ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

4th CED

Chapter One

River Morphology

Hydraulic Structures II
1.River Morphology
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 River

 River is any body of fresh water flowing from an upland source to a large
lake or to the sea, fed by such sources as springs and tributary streams.

 The main parts of a river include

 a channel, in which the water flows, and

 a floodplain—a flat region of a valley on either side of the channel.

River Type:
Perennial – continuous flow (have adequate discharge though out the year,
there is dependable base flow contribution)
Ephemeral – flows only for short period during or following precipitation (less
than 30 days per year)
Intermittent – flow only during certain times of the year (seasonal flow, lasts
more than 30 days per year).
Rivers carry both water and sediment (clay, silt, sand, gravel, etc).
Rivers also have multitude of functions, which includes the following:
oSocial/ economic/ cultural functions:
•Sources of water is used for
Municipal/ commercial/ industrial uses
Irrigation
Power production (hydropower)
Transportation
Recreation
•Means of waste disposal
oEcological functions
 •Habitats to
Diversion weir
Aquatic plants and animals
Rivers are complex dynamic systems
o Interaction between:
Hydrodynamics
Morphodynamics
Ecological processes
oThey continuously change their forms and patterns (shape, size, position) and
other morphological characteristics in space and time (spatial & temporal) due to
changes in;
Water discharge
Sediment discharge
oThe changes in water and sediment discharge may be caused by;
•Natural elements (natural forces)
Discharge is naturally variable
•Anthropogenic elements
Human interference in the fluvial system
Land developments
Land clearance
Infrastructure building
Land use change
 River developments
Hydraulic structures
River channelization
Gravel and sand mining
River morphology is the study of the forms and patterns of rivers and the
processes that developed those forms. It is time dependent and varies particularly
with discharge, sediment input and characteristics, and with bank material.
River morphology can also be substantially influenced by engineering works.
oRiver forms and patterns:
•River channel geometry
Shape of channel cross-section
Size of channel cross-section
 •River channel pattern/ planform
Straight channel
Meandering channel
Braided channel
•River channel planform geometry
•River bed grade/ slope
oRiver morphological processes: processes due to flowing water
•Erosion
•Transportation
•Deposition
 Shear stress
Flow depth
Discharge on
and Velocity
the bed

Channel Channel
Morphology Roughness

Upstream Erosion Competence

seDiment & &
Deposition Capacity
sUpply
River forms and patterns and morphological processes interact in
a feedback mechanism.
Understanding of sediment transport and morphological processes are essential for
integrated river management and river engineering.
If the transport capacity of the river is affected, e.g. by diversion of water from the river or
by storing water in a reservoir, deposition of sediments may occur.
If not properly taken care of, harmful sedimentation and/or erosion may occur due to
water management measures, which then again to be remedied.
 Hence, good water management (and more generally good river management, which
includes also the management of, e.g. flood plain of the river) includes sediment
management.
For this, sufficient understanding of the sediment transport and morphological processes
in the river is a must.
Some of the reasons why good understanding of sediment transport
process is important are:
A Morphological boundary conditions for design of hydraulic structures and river
training works.
- The boundary conditions that have to be specified comprise:
- the discharge, maximum and minimum water levels current velocities, the lowest bed
levels that may occur in a river and the future changes in the morphological
characteristics of the river near the structure.
B Sedimentation in Reservoirs
C Sediment problems at Intakes
D Environmental Impact Assessment
• There is an increasing awareness of possible environmental impact of
water management schemes and river training works.
• To assess the potential impacts of such schemes not only their hydraulic
impacts should be assessed but also possible morphological changes
(degradation or aggradation, changes in flood plain sedimentation, etc)
should be identified.
• This assessment can only be done when sufficient understanding is
available on sediment transport processes.
E Bridge Support Foundation
 1.2 Natural Water Courses and Watershed
1.2.1 Natural Water Courses
The hydrosphere is a closed system, i.e, the amount of water is approximately
constant.
The water in the hydrosphere is caught up in the hydrologic cycle/ water cycle.
Four main hydrological processes
Precipitation – P
Surface runoff – SR
Evaporation/ evapotranspiration – E/ ET
Infiltration – I
Overland and channel flow
Precipitation on land, after deduction of
Surface storage
Evaporation
Infiltration
forms the surface runoff.
•Such surface flow is called overland flow.
At the beginning such runoff is likely to flow in thin sheets of water as sheet
flow –(1)
But it will soon start concentrating in natural depressions/ gullies forming
shallow concentrated flows – (2)
As the water flows downhill, the small gullies join to form channel flow –(3)
(usually detectable from areal photograph)
Stream Ordering (Strahler – Horton stream order)
oIt is a measure of the relative size of streams;
oIt is a measure of the degree of stream branching within a watershed.
oEach length of stream is indicated by its order (for example, first-order, second
order, etc.).
Smaller recognizable channels are designated as Order 1: no permanent
flowing tributaries
A first-order stream is an unbranched tributary, and a second-order stream is
a tributary formed by two or more first-order streams.
When two channels of order 1 join, channel of order 2 results
Generally, when two channels of order i join, channel of order i + 1 results
oA third-order stream is formed by two or more second-order streams, and in
general, an nth-order stream is formed by two or more streams of order (n-1) and
streams of lower order.
Figure . Ordering of stream of watershed having a principal order of 4.

