FACULTY OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

AND ECONOMICS
DEPARTMENT OF FINANCE AND ACCOUNTING

TITLE:
A MODEL TO COMBAT COTTON SIDE MARKETING IN ZIMBABWE USING
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIEGENCE

PROGRAMME:
A Dissertation submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the
Honours Dеgrее in Bachеlor of Business Studies and Computing Science
By

Surname: DEMBETEMBE
First name: LAZARUS TENDAI
Reg Number: R192102E

@2023

i
 DISSERTATION TITLE
A MODEL TO COMBAT COTTON SIDE MARKETING IN
ZIMBABWE USING ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

DISSERTATION METHODOLOGY (please tick one)

QUANTITATIVE X QUALITATIVE MIXED

INTAKE (YEAR) (MONTH)

2019 AUGUST
Registration No.: STUDENT NAME:
R192102E DEMBETEMBE LAZARUS TENDAI
SUBMISSION DEADLINE SUBMISSION DATE

26 MAY 2023 26 MAY 2023

SUPERVISOR’S
SIGNATURE ………………………………………………..

This statement should be completed and signed by the student producing the dissertation.

Declaration and Statement of Authorship:

1. I hold a copy of this dissertation, which can be produced if the original is lost/damaged.
2. This work may be reproduced, communicated, compared and archived for the purpose of detecting plagiarism.
3. I give permission for a copy of my marked work to be retained by the Department of Finance and Accounting for
review and comparison, including review by external examiners.

I understand that:
4. Plagiarism is the presentation of the work, idea or creation of another person as though it is your own. It is
considered cheating and is a very serious academic offence that may lead up to expulsion from the program.
Plagiarised material can be drawn from, and presented in, written, graphic and visual form, including electronic
data, and oral presentations. Plagiarism occurs when the origin of the material used is not appropriately cited.
Enabling plagiarism is the act of assisting or allowing another person to plagiarise or to copy your work.
5. I declare that this research project herein is my own piece of work and has not been copied from any source
without the acknowledgement of the source.

Last Name First Name Signature

DEMBETEMBE LAZARUS TENDAI

ii
NAME

A MODEL TO COMBAT COTTON SIDE MARKETING IN ZIMBABWE USING

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

WORD COUNT 20949 CHARACTER COUNT

Words 114089 Characters

PAGE COUNT 75 FILE SIZE

Pages 2.5MB
SUBMISSION DATE REPORT DATE

May 26, 2023 7:43 AM GMT+2 May 26, 2023 7:47 AM GMT+2

The combined total of all matches, including overlapping sources, for each database.
5% Internet database

Excluded from Similarity Report

Submitted Works database

iii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this piece to my mother, whose unwavering guidance and support have added
immense value to my life. Despite the challenges we have faced, her love for me has always
been steadfast. I also want to express my gratitude to everyone who has believed in me and
supported me along the way. Your contributions have been invaluable, and I thank you from
the bottom of my heart. May God bless each and every one of you abundantly.

iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to God Almighty for granting me the
opportunity to complete my studies and for the gift of life. My family and the members of the
Methodist church in Zimbabwe also deserve my deepest appreciation for their encouragement
throughout my learning journey. I am especially grateful to my mother for her tolerance and
uplifting words.

I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Mr. T Tazvishaya, my research supervisor, for his
unwavering support and commitment at every stage of the process. Without his guidance, this
dissertation would not have been possible. He has always been there for me in times of need,
and I am grateful for his timely assistance.

I would also like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of various researchers in the Cotton
Industry, particularly Nyamwezi Tonderai and friends from Midlands State University, for their
insights on cotton side marketing and analysis of the strategic responses by relevant authorities
to reduce side marketing.

Lastly, I want to express my appreciation to all my friends who generously shared their
knowledge, with a special mention to Fallon Nyoni, Tafadzwa Kandarama and Ndokanga
Kudakwashe for their unwavering love and support throughout my learning journey.

Thank you all for your exceptional contributions. May God continue to bless you on your life
journey.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................... iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... vi

List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... xi

List of Tables .......................................................................................................................xii

List of appendicies ............................................................................................................. xiii

Abbreviations and Acronyms ............................................................................................. xiv

ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER 1 .............................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Background of the study .................................................................................................. 1

1.3 Problem statement ............................................................................................................ 3

1.4 Research objectives .......................................................................................................... 5

1.5 Research question ............................................................................................................ 5

1.6 Scope of the study ............................................................................................................ 5

1.7 Justification of the research ............................................................................................. 6

1.8 Expected results ............................................................................................................... 7

1.9 Study Limitations ............................................................................................................. 7

1.10 Dissertation structure ..................................................................................................... 8

1.12 Summary of the Chapter ................................................................................................ 9

CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 10

LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 10

2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 10

2.2 The Subject's Definitions and Key Concepts ................................................................. 10

2.2.1 What is contract farming? ....................................................................................... 10

2.2.2 What are contracting firms? .................................................................................... 11

vi
 2.2.3 Who is a contracted farmer? ................................................................................... 11

2.2.4 What is the definition of Side Marketing? .............................................................. 11

2.3 Theoretical Literature Review ....................................................................................... 12

2.3.1 Theories................................................................................................................... 12

2.4 The Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 19

The Conceptual Framework Diagram .................................................................................. 21

2.5 The Empirical review ..................................................................................................... 21

2.5.1 Cotton Side Marketing in Zimbabwe vs Cotton Prices .............................................. 22

2.5.2 Cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe vs need of Quick Cash...................................... 22

2.5.3 Cotton Side marketing in Zimbabwe vs the lack of transparency in the market ........ 23

2.5.4 Cotton Side marketing In Zimbabwe vs lack of access to the formal markets ........... 24

2.5.5Cotton Side marketing In Zimbabwe vs lack of trust .................................................. 25

2.6 The Research Gap .......................................................................................................... 25

2.7 The anticipated benefits of Implementing AI in monitoring Field activities................. 26

2.8 Potential Limitations of Implementing AI in monitoring Field activities ..................... 27

2.9 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................... 28

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 29

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY............................................................................................. 29

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 29

3.2 Research Philosophy ...................................................................................................... 29

3.3 Research Approach ........................................................................................................ 29

3.4 Research design ............................................................................................................. 30

3.5 Research Strategy........................................................................................................... 30

3.6 Research Time Horizon ................................................................................................. 31

3.7 Sampling and Population ............................................................................................... 31

3.7.1 Study Population ..................................................................................................... 31

3.7.2 Sample Size............................................................................................................. 31

vii
 3.7.3 Sampling ................................................................................................................. 32

3.8 Data Collection .............................................................................................................. 32

3.8.1 Primary data ............................................................................................................ 32

3.8.2 Secondary data ........................................................................................................ 33

3.8.3 Data collection instruments..................................................................................... 33

3.8.4 Data Collection and Presentation ............................................................................ 33

3.9 Research Ethics .............................................................................................................. 34

3.9 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................... 34

CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 35

DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENATION OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 35

4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 35

4.1 Response Rate ................................................................................................................ 35

4.2 Data Validation .............................................................................................................. 35

4.2.1 Checking for the missing values ............................................................................. 36

4.2.2 The data consistency ............................................................................................... 36

4.3 Descriptive Statistics ...................................................................................................... 38

4.3.1 Demography................................................................................................................ 38

4.3.1.1 Gender .................................................................................................................. 39

4.3.1.2 Respondents’ age ................................................................................................. 39

4.3.1.3 Level of Education of the respondents................................................................. 40

4.3.1.4 Distribution of the Respondents .......................................................................... 41

4.4 Cotton Side Marketing Awareness ................................................................................ 43

4.5 Cotton Side Marketing Form in Practice ...................................................................... 44

4.6 The Determinates of Cotton Side in Zimbabwe ............................................................ 44

4.5.1 Cotton Side Marketing vs dissatisfaction in prices ................................................. 45

4.6.2 Cotton Side marketing vs the need for Quick cash ................................................. 46

4.6.3 Cotton Side Marketing vs lack of transparency in proper marketing channels ...... 47

viii
 4.6.4 Cotton Side Marketing vs Limited Access to proper channels ............................... 48

4.6.5 Cotton side marketing summary ............................................................................. 49

4.5.6 Cotton side marketing equation .............................................................................. 49

4.7 Awareness of the regulation........................................................................................... 50

4.8 Knowledge on the damage to the society ...................................................................... 51

4.8 Measures to combat side marketing ............................................................................... 52

4.9 Improving on Field monitoring in reducing cotton side marketing ............................... 53

4.10 Reasons for Field Officers Inefficiency ....................................................................... 54

4.11 Designing a model to combat cotton side marketing ................................................... 54

4.11.1 Overview ............................................................................................................... 54

4.11.2 Collecting Satellite Imagery ................................................................................. 55

4.11.4 Training Machine Learning Algorithms ............................................................... 66

4.11.5 Analysing the Satellite Imagery ............................................................................ 67

4.11.6 Validating the Model ............................................................................................ 67

4.11. 7 Model Structure ................................................................................................... 68

CHAPTER SUMMARY...................................................................................................... 68

CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................... 69

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................ 69

5.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 69

5.1 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 69

5.2 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 71

5.3 Limitations and future research avenues to explore ...................................................... 72

5.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 72

REFERENCES LIST ........................................................................................................... 74

APPENDICES ..................................................................................................................... 77

APENDIX 1 ..................................................................................................................... 77

APPENDIX 2 ................................................................................................................... 77

ix
APPENDIX 3 ................................................................................................................... 78

APPENDIX 4 ................................................................................................................... 81

x
List of Figures
Figure 1:conceptual framework ............................................................................................... 21
Figure 2: respondents Gender .................................................................................................. 39
Figure 3: Respondents Age ...................................................................................................... 40
Figure 4: Educational level of respondents .............................................................................. 41
Figure 5: Distribution of respondents ...................................................................................... 42
Figure 6: Cotton side marketing Awareness ............................................................................ 43
Figure 7:Type of cotton side marketing ................................................................................... 44
Figure 8:cotton side marketing vs price ................................................................................... 45
Figure 9:cotton side marketing vs need for quick cash............................................................ 46
Figure 10: Cotton side marketing vs lack of transparency ...................................................... 47
Figure 11:cotton side marketing vs limited access to proper markets ..................................... 48
Figure 12:cotton side marketing summary .............................................................................. 49
Figure 13: cotton side marketing regulations awareness ......................................................... 50
Figure 14:projected impact of cotton side marketing .............................................................. 51
Figure 15: measures to combat cotton side marketing............................................................. 52
Figure 16:Field Officer efficiency in field monitoring ............................................................ 53
Figure 17: Reason for field officer inefficiency ...................................................................... 54
Figure 18:Optical satellite ........................................................................................................ 57
Figure 19: synthetic aperture radar (SAR) ............................................................................... 60
Figure 20: Model accuracy ...................................................................................................... 67
Figure 21:Model structure........................................................................................................ 68

xi
List of Tables
Table 1: Respondents age ........................................................................................................ 40
Table 2:cotton side marketing summary .................................................................................. 49

xii
List of appendicies
APPENDIX 1

APPENDIX 2

APPENDIX 2

APPENDIX 3

APPENDIX 4

xiii
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Contract Farming CN

Cotton Side Marketing CSM

Cotton Company of Zimbabwe COTTCO

BCI better cotton initiative BCI

Artificial Intelligence AI

Zimbabwe Farmers Union ZFU

Convolutional Neural Networks CNN

xiv
ABSTRACT
Cotton side marketing poses a significant challenge in the cotton industry as it involves farmers
selling their cotton to unauthorized buyers outside of official marketing channels. This practice
has been prevalent since the early days of the industrial revolution when the demand for cotton
had increased. Cotton side marketing is giant problem in cotton industry as it can cause a
substantial loss to farmers and affects the overall quality of cotton produced. Moreover, the
Zimbabwe’s economy is hinged on agribusiness and a significant portion of its revenue comes
from crop farming backed up by contract farming as a significant number of small scale farmers
lacks collateral security to land from the banks. There are several efforts that were put forward
to eradicate the challenge of cotton side marketing. Among them, in response to this ongoing
challenge of cotton side marketing, some companies have deployed filed officers to monitor
the field operations as a way to avoid the common form of side marketing which is the
divergence of inputs to non-contracted crops. The use of traditional monitoring methods to
address this issue has proven to be time-consuming and costly, exacerbating the problem. To
tackle this problem, we designed AI model that leverages satellite imagery systems and
algorithms to monitor field operations virtually. The AI model detects irregularities in the
cotton production process, including the diversion of inputs and fertilizers to non-contracted
firms. Our research paper aimed to first identify the determinants of cotton side marketing,
which include dissatisfaction with prices, lack of transparency in the cotton industry, limited
access to proper marketing channels, and the need for quick cash. We also conducted a
comprehensive literature review to understand the various contributing factors to cotton side
marketing. In addition, we examined how industry players have addressed the issue, including
regulations and policies put in place to curb the problem. Data collection was done using an
online questionnaire distributed to a selected sample of 60 cotton industry players. Data
analysis and presentation of results was conducted using a combination of Python and
Microsoft Excel. Out of those who received the questionnaire, only 50 responded within the
stipulated time. The next step was to design and implement a research methodology to collect
and process large amounts of satellite imagery data but due to limitations in infrastructure, the
datasets used to train the model was obtained from kaggle online repository. The model’s
evaluation was based on its accuracy to generate the required result that can be implemented
in combating cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe. The research has also provide practical
recommendations for policymakers and industry stakeholders on how to effectively address
cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe.

