meaning
of the word and the part of speech.
culminative (Laver) Helps the listener to understand how many individual word units
were spoken in the utterance.

Types of stress

-According to the degree of stress (AmE)

Primary- the stress Secondary (the Weak (any Tertiary (all the
mark should be second, additional unstressed syllable unstressed after the
before the syllable. syllable) in the word, esp. stressed syllable-
pre-tonic ones) post-tonic
syllables)
 -According to its position

Fixed (French, Free (Datch, Greek, Shifting (when the stress shifts to other
Polish, Iranian) Swedish)- any syllable within the derived word)
Всі слова мають syllable in the word
останній або
передостанній
наголошений
склад, наприклад
 Word stress tendencies
Recessive tendency- Word stress is put on initial syllable in
nouns and the root syllable in verbs with
(restricted/unrestricted) prefixes.

Alterating stressed and unstressed

Rhythmic- syllables in polysemantic words.

Stress can remain or shift in the derived

Retentive words

Compound words have two equal

Semantic stresses.

Word accentuation patterns

1 [┴ — (—)].

The pattern with the primary stress on the first syllable marks:

- disyllabic words subjected to the recessive tendency ('father, ‘sunny, 'palace,

'office)·,

- trisyllabic words with or without suffixes subjected to the rhythmical tendency

('family, ‘scientist, 'populate,'active)·

- compound words with greater semantic significance of the first component ('gas-
pipe, 'bookcase).

2. [— ┴ (—)].

The pattern with the primary stress on the second syllable is realized in:

- disyllabic words with historical prefixes subjected to the restricted recessive

tendency (be'cause, pro'claim, a'part, for get);

- disyllabic verbs with the endings -ate, -ise/ize, -y (nafrate, com'prise, defy)·
- words of three or four syllables with suffixes subjected to the rhythmical
tendency (philology, democracy, experience, originate).

3. [┴ (—) ┴ (—)].

The pattern with two primary stresses is generally observed in:

- compound nouns or adjectives, consisting of two roots ('well-'bred, 'absent-

'minded, ‘tea-'pot, ‘ice-'cream)·

- composite verbs with postpositions ('get ‘up, 'come 'out, 'give'in);

- compound words with separable prefixes funfair, ‘disappear, 'ex'minister,

‘re'play).

4. [┴ T —].

The pattern with primary stress followed by the secondary one is very common
among compound words as the accentuation variant of the third pattern (‘hair-
'dresser, ‘dog-'killer, 'substructure). It is often realized in connected speech.

5. [(—) T (—) (┴) —].

The pattern with the secondary stress preceding the primary one marks a great
number of simple polysyllabic words with affixes ('intu'ition,'govern'mental,
peculiarity,'represent). It is as well found in compound words as the accentuation
variant of the third pattern in connected speech (' misinterpret).

6. [┴ ┴ ┴ (┴)].

The pattem with three and more primary stresses is characteristic of initial
compound abbreviations (‘B'B' C (British Broadcasting Corporation), ‘NYS'E (New
York Stock Exchange).

7. [T (—) T (—) ┴ —].

The pattern with two secondary stresses preceding the primary one is found in a very
small number of words with the stressed prefixes, roots and suffixes
(‘sub'organ'ization, ‘indilviduali'zation).

8. [┴ ┴ (—)T —].

The pattern with two primary stresses preceding the secondary one is rarely found
in compound words with separable prefixes (‘un'trustworthy).

This fact underlines the instability of English accentual structure multiplied in

connected speech.
Basic rules of accentuation

Stress tendencies and the system of stress patterns helps to establish basic rules of
accentuation, which are very useful for language learners.

The accentual structure of simple and derivative words is rather complicated.

Language learners should stick to the following rules:

- most disyllabic words have stress on the first syllable (‘water, ‘finish);

- disyllabic words with prefixes of no referential meaning of their own have stress
on the second syllable (mis'take; be'hind);

- most three- and four-syllable words have stress on the third syllable from the end
(‘criticism, re'markable);

- four-syllable words with suffixes -ary, -ory have stress on the first syllable
(‘stationary, ‘territory);

- polysyllabic words with the primary stress on the third syllable have secondary
stress on the first syllable (‘probability);

- polysyllabic words with the primary stress on the fourth and fifth syllable have
secondary stress on the second syllable (arlticu'lation);

- polysyllabic words with separable prefixes with a distinct meaning have two
primary stresses (‘un'known, ‘dis'charge, ‘re'pay, ‘mispro'nounce, ‘pre-'war, ‘ex-
'wife, ‘interview, ‘antiag'gressive).

