FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

Geo - Earth
Morphology - Structure/Form/Shape
Geomorphology - The scientific study and interpretation of the origin, characteristics and
development of the landforms of the earth.
Fluvial - Processes of running water

Fluvial Geomorphology:
The study of various processes and landforms associated with rivers. The study of rivers and
river systems.

River: Natural water course usually fresh water flowing towards an ocean/sea/another
river. Body of water flowing in an self-curved open channel .

Ephemeral Channels/Streams: Streams which flow only after a storm. Channels whose
flow last for a rainstorm’s life span. The channels are dry most of the time. Common in
deserts. There is no recharge through interflow/base flow.

Intermittent Channels/Streams: Streams which flow seasonally. The streams store water
during the wet season and are often dry during the dry season.

Perennial Channels/Streams : Streams which are always occupied by water and flow all
year round/throughout the year. The channels are mostly the main stream of a large basin.

Drainage/River System: The main river and its tributaries.

Drainage Basin/Catchment Area: The area drained by the river and its tributaries.

Watershed: Boundary/line which separate river flowing to different/opposite river systems.

A typical river system can be divided into 3 subsystems (diagram):

(1) Collecting System/Upper Course
(2) Transporting System/Middle Course
(3) Dispersing System/Lower Course

Collecting System: Tributaries collect water and sediments and funnel them into the main
trunk. Erosion is the main process.

Transporting System: Main process is Transportation of water and sediments. The main
trunk stream is the transporting sub-system. Erosion and Deposition can occur.

Dispersing System: Lower end of the river where most sediments are deposited into a
Delta. Water is dispersed into the ocean. Deposition is the dominant process.

Fluvial Landforms/Features: ( Table )

Stream/River Load: (diagram):
The amount of materials carried by the river at a given time. The load is carried/transported
in 4 main ways: (1) Solution (2) Suspension (3) Saltation (4) Traction

Traction : When large particles are moved/carried by rolling/sliding along the river bed.

Saltation: Load that is moved by bouncing/short leaps/in a series of jumps. The load is
temporarily lifted when the water has more energy.

Suspension Load: Light and fine materials that are suspended in the running water.

Solution/Dissolved Load: Dissolved materials that are carried down in solution.

*NB* Bed load: Saltation + Traction – materials moved along the bed by rolling/in leaps.

Measuring the Bed load of the River:

How to Collect the Bed load: (1) Use a bed load trap (a bucket/bag) to collect a sample of
bed load. (2) Walk about in the stream and pick up the pebbles which fall beneath the toes.

How to Analyse Size of Bed load: Use a system of Sieves/Wire Mesh. Empty the bed load
on top sieve with large mesh size. Shake the so that small size bed load pass through.
Consider the following dimensions when analysing bed load: (1) The long axis (2) Radius
of curvature (horizontal and vertical) (3) Index of roundness (4) colour (5) Shape (6) size

How to Measure Amount of Load in Suspension: (1) Use a sediment sampler/bottle with
the inlet and outlet tube. Immerse the bottle into the flowing water. The inlet tube allows
water into the bottle and the outlet tube allows water out. When full find volume of water
in litres. Filter the water and dry the sediments in an oven. Weigh the dry sediments.
Express mass of dry sediments as a fraction of the water. (2) Collect a sample using the
sediment sampler, allow it to settle and then carefully pour off the clear water.

How to Measure Solution Load: (1) Use of a Conductivity Meter. Two electrodes are
attached to a meter and when dipped into water, it will measure the electrical conductivity
of the stream water. This will show the concentration of dissolved minerals in the water.
(2) Use the Evaporation Concept.

Factors Influencing Type and Amount of Load Carried by a River: -volume of water ;
seasonality ; velocity ; gradient ; nature of base rock (hard/soft, soluble/insoluble) ; bed
roughness etc.

Stream Capacity: The total amount of sediment load a stream is able to transport/carry.

Stream Competence: The maximum particle size a stream can transport. The ability of a
stream to transport a particular particle size such as boulders , pebbles etc. Competence is
influenced by stream volume and velocity.
River/Stream Velocity: The speed at which water flows through a channel.

Types of Water Flow:

(1) Laminar Flow (dia): Regular/steady/smooth movement of water. Horizontal movement
of water in straight parallel lines. Common in areas with a smooth river bed.
(2) Turbulent Flow: Flow of water in erratic eddies/circular pattern. Irregular movement of
water both horizontal and vertical. It’s associated with fast flowing water along irregular
river bed.
(3) Helicoidal Flow: Corkscrew movement of water on the out bank of a meandering
channel.