15
 CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction
With a considerable presence in both local and foreign market, cotton side marketing is among
one of those challenges drowning the cotton industry. Farmers are selling cotton to purchasers
outside of the official marketing channels, which has been a recurring issue in Zimbabwe's
cotton sector. Several issues, including low cotton prices, sluggish payments, and a lack of faith
in the marketing system, have been cited as the causes of side marketing. This chapter aims to
explain the background of the side marketing problem, identify the side marketing difficulties
to various stakeholders and how they are impacted by it, as well as to emphasize the extent of
the problem. This chapter will also include the development of the study's goals, the design of
its research questions, a description of its scope, and a projection of its anticipated outcomes.

1.2 Background of the study

The cotton industry's early years, especially during the Industrial Revolution, when cotton
output and commerce grew quickly, may be identified as the beginning of cotton-side
marketing. The mass manufacturing of cotton products was made possible by technological
advancements in the textile industry during the Industrial Revolution, including the spinning
jenny, water frame, and power loom. At this time, cotton farmers throughout the world started
to use cotton-side marketing strategies to advertise their products to a burgeoning market
(Griffin E, 2010). Given that the majority of cotton farmers in Africa are unable to support
themselves, the issue of side marketing is also said to be a significant barrier in the continent's
agricultural industries.

Contract farming provides significant assistance for cotton growing. Poor people in Zimbabwe
live in rural regions with a high reliance on agricultural activities. According to Musara,
Zivenge, Chagwiza, Chimvuramahwe, and Dube (2018), agriculture has unquestionably been
the backbone of the economies of most nations, and Zimbabwe in particular, significantly
contributing to GDP and total export earnings as well as providing raw materials to the
manufacturing sector. In Zimbabwe, contract farming is the backbone of the industry. An
official contract between a farmer and the company providing the farmers inputs is known as
contract farming. Farmers who have received inputs and signed a contract with the organization

1
are required to adhere to the terms of the agreement. The agreement states that a farmer is not
permitted to sell their products to another group once they have a contract with one. The
agreement mandates that the organization set up a market for the farmers it has contracted with.
The agreement tackles some of the difficulties faced by small-scale farmers, such as a lack of
credit facilities and a lack of government input support because the vast majority of farmers in
the sector lack collateral security for bank loans. In Zimbabwe, the idea of contract farming is
not new; it was originally used in the early 1990s.

Across the world, several initiatives have been launched to prevent the sale of cotton to
unlicensed customers. The initial answer, among others, was to use governing bodies to control
the sector. They included, to name only a few boards for different nations, the New York Cotton
Exchange (1870), the Liverpool Cotton Exchange (1871), and the American Cotton Shippers
Association (1921). The sector is governed in Zimbabwe under the Statutory Instrument 96 of
2021 on Grain Marketing. The boards are in charge of filing lawsuits, controlling cotton
marketing, and enforcing sanctions on rabid advocates. The absence of necessary supporting
to ban side marketing. Yet, as the officials are paid off to keep quiet about cotton side marketing
operations, corruption is also a factor in the regulating board's inability to manage side
marketing.

Also, a number of boards have been created to inform farmers of the need of adhering to the
proper cotton marketing protocols. For instance, international organizations have offered
education and training to farmers to underline the value of adhering to proper marketing
channels and the dangers of side marketing, such as the International Cotton Advisory
Committee (ICAC). Nevertheless, some of the farmers were unable to be reached by the ICAC,
therefore they were left with little to no knowledge about the farmers selling their cotton to
unapproved individuals. It was observed that contracted farmers are additionally tempted by
lucrative pricing to sell their goods to unapproved purchasers in addition to the absence of
appropriate resources.

Moreover, initiatives have been undertaken to develop a more open and accessible Cotton
market. One example of a worldwide group working to enhance the cotton market is the Better
Cotton Initiative (BCI), which encourages farmers to use approved marketing channels and
advocates for sustainable farming methods. Fair pricing practices were also considered as a
way to lessen the appeal of side marketing. For instance, the Cotton Corporation of India (CCI)
2
has implemented minimum support prices (MSP) to make sure farmers are paid fairly for their
cotton. However, Market needs, currency changes, and international trade rules are just a few
of the variables that affect the world cotton market. These elements may influence cotton
farmers' pricing, causing them to look for alternate marketing channels to increase their profits.

The initiatives against side marketing that were highlighted were created for a worldwide
audience. In addition to the efforts done on a global scale, Zimbabwe and several African
nations continue to fall behind in terms of technology for controlling side marketing. For
instance, The Cotton Company of Zimbabwe has deployed field officers to closely monitor the
operation of the field in order to improve field operations monitoring. This is because some
farmers are reportedly diverting fertilizers and chemicals to other crops, so field officers have
been deployed to closely monitor the field operation. The reaction's success rate has produced
less-than-expected outcomes because people might fall victim to corruption and bribery at the
expense of the organization. In addition to accepting bribes and engaging in corruption, people
are less accurate and efficient than technology. It's also crucial to be aware of how certain
cotton corporations in Zimbabwe are lowering the prices at which non-contracted farmers may
sell cotton to them by manipulating sales statistics in their favour. This is one of the main
causes of the side marketing in Zimbabwe.

Despite government and several officials’ efforts to counteract side marketing, none of their
tactical solutions have completely succeeded in getting rid of the problem that side marketing.
In a news release (www.herald.co.zw, 2023), Mr. Munyaradzi Chikasha said that despite
efforts to counteract it, side marketing continues to be a problem.

1.3 Problem statement

The primary difficulty in contract farming is side marketing fuelled by a number of factors
ranging from dishonest by both parties to unfair pricing practices. In this regard, Mafuse et al.
(2020) confirmed that the margin between the profit earned by the self-funding farmers and
that of the contracted farmers was significantly greater, and in the event that a negative return
on capital and return on sales obtained by the contracted farmers indicates serious losses. As a
result, a larger percentage of contracted farmers stated that their inability to pay other
obligations, such as their children's school fees and other daily needs, is what is driving them
to side marketing. A much larger percentage of contracted farmers also stated that poor yields

3
are also driving them to side marketing because all crop proceeds will be consumed by input
loans, leaving the farmers with little to no cash to pay their obligations (Tonderai et al, 2014).
As means to sustain their families, farmers are now resorting to side marketing. This is
detrimental a number of stakeholders in the industry. Contracting firms are directly harmed by
side marketing since it reduces their market share and consequently reduce their incomes which
can lead to shutdowns. On the other hand, farmers who engage in side marketing may see a
rise in price of their cotton but there is also a risk of them failing to receive payments on their
cotton. This can affect the countries national output in long term and leading to reduced GDP
per capital. At the same time, farmers who engage in side marketing will miss on the benefits
of following proper channels like input funding, prompt and secure payments, and training
services which can allow them produce better quality cotton. At the same time, those who
participate in side marketing might be able to purchase cotton for less money but they can also
face the risk of encountering issues including low-quality cotton, a lack of traceability, and
legal action from cotton farmers. The government is also affected by losses in tax and export
income. Side marketing may also hinder government efforts to aid smallholder farmers and
promote the sustainable growth of the cotton sector. Agribusiness contributes significantly to
the nation's GDP through export revenues and provides raw materials to the manufacturing
industries, hence this has a negative impact on the GDP.

Cotton side marketing is an ongoing challenge in Zimbabwe’s cotton industry. Several efforts
put forward by different officials have yield none to less than expected results in combating
cotton side marketing. The Cotton Company of Zimbabwe's acting accounting officer, Mr.
Munyaradzi Chikasha, confirmed via a herald press statement that neither the Agricultural
Marketing Authority (AMA) nor the Cotton Company of Zimbabwe's internal processes are
successful in eliminating the problem of side marketing. Side is spread across the whole cotton
industry. Close monitoring by field security officers is useless since the company does not have
the human resources to manage the operation. Organizations frequently employ their human
resources to oversee wide regions since individuals cannot be programmed to do so, which
results in mistakes. By enforcing tight laws against those who engage in side marketing, some
contracting firms has expanded its efforts to put an end to it, but none of these actions had yield
theexpectedresults.

4
1.4 Research objectives

The reduction of cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe’s cotton industry is the focus of this study.
The research will start by identifying the determinants of cotton side marketing in the industry
and then proceed to analyse the relationship between them. At the same time, the research will
also explore cotton industry’s expert’s opinions on the implementation of imagery satellite and
artificial intelligence algorithms for monitoring field operations instead of field officers as a
means combating side marketing. From there, the research will go a step further to develop
model using the stated technologies and analyse its usefulness.

The focus of this research will be on the following objectives:

 Identifying the determinants of cotton side marketing.

 Analyse the relationship between the factors.
 Develop an IA model to monitor field operations.
 Analyse the results.

1.5 Research question

We hope to develop a model in this study to counter side marketing. We will examine several
facets and uses of information technology, including data encryption methods to prevent
document manipulation, which enables side marketing, and artificial intelligence vectors
working with sensors to remotely monitor field activities in great detail.

This study will answer the following questions:

1. What are the determinants of Cotton Side Marketing in Zimbabwe?
2. To what extent AI model to track the field operations will reduce cotton side marketing
in Zimbabwe?

1.6 Scope of the study

The primary problem currently facing the cotton business is side marketing, which is spread
for a variety of different reasons. The main goal of this study is to identify the factors that
currently contributing to side marketing, evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of corrective
measures taken by the government and contracting companies in combating side marketing,
and create a model that uses sophisticated artificial intelligence algorithms tools to stop cotton

5
side marketing. Side marketing in cotton industry is the primary subject of this study, while it
will also analyse how other businesses are promoting side marketing for their own gain at
contracting firm’s expense.

The study aims to respond to the following queries:

 What are key factors contributing to Cotton Side Marketing in Zimbabwe?
 Can the implementation of Artificial Intelligence satellite imagery and artificial
intelligence algorithms be effective in monitoring field operations as a mode of
combating cotton side marketing?
The population samples will be drawn from cotton industry participants in Zimbabwe cotton
Industry. The research will use both primary and secondary data. The primary data will be
gathered by distributing an online questionnaire to a select group of cotton industry
representatives in order to learn more about some of the reasons why they sell their produce to
other businesses. Personal interviews with some of the most important key informants will also
be conducted. In all ten provinces, about 60 persons will be contacted. The data will be
extracted from kaggle online AI repository to train the Al model.

1.7 Justification of the research

There are numerous current initiatives being made to prevent side marketing by the government
and other cotton industry officials, however, there are still certain holes that need to be filled.
The monitoring of farmers has a considerable gap. Some key players like the Cotton Company
of Zimbabwe has proposed a number of strategies to enhance farmer monitoring, but none of
them has considerably decreased the prevalence of side marketing. One strategy entails the
deployment of security officers to monitor field operations alongside regional field officers in
order to prevent farmers from diverting inputs (fertilizers and chemicals) to other crops.
However, this approach has a limited impact on reducing side marketing because humans are
prone to error.

I suggest introducing artificial intelligence vectors that operate with camera sensors to virtually
monitor field activities in order to better monitor field operations.

The findings of this study will considerably aid in the eradication of side marketing because
they will make it impossible for some of the conditions that encourage it to arise.

6
1.8 Expected results
The goal of this project is to create sophisticated frameworks that will enable a significant
reduction in side marketing rate from a currently stated rate of 50% in Zimbabwe’s cotton
industry to at least 10%.We will deploy intelligent artificial intelligence systems to monitor
field operations.

The results of this study will pave the way for further research into some of the elements
influencing side marketing.