There is no systematic practice in the choice among these three ways, although there
is a tendency for compounds with primary stress on the first element to be written
as one word or with a hyphen, and for those with the primary stress on the final
element to be written as two words.

When an adjective modifies the following noun, they make a phrase, and typically,
they have a late stress, i.e. the second word has more stress than the first, e.g.
polished ‘wood, interesting ‘book, funning ‘water, fard ‘work, difficult ‘course.
Compounds typically have early stress, the first element is more stressed than the
second: ‘firewood, ‘library book, ‘running shoes, ‘homework, correspondence
course.

In order not to make mistakes, the following rules should be observed:

- compound numerals have two primary stresses (‘twenty-four);

- compound adjectives are generally double-stressed (‘well-'known);

- compound adjectives with semantically weak second component are single-
stressed (‘childlike), but they are not numerous;

- compound verbs with post-positions get two main stresses (‘put ‘off);

- compound nouns are usually single-stressed (‘strong-box), and thus differ from
word combination with two stressed words (‘strong ‘box);

- compound nouns with the equal significance of both elements are double-stressed
(‘ice-'cream), but they are quite rare.

There are also differences between the stressing of compounds in RP and

General American, e.g.:

RP GenAm
'season ficket 'season 'ticket
:Adam's 'apple 'Adam 's ppple
peanut 'butter 'peanut futter
pocal 'cords 'vocal cords
Lecture 5,6. English intonation. Prosodic subsystems: pitch, utterance
stress; rhythm, tempo and pauses.

Intonation - the basic prosodic features of the sentence are: speech melody,
sentence accent, tempo, voice, timbre, rhythm, pausation.

Prosody is a variation in speech, stress, rhythm, tempo, pauses, individual

characteristics of voice etc. Prosody is a wider notion than the intonation.

Functions:
1

Focus- to highlight particular elements in the sentence,

helps to show what is new and what is already known

Role in discourse- to indicate the placement and

the role of sentence in the context.

Intention- is responsible for different

interpretations of speaker’s attitude.

Functions of Intonation

(by D. Crystal)

Emotional To convey a wide range of emotional meanings,

including excitement, boredom, surprise, reserve, and so
on. All types of vocal emotional expressiveness in
general.
Grammatical To mark grammatical contrasts. The identification of
such major units as a clause often depends on the way
pitch can break up an utterance.
Information structure To convey what is new and what is already known in
the meaning of an utterance- what is referred to as the
information structure of the utterance.
Textual To construct larger than the utterance stretches of
discourse.
Psychological To organize language into units that are more easily
perceived and memorized.
Indexical To serve as markers of personal identity. In particular,
they help to identify people as belonging to different
social groups and occupations.
 Functions by P.Roach
Attitudinal Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we
speak. And this adds a special kind of meaning to spoken
language.
Accentual Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on
syllables that need to be perceived as stressed.
Grammatical Intonation recognizes the grammar and the syntactical structure
of what is being said by using the information contained in the
intonation.
Discource Intonation can signal to the listener what is to be taken as a
new information and what is already given.

Generally one can define:

-sentence-forming How to form utterance as communication unit.

-sentence-delimiting Helps to recognize the end of the utterance and

emphatic pauses.
-distinctive: Indicates finality/non-finality, modality, emotions,
 communicative attitudes, pragmatic aspects (the influence on the
 attitudinal readers/listeners), different styles: informational,
conversational, reporting etc.
 stylistic

The Pitch (Speech Melody)- is a variation in pitch of the voice which takes place

to make prominence.