Measuring River Velocity:

Equipment Needed: (1) Range rods (2) Tape measure (3) Metre rule (4) Stop watch
(5) Floats (6) Recording sheet (7) Pens
Procedure: Select a straight stretch of a river, free from weeds and other obstacles.
Measure a stretch (10m) along the river bank. Use the range rods to mark the starting point
and the end point. Deploy helpers, two at the starting point and two at the end point. At the
starting point, put a float on the surface of water near one bank, in the middle of the
channel and the far bank. Time how the float takes to reach the end point. Record the data
on the recording sheet as follows (Table).
Calculate the speed using the formula: Velocity = Distance (m)
. Time (sec)

Factors Affecting Velocity:

(1) Channel slope/Gradient (2) Variations Across the Channel (3) Volume of
Water/Discharge (4) Channel pattern (5) Roughness of the Channel Bed and Bank
(6) Channel Shape: This is best by the Hydraulic Radius – the ratio between the area of the
cross-section of a river channel and the length of its Wetted Perimeter. Wetted Perimeter is
the total length of the bed and the banks in contact with the water in the channel.
. Diagrams
Stream A has a large hydraulic radius, meaning that it has a smaller amount of water in its
cross-section in contact with the wetted perimeter. This creates less friction which reduces
energy loss and allow greater velocity.
Stream B has a smaller hydraulic radius, meaning that it has a larger amount of water in its
cross-section in contact with the wetted perimeter hence reduced velocity due friction.

River Discharge:
The volume/amount of water carried by a river past a given point (gauging station) during a
specific time e.g 1 hour ; 1 day ; a month ; a year. It’s measured in m per second (m /s ).
Formula to calculate Discharge: Q = A x V
Q = Discharge: A = Cross-Sectional Area : V = Velocity:
The Hydrograph:
A graph/diagram which shows stream discharge. It’s a plot of the stream discharge against
time. It’s used to illustrate short term discharge.

Components of the Hydrograph: (diagram, Dynamics page 48)

Factors Affecting the Shape and Size of the Hydrograph:

(1) Rock/Soil type (2) Relief (3) Drainage density (4) Rainfall intensity
(5) Rainfall duration (6) Direction of storm (7) Storm frequency (8) Urban growth
(9) Vegetation (10) Seasonality/Snow melt (11) Basin size (12) Basin shape
(13) Human activities.

River Regime: Long term variation/change in river discharge. Factors affecting River
Regime: (1) Seasonality (2) Climate change (3) Snow melt (4) Human activities.

Ways in Which Hydrograph are used in Managing River Systems:

(1) Water abstraction ( domestic, irrigation, industrial purpose) (2) Flood prediction
(3) Dam construction (4) River management – straightening of channel, construction of
artificial levees, embankments etc.

River Energy: The power of a river to do work.

Purpose of River Energy: (1) to overcome friction (2) to carry the load/transportation
(3) erosion.

River Erosion:
The wearing away of the bed and bank of a channel by water and its load.

Processes of River Erosion:

(1) Abrasion/Corrasion: The wearing away of the sides and bed of a river channel by the
load.
(2) Corrosion/Solution: Process by which soluble materials are dissolved and carried in
solution.
(3) Hydraulic Action : Removal of loose materials by the force of running water alone.
*NB* –Cavitation is a form of hydraulic action. This is when water is thrown against channel
walls causing air in cracks to be compressed. When the water retreats, the air expands
causing particles to fall as the cracks become enlarged.
(4) Attrition: Process by which the load is broken down due to constant collision with each
other. Boulders collide with each other and break into smaller particles.

Direction of River Erosion:

(1) Headward Erosion: This is back ward erosion. The river cuts back at its source and so
increases its length. It involves slope retreat due to weathering and mass movement. Head
ward erosion can also occur along a river.
 (2) Lateral Erosion: This is sideways erosion. The wearing away of the sides of a river
channel , thus increasing its width.
(3) Vertical Erosion: This is down ward erosion. This is when a river erodes down wards
deepening its channel and increases its depth.

River Deposition:
Accumulation/dropping of river load at some point along the channel when river
competence decreases. Most of river’s sediments are deposited where it enters into a
lake/ocean leading to the formation of a delta.
Factors Which Promote River Deposition: (1) decrease in river velocity (2) decrease in
gradient (3) decrease in discharge (4) wide channel (5) insufficient energy
(6) obstruction by vegetation or human activities etc.

The Hjustrom Curve (dia):

This shows the relationship between stream velocity, erosion, transportation and
deposition.That’s the relationship between river velocity and particle size to be eroded,
transported and deposited.
*NB* - Describe and explain the relationship between stream velocity, erosion, transport,
and deposition shown in the diagram (Nov 2010).