1.9 Study Limitations

The implementation of advanced technologies like artificial intelligence as a means to reduce
side marketing of cotton in cotton industry is associated with a number of challenges. The
projected prime challenge is the lack of access to reliable data. Training of artificial intelligence
algorithms requires a large amount of data that contains all the variables that are required for
the model to produce accurate results. For example, in designing model to track the field
activities, large sums of data are required to train the model to fully understand the different
possible results of crops. According to a study by the midlands state university student in 2013
on COTTCO strategic responses to side marketing highlighted that among others, one form
of side marketing being done in Zimbabwe is the divergence of the fertilizers and chemicals to
none contracted crops. In developing a model that address the issue, the researcher is required
to collect data with all the variables that can fully explain and analyse the health of different
crops at different levels focusing on verifying the application of fertilizer as well as chemicals.

The second potential challenge is limited infrastructure, particularly in rural areas where cotton
farming is prevalent. This may pose challenges for the implementation of artificial intelligence
imagery satellites, which require high-speed internet and reliable power supply. In addition to
the lack of infrastructure to implement Al imagery satellites, technical experts are also is also
required to maintain the systems. Hiring from outside may be costly resulting to the
organisation which can lead to lack of transparency as the organisation will try to cover its
expenses. In addition, there are also some other possible challenges the security concerns.
Implementing data encryption systems may raise security concerns, particularly in a country
where government surveillance is common. There may be concerns about who has access to
the data and how it is being used. Also there, the use of artificial intelligence and data

7
encryption raises ethical considerations around privacy, consent and the potential for
unintended consequences. These ethical considerations need to be carefully considered and
addressed in any research project.

Past research in the field of agricultural marketing in Zimbabwe has also encountered the same
challenges. For example, a study by Moyo and Chikazunga (2017) on the challenges of
smallholder farmers in accessing markets in Zimbabwe found was confronted with a challenges
of access data relating to the marketing of cotton.

1.10 Dissertation structure

This study will be organized into five major areas:

Chapter One

The very first section discusses the background for the study, the issue description, the
research's goals and objectives, the study's significance, and the research's scope.

Chapter Two

Chapter Two will scrutinizes the process of doing a critical evaluation of literature. There are
some defined key terms in the realm of cotton side marketing. Additionally, it explores the
conceptual model and framework used in the research, and also the theoretical and empirical
reviews.

Chapter Three

Chapter three describes the approaches that were employed to conduct the thesis. The chapter
also affirmed that this was a quantitative study and provided a short overview of how the data
gathering, presentation, and analysis were carried out in the study, as well as the limits
encountered over the progression of the research.

Chapter Four

This section discusses the study's results. This chapter summarizes and analyses the research
results, which contain all the data acquired during the investigation. Then, Chapter 2's
theoretical framework will be used to correlate the facts with the thesis. This chapter addresses
all of the study questions.

8
Chapter five

This section provides the research results and pertinent recommendations for the study's subject
and case. Recommendations in this chapter are based on chapter two's conclusions and an
examination of the literature.

1.12 Summary of the Chapter

A thorough introduction to the research study was presented in this chapter, which contained
the study's history, statement of the problem, study objectives, research questions, and the
significance of the research, investigation scope, and the study's shortcomings, among other
things. The second part, chapter two, is a review of literature, which contains insight into the
theories behind cotton side marketing as well as an empirical data from previous research

9
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter two assesses the available research and formerly matures and expands on roughly
insights on side marketing of Cotton in Zimbabwe. This chapter also seeks to explore efforts
Cotton Companies as well as the relevant authorities put forward in an attempt to combat side
marketing of Cotton. At the conclusion of this section, a concrete framework and proposition
will be developed and presented.

2.1 Introduction

A literature review's objective is not to describe all prior research on a topic, but rather to
highlight the most significant and interesting discoveries (Saunders et al., 2011). A methodical
review of the literature can assist you in refining your study questions and research aims and
objectives by avoiding duplication of previous work and sampling current views in trade
journals, newspapers, and professional organizations, which can provide insight into the
different facets of your thesis questions and research objectives that are considered serious
(Borg, 2007). This section conducts a critical examination of the literature on side marketing
of Cotton Industry. The appraisal will be carried out in accordance with the study's goals and
questions. In order to demonstrate both what has previously been published on this subject and
how my study will provide new information that is now absent, I intend to demonstrate both.
This section also gives an insight on possible deliveries of the AI field monitoring model
working in conjunction with data encryption methods in combating cotton side marketing.

2.2 The Subject's Definitions and Key Concepts

2.2.1 What is contract farming?

Contract farming is an institutional innovation in the agriculture sector that involves organising
the agricultural production in a way that obliges farmers to supply their produce to agro-
enterprises under a forward contract (Swain B, 2020). The arrangement specifies the terms and
conditions of production including the quality and quantity of crop to be produced, price to be
paid to the farmer and any other relevant terms such as delivery schedules, input supply and
technical assistance. In the context of Cotton contract farming, the company or organisation
provides the farmer with inputs such as seeds, fertilizers and pesticides and may also provide
10
technical assistance and training modern farming practices. On the other hand, the farmers
agrees to produce the specified quantity and quality of cotton and to sell it to the company or
organisation at an agreed price.

2.2.2 What are contracting firms?

A contracting firm is an organisation that specializes in the production and sale of cotton. These
firms work with cotton farmers to purchase raw cotton or to contract farmers to grow cotton
on their behalf. Farmer’s participation in contract farming is non-random, in order to identify
the best contracting partners among smallholders, firms look for readily observable indicators
(Barret et al, 2012). In cotton industries, the contracting firms considers farmers region, the
type of soil and rains as mechanism for farmer’s assessment for contracting. The firms may
also extent to also analyse farmers past cotton deliveries if not new in the industry. Contracting
firms offers contracts to the farmers for whom the firm’s expected profit levels are the greatest,
up to the point that it meets its product throughput requirements.

2.2.3 Who is a contracted farmer?

A contracted farmer is the one who enters into a contractual agreement with a company or
organisation for the production and supply of agricultural products. The farmer guided by the
contract agreement and terms is obliged to sell the contracted produce to the organisation at an
agreed price. On the other hand, the farmer also has the right to receive all the required inputs
as well as the technical assistance for them to deliver the expected output in terms of quality
and quantity.

2.2.4 What is the definition of Side Marketing?

Cotton side marketing refers to the practice of farmers selling their cotton to buyers other than
the contracting firms with whom they have signed contractual agreements (International Cotton
Advisory Committee (IAC), 2019). It can also come in another form of farmers diverting inpust
to non-contracted crops. Contract farming arrangements are not new in Zimbabwe, the cotton
industry in the 1990s introduced the same scheme for smallholder farmers (Fingaz, 2013).
Contract farming for small farmers in Zimbabwe has met with mixed success with allegations
of both parties failing to respect their contractual agreement resulting in side marketing by
farmers. The practice is often used when farmers are dissatisfied with the terms of their

11
contracts, such as offered for their cotton or the quality requirements specified by the
contracting firm. Cotton side marketing has a great potential to create tensions between farmers
and contracting firms, as it can be seen as a breach of the contract. However, on the other hand
farmers also argues that they have the right to sell their cotton to the highest bidders, as long
they meet the quality requirements specified by the buyer. Cotton side marketing can also
create challenges for the contracting firms, as it can lead to the lack of control over quality and
quantity of cotton produced by farmers under the contract. This can eventually make it difficult
for the contracting firms to meet the needs of their customers, and lead to the reputational
damage the quality of the cotton supplied is not up to the standard.

2.3 Theoretical Literature Review

The drive of this unit is simply to scrutinize the theoretical literature of subject, concept, theory,
or reality. It is critical to conduct a theoretical literature study in order to determine what
concepts are already in existence, how they are linked, and how deeply they have been tested
and evaluated. This form should be used to demonstrate that current theories are inadequate to
explain new and evolving research issues, or that there is a scarcity of suitable theories to
explain these questions. The unit of analysis could be a single theoretical concept, or it could
be a whole framework or theory in its own right.

2.3.1 Theories

In line with the fourth industrial revolution, it is important for relevant authorities in Cotton
industry to take the full advantage of technological innovations in responding to side
marketing. This subsection of the chapter seeks to explain theories behind the use of technology
in business and at the same time also explains assumed notions and beliefs behind cotton side
marketing.

2.3.1.1 The behaviourism Theory

Behaviourism is a school of psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behaviour, as

opposed to the internal mental states. It was first found in 1913 by John B Watson based on the
notion that individual’s behaviour is designed based on environmental stimuli and rewards.
The theory is sometimes referred to as the stimulus-response theory because it focuses on the
connection between stimulus and response. This theory states that behaviours are learned
through a process of reinforcement, meaning that behaviours that are rewarded are likely to be

12
repeated. This is the case in the world agribusiness. A tendency of farmers of not to adhere to
contract farming agreement is fuelled by the environment. According to (Nhodo & Changa,
2013), they highlighted that contracting companies are offering very low prices on farmers
produce. In response, farmers are now looking for alternative markets outside of the farming
contracts to sell their produce which is one of forms of side marketing. This is enough evidence
to prove that farmer’s behaviour of side marketing is influenced by dissatisfaction in prices at
which contracting firms are willing pay for their produce. Inter alia, one of the strategic
responses was to side marketing educate farmers on the importance of adhering to contracts
terms and at the same time shading light on some of the benefits comes with following proper
channels. The effort is to influence a good behaviour in farmers through sharing knowledge on
the benefits that comes with selling cotton to licenced firms.

2.3.1.2 The Automation Theory

Automation theory is a branch of engineering and computer science that deals with the design,
development and implementation of systems that can perform tasks without human
intervention (Russell S & Norvig P, 2010). The concept of automation can be traced back to
the Industrial Revolution, when machines were developed to replace human labour in
manufacturing. By introducing automated systems for cotton production and processing, the
Zimbabwean government and cotton industry stakeholders aim to improve the efficiency and
competitiveness of the industry, making it more attractive for farmers to sell their cotton
through official channels. Automation can help to reduce costs and improve the quality and
consistency of cotton production, which can in turn increase profits for both farmers and the
industry as a whole. However, it is important to note that automation alone may not be
sufficient to address all of the factors driving side marketing in Zimbabwe. Other measures
may also be needed, such as improving the monitoring of the field progress through artificial
intelligence models that can analyse crop health and predict yields to be delivered by farmers,
addressing issues with the pricing and payment systems and improving the quality and
reliability of extension services and support for smallholder farmers. Overall, the automation
of the cotton industry in Zimbabwe can be seen as a response to the issue of side marketing, as
well as a way to improve the efficiency and competitiveness of the industry. While automation
may help to address some of the underlying factors driving side marketing, a more
comprehensive approach may be needed to fully address this issue.

13
2.3.1.3 The simplification Theory

Simplification theory is a social psychological theory that explains how individuals simplify
complex information and make judgments based on limited information (Kahneman,
2011).The application of artificial intelligence (AI) in reducing side marketing in the cotton
industry can be seen as an example of the simplification theory in action.AI can help to simplify
the process of cotton marketing by automating certain tasks and decision-making processes.
For example, AI algorithms can be used to analyse market data and predict prices, which can
help to ensure that farmers receive fair prices for their cotton and reduce the incentive for side
marketing. AI can also be used to automate payment systems, reducing the risk of delays or
errors in payment processing and increasing trust in the official marketing system. In addition
to simplifying the cotton marketing process, AI can also help to improve the overall efficiency
and effectiveness of the industry. For example, AI can be used to optimize cotton production
by analysing data on factors such as weather patterns, soil conditions, and pest infestations.
This can help farmers to make more informed decisions about planting and management
practices, which can in turn improve yields and reduce costs. Overall, the application of AI in
reducing side marketing in the cotton industry can be seen as an example of the simplification
theory in action. By automating certain tasks and decision-making processes, AI can help to
simplify the complex cotton marketing process, improve efficiency and effectiveness, and
reduce the incentive for side marketing.

2.3.1.4 Descriptive Analysis Theory

In the context of machine learning, descriptive theory refers to the use of algorithms and
statistical models to describe and understand patterns in data (Aggarwal C, 2015). Descriptive
machine learning models do not necessarily aim to predict future outcomes, but rather to gain
insights and understanding of the underlying patterns and relationships in the data. The
Descriptive Analysis Theory suggests that understanding the drivers and patterns of a
phenomenon is essential for developing effective interventions. In the case of reducing cotton
side marketing in Zimbabwe, a descriptive analysis of the factors that contribute to side
marketing can help to inform targeted interventions and policies. Several studies have
investigated the drivers of side marketing in the Zimbabwean cotton industry. For example, a
study by Mutsamba et al. (2020) found that factors such as low prices, delayed payments, and
poor quality assurance were major drivers of side marketing among smallholder cotton farmers

14
in Zimbabwe. Another study by Murimbarimba et al. (2019) identified factors such as limited
access to formal credit, lack of technical support, and inadequate marketing information as
contributing to side marketing. Based on these and other studies, several interventions have
been proposed to reduce side marketing in the Zimbabwean cotton industry. For example, the
Cotton Company of Zimbabwe (COTTCO) has implemented a number of initiatives aimed at
improving the competitiveness and attractiveness of the official cotton marketing system,
including improving payment systems, providing technical assistance to farmers, and investing
in quality assurance and certification programs (COTCO, 2021). In addition to these initiatives,
there have also been efforts to improve access to formal credit and other forms of support for
smallholder cotton farmers. For example, the Zimbabwe Agricultural Development Trust
(ZADT) has provided loans and technical assistance to smallholder farmers in the cotton
industry, with a particular focus on women and youth (ZADT, 2021). The descriptive Overall,
the Descriptive Analysis Theory can be seen as a useful framework for understanding the
complex and multifaceted issue of side marketing in the Zimbabwean cotton industry. By
conducting descriptive analyses of the factors that contribute to side marketing, policymakers
and industry stakeholders can develop targeted interventions and policies aimed at addressing
these factors and improving the competitiveness and sustainability of the industry.