Parameters:

Direction (TONES)
-simple (kinetic/static)-
-complex-
-Falling- sense of finality, completion, categoric (low-fall,
Nucleus high-fall)
-Rising- incompletion, non-categoric
-Level- hesitation, uncertainty (mid-level)
low-fall (neutrality, calmness, definiteness, categoric)
high-fall (interest, warmth, personal concern, lively, emotional,
airy)
low-rise (hesitation, incompleteness, wondering, puzzlement,
disjunctive question)
high-rise (active searching, calling for repetition)
fall-rise (leaving smth unsaid, warning, pleading etc.)
rise-fall (deep impression, alternative question)
mid-level
Level
High (high-fall, high-rise)
Mid (mid-level)
Low (low-rise, low-fall)
 extra-high
extra-low
Range
normal
wide
narrow

Tone unit/Sense-group/Syntagm
- a part of utterance which is organized syntactically, has definite meanings
and is characterized by a definite intonation (with nucleus in the end).

Utterance stress- giving a greater prominence to one or more words within the
sentence

Notional Words

Functional words

Types:
 by degree functionally:

Full Syntagmatic (збігається з дужкою

Partial (give some more prominence)- вкінці синтагми)
частковий наголос Syntactic (збігається з повнозначною
Week- all functional parts of language частиною мови)
Logical (to emphasize important
information (for you)
Functions:

deictic Helps to signal important information

focusing Helps to single out a communicative center (usually nucleus)

informative To differentiate old and new information

contrasting Words are given prominence to check the correctness

emphasizing Helps to show personal concern and differentiate between new and
already known information.
unstressing To refer words that are already known or previously mentioned to
previously known information.

Timbre- combination of quality of sound production.

Voice quality:
 whispering, (lowering the voice)
 soft, breazy,
 hushy, etc

Loudness- the attribute of a sound that determines the magnitude of the auditory
sensation produced and that primarily depends on the amplitude of the sound wave
involved.
 High
 Increased
 Moderate
 Decreased
 Soft
Tempo- the speed at which the speech is produced.

Slow - lento 2-4 syllables per second

Normal 3-6 syllables per second

Fast - allegro 5-9 syllables per second

Rhythm- regular alteration of stressed and unstressed syllables.

 syllable-timed (French, Spanish)

 stress-timed languages (Germanic languages).
In a syllable-timed language the speaker gives an approximately equal
amount of time to each syllable, whether the syllable is stressed or unstressed and
this produces the effect of even rather staccato rhythm. In a stress-timed language
the distribution of time within the rhythmic unit is unequal. The stressed syllables
form the peak of prominence, they tend to be pronounced at regular intervals no
matter how many unstressed syllables are located between every two stressed ones.
The regularity is provided by the strong ‘beats’.
rhythmic group/unit - it is a speech segment which contains a stressed
syllable with preceding or/and following unstressed syllables attached to it. The
most frequent type of a rhythmic group includes 2-4 syllables, one of them
stressed, others – unstressed. The unstressed which follow the stressed syllable are
called enclitics, those preceding – proclitics.

English is a stress-timed language. The basic rules of English rhythm are:

1) The stressed syllables in a sense-group follow each other at regular
intervals of time; only in very long rhythmic groups, containing a number of
unstressed syllables, this regularity is not strictly observed;
2) Most non-initial rhythmic groups can begin with a stressed syllable;
unstressed syllables used inside a sense-group, have a tendency to cling to the
preceding stressed syllable; only initial unstressed syllables all cling to the following
stressed syllable;
3) The greater the number of unstressed syllables, used between the stressed
ones is, the more rapidly they are pronounced;
4) Initial unstressed syllables are always pronounced rapidly;
5) Each sense-group has a rhythm of its own, depending on the degree of its
semantic importance.
Pause- a complete stop of phonation.

Kinds

Short- to separate a syntagm.

Longer- the end of the sentence, full stop.

Long- paragraphs or when one needs to emphasize a new pause.

Types

Syntactic Is needed to separate phonopassages

Emphatic Special prominence at some words in the sentence (emphatic

pause in the place we need).
Hesitation Filling the silence, when thinking about the sentence
formulation. Filling with muttering, breathing, etc.
 Lecture 7. Phonostylistics and the stylistic use of intonation.

1. Problems of Phonostylistics.

multilingual bilingual diglossia

Ability of an individual The ability of an Refers to a situation in

speaker or community of individual or the which two dialects or
speakers to communicate members of community languages are used by a
effectively in three or more to use two languages single language
languages. effectively. community.

Functional stylistics studies certain aspects of language variations. The aim

of it is to analyze language habits and identify the linguistic features which are
restricted to certain social contexts, to explain them and to classify them.