The intersection of a channel

with another channel of lower
order does not raise the order
of the stream below the
intersection (e.g., a fourth-
order stream intersecting with
a second-order stream is still
a fourth-order stream below
the intersection).
 Within a given drainage basin, stream order correlates well with other basin
parameters, such as drainage area or channel length.

 Consequently, knowing what order a stream is can provide clues concerning

other characteristics such as which longitudinal zone it resides in and relative
channel size and depth.

1.2.2 The Watershed/ Catchment

 Rivers do not exist in isolation. They are part of a larger system – fluvial system
 In such system the concept of watershed/ catchment is important
 Total area from which surface runoff flows to a given point of concentration is
called a watershed, a catchment area, a drainage basin, or a drainage area.

 a watershed is always connected to a certain point of concentration

(POINT A in figure below), the lowest point of the respective basin.
 Watershed boundaries

The imaginary line delimiting

various watersheds is known
as water dividing line or
water-divide.
Its configuration depends on
the topography only, and it
runs along the highest points Precipitations falling outside the

of the surrounding area. area enclosed by this line will form a

runoff flowing to another stream, over
another catchment area
Nile River Basin
Watershed geomorphology/ characteristics

1. Drainage area – A
o It is the single most important watershed characteristics for hydrologic
design
o It reflects the volume of water that can be generated from precipitation;
V = Rainfall depth x Area
2. Watershed Length – L
o It is useful for the computation of the concentration time - Tc;
o It is the distance measured along the main channel from the watershed
outlet to the basin divide;
o While the length increases, the drainage area increases;
3. Watershed Slope – S
o Watershed slope reflects the rate of change of elevation with respect to
distance along the principal flow path
4. Watershed Shape
o Watersheds have an infinite variety of shapes;
o Not used directly in hydrologic design;

o However, the shape reflects the way that runoff will “bunch up” at the
outlet;
 A circular watershed would result in runoff from various parts of
the watershed reaching the outlet at the same time.
 An elliptical watershed having the outlet at one end of the major
axis and having the same area as the circular watershed would
cause the runoff to be spread out over time, thus producing a
smaller flood peak than that of the circular watershed.
Hypothetical watersheds.
(a) Ellipse: side;
(b)triangle: center;
(c) square: Comer;
(d) circle;
(e) triangle: vertex;
(f) rectangle;
(g) ellipse: end.
 In spite of the infinite number of possible watershed shapes, the majority may nevertheless
be usually reduced to three main configuration groups:
o elongated watershed,
o broad watershed, and
o fan-shaped watershed
Effect of Watershed Shape on the Runoff Flow
 1.2.3 Longitudinal Profile and Mean Slope of streams
 provide valuable information about its properties and the extension of its various parts in
respect of the elevation

Erosion, transfer,
and deposition
occur in all zones,
but the zone
concept focuses
on the most
dominant process.
Changes in
the channel
in the three
zones:
Flow,
channel size,
sediment
characteristics
1.2.4 Elements of Hydrometric Measurements