2.3.1.5 The predictive analysis Theory

In line with machine learning, predictive theory refers to the use of algorithms and statistical
models to make predictions about future outcomes based on historical data. Predictive machine
learning models are trained on historical data and then used to make predictions on new data
(Frank et al, 2016). The Predictive Analysis Theory suggests that using data and analytics to
make predictions about future outcomes can help to inform effective interventions. In the
context of reducing cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe, predictive analytics can be used to
identify patterns and trends in side marketing behaviour and develop targeted interventions to
address them. One example of the use of predictive analytics in the cotton industry is the Cotton
made in Africa initiative (CmiA). It make use of data-driven approach to monitor and analyse
cotton production and marketing in Africa, including in Zimbabwe. By collecting and
analysing data on factors such as prices, yields, and market trends, the organisation is able to
identify potential risks and opportunities in the cotton industry and develop targeted
interventions aimed at reducing side marketing and improving sustainability (CmiA, 2021). In
addition to initiatives such as CmiA, there have also been efforts to use predictive analytics to

15
develop early warning systems for side marketing in the Zimbabwean cotton industry. For
example, the Zimbabwe Agricultural Market Information System (ZAMIS) uses data on
market prices and other indicators to identify potential risks of side marketing and alert farmers
and other stakeholders to take action (ZAMIS, 2021). Furthermore, predictive analytics can
also be used to improve the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the cotton industry by
optimizing production and marketing strategies. For example, predictive algorithms can be
used to analyse data on weather patterns, soil conditions, and other factors to develop more
accurate yield forecasts and inform planting and management practices. This can help to reduce
costs and improve the competitiveness of the industry. Overall, the Predictive Analysis Theory
can be seen as a useful framework for developing effective interventions to reduce side
marketing in the Zimbabwean cotton industry. By using data and analytics to identify patterns
and trends in side marketing behaviour, policymakers and industry stakeholders can develop
targeted interventions that address underlying drivers and improve the sustainability and
competitiveness of the industry.

2.3.1.6 The data encryption theory

Data encryption theory is the study of how to encode sensitive information to protect its
confidentiality and integrity. Encryption involves the use of mathematical algorithms to
transform plaintext data into cipher text data that can only be read by authorized parties who
possess the key to decrypt the data (Schneier B, 2015).The Data Encryption Theory suggests
that using encryption techniques to secure data can help to reduce the risk of data breaches and
unauthorized access, which can be particularly important in sensitive industries such as the
cotton industry. In the context of reducing cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe, data encryption
can be used to secure sensitive information such as contracted farmers register, payment details,
and prices, reducing the risk of side marketing and improving the competitiveness of the
industry. One example of the use of data encryption in the cotton industry is the Better Cotton
Initiative (BCI). BCI uses encryption techniques to secure data on cotton production and
marketing, including information on prices, yields, and supply chain logistics. By securing this
information, BCI is able to reduce the risk of side marketing and improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of the cotton industry (BCI, 2021). In addition to initiatives such as BCI, there
have also been efforts to improve data security and privacy in the Zimbabwean cotton industry.
For example, the Zimbabwean government has implemented the Cybersecurity and Data
Protection Bill, which aims to strengthen data protection and privacy laws and regulations
across various sectors, including the cotton industry (The Herald, 2021). By improving data

16
security and privacy, the bill can help to reduce the risk of data breaches and unauthorized
access, which can in turn reduce the risk of side marketing and improve the competitiveness of
the industry. All in all, the Data Encryption Theory can be seen as a useful framework for
improving data security and reducing the risk of side marketing in the Zimbabwean cotton
industry. By using encryption techniques and other data security measures to secure sensitive
information, policymakers and industry stakeholders can reduce the risk of data breaches and
unauthorized access, which can in turn improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the industry.

2.3.1.7 The Digital Signature Theory

Digital signature theory is a concept in cryptography that allows for the authentication and
integrity of digital documents. A digital signature is a mathematical algorithm that verifies the
authenticity of a digital document and ensures that it has not been altered or tampered with
since it was signed (Stallings, 2013). The concept of digital signatures originated in the late
1970s and early 1980s, with the development of public-key cryptography in 1977. The Digital
Signature Theory suggests that using digital signatures to authenticate and verify electronic
documents and transactions can help to improve the security and reliability of data exchange.
In the context of reducing cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe, digital signatures can be used
to authenticate and verify contracts, invoices, and other important documents, reducing the risk
of fraud and side marketing. One example of the use of digital signatures in the cotton industry
is the eCotton platform developed by Olam International. eCotton is a digital platform that
enables cotton buyers and sellers to trade and exchange information securely and efficiently,
using digital signatures and other security features to authenticate and verify transactions
(Olam International, 2021). By using digital signatures, eCotton helps to reduce the risk of side
marketing and improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the cotton industry. In addition to
initiatives such as eCotton, there have also been efforts to promote the use of digital signatures
and other electronic authentication techniques in the Zimbabwean cotton industry. For
example, the Zimbabwean government has implemented the Electronic Transactions and
Electronic Commerce Act, which provides a legal framework for electronic transactions and
encourages the use of electronic authentication techniques such as digital signatures
(Zimbabwe Legal Information Institute, 2021). By promoting the use of digital signatures, the
act can help to improve the security and reliability of data exchange in the cotton industry,
reducing the risk of side marketing and improving the competitiveness of the industry. Overall,
the Digital Signature Theory can be seen as a useful framework for improving the security and

17
reliability of data exchange and reducing the risk of side marketing in the Zimbabwean cotton
industry. By using digital signatures and other electronic authentication techniques to
authenticate and verify documents and transactions, policymakers and industry stakeholders
can reduce the risk of fraud and side marketing, improving the efficiency and competitiveness
of the industry.

2.3.1.8 The Pareto Optimality Theory

Pareto optimality theory, also known as Pareto efficiency or Pareto optimality, is a concept in
economics that represents a state of allocation of resources in which it is impossible to make
any one individual better off without making at least one individual worse off. The theory is
named after Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto, who first introduced the concept in the early
20th century (Samuelson P A, 1947). In the context of reducing cotton side marketing in
Zimbabwe, the Pareto Optimality Theory can be applied to identify solutions that benefit both
farmers and the cotton industry without harming any other stakeholders. The Pareto Optimality
Theory can be seen as a useful framework for identifying solutions that benefit both farmers
and the cotton industry without harming any other stakeholders. By promoting sustainable and
cooperative models of cotton production and marketing, policymakers and industry
stakeholders can reduce the risk of side marketing and improve the competitiveness and
sustainability of the industry.

2.3.1.9 The Game theory

Game theory is a mathematical analysis of strategic decision-making in competitive and

cooperative scenarios (Otsuka K & Key N, 2006). In the context of cotton side marketing, game
theory can help explain the interactions between cotton farmers, contract farming companies,
and other market participants. Contract farming is a system where farmers agree to produce
and supply a specific quantity and quality of agricultural products to a buyer, usually a
company, at predetermined prices. The buyer, in turn, guarantees purchase and provides inputs
and technical support to the farmers. However when farmers perceive an opportunity for better
prices or terms from alternative buyers, the farmers may choose to sell their produce to other
companies. This can disrupt the contract farming system and lead to mistrust between farmers
and buyers, ultimately harming the efficiency and stability of the market.

18
2.3.1.10 The law of Demand and Supply

The Law of Demand and Supply suggests that the price of a product will be determined by the
interaction between the demand for the product and the supply of the product. In the context of
reducing cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe, the law of demand and supply can be applied to
identify the factors that influence the supply and demand of cotton and develop strategies to
promote the competitiveness and sustainability of the cotton industry. One example of the
application of the law of demand and supply in the Zimbabwean cotton industry is the use of
price incentives to reduce side marketing. The Cotton Company of Zimbabwe (COTTCO)
offers premium prices to farmers who comply with the regulations of the official cotton
marketing system, which can help to reduce the incentives for side marketing (Mutsamba et al,
2020). By providing farmers with a financial incentive to participate in the official marketing
system, COTTCO can help to increase the supply of cotton to the official market and reduce
the supply of cotton to the informal market. Another example is the use of market information
systems to improve price transparency and efficiency in the cotton value chain. The Zimbabwe
Agricultural Market Information System (ZAMIS) provides stakeholders with real-time
information on market prices, supply, and demand, which can help to improve the efficiency
of the cotton marketing system and reduce the risk of side marketing (ZAMIS, 2021). By
providing stakeholders with access to accurate and timely market information, ZAMIS can help
to reduce the information asymmetry that contributes to side marketing and promote the
competitiveness and sustainability of the industry. Overall, the Law of Demand and Supply
can be applied to identify the factors that influence the supply and demand of cotton in
Zimbabwe and develop strategies to reduce side marketing and promote the competitiveness
and sustainability of the industry.

2.4 The Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework is a theoretical structure or model that guides the research process. It
is a visual representation of the researcher's ideas and assumptions about the relationships
between the key variables or concepts being studied (Fink A, 2013). The conceptual framework
outlines the theoretical underpinnings of the research, identifies the key concepts, and explains
how they are related to one another (Creswell J, 2003). In the subsection of the chapter we will
give a detailed account of the conceptual framework for the implementation of artificial
intelligence (AI) satellite imagery and AI algorithms in monitoring field operations and data

19
encryption as a means of reducing cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe, along with a well-
explained diagram of the framework.

The framework begins with the identification of key variables related to cotton production and
marketing in Zimbabwe, such as the extent of side marketing, the efficiency of official
channels, and the impact of side marketing on smallholder farmers. The next step is to develop
a theoretical model that outlines the determinants of cotton side marketing and analyse the
relationships between them. In our case the model is proposing the use of AI satellite imagery
and AI algorithms in monitoring field operations can improve the transparency and efficiency
of official channels, thereby reducing the incidence of side marketing. The next step is to select
appropriate data sources and AI technologies for monitoring field operations. This involves the
use of satellite imagery to track crop growth and yield, as well as AI algorithms to analyse this
data and identify any irregularities or anomalies. The next step is to implement the AI
technologies and collect data on their effectiveness in reducing side marketing. A pilot program
may be developed to test the technologies in a selected region or district, followed by a larger-
scale implementation if the pilot program is successful. The final step is to evaluate the
effectiveness of the AI technologies in reducing side marketing and identify any limitations or
challenges in their implementation. This may involve the use of metrics such as the reduction
in side marketing incidents, the improvement in the efficiency of official channels, and the
impact on smallholder farmers.

20
The Conceptual Framework Diagram

Figure 1: conceptual framework

2.5 The Empirical review

This chapter intends to systematically summarize and evaluates existing research studies
related to the minimisation of cotton side marketing both within the country boarders as well
outside country boarders. This type of review is focused on studies, which are based on data
collected through observation or experimentation, rather than theoretical or conceptual papers.
The purpose of an empirical literature review is to provide a comprehensive and critical
analysis of the existing research on a specific topic, identify gaps in the literature, and suggest
future research directions (Smith J & Jones L, 2018).

The main focus is to conduct a thorough search of relevant databases and sources, such as
academic journals, books, and conference proceedings. From there we will then proceed
analyse the studies collected, taking notes and summarizing key findings, methods, and

21
conclusions. Also we will critically evaluate the quality and reliability of the studies, assessing
factors such as sample size, research design, and statistical analysis.