Erosion: Very small particles like silt, sand require high velocity to be eroded due to their
coherent nature. Large particles like pebbles, boulders, cobbles also require high velocity to
be eroded due to their large size.
Transportation: Large particles like boulders, pebbles, cobbles require high velocity to be
transported because they are heavy. Small particles like silt, clay are moved at low velocity
because they are light. The lowest velocity at which grains of a particular size can be moved
is called Critical Velocity.
Deposition: Particles are deposited according to size. Large particles like boulders, pebbles
are the first to be deposited when velocity decreases. Small particles like silt, sand are
deposited in smaller quantities even if velocity is low because they are light.

Drainage Morphometry:
The quantitative analysis of the drainage basin. The analysis include (1) Drainage density
(2) Stream ordering (3) Bifurcation ratio.

Drainage Density:
The total/sum of stream channel length in a basin over the area of the basin.
Formula: DD = Total channel stream length (km)
. Total area of the basin (km )

How to Measure DD in the Basin:

Obtain a topographical map of the area. Mark out the boundaries of the drainage basin.
Measure the total length of the main river and all its tributaries. Measure the area of the
basin. Use the formula to calculate the DD.
Factors Affecting DD:
(1) Rainfall intensity/Amount of rainfall in an area (2) Soil/Rock permeability
(3) Rock/Soil type (4) Relief/Gradient (5) Vegetation cover/density
(6) Time (frequency and duration of rainfall) (7) Human activities

Stream Ordering:
A rank order of streams from the smallest to the largest in a basin. That’s a hierarchy of
streams.

Strahler’s System of Stream Ordering (dia):

A stream with no tributary belongs to the lowest order (First Order Stream). When two first
order streams meet they form the the Second Order Stream. When two second order
streams meet they form the Third Order Stream etc.

Significance/Usefulness of Stream Ordering and DD:

High DD means that the area generates more run off ,thus it is prone to flooding. High DD
shows that the area has impermeable rocks.

Bifurcation Ratio: Proportion of the streams of a lower order to those of the immediate
higher order. Relationship between the number of streams of one order to those of the next
higher order.
Formula: BR = Number of first order streams
. Number of second order streams

Significance/Usefulness of the BR: The BR is an indicator of flood risk. The lower the ratio,
the greater the risk of flooding within the basin.

Drainage Pattern:
The layout/plan made by the river and its tributaries on the landscape. A network of rivers
and their tributaries. The way/fashion in which a river and its tributaries are arranged in a
drainage basin.
DP is influenced by: (1) Slope of the land (2) Rock hardness (3) Rock structure.

Types of DP: (1) Dendritic (2) Trellis (3) Radial

(4) Centripetal (5) Rectangular (6) Annular (7) Parallel.

Accordant and Discordant Drainage:

Accordant Drainage :(dia) .

This is when streams are related to geological structure. The streams follow the down slope
of the area and avoid flowing across ridges and highland areas. There is a relationship
between structure and the surface drainage pattern. The main trunk stream flow in the
same direction as the dip of the landscape. Trellis, radial, dendritic, parallel drainage are
types of accordant drainage.
Discordant Drainage: (dia).
This is when streams flow against the structural grain of the area. There is no relationship
between direction of flow and geological structure, streams cut across ridges and anticlines.
Drainage system is opposed/do not conform to the geological structure. Examples of
discordant are: (1) Superimposed Drainage (2) Antecedent Drainage.

Superimposed Drainage: (dia).

This is when a river develops on a former cover of rocks that has been removed by erosion.
The river then flows on a previously buried and completely different rock structure. The
river is now placed upon the newly exposed rock structure which may consist of ridges.

Antecedent Drainage: (dia).

This is when a river develops on a newly uplifted landscape but was able to maintain its
course by cutting vertically at a faster rate to keep pace with the rising land. The river
eventually cuts out a gorge through the rising landscape. Uplift can be due to Folding or
Faulting.

River Capture/Piracy/Diversion: (dia).

When the waters of one river are diverted/captured by a more powerful river. The diversion
of a river course into the system of adjacent powerful river.
Evidence/Effects of River Capture: (1) Wind gap/Col (2) Elbow of capture
(3) Misfit/Beheaded stream (4) Pirate river
Conditions Which Promote River Capture: (1) The pirate river must flow at a lower gradient
than its victim. (2) The pirate river must have greater energy for vertical and head ward
erosion. (3) The pirate river must flow over easily erodible banks . (4) Folding and faulting.

Channel Pattern:
The appearance of a channel when viewed from an aeroplane/when studied on a
topographical map.
Sinuosity: (dia) The ratio of channel distance to the axial (straight line) distance.
. Sinuosity = Channel Distance
. Axial Distance

*NB: If sinuosity is less than 1,5 = Straight Channel.