NORM ?
There are three so called levels of functional stylistics: lexical, syntactic and
phonetic.
Phonostylistics studies- the way different communicative situations
influence the speaking norm.
The aim of utterance- stretch of spoken language that is preceded by silence
and followed by silence or a change of speaker.
 Style-
forming
Style
modifying
 Form of speech- listening, speaking, phone conversation, etc.
 Number of participants- monolog, dialog, polilog.
 Degree of spontaneity- full spontaneity, half prepared, fully prepared.
 Social status- businessman, cleaner, teacher, policeman.
 Gender- feminine, masculine.
 Age- child, teenager, middle-aged person, elderly person.
 Degree of formality- formal, informal.

The task of phonostylistics is firstly, to identify the set of phonetic expressive

means, which are stylistically significant; secondly, it must outline a method of
analysis, which would allow to arrange these features in such a way as to facilitate
the comparison of the use of one language with any other; thirdly it must decide on
the function of these features by classifying them into categories, based on the extra-
linguistic purpose they have.
Classification of phonetic styles

1) Informational – the most neutral, because it is formed without expressing any

emotions. It is used in broadcasting, press reporting, representation of a written
text, business talks, classroom teaching. The main task is simply to provide
people with information.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AtvHbv4W-D8

Among the prosodic features characteristic of this style we should mention

the following:
a) Low Fall/Rise with Descending Heads and High Level Head;
b) stable and normal loudness;
c) normal or relatively slow speed;
d) mostly syntactic pauses;
e) systematic and properly organised rhythm.

2) Scientific or academic – is used in lectures, scientific discussions and

conferences. The main task is to pay attention of the audience.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0yGdNEWdn0
It is achieved by varying prosodic features, by the alternation of pauses,
types of heads and terminal tones, by using tempo contrasts:
a) High/Low Falls and Fall-Rises with Stepping Head;
b) rather high loudness;
c) a large proportion of pauses that serve to bring out semantic centres;
d) normal or relatively slow speed
e) systematic and properly organized rhythm

3) Publicistic- is used in public discussions, political talks, sermons and debates. The
main task is to persuade the audience to talk.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lq0iua0r0KQ
The prosodic features are the following:
a) a lot of High Falls and Fall-Rises with Descending and Ascending Heads;
b) changes of loudness from fortissimo to whispering;

c) rather slow speed;

d) intonation groups are not short, separated with rather long mostly syntactical
and emphatic pauses;
e) properly organized rhythm.

4) Declamatory- used on stage, on TV, while declamating prose or poetry.

The main task is to appeal to emotions of the listener.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EEFMVIfl2UY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iY8jWbPeI50
It requires special training. On the prosodic level the following features are
the most common:
a) falling, level nuclear tones with Low/High Level or Stepping Head;
b) varied loudness;
c) rather slow speed;
d) properly organized and stable rhythm

5) Familiar or conversational- everyday communications between friends or family. It

is relaxed, not planned, with hesitation and elliptical construction.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qkXINJ0qsSU
It is relaxed, characterized by the lack of planning, so it is unpredictable,
there are a lot of errors, slips, hesitations, elliptical constructions:
a) falling or rising tones with Level or Falling Heads;
b) normal loudness;
c) varied speed;
d) intonation groups are rather short separated by pauses, mostly hesitations,
which;
e) can be both silent and filled;
f) irregular rhythm.
 Lecture 8. Regional and stylistic varieties of English pronunciation

1. Territorial varieties of English pronunciation.

The English language is lingua franca – the language that is used internationally for
a cooperation in different spheres: law, trade, politics, etc.
It’s the official language of the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia, New
Zealand and in a number of former British colonies.
 National variant – it is the language of nation, its standard used in
literature.
 Dialect- refers to variations in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation of
the national variant.
 Accent- a type only of pronunciational variations of the notional variant.

Standard?
 «Received Pronunciation» (RP), the British variant (standard).
 «General American» GE, the American variant.
 «Educated Australian», national standard of Australia.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zdow47FQRfQ

Regional standard – is used by most educated people in the region. Regional

standard is a variant standard of national standard used in a region, but with some
deviations.
In Britain several groups of regional accents are recognized: Southern,
Northern, Welsh, Scottish and Northern Irish.
 In the United States there are three major groups: Southern, Western and
Eastern.
 Diglossia – shifting in use from national variant to local accents.
 Bilingualism – the use of two languages in a short period of time.
 Social dialect- term of profession, ages, gender.
 Social accent (professional, educational, according to one's age, gender)
Idiolect – personal individual speech as a member of community.