 Our knowledge and understanding of the morphology and behavior of natural

watercourses has been gained or derived from many long-term observations and
measurements. These measurements, can generally be classified into the
following groups:
o Geodetic measurements,
o Position fixing,
o Water-level measurements,
o Depth sounding,
o Velocity measurements,
o Discharge measurements, and
o Sediment transport measurements
 The first two measurement groups belong to surveying methods; strictly
speaking, they do not make part of hydrometric measurements, but are auxiliary to
them.
Water-Level Measurements
• Staff Gauges
• Suspended-Weight Gauge
• Automatic Gauge
Depth Sounding
• Sounding Rod
• Echo Sounding
Velocity Measurements
• Floats
• Current Meters
 Discharge Measurement
The final scope of all the hydrometric measuring methods discussed so far is
generally to obtain a fairly accurate, economically and technically acceptable
estimate of the discharge at a given flow section. This can be achieved by
using

(a) current meters,

(b) hydraulic structures, such as weirs, etc.

o Sediment Transport Measurements
 There can be no doubt about the engineering importance of obtaining fairly
reliable information in respect of the sediment transporting capacity of a
watercourse under study. In fact, for good understanding of an alluvial
stream and its characteristics, such information is essential. It is customary
for measuring purposes to assume that the total sediment load of a stream
consists of two parts:
 Suspended load (discharge), carried by the water across a stream
section above the bed layer. It consists of particles that stay suspended for
an appreciable length of time, and may contain sand and finer fractions,
such as silt and clay.
 Bed load (discharge), sediment that is carried across a stream section
inside the bed layer or close to it. Particles move by means of small jumps
(saltation), rolling or sliding.
1.3 Alluvial Streams
 defined as an open conduit, with geometric dimensions - cross
section, longitudinal profile and slope - changing with time, in
dependence of discharge, material of the stream bed and banks, and
quantity and quality of the solid sediment carried by the water.
o Alluvial channels are virtually free to adjust their dimensions
and shape in response to changing hydraulic conditions of flow;
o it is evident, therefore, that most parts of the stream bed and its
banks are composed of the material transported by the stream.
o The morphological processes which are responsible for the
formation and development of alluvial streams are:
(i) erosion,
(ii) transportation, and
(iii) deposition.
 Erosion: is the process by which soils and minerals are detached
and transported.
 Erosion can take place both in the channel and the watershed.
 Channel erosion – due to channel flow
 On the watershed – due to overland flow
 Splash erosion
 Sheet erosion
 Rill erosion
 Gully erosion
 Channel erosion: occurs when bank vegetation is disturbed
or when the flow rate in the stream is increased beyond the
critical point where bed material particle movement is
initiated.
 These changes destroy the geomorphic equilibrium of natural
streams and cause channel erosion to begin.
Splash Erosion Sheet Erosion Rill Erosion

Gully Erosion
Stream Bank Erosion
 Stable stream channel: is one in which there is no objectionable
silting/aggradation (gradual rise in channel bottom over entire length),
scouring (erosive deformation of the channel), or sedimentation
(increase and advancing forward of the volume of sediment
deposited).

 When these processes occur in excessive amount the channel

becomes unstable and its natural balance is destroyed.

 The channel functions by transporting sediment out of the watershed by

means of its flow.

 The total load of sediment transported by the channel is made up of the

bed-material load and the wash load.
 1.3.1 Sediment Transport in Rivers
 The science of sediment transport deals with the interrelationship between
flowing water and sediment particles. An understanding of the physical
properties of water and sediment particles is essential to our study of
sediment transport.
 Density: the mass per unit volume [kg/m³].
 Specific weight: the weight per unit volume [kN/m³
 Specific gravity: The specific gravity, s, is the ratio of the specific weight of a
solid or a liquid (a given material) to that of water at 4°C. The specific gravity
of most common sediments is 2.65.
 Nominal diameter: is the diameter of a sphere having the same volume as the
particle.
 Sieve diameter: is the diameter of a sphere equal to the length of the side of a
square sieve opening through which the particle can just pass.
 Fall diameter: is the diameter of a sphere that has a specific gravity of 2.65 and
has the same terminal fall velocity as the particle when each is allowed to
settle alone in quiescent, distilled water.
→ The standard fall diameter is the fall diameter determined at a water temperature
of 24°C.
 Fall velocity: is the average terminal settling velocity of a particle falling
alone in quiescent distilled water of infinite extent. When the fall velocity
is measured at 24°C, it is called the standard fall velocity.
 Angle of repose: is the angle of slope formed by a given material under
the conditions of incipient sliding.
 Porosity: is a measure of the volume of voids per unit volume of