. If sinuosity is more than 1,5 = Meandering Channel.

Types of Channel Pattern:

(1) Straight Channel:(dia). Common on steep slopes or where the channel is controlled by
joints/faults. It is characterised by alternate riffles (shallow sections) and pools (deep
sections)
(2) Braided Channel: (dia). Wide and shallow channel in which the river divides and sub-
divides into minor channels separated by sand bars/islands of alluvium. A channel which
is sub-divided into a number of smaller channels. e.g Zambezi River (Upstream of Vic
 Falls)
Cross Section of a Braided Channel :( dia)

Conditions Favouring the Development of Braided Channels:

(1) areas with easily erodible banks to provide sediments for the bars and islands
(2) heavily loaded and shallow streams (3) reduced velocity leading to deposition of
sediments (4) reduced volume/discharge due to evaporation, water harvest
(5) seasonal variation (6) colonisation of sandbars by vegetation creating permanent
islands in the channel.

(3) Meandering Channel: (dia).

Curved bends of a river channel. A single channel which wind from side to side.
Meandering channels also contain riffles and pools. The riffles are on the convex bank
while the pools are on the concave bank. Meanders can be described in terms of (1)
Wave length (2) Amplitude (3) Radius of Curvature (dia).
Cross Section at a Meander Bend: (dia)

Origins of Meanders:
(1) Structural control
(2) The Riffle and Pool Explanation :(dia). There is the development of alternate riffles
and pools on the bed of a straight channel. This causes the stream to swing from side to
side as it is deflected by shallow sections. As a result successive pools are pushed to
different sides along the stream and meanders finally form.

River Rejuvenation: When the erosive power of a river has been renewed. Increased
erosion in a river valley. Return of a period of active vertical erosion . When a river is
given extra power to cut its bed.

Causes of Rejuvenation:
(1) Regional uplift of land.
(2)Fall/drop in sea level (negative movement of the sea). A fall in sea level gives a
stream more energy to cut its bed. *NB: Global change in sea level (rise/fall) is called
Eustatic Movement. Change in sea level due to uplift of land (level sea remains at its
position) is called Isostatic Movement.
(3) An increase in river discharge (due to more rainfall/river capture) leading to
increased energy.

Landforms/Features due to Rejuvenation:

(1) Knick Point – A break of slope in the long profile of a river. A point where a river
crosses from the old flood plain to the new flood plain. A knick point may be marked by
a waterfall/rapid.
(2) River Terrace (3) Valley within a Valley/Gorge
(4) Incised Meanders – meanders that are cut deep into the valley floors ( i.e the river
winds between steep valley floors)

Cross and Long Profile of Rivers:

Cross/Short Profile:
Valley cross section from bank to bank.
Factors Influencing River Cross Profiles:
(1) Rock Type – Hard and coherent rocks produce valleys with steep sides. Soft rocks
undergo collapse leading to valleys with gentle sides. Areas of homogenous rocks
produce symmetrical valley cross profiles. Areas of heterogeneous rocks produce
asymmetrical valley cross profile.
(2) Geological Structure – In areas of hard and soft horizontal structures terraced
valleys develop.
(3) Gradient – Steep slopes (Upper course) produce deep, narrow, V-shaped valleys due
to vertical erosion. Gentle slopes (Lower course) produce wide, U-shaped valleys.
(4) Rejuvenation (5) Channel Pattern – see meandering and braided channel.
(6) Vegetation – prohibits erosion and mass movement, hence little opening up.
(7) Climate – control amount of water available, run off, erosion, transport, weathering
and mass movement. Humid Tropics produce fairly deep, narrow valleys. Arid areas
produce steep, U-shaped valleys (Wadis) due to bare ground and exposed surfaces
(8) Tectonic Uplift of land – see antecedent drainage.
(9) Human activities – Stabilises/destabilises valleys e.g alluvial mining, extraction of
river sand.

Long Profile of a River:

Structure/shape of a river from source to mouth. The long profile of a river is concave in
shape.
A Graded Profile/ Profile of Equilibrium: This is a slope of transportation where there
is a balance between erosion and deposition. The energy of the river is used in the
movement of water and sediments ,so that none is available for erosion.
Factors Affecting Long Profiles of Rivers: *NB- Explain the concept of a graded
profile and explain such profiles rarely occur (Nov 2005). (1) Effects of Rejuvenation
(2) Occurrence of hard resistant rock along the river course.
(3) Tectonic Uplift – Faulting and Folding. (4) Presence of a lake/dam along the river
course. (5) Influence of river capture.