2.5.1 Cotton Side Marketing in Zimbabwe vs Cotton Prices

In Zimbabwe, the term "cotton side marketing" describes the practice of farmers selling their
cotton to unlicensed customers, frequently at a higher price, as opposed to contractual buyers
or ginning businesses. This technique has been common in Zimbabwe for a long time and has
had a significant effect on the cotton sector, causing price volatility and even the demise of
several ginning businesses. By summarizing significant talks or research undertaken on the
topic, this answer will give an explanation of the relationship between cotton side marketing in
Zimbabwe and the price at which cotton is being sold. A research published in 2017, Poulton
et al. examined how contract farming affected cotton side selling in Zimbabwe. Researchers
discovered that contract farming, in which ginning corporations provide farmers finance and
materials in exchange for a specified amount of cotton, might lead to moral hazard issues. If
farmers who profit from the inputs and loans offered by ginning businesses can sell their cotton
to illegal customers for a better price, they may still engage in side marketing. In addition to
undermining the contracting structure, this approach can cause significant price swings and
market volatility in the cotton industry. Moyo (2014) also investigated the variables influencing
cotton pricing in Zimbabwe and discovered that the market structure and process for
determining prices significantly contributed to the growth of side marketing. The analysis
showed that the predominance of side marketing was caused by the absence of a clear pricing
structure and the existence of monopsony power on the part of ginning enterprises. In this
situation, producers used side marketing to negotiate higher cotton prices.

2.5.2 Cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe vs need of Quick Cash

Cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe is often driven by the need for quick cash by cotton
farmers. Due to the low prices offered by contracting firms and the high cost of production,
farmers often turn to selling their cotton to private buyers who offer higher prices but may not
provide the same level of support as the contracting firms. This practice has been a contentious
issue in Zimbabwe, with concerns raised about the impact it has on the sustainability of the
cotton industry and the livelihoods of farmers. Several studies have been conducted on the
issue of cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe, highlighting the role of the need for quick cash in
driving the practice. One such study conducted by the International Food Policy Research
Institute (IFPRI) in 2013 found that cotton side marketing was prevalent in Zimbabwe, with

22
farmers citing the need for quick cash as one of the main reasons for engaging in the practice.
The study also found that farmers who participated in cotton side marketing tended to be more
vulnerable and less able to cope with shocks such as droughts or changes in market conditions.
In the same year, another study was also conducted by Midlands State University students to
analyse the strategic response of COTTCO to side marketing and it turns out that farmers are
also pushed by a need of quick cash to side market their crops for them to meet daily needs.
Another study conducted by the Zimbabwe Farmers Union (ZFU) in 2016 found that the need
for quick cash was still a major driver of cotton side marketing in the country, with farmers
stating that they needed the money to meet immediate household needs such as food and school
fees. The study also found that the high cost of production and the low prices offered by the
CMB were contributing factors. Researcher's findings have consistently shown that the need
for quick cash is a major driver of cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe. This has led to concerns
about the sustainability of the cotton industry and the livelihoods of farmers who engage in the
practice. Farmers who participate in cotton side marketing may receive higher prices for their
cotton, but they may also be exposed to risks such as market fluctuations and lack of access to
support services such as credit and inputs.

2.5.3 Cotton Side marketing in Zimbabwe vs the lack of transparency in

the market
Cotton is a major cash crop in Zimbabwe, and the marketing of cotton has been a contentious
issue in the country due to the lack of transparency in the market. Cotton side marketing refers
to the practice of farmers selling their cotton to buyers other than the licensed buyer. Several
studies have been conducted on the issue of cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe, highlighting
the lack of transparency in the market and the challenges faced by farmers. One such study
conducted by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) in 2013 found that
cotton side marketing was prevalent in Zimbabwe, and that it was driven by the low prices
offered by the contracting firms and the high transaction costs associated with selling to the
proper channels. The study also found that the lack of transparency in the market made it
difficult for farmers to get fair prices for their cotton. Another important study conducted by
the Zimbabwe Farmers Union (ZFU) in 2016 found that cotton side marketing was still
prevalent in the country, and that it was driven by the same factors identified in the IFPRI
study. The ZFU study also found that the lack of transparency in the market was a major
challenge for farmers, as they did not have access to information on prices and market trends.
Researcher's findings have consistently shown that the lack of transparency in the cotton market

23
in Zimbabwe has contributed to the prevalence of cotton side marketing. In addition, the high
transaction costs associated with selling to the proper markets have also contributed to the
practice. The main challenge faced by farmers is the lack of access to information on prices
and market trends, which makes it difficult for them to make informed decisions about where
to sell their cotton.

2.5.4 Cotton Side marketing In Zimbabwe vs lack of access to the formal

markets
The lack of access to licensed markets has been identified as a significant contributing factor
to cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe. Licensed markets refer to the formal market channels
regulated by the government through the Cotton Marketing Board (CMB). The CMB controls
the marketing and pricing of cotton in the country, and farmers are required to sell their cotton
through licensed markets to ensure fair pricing and timely payment. However, the lack of
access to licensed markets has led to the emergence of informal markets, where farmers sell
their cotton outside the formal market channels. This practice of cotton side marketing has
negative effects on farmers' livelihoods, as they often receive lower prices for their cotton
compared to the formal market. Moreover, it contributes to the perpetuation of poverty in rural
areas, as farmers are not able to generate enough income to improve their standard of living.
Several studies have been conducted on the subject of how the lack of access to licensed
markets has contributed to cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe. For example, a study by
Munyati and Chimonyo (2017) investigated the impact of cotton side marketing on smallholder
farmers' livelihoods in Zimbabwe. The study found that the lack of access to licensed markets
has contributed to the problem of cotton side marketing, as farmers face challenges in accessing
formal markets due to factors such as distance, transport costs, and the low level of competition.
Another study by Mutekwa et al. (2018) examined the factors that influence farmers' decisions
to participate in the formal or informal cotton markets in Zimbabwe. The study found that the
lack of access to licensed markets is a significant factor that contributes to cotton side
marketing. The study recommended that the government should improve the functioning of the
formal market channels, such as ensuring timely payment and addressing the challenges faced
by the CMB in regulating the cotton market. Furthermore, a study by Chikazhe (2018) analysed
the impact of cotton side marketing on the profitability of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe.
The study found that the lack of access to licensed markets has negative effects on farmers'
profitability, as they often receive lower prices for their cotton compared to the formal market.
The study recommended that the government should implement policies that promote fair

24
pricing and timely payment to farmers, while also addressing the challenges faced by the CMB
in regulating the cotton market.

2.5.5Cotton Side marketing In Zimbabwe vs lack of trust

The lack of trust in contract farming has been identified as a significant contributing factor to
cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe. Contract farming is a system where farmers enter into
agreements with companies to produce a specific crop for a predetermined price. In Zimbabwe,
contract farming is widely practiced in the cotton industry, but the lack of trust between farmers
and companies has led to many farmers engaging in cotton side marketing. One of the important
studies on this issue is a research study conducted by Matondi et al. (2012), which investigated
the impact of trust on contract farming in Zimbabwe's cotton industry. The study found that the
lack of trust between farmers and companies is a significant barrier to the success of contract
farming in the country. Farmers are often skeptical of the companies' intentions and their ability
to deliver on their promises, leading them to engage in cotton side marketing instead. Another
study by Mhazo et al. (2019) examined the factors that influence farmers' decisions to
participate in contract farming or engage in cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe. The study
found that the lack of trust in contract farming is a major factor that contributes to cotton side
marketing. The study recommended that companies should work on building trust with farmers
by providing transparent and fair contracts, timely payments, and quality inputs. Furthermore,
a study by Chikazhe (2018) analysed the impact of cotton side marketing on the profitability
of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. The study found that the lack of trust in contract farming
has negative effects on farmers' profitability, as they often receive lower prices for their cotton
compared to the informal markets. The study recommended that companies should work on
building trust with farmers to encourage them to participate in contract farming and discourage
cotton side marketing.

2.6 The Research Gap

Based on the studies conducted on reducing side marketing in the cotton industry in Zimbabwe,
a research gap can be identified in terms of the lack of implementation and evaluation of the
effectiveness of the proposed solutions.

Many of the studies have identified the prevalence and negative impact of side marketing on
smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe and have recommended various measures to address the
issue. These measures include improving the transparency and efficiency of official channels,

25
increasing penalties for engaging in side marketing, and implementing programs to educate
cotton farmers about the risks and consequences of side marketing.

However, there is a gap in terms of the implementation and evaluation of the effectiveness of
these proposed solutions. While some measures have been implemented by stakeholders such
as COTTCO. In responding to side marketing, The Cotton Company of Zimbabwe has
implemented several technology such as a Hotline to which farmers can report any instances
of side marketing, this has helped in improving the transparency in cotton supply chain and
allows COTTCO to take action against side marketing. The Mobile app to track cotton
deliveries was also designed. This has helped in reducing the risk of side marketing by
providing real-time data on the movement of cotton. Expansion of electronic payment systems
were also deployed to make it easier and convenient for farmers to receive payment for their
cotton. Also the organisation has introduced a biometric registration for cotton farmers which
helps to improve the accuracy and reliability of farmer data and at the same time risk of fraud
and all other illegal activities. In addition to the technological innovations in reducing cotton
side marketing, COTTCO has launched outreach programs to educate farmers on the benefits
of following the proper marketing channels.

The Cotton Company of Zimbabwe has also deployed field officers to monitor field activities
and crop health. The response has been reported to produce results with a mixed success as
human are not efficient as machines and are susceptible to issues such as corruption in form of
bribes. The organisation has been reluctant to take advantage of the newly introduced
technologies in artificial intelligence like satellite imagery and artificial algorithms to track and
monitor the field operation activities. In addition to a digitalised field monitoring, COTTCO
also needs to improve on its data security through the implementation of technologies in
computer security like data encryption so as to secure its data from manipulation to
accommodate side marketing.

2.7 The anticipated benefits of Implementing AI in monitoring Field

activities

There are several potential benefits of using satellite imagery and artificial intelligence (AI)
algorithms in reducing field activities monitoring and thereby reducing side marketing in the
cotton industry. Some of these benefits include:

26
Improved transparency: The use of satellite imagery and AI algorithms can improve the
transparency of cotton supply chains by providing real-time data on crop growth and yield.
This can help to identify any irregularities or anomalies in the production process, which can
then be addressed to reduce the incidence of side marketing.

Increased efficiency: By automating the process of monitoring field activities, satellite

imagery and AI algorithms can help to increase the efficiency of cotton production and
marketing. This can help to reduce the time and resources needed to monitor field activities
manually, which can also help to reduce the risk of side marketing.

Better decision-making: The use of satellite imagery and AI algorithms can provide cotton
farmers and other stakeholders with more accurate and timely information about crop growth
and yield. This can help them to make better decisions about when to harvest and how to market
their cotton, which can help to reduce the risk of side marketing.

Improved productivity: By providing real-time data on crop growth and yield, satellite
imagery and AI algorithms can help cotton farmers to optimize their farming practices and
improve their productivity. This can help to increase their profits and reduce the incentive to
engage in side marketing.

Enhanced sustainability: By reducing the incidence of side marketing, the use of satellite
imagery and AI algorithms can help to promote more sustainable and environmentally-friendly
cotton production practices. This can help to reduce the negative impact of cotton production
on the environment and promote more sustainable farming practices.

2.8 Potential Limitations of Implementing AI in monitoring Field activities

While there are potential benefits of implementing artificial intelligence (AI) in monitoring
field activities as a means of combating cotton side marketing, there are also several potential
limitations to this approach. Some of these limitations include:

Cost: The implementation of AI technologies can be expensive, particularly for smallholder

farmers who may not have access to the necessary resources or funding. The cost of the
necessary hardware, software, and training can be a significant barrier to implementation.

27
Technical expertise: The implementation of AI technologies requires specialized technical
expertise, which may not be readily available in some areas. This can limit the ability of farmers
and other stakeholders to effectively implement and utilize these technologies.

Access to technology: The use of AI technologies requires access to reliable internet

connectivity and other technological infrastructure. This can be a challenge in some rural areas,
where internet connectivity and other infrastructure may be limited.

Data quality: The effectiveness of AI technologies in monitoring field activities depends on

the quality of the data being collected. Poor data quality can limit the accuracy and reliability
of these technologies, and may result in inaccurate or incomplete information being used to
make decisions.

Privacy and security concerns: The use of AI technologies to monitor field activities raises
privacy and security concerns, particularly with regards to the collection and use of personal
data. There is a risk that this data could be misused or accessed by unauthorized individuals,
which could have negative consequences for farmers and other stakeholders.

2.9 Chapter Summary

Primarily, the objective of this part was to explain and widen the scope of conceptual and
empirical studies on the issue under consideration. It has been established that side marketing
is an ongoing challenge in cotton industry both in Zimbabwe and the rest of the world. The
major factors contributing to side marketing have been identified and strategic response by
relevant authorities has also been highlighted with a greater portion of them were on improving
on transparency in marketing channels and improve on farmers knowledge on the dangers as
well the benefits of following proper channels in cotton marketing. The study has also
identified the need to improve on the monitoring of the field operations through the
implementation of artificial intelligence imagery satellites and artificial intelligence algorithms
in monitoring the field operations. The chapter also went further to analyse the benefits of
implementing and data encryption as modes of reducing side marketing and also highlights
some of the potential limitations of them in reducing side marketing.