sediment, i.e.
 Viscosity: is the degree to which a fluid resists flow under an applied
force.
 Dynamic viscosity is the constant of proportionality relating the shear stress and
velocity gradient, i.e. τ = μ du/dy , where τ is shear stress, μ is dynamic viscosity
and du/dy is the velocity gradient.
 Kinematic viscosity is the ratio between dynamic viscosity and fluid density, i.e. ν
= μ /ρ, ν is kinematic viscosity.
 Sediment properties of individual particles that are important in the study
of sediment transport are particle size, shape, density, specific weight,
and fall velocity.
oBulk Properties of Sediment

 The size distribution, specific weight, and porosity of bed material

are the three important bulk properties in the study of sediment
transport.
 Particle Size Distribution:
 The most commonly used method to determine size frequency is
mechanical or sieve analysis.
 In general, the results are presented as cumulative – size frequency
curves.
 The fraction or percentage by weight of sediment that is smaller or larger
than a given size is plotted against particle size.
 Usually, sediments are referred to as gravel, sand, silt or clay. These
terms refer to the size of the sediment particle
 The frequency distribution is characterized by:
o Median particle size – d50 which is the size at 50% by weight is finer. d50 is
commonly used as the characteristic grain size.
o Mean particle size -d m   p d  100,
i i
with pi = percentage by weight of each
grain size fraction, di.
o Geometric mean size – dg = (d15.9 d84.1)1/2 is the geometric mean of the two sizes
corresponding to 84.1% and 15.9% finer, respectively.
o Geometric standard deviation – σg = (d84.1/d15.9)1/2.
o Sorting coefficient – S = (d90/d10)1/2
o Small values of S and σg imply a nearly uniform sediment size distribution. A large
value of S means a broad sediment size distribution.
o Gradation coefficient – G
1  d 84.1 d 50 
   used to characterize the range of
2  d 50 d15.9 
particles sizes.
 Tips on Fall velocity

 Fall velocity: is the average terminal settling velocity of a particle falling alone in
quiescent distilled water of infinite extent. When the fall velocity is measured at
24°C, it is called the standard fall velocity.
 The fall velocity reflects the integrated result of size, shape, surface roughness,
specific gravity, and viscosity of fluid. The fall velocity of a particle can be
calculated from a balance between the particle buoyant weight and the resisting
force resulting from fluid drag. The general drag equation is

FD  C D A
2 …………………………….. (1)
2

 where FD = drag force; CD = drag coefficient; ρ = density of water; A = the

projected area of particle in the direction of fall, and ω = the fall velocity.
 The buoyant or submerged weight of a spherical sediment particle is
 r 3  s   g
4
Ws  ………………………………. (2)
3
• where r is the particle radius.
 Theoretical consideration of drag coefficient: For a very slow and steady moving
sphere in an infinite liquid at a very small Reynolds number, the drag force can be
expressed as
FD  6   r  ……………………. (3)

 The drag coefficient is then found to be (this is the viscous or Stokes range where
Re is less than 0.1)
24 ……………………. (4)
CD 
Re

 where Re = Reynolds number.

 Equation (4) is acceptable for Reynolds numbers less than 1.0.
 From equation (1) and (4), Stoke’s equation can be obtained, i.e.,

FD  3  d    ……………………. (5)

 From equation (2) and (5), the terminal fall velocity for a sediment particle is

……………………. (6)
1 s  d2
 g
18  
 Rubey’s formula: Rubey introduced a formula for the computation of fall velocity of
gravel, sand, and silt particles. For quartz particles with diameter greater than 1
mm, the fall velocity can be computed by
     
1
2

  F d g  s  
    ……………………………. (7)
 where the parameter F= 0.79 for particles greater than 1 mm settling in water with
temperature between 10°C and 25°C, and d is the particle diameter.
 For smaller grain sizes

2 36  2   36  2 
1 1

……………………………. (8)
2 2

F    3 
 3 g d (  s  )  1   g d  s    1 
3

 For particle sizes greater than 2 mm, the fall velocity in 16°C water can be
approximated by
  3.32 d
1
2
 in m / s, d in m 