2. British English.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EHgrDDwXkTA
RP is believed to be a social marker, a prestige accent of an Englishman,
often referred to as the «Queen’s English» or «BBC English».
Three types are distinguished within it:
o the conservative RP (the language of the royal family, aristocracy and
court),
o the general RP (spoken by most educated people and BBC
announcers),
o the advanced RP (used by young people).

The status of RP has changed in the last years.

Considerable changes are observed in the sound system of the present-day

English:
a) there is a tendency for all short vowels to be made nearer the centre of the
mouth;
b) the vowels [i:] and [u:] become more diphthongized (and more fronted);
c) [eɪ] is becoming shorter or more like a pure sound [e]: said [sed], again [əˈgen];
d) the diphthong [ʊə] tends to be [ɔ:]: sure [ʃɔ:], poor [pɔ:];
e) [æ] is often replaced by [a]: have [hav], and [and];
f) in rapid speech [h] is lost in the pronouns and the auxiliary «have»: her [ɜ:], he
[i:], had [æd];
g) palatalized final [k] is often heard: weak [wi:k’], Dick [dɪk’];
h) the sound [t] in the intervocalic position is made voiced: better [ˈbedə], letter
[ˈledə];
i) the dark [ł] is used instead of [l]: believe [bɪˈłi:v];
j) [j] is lost following [l, s, z, n]: suit [su:t], illuminate [ɪˈlu:mɪneɪt], exuberant
[ɪgˈzu:b(ə)r(ə)nt], neutral [ˈnu:tr(ə)l];
k) [ʧ, ʤ] become affricates: fortune [ˈfɔ:ʧu:n], duty [ˈʤu:tɪ];
l) pre-consonantal [t] becomes a glottal stop: don’t come [dɜʊnʔˈkʌm].
There is also a strong tendency for elision, reduction and assimilation.

There has appeared a new classification of RP types:

 general,
 refined,
 regional.

«Estuary English»
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlK_Q7Torlg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qGSsWO83Fno
The phonetic features of Estuary English include:
a) the use of [w] where RP uses [l] in the final positions or in a final consonant
cluster: faulty = fawty; all full = awful;
b) glottal stop for [t] and [d]: Scoʔland, neʔwork;
c) elision of [j] after «n, l, t, s»: news [nu:z], tune [ʧu:n], absolute [ˈæbsəlu:t],
assume [əˈsu:m];
d) [ɪ] is prolonged in the final position and may tend towards the quality of a
diphthong: very [ˈveri:], city [ˈsɪti:];
e) triphthongs [aʊə] and [aɪə] smooth into one long [a:]: hour [a:], tired [ta:d].
“Cockney Dialect”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X1_CdSa3PpY
1. ‘th’ Cockney would replace voiceless ‘th’ /θ/ in words like ‘think’, ‘theatre’,
‘author’, with /f/, so they would be pronounced /fɪŋk/, /fɪəʔə/, /ɔ:fə/:

Similarly, voiced ‘th’ in ‘the’, ‘this’, and ‘Northern’, would be pronounced /v/, so
/və/, /vɪs/ and /nɔ:vən/:

2. Glottal Stops /ʔ/ Cockney speakers will use glottal stops to replace /t/ before
consonants and weak vowels:

water /wɔ:ʔə/, cottage /kɒʔɪdʒ/

It is also common for a glottal stop to replace a /k/ before a consonant:

blackboard /bleʔbɔ:d/
3. /æ/ replaced with /e/ Any word producing the front open /æ/ vowel would be
pronounced with mid-open /e/ instead:

blackboard, bat, that

4. ‘h’ dropping. In cockney, you don’t pronounce /h/ at all. So ‘horrible’ is
/ɒrɪbəw/, ‘hospital’ is /ɒspɪʔəw/, ‘who’ is /uː/ and ‘help’ is /ewp/.