28
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This section outlines the methodology for conducting the study, which includes a brief review
of the study background, such as the problem description, research aims, thesis questions, and
study proposals. It also covers the study methods and research instruments used to collect
information, conduct interviews, and use sample approaches. Additionally, the chapter
discusses the data analytical tools and ethical issues that were considered. The following
section provides a more detailed discussion of the study methodology, including research plan
alternatives and suggested data collection techniques. Finally, the advantages and
disadvantages of the study approach used in this research are also discussed.

3.2 Research Philosophy

Previous research on cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe and globally has identified several
key factors that contribute to the practice, including a lack of transparency in the industry,
dissatisfaction with exchange prices, and a lack of trust between contracting firms and farmers.
A study conducted by students at Midlands State University found that farmers are increasingly
opting to sell their crops to other firms due to a negative association between effort in obtaining
the crop and the market offered prices. The study also revealed that farmers are diverting inputs
to non-contracted crops as a form of cotton side marketing. In response, COTTCO deployed
field officers to monitor farm operations, but this approach has been met with mixed success
due to potential human error and corruption. This research paper aims to explore the potential
effectiveness of implementing AI technology to monitor field operations and data encryption
to prevent data manipulation related to side marketing.

3.3 Research Approach

The research will utilize an inductive approach, beginning with the identification of the
determinants of cotton side marketing and analysis of their interrelationship. Next, an AI model
will be developed to monitor field operations using artificial intelligence and kaggle datasets
to train the model. Finally, the research will test the hypothesis of the effectiveness of the AI
model in reducing side marketing by comparing the information collected prior to the research
with the actual research outcomes after the model has been developed.

29
3.4 Research design
This research will employ a mixed-methods approach, integrating both quantitative and
qualitative data collection. Quantitative data will be gathered through surveys administered to
cotton farmers and industry stakeholders, with a focus on identifying the prevalence of side
marketing in the cotton industry, factors contributing to this phenomenon, and the effectiveness
of AI imagery satellites in combatting it. The survey design will draw upon previous research
on the use of AI imagery satellites the cotton industry (Khaliq et al., 2020). Qualitative data
will be collected through semi-structured interviews with key cotton industry experts, including
government officials, cotton farmers, and industry representatives, to gain in-depth insights
into the implementation of these technologies in combating side marketing. The interview
protocol will be informed by prior studies on the use of AI imagery satellites and data
encryption in addressing side marketing in the agricultural sector (Gao et al., 2019). The
research will follow a sequential explanatory strategy, with quantitative data collected first to
provide a general understanding of side marketing in the cotton industry, followed by
qualitative data collection to provide more detailed insights into the use of AI imagery satellites
and data encryption in addressing this issue.

3.5 Research Strategy

To investigate the effectiveness of implementing AI imagery satellites in combating side
marketing in the cotton industry, this research will use a mixed-methods approach consisting
of a quantitative survey and qualitative interviews. The survey will be administered to cotton
farmers and industry stakeholders across the country and will collect data on demographics,
knowledge of side marketing, current methods used to combat it, and perceptions of AI imagery
satellites. The survey questionnaire will be pre-tested with a small sample of participants and
developed based on previous studies (Khaliq et al., 2020). Descriptive and inferential statistics,
including regression analysis, will be used to analyse the data. The qualitative interviews will
be conducted with cotton industry experts and explore the benefits and challenges of
implementing AI imagery satellites and data encryption, technical feasibility and infrastructure
requirements, and potential barriers to adoption. The interview protocol will be developed
based on prior studies (Gao et al., 2019) and will be audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim
for thematic analysis, using a deductive approach to identify themes based on research
questions and the interview protocol. Ethical standards will be upheld, with informed consent
obtained and anonymity and confidentiality ensured. The survey and interview questions will
be designed to avoid causing harm or discomfort to participants.

30
3.6 Research Time Horizon
According to Saunders et al. (2007), time frames are crucial to study design regardless of the
chosen technique. Researchers may choose between two types of study time horizons:
longitudinal and cross-sectional. Longitudinal studies involve conducting research repeatedly
over an extended period, while cross-sectional studies are limited to a specific time period.
This particular research is constrained by time, hence the adoption of a cross-sectional time
horizon.

3.7 Sampling and Population

3.7.1 Study Population
According to Saunders et al. (2003), the population refers to the entire group of units from
which a sample is selected. Wegner (2000) defines the study population as the collection of all
observations of arbitrary variables considered in the research, from which conclusions are
drawn in reality. It is important to note that the population does not necessarily refer only to
individuals, but can also include goods, devices, organizations, groups, and communities,
depending on the nature of the study.

For this particular research, the study population consists of cotton farmers, cotton companies,
and industry experts who may be affected by side marketing in the cotton industry.

3.7.2 Sample Size

Saunders et al. (2003) stress the importance of various factors in determining the appropriate
sample size for a study, including the size of the population from which the sample is drawn,
the type of analyses to be conducted, the number of categories into which the data must be
separated, and the desired margin of error for sample-based estimations.

For this research, a convenience sample of 60 cotton players from all provinces in the country
will be used to gather quantitative data on the causes of side marketing and to analyse the
relationship between variables. Additionally, a sample of 5 cotton industry experts, who have
knowledge about the existence of cotton side marketing, will be drawn from all provinces in
the country to provide insights on the implementation of AI models as a means of combating
cotton side marketing. The researcher will collect data on the experts' views and
recommendations regarding the use of AI models to monitor field operations for this purpose.

31
3.7.3 Sampling
The selection of an appropriate technique for selecting a sample is crucial in defining the study's
research topics. Taherdoost (2016) suggests that gathering data in all circumstances is
necessary to address study questions, which requires the use of a sample. According to Gentles
et al. (2015), qualitative research samples involve identifying specific data sources from which
data will be collected to achieve the research objectives. Taherdoost (2016) also emphasizes
the importance of selecting a representative sample using appropriate sampling procedures and
a large enough sample size. Generally, there are two distinct sampling approaches, which are
explained below:

3.7.3.1 Probability Sampling

Chance sampling is a sampling technique that involves selecting instances from a population
where the probability of selection is constant and known. This approach allows researchers to
respond to various research questions and achieve predetermined objectives using a randomly
selected sample. By using chance sampling, the resulting sample is likely to be representative
of the entire population.

3.7.3.2 Non-Probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling is a subjective selection technique that relies on human judgment
and is most suitable when the variables of the research population are known in advance. This
approach is categorized into three types: convenience sampling, judgmental sampling, and
quota sampling.

3.7.3.3 Chosen Sampling Method

Due to the congested nature of the cotton industry, which comprises numerous cotton industry
players across all provinces in the country, a probability sampling technique is necessary for
this study. This approach will ensure that the entire population is fairly represented.

3.8 Data Collection

This study will utilize both primary and secondary data to establish the collection of facts and
provide the basis for the argument of the findings.

3.8.1 Primary data

First-hand data refers to information that is collected at its point of origin. Primary data can be
obtained by researchers using various tools such as interviews, observations, and
questionnaires to achieve their research objectives (Saunders et al., 2012). In this study, online

32
surveys will be administered to gather primary data on the determinants of side marketing in
the cotton industry. Additionally, first-hand data will be collected from industry experts to gain
insights on the implementation of AI models and data encryption as means of combating cotton
side marketing.

3.8.2 Secondary data

In the digital age, with the increase in availability and accessibility of data, it has become
common practice to use previously collected information for research purposes. Large amounts
of information are collected, analysed, and stored on a daily basis (Andrews et al., 2012). To
save time and costs, researchers often use secondary data that has already been collected by
others for a specific purpose (Johnston, 2017). In this study, datasets for training the artificial
intelligence models will be obtained from Kaggle.

3.8.3 Data collection instruments

There are various tools available for data collection, each with their own advantages and
disadvantages. When it comes to distributing electronic survey questionnaires, there are three
options available: sending an introductory letter or invitation with a URL link to a web-based
survey, sending a secure email message with an embedded survey for participants to fill out,
or using self-completion surveys (Evans & Mathur, 2005). In this study, the first option was
selected as it was deemed most suitable for achieving the original study objectives and
structure. Web-based surveys allow for easy completion, reliable data, and high response rates
due to their convenience and accessibility (Evans & Mathur, 2005). Additionally, web-based
surveys are cost-effective and allow respondents to provide their opinions anonymously,
improving the unbiased quality of the data (Seale, 2011).

To gather a sufficient number of responses, a web-based survey questionnaire with a URL

hyperlink will be distributed to the target population, which includes cotton industry personnel
in Zimbabwe to gather data on the determinants of cotton side marketing, as well as cotton
industry experts to gather insights on the implementation of AI models for monitoring field
operations.

3.8.4 Data Collection and Presentation

All collected data is kept in Google Forms and afterward disseminated to Excel spreadsheets.
The facts are double-checked by the authors to warrant that there are no unexpected mistakes.
A full analysis utilizing python creates detailed findings that are presented to the researcher in

33
tables, pie charts, and histograms for an instant and clear understanding of where the data
stands.

3.9 Research Ethics

According to Saunders et al. (2009), it is essential for researchers to address and adhere to
ethical issues. These guiding principles include ensuring participant confidentiality and rights,
promoting the welfare of the study, avoiding harm to individuals, and ethically managing the
use of collected data (Bryman & Bell, 2011). By following these safeguards, participants can
be confident that their data will not be misused or leaked, as they are aware of how their data
will be analysed and stored.

To achieve these objectives, the study's overview was directly presented to potential
participants through social media, along with brief information about the study. The descriptive
research introduction also includes specific bullet points, such as the study's background,
purpose, and type, to inform volunteers and prevent deception. The authors identify two key
areas as the most critical: obtaining prior consent and protecting respondents' privacy.
Therefore, all participants are assured of anonymity, with their names and personal information
kept secure and used only for research purposes. Participants' survey responses are considered
as prior consent to participate in the study. Additionally, participants are encouraged to provide
feedback and criticism to the authors to eliminate author bias and inaccuracies.

3.9 Chapter Summary

This section discusses the research methods employed in the study, as well as the research
approach. The authors also provide a rationale for their selection of study instruments. The data
collection methods have been established and validated. The subsequent chapter will focus on
data analysis, presentation, and interpretation.

34
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENATION OF RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the survey questionnaire. The responses to the questionnaire
and interviews were analysed and reviewed based on the investigation questions that guided
the study, in order to identify the determinants of cotton side marketing, reasons behind
awareness of the regulation and the potential damage of it to the economy of Zimbabwe. Bar
graphs, pie charts, and tables were extensively used to present the findings in a clear manner.
Statistical inference will also be employed to analyse the relationship between the variables
under investigation and to test the hypotheses of past researchers. The survey collected 50
responses from all 10 provinces of the country, which will be statistically analysed as part of
the research. Additionally, we will analyse the usefulness of AI models for field monitoring
and yield predictions.

4.1 Response Rate

A total of 50 participants responded to the Google Form within the two-week deadline, out of
the 60 participants who were invited to participate. The high response rate is likely due to the
fact that the survey targeted key players in Zimbabwe's cotton industry who are interested in
transforming the industry. Respondents were given the opportunity to ask questions if they did
not understand any of the questions.

4.2 Data Validation

It is important to validate data before analysing it to check for anomalies that may prevent us
from deriving meaningful insights from the data. The data validation process involves checking
for missing values and outliers, as well as ensuring the data's consistency, completeness, and
accuracy.

35
4.2.1 Checking for the missing values
To avoid missing values in our collected data, the questionnaire was designed to prevent users
from proceeding without answering all non-optional questions. After the data was collected,
missing values were also verified using the following Python code:

The diagram shows that all respondents answered all questions, as there are no missing values
in the dataset. The last question was a conditional statement to determine why some managers
are not efficient in field monitoring. Only 6 of the 50 respondents agreed that field officers are
efficient in field monitoring.

4.2.2 The data consistency

The data consistency was verified by checking if the information from the top position is
consistent with the information in the lower rows. The following Python codes were used to
ensure data consistency.

36
The code to display the first five rows:

The code to display the last five rows:

37
4.3 Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is a type of statistical analysis used to define the essential properties of
data in research projects. These contain a brief overview of the dataset and the measurements
performed with it. In addition to basic graph analysis, they are essential as they serve as the
foundation for almost any quantitative data analysis. Descriptive statistical analysis is different
from inferential statistical analysis, which is used to draw inferences. Descriptive statistics and
analysis make it easy to explain what persists or what the data reveals. Inferential statistics
allow us to draw conclusions based on information other than direct facts. For example,
descriptive analytics can be used to infer from the data collected what the majority of the
population believes to be responsible. Alternatively, inferential data are used to assess the
likelihood that the differences found between groups in this study are statistically significant
or occur by chance. Researchers use descriptive statistics simply to record what is happening
in the data, while inferential statistics are used to infer more general conditions based on the
data. The goal of descriptive analysis is to present statistical information in a format that is easy
for the reader to understand. Research studies may involve the use of various indicators.
Alternatively, you can study large populations at your desired scale. Descriptive statistics allow
you to use logic to meaningfully reduce large amounts of data. Each descriptive statistic
summarizes a large amount of data into a short, easy-to-understand description.

4.3.1 Demography

This section summarises the demographic information for all respondents in this survey, which
includes gender, age, education level and province. These four categories of respondents'
general information have been addressed in the first four questions of the survey. As has already
been reported, the survey was carried out on the internet and fifty replies were received from
all ten provinces. The validity criterion has been met by all the respondents and results have
been imported into Python for analysis. The poll gathered replies from participants of all
provinces, ages and genders in the interest of diversity and equality, but with a particular
emphasis on the young demographic between the ages of 36 and 60, due to their better
experience in cotton Industry and some hold better knowledge and understanding of the
prevalence of cotton side marketing in the cotton industry.

38
4.3.1.1 Gender

Figure 2: respondents Gender

The online survey and questionnaire were filled out by 50 respondents who are involved in
cotton Industry either as farmers or as cotton industry workers, with 76 percent of respondents
(n=38) being males and 24 percent (n=12) being females. The study was dominated by males
despite the fact that in Zimbabwe 52 per cent of women and 48 per cent of men were identified
as female, according to a data from ZIMSTAT (2019) which showed that most frequent surveys
and studies are often carried out by females. The fact that male are more fascinated to farming
can be one of the reasons why male responded have dominated the study.

4.3.1.2 Respondents’ age

The part displays the ages of all of the interviewees who were part of the research study's
population at various point in time.
Table 4.1 Respondents’ age

Age range
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent

Valid 18-35 18 36.0 36.0 36.0

36-60 18 36.0 36.0 36.0

39
 61 and above 14 28.0 36.0 36.0

Total 50 100.0 100.0 100.0

Table 1: Respondents age

Figure 3: Respondents Age

36.0 percent of the sample is between the ages of 18 and 35, the same with the ages between
36 and 60 which was the targeting population as this age is believed to be fascinated with the
agribusiness. However since the survey was conducted through the distribution of
questionnaires online, the age between 18 and 36 were the most likely to respond as they spend
much of their time on the internet. According to the table and pie bar chart above, 14.0 percent
of the sample has been in the age above 60 as the majority of this population is now aged and
spend less time on the internet.

4.3.1.3 Level of Education of the respondents

The researcher was interested about the participants' educational qualifications in order to
determine the amount of information they would be able contribute in determining the
determinants of cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe. The level of education is also important
as measure of the cotton side marketing awareness against the level of education. It allows the
researcher to draw conclusions on the awareness of cotton side marketing against the level of
education. Also, the level of education allowed the researcher to analyse the important of
education as method to combat cotton side marketing.

40
 Figure 4: Educational level of respondents

As can be seen from the graph above, the majority of respondents were literate, which
demonstrated their capacity to understand and provide correct information on the subjects
under examination. While the majority of individuals with primary education had extensive
experience in the cotton industry, it seems that 48.0% of respondents had at least a diploma,
18.0% had an "A" level education, 22.0% had an ordinary level education, and just 12.0% had
only a primary education. This shows that, particularly in terms of higher education, all of the
study's participants were able to generate reliable findings. It may also be argued that the
interviewees were able to respond to the questions.

4.3.1.4 Distribution of the Respondents

The researcher sought to discover respondents' province in order to understand their
distribution and be able to understand the most common form of cotton side marketing in
different provinces.

41
 Figure 5: Distribution of respondents

Figure 4.4 Distribution of Respondents

The accompanying figure makes clear that the bulk of responders come from the target
province of Harare, where the majority of the significant firms in the cotton sector are
concentrated. Mashonaland East and Matabeleland South are following. The lowest response
rates were in Masvingo Province

42
4.4 Cotton Side Marketing Awareness

Figure 6: Cotton side marketing Awareness

Out of Fig across

4.5 Cotton
respondents Sideall the country’s
marketing ten provinces, 58 percent (n=29) is aware of the
Awareness
prevalence of cotton side marketing in the cotton Industry, 26 percent (n=13) is not confident
if they are aware of the prevalence of cotton side marketing in cotton Industry. For those who
are not sure if it exist, the reason may be the failure to define what cotton side marketing is.
The remaining 16 percent (n=8) believe cotton side marketing does not exist in Zimbabwe
Cotton Industry.

43
4.5 Cotton Side Marketing Form in Practice

Figure 7: Type of cotton side marketing

The generated pie chart presents a clear analysis of the type of cotton side marketing that is
Fig 4.6
being Type ofincotton
practiced side Marketing
Zimbabwe. The chart indicates that the majority of the side marketing
practices (roughly 68%) fall under the category represented by the blue slice, which is the most
common type of side marketing observed. The second most common type of side marketing is
represented by the red slice. The prevalence of the blue type of side marketing suggests that it
is a significant and pressing issue that requires immediate attention and action. Further
investigation into the nature and characteristics of this type of side marketing may provide
insights into potential solutions and strategies for combating it. However, it is crucial to note
that the sample size and representativeness of the data are unknown, and the results may not be
applicable to other contexts or populations

4.6 The Determinates of Cotton Side in Zimbabwe

This subsection answers the first research objective of identifying the factors that are currently
contributing to cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe. The analysis will be conducted through
evaluating respondent’s opinion on the extent to which a factor is contributing to cotton side
marketing in Zimbabwe. The identified Factors are as follows:

44
4.5.1 Cotton Side Marketing vs dissatisfaction in prices

Figure 8:cotton side marketing vs price

The above
4.7graph show
Cotton theMarketing
Side results of the
Vs respondents’
Price opinions on the extent to which farmers
the dissatisfaction in prices is contributing to cotton side marketing. From the survey it seems
that 70.0% of farmers believe that dissatisfaction with cotton prices has had a greater extent on
cotton side marketing, 24.0% believe that it has had some extent, and 6 % believe that it is not
a determinant of cotton side marketing. These results suggest that a majority of cotton farmers
are dissatisfied with cotton prices and this dissatisfaction is having a negative impact on their
side marketing. There are a number of possible reasons why farmers might be dissatisfied with
cotton prices. One possibility is that the prices of cotton are not high enough to cover the costs
of production. Another possibility is that the prices of cotton are not stable, which can make it
difficult for farmers to plan for the future. The dissatisfaction of farmers with cotton prices is
a significant issue. It is important to understand the reasons why farmers are dissatisfied with
cotton prices so that solutions can be found to address this issue.

45
4.6.2 Cotton Side marketing vs the need for Quick cash

Figure 9:cotton side marketing vs need for quick cash

The survey asked cotton industry personals the extent to which the need for quick cash has
Fig 4.8 Cotton Side Marketing vs need for Quick Cash
affected cotton side marketing. The graph shows that 64 % of farmers believe that the need for
quick cash has had a greater effect on cotton side marketing, 32% believe that it has to some
extent, and 4 % believe that it has had no any extent. These results suggest that a significant
majority of cotton farmers are affected by the need for quick cash. This need can have a
negative impact on side marketing, as farmers may be more likely to sell their cotton at a lower
price in order to get cash quickly. There are a number of possible reasons why farmers might
need quick cash. One possibility is that they may have unexpected expenses, such as a medical
bill or a car repair. Another possibility is that they may be struggling to make ends meet and
need cash to cover their basic living expenses.

46
4.6.3 Cotton Side Marketing vs lack of transparency in proper marketing channels

Figure 10: Cotton side marketing vs lack of transparency

The graph
Fig 4.8shows thatSide
Cotton the Marketing
majority of respondents (56.0%) believe
vs lack of transparency that lack
in proper of transparency in
markets
the cotton market has greater impact on cotton side marketing, 40% of respondents believe that
it has some extent, while 4% believe that it h has no effect on cotton side marketing. This is in
line with the results of previous studies, which have found that lack of transparency in the
cotton market can have a negative impact on farmers' ability to get a fair price for their cotton.
For example, a study by the International Cotton Advisory Committee found that farmers in
countries with less transparent cotton markets are more likely to sell their cotton at a lower
price than farmers in countries with more transparent cotton markets. There are a number of
Fig 4.9 Cotton Side Marketing vs lack of transparency in proper marketing
reasons why lack of transparency can have a negative impact on farmers' ability to get a fair
channels
price for their cotton. One reason is that it can make it difficult for farmers to know the true
value of their cotton. Another reason is that it can make it easier for middlemen to take
advantage of farmers by offering them lower prices. The lack of transparency in the cotton
market is a significant issue that needs to be addressed. There are a number of things that can
be done to improve transparency in the cotton market, such as providing farmers with access
to accurate market information and strengthening the regulatory framework for the cotton
market.

47
4.6.4 Cotton Side Marketing vs Limited Access to proper channels

Figure 11:cotton side marketing vs limited access to proper markets

The
Figsurvey also asked
4.10 cotton Sidethe extent to vs
Marketing which limited
Limited accesstotoproper
Access propermarkets
markets has effect on cotton
side marketing. The graph shows that 84 % of respondents believe that limited access to proper
markets determines cotton side marketing to a greater extent, 14% believe that it has had some
extent, and 2% believe that it has no contribution to side marketing. These results suggest that
a significant minority of cotton farmers are affected by limited access to proper markets. This
lack of access can have a negative impact on side marketing, as farmers may be more likely to
sell their cotton at a lower price in order to get it to market. There are a number of possible
reasons why farmers might have limited access to proper markets. One possibility is that they
may live in remote areas, which makes it difficult to get their cotton to market. Another
possibility is that there may be a lack of infrastructure in their area, such as roads or storage
facilities, which makes it difficult to get their cotton to market.

48
4.6.5 Cotton side marketing summary

Figure 12:cotton side marketing summary

4.5.6 Cotton side marketing equation

Table 4.2 cotton side marketing summary
Column1 [Limited_Access_to_proper_Markets] [Need_of_quick_Cash] [Dissatisfaction_in_Prices] [Lack_of_transparency_in_proper_channels] total
To a greater extent 35 32 42 28 137
to some extent 12 16 7 20 55
No any 3 2 1 2 8
total 50 50 50 50
Total Contributing factors 47 48 49 28 172
percentage of the contributing factors 27.3 27.9 28.5 16.3 100

Table 2:cotton side marketing summary

From the above table we can come up with the following equation for cotton side marketing:

𝑪𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝑳𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒔(𝟐𝟕. 𝟑) +

𝑵𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑸𝒖𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒉(𝟐𝟕. 𝟗) + 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆(𝟐𝟖. 𝟔) +
𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝑶𝒇 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕(𝟏𝟔. 𝟑)

49
4.7 Awareness of the regulation

Cotton Side Marketing Regulations

Awareness Per Province
6
5
55
FREQUENCY

4
4 4
3
3 3 3
2
2 2 2 22 2 2 2
1
1 11 1 1 1 1
0
Masvingo:

Mashonaland East:
Mashonaland Central:
Harare:

Midlands:

Mashonaland West:

Matabeleland North:
Bulawayo:

Manicaland:
Matabeleland South:

PROVINCE

Yes No Maybe

Figure 13: cotton side marketing regulations awareness

The4.11
Fig bar Cotton
chart presented displaysregulation
side marketing the results awareness
of a surveyper
conducted
provinceto determine the level of
awareness of cotton side marketing regulations in Zimbabwe, with a breakdown by province.
Examination of the chart reveals that the majority of respondents answered "No" or "Maybe"
to the survey question, indicating a relatively low level of awareness of these regulations in the
country. Harare had the highest number of respondents who answered "Yes," with five
individuals. Mashonaland Central and Mashonaland West had four respondents each,
following Harare. In contrast, Matabeleland North and Matabeleland South had the highest
number of respondents who answered "No," with three individuals each, signifying a potential
lack of awareness or understanding of the regulations in these regions. Masvingo and
Matabeleland South had the highest number of respondents who answered "Maybe," with two
individuals each, indicating some uncertainty or confusion around the regulations.
Additionally, the survey results were not uniformly distributed across provinces, with some
provinces having more respondents than others, which could be due to factors such as
population size or geographic location. In summary, the bar chart provides valuable insights

50
into the awareness of cotton side marketing regulations in Zimbabwe, which could inform
future efforts to increase awareness and understanding of these regulations throughout the
country.