3. American English.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1m94y7cj-00 starting from 3:25
The formation of the American English underwent under the influence of
minorities' languages, but its starting point was the English language of the 17th
century. The American language has fewer dialects as Standard English had already
existed when first English settlers came to America. Still three main types of
cultivated speech are recognized in the USA: the Eastern type, the Southern type and
Western or General American (Picture 10.).
The following phonetic features of GA are distinguished:
a) length is not differentiated in [i:] - [ɪ] and [u:] - [ʊ];
b) [e] is more open;
c) [æ] is used in the words in which RP has [a:], often before a combination of [s]
with another consonant, but when there is no letter «r» in spelling: dance [dæns],
can’t [kænt];
d) there is no vowel [ɒ], which is replaced by [ɑ:]: god [gɑd:], clock [klɑ:k];
e) there are no diphthongs, ending in [ə], all vowels occurring before «r» within a
syllable become «r-coloured»: more[mɔ:r], heard [hɜ:rd], letter [ˈletɚ];
f) [r] is retroflex (pronounced with the tip of the tongue curled back) and is used in
all the positions where there is an «r» in spelling;
g) [1] is hard: relieve [rɪˈłi:v];
h) [t] between vowels is voiced: better [ˈbedə], letter [ˈledə];
i) when [t] follows [n], it is omitted and the vowel becomes nasalized: twenty
[ˈtwenɪ], winter [ˈwɪnə];
j) in [ju:] [j] is not pronounced in all positions: mute [mu:t], super [ˈsu:pɚ], nuclear
[ˈnu:klɪɚ];
k) in «where», «when», etc. [w] is pronounced as [hw];
l) the suffixes -ory, -ary, -mony have an additional secondary stress (sometimes
called tertiary): ˈdictioˌnary,ˈ testiˌmony, laˈbora.tory.
Intonation is smoother and seems rather dull and monotonous due to the narrower
pitch range and Mid-level Head. Level-rising tones in special questions
and statements are also common in American English:
- What’s your name? - Sixbie.
So as we can see the norms of GA and RP pronunciations are highly variable and
are subject to further changes.

Australian English

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZnioDeQNlxQ
The major features of AusE pronunciation are:
(1) It is non-rhotic.
(2) Its intonation is flatter than that of RP.
(3) Speech rhythms are slow, stress being more evenly spaced than in RP.
(4) Consonants do not differ significantly from those in RP.
(5) Vowels are in general closer and more frontal than in RP, with /i/ and /u/ as
in tea, two diphthongized to /əɪ/ and /əʊ/ respectively.
(6) The vowel in can't dance may be /æ/ or /a/.
(7) The schwa is busier than in RP, frequently replacing /ɪ/ in unaccented positions,
as in boxes, dances, darkest, velvet, acid.
(8) Some diphthongs shift, RP /eɪ/ towards /ʌɪ/, as in Australia, day, mate, and /aɪ/
towards /ɒɪ/, as in high, wide.
(9) Speakers whose first language is not English or who have a bilingual
background (Aboriginal, immigrant) often use sounds and a delivery influenced by
the patterns of the first or other language.
(10) The name of the letter h is often pronounced ‘haitch’ by speakers wholly or
partly of Irish-Catholic background.

Pigin English

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AeHaTOp-
klwhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hbn1Rn-OKR8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fC5nkdHV2b8
Characteristics shared by most pidgins:

 Typologically most closely resemble isolating languages

 Uncomplicated clausal structure (e.g., no embedded clauses, etc.)
 Reduction or elimination of syllable codas
 Reduction of consonant clusters or breaking them with epenthesis
 Elimination of aspiration or sound changes
 Monophthongization is common, employment of as few basic vowels as
possible, such as [a, e, i, o, u]
 Lack of morphophonemic variation
 Lack of tones, such as those found in Niger-Congo, Austroasiatic and Sino-
Tibetan language families and in various families of the indigenous languages
of the Americas
 Lack of grammatical tense; use of separate words to indicate tense, usually
preceding the verb
 Lack of conjugation or declension
 Lack of grammatical gender or number, commonly supplanted
by reduplication to represent plurals and superlatives, and other parts of speech
that represent the concept being increased and clear indication of the gender or
animated objects.
 Lack of clear parts of speech or word categorization; common use and
derivation of new vocabulary through conversion,
e.g. nominalization, verbification, adjectivization etc.