4.8 Knowledge on the damage to the society

PROJECTED IMPACT OF SIDE MARKETING PER PROVINCE

Great Impact Less Impact No any

12
FREQUENCY

10
8
6
4
2
0

PROVINCE

Figure 14:projected impact of cotton side marketing

The bar chart presented in this report provides a clear representation of the projected impact of
side marketing
4.12 projectedonimpact
Zimbabwe’s economy,
of cotton with data categorized into "Yes," "No," and "Maybe"
side marketing
across the different provinces. The analysis of the chart has highlighted several key insights
regarding the impact of side marketing on Zimbabwe’s economy. The findings indicate that
Mashonaland West, Manicaland and Midlands respondents believe cotton side marketing has
great impact on Zimbabwe’s economy. For Harare, Mashonaland central and Mashonaland east
respondents has a greater number of respondents who also believe that cotton side marketing
has great impact on Zimbabwe’s economy as compared to those who believes it has a lesser
impact on the economy. Conversely, Matabeleland South and Masvingo have the highest
number of respondents who believes cotton side marketing has a less impact on the country’s
economy. Only Mashonaland east has one responded believe cotton side marketing has no any
impact onto the country’s economy.

51
4.8 Measures to combat side marketing

Measure to combat Side Marketing

100%
90% 26
80%
70% 20
PERCENTAGE

60%
20
50%
40%
29
30%
20%
34
10%
0%
2

MEASURE

Figure 15: measures to combat cotton side marketing

Fig 4.13bar
The stacked Measures to combat
graph presents cotton side marketing
the respondents' perception of the effectiveness of different
measures to combat cotton side marketing. It indicates that Prompt payments is the most
popularly believed measure to be effective, with 26% of respondents supporting it, while
Convenience of the proper marketing channels has the lowest support, with only 15% of
respondents believing it to be effective. Education on the benefits of following the proper
channels, Improve on Field monitoring and Improve on transparency in the cotton Industry fall
somewhere in between, with 20%, 15%, and 22% of respondents believing in their
effectiveness, respectively. The graph suggests that there is a degree of scepticism among
respondents about the effectiveness of these measures against cotton side marketing, as none
of them received high support from a significant portion of respondents. However, it is
important to note that the sample size and representativeness of the respondents are unknown,
and their views may not be representative of the wider population.

From the results we can now conclude fighting is function which can be represented by
the following equation:

52
 𝐑𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐂𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐌𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 ∶
= 𝐀(𝟎. 𝟐𝟔) + 𝐁(𝟎. 𝟐𝟐) + 𝐂(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓) + 𝐃(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓) + 𝐄(𝟎. 𝟐𝟎)

Where:

A = Prompt payments

B= Education on the benefits of following the proper channels

C=Improve on Field monitoring

D= Convenience of the proper marketing channels

E= Improve on transparency in the cotton Industry

4.9 Improving on Field monitoring in reducing cotton side marketing

Figure 16:Field Officer efficiency in field monitoring

4.15 Field officer efficiency in field monitoring

53
The bar chart depicts the distribution of efficiency ratings for field officers in field monitoring.
The chart reveals that a majority of the officers (33 out of the total) received a satisfactory
rating, while a smaller number of officers were rated as Not Good (10) and Good (7). The data
indicates that there is scope for improvement in the efficiency of field officers in field
monitoring, as a significant proportion of them did not receive a Good rating. However, it is
crucial to note that the sample size and representativeness of the officers is unknown, and the
ratings may not accurately reflect the efficiency levels of all field officers.

4.10 Reasons for Field Officers Inefficiency

Figure 17: Reason for field officer inefficiency

According to the bar chart, the most commonly stated reason for the failure of field officers in
Fig 4.16 Reason
monitoring for the field
field operations officers
is large inefficiency
geographical coverage, as it garnered the highest number
of votes (22). Corruption was the second most frequently cited reason, receiving 17 votes.
Conversely, Poor management skills were identified as the least common reason, receiving
only 5 votes.

4.11 Designing a model to combat cotton side marketing

4.11.1 Overview
The use of artificial intelligence (AI) and satellite imagery can be an effective means of
combating cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe. In creating a model to virtually monitor the
field operations, the first step is to collect images using the image collecting technologies such

54
as the optical satellites, synthetic aperture radar satellites or a combination of both. Once the
images have been collected they will go through the pre-processing step and to proceed to train
an artificial intelligence to classify the images of those crops that have been applied fertilizers
and those that have not been applied fertilizers and also those that have applied chemicals from
those that have not been applied fertilizers. The last stage is to evaluate the accuracy of the
model as a means of combating cotton side marketing.

4.11.2 Collecting Satellite Imagery

Obtaining satellite imagery is a crucial first step in using AI algorithms and satellite imagery
for monitoring field operations. There are different types of satellites that can be used for this
purpose, including optical satellites and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellites:

4.11.2.1 Optical satellites

Optical satellites work by capturing images of the earth's surface using visible and near-infrared
light. These satellites use sensors to detect the electromagnetic radiation reflected from the
earth's surface. The sensors on the satellite can capture different wavelengths of light, ranging
from visible light to near-infrared light. The visible light spectrum includes the colours that can
be seen by the human eye, such as red, green, and blue. Near-infrared light is just beyond the
visible light spectrum and cannot be seen by the human eye. However, it can be used to detect
differences in vegetation health and moisture content. When the sensors on an optical satellite
capture an image, they record the amount of electromagnetic radiation in each spectral band.
This data is then transmitted back to earth, where it can be processed and analysed. Optical
satellites can capture high-resolution images of the earth's surface, with resolutions ranging
from a few meters to less than one meter per pixel. The higher the resolution, the more detailed
the image will be. For example, a satellite with a resolution of one meter per pixel can capture
images that show objects as small as one meter in size on the ground.

Optical satellite imagery is processed using a variety of mathematical calculations and

algorithms to correct for distortions and artefacts, enhance the visual quality of the imagery,
and extract information about the area of interest. Here are a few examples of calculations used
in optical satellite imagery processing:

Radiometric calibration: Optical satellite images are calibrated to ensure that the brightness
values in the image accurately reflect the reflectance values of the ground surface. Radiometric

55
calibration involves converting the digital numbers in the image to radiance values, which are
then converted to reflectance values using the formula:

ρ = π * DN / (ES * cos(θs))

Where:

ρ = surface reflectance

DN = digital number in the image

ES = exoatmospheric solar irradiance

θs = solar zenith angle

Atmospheric correction: Atmospheric correction is used to remove the effects of atmospheric

interference on the satellite image. This involves calculating the atmospheric path radiance and
subtracting it from the radiance values in the image. The atmospheric path radiance is
calculated using the formula:

Lpath(λ) = t(λ) * T(λ) * L(λ,sun) + L(λ,sky)

Where:

Lpath(λ) = atmospheric path radiance

t(λ) = atmospheric transmission

T(λ) = atmospheric diffuse transmittance

L(λ,sun) = radiance of the sun

L(λ,sky) = radiance of the sky

Image enhancement: Image enhancement is used to improve the visual quality of the satellite
image. One common technique is histogram equalization, which adjusts the brightness levels
of the image to stretch the contrast range. The calculation involves:

F(i,j) = ((L(i,j) - Lmin) / (Lmax - Lmin)) * 255

Where: F(i,j) = enhanced pixel value

L(i,j) = original pixel value

Lmin = minimum pixel value in the image

56
Lmax = maximum pixel value in the image

Vegetation indices: Vegetation indices are used to quantify the health and vigor of vegetation
in the satellite image. One common vegetation index is the Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI), which is calculated using the formula:

NDVI = (NIR - Red) / (NIR + Red)

Where:

NIR = near-infrared band reflectance

Red = red band reflectance

Object classification: Object classification is used to identify and classify different objects in
the satellite image, such as crops, buildings, and roads. One common technique is supervised
classification, which involves training a machine learning algorithm to classify pixels in the
image based on their spectral characteristics. The algorithm is trained using a set of ground
truth data, which consists of samples of different objects in the image and their corresponding
spectral signatures.

Figure 18:Optical satellite

Fig 4.18 Optical satellites

4.11.2.2 Synthetic aperture radar (SAR)

Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) works by transmitting a microwave signal from the satellite to
the earth's surface and then receiving the signal that is reflected back to the satellite. The

57
microwave signal can penetrate clouds, vegetation, and other obstacles, making SAR a useful
tool for monitoring field operations in areas with frequent cloud cover or inclement weather.
The SAR sensor on the satellite emits a pulse of microwave energy, which travels to the earth's
surface and is reflected back to the satellite. The sensor then records the time it takes for the
signal to travel to the surface and back. By measuring the time it takes for the signal to return,
the sensor can calculate the distance between the satellite and the surface. The SAR sensor
emits multiple pulses of microwave energy as the satellite passes over the area of interest. The
sensor records the returning signals for each pulse and combines them to create a high-
resolution image of the area. This process is known as synthetic aperture radar imaging. SAR
images have a resolution ranging from a few meters to tens of meters per pixel, depending on
the frequency of the microwave signal used and the altitude of the satellite. The higher the
frequency and lower the altitude, the higher the resolution of the image. SAR images can be
used to detect changes in the earth's surface, such as changes in land cover or the presence of
cotton side marketing. SAR can also be used to monitor field operations, such as crop growth
and development. SAR images can be combined with other data sources, such as optical
satellite imagery or ground truth data, to provide a more complete picture of the area of interest.

Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data processing involves a range of mathematical equations
and algorithms. Here are a few examples of equations used in SAR data processing:

Radar equation: The radar equation is used to calculate the power received by the SAR sensor
from the transmitted radar signal. The equation is given by:

Pr = Pt * Gt * Gr * (λ^2) * RCS / (4π * R^4)

Where:

Pr = received power

Pt = transmitted power

Gt = transmitting antenna gain

Gr = receiving antenna gain

λ = radar wavelength

RCS = radar cross-section of the target

R = range from the radar to the target

58
Range compression: Range compression is used to focus the SAR signal in the range
direction. The range compressed signal is given by:

S(t,τ) = ∫[r(t') * exp(jπ4τ(t-t')^2)]dt'

Where:

S(t,τ) = range compressed signal at time t and range delay τ

r(t') = received signal at time t'

τ = range delay

Azimuth compression: Azimuth compression is used to focus the SAR signal in the azimuth
direction. The azimuth compressed signal is given by:

S(t,τ) = ∫[S(t',τ) * exp(j4πf'Δt)]dt'

Where:

S(t,τ) = azimuth compressed signal at time t and azimuth delay τ

S(t',τ) = range compressed signal at time t' and range delay τ

f' = chirp rate

Δt = time delay between the received signal and the reference signal

Polari metric decomposition: Polari metric decomposition is used to separate the scattering
mechanisms of different targets in the SAR image. The decomposition is based on the
coherency matrix, which is given by:

T = [S11 S12; S21 S22]

Where:

S11, S12, S21, S22 = complex scattering coefficients

The coherency matrix can be decomposed into three components: the volume scattering
component, the surface scattering component, and the double-bounce scattering component.
The decomposition is given by:

T=V+D+S

Where:

59
V = volume scattering matrix

D = double-bounce scattering matrix

S = surface scattering matrix

Figure 19: synthetic aperture radar (SAR)

Fig 4.19 Synthetic aperture radar (SAR)

4.11.3.1 Pre-processing the Satellite Imagery

Before satellite imagery can be used with AI algorithms, it must undergo pre-processing, which
comprises several tasks such as image correction, image enhancement, and image registration.
During image correction, any distortions or artefacts in the imagery are removed, while image
enhancement is carried out to improve the visual quality of the imagery. Lastly, image
registration involves aligning the imagery with other geospatial data.

4.11.3.2 Image Correction

Image correction is a crucial step in the pre-processing of optical satellite imagery. The goal of
image correction is to remove any distortions or artefacts that may be present in the imagery
and to convert the digital numbers in the image to reflectance values that accurately represent
the reflectance of the ground surface.

60
There are several sources of distortions and artefacts that can affect satellite imagery, including
atmospheric interference, sensor noise, and geometric distortions. Image correction involves
several techniques to remove or minimize these distortions, such as radiometric calibration,
atmospheric correction, and geometric correction.

Radiometric calibration: Radiometric calibration is the first step in image correction and
involves converting the digital numbers in the image to radiance values. Radiance is the amount
of electromagnetic radiation that is emitted or reflected by the surface being imaged.
Radiometric calibration is necessary to ensure that the brightness levels in the image accurately
reflect the reflectance values of the ground surface. The radiance values are then converted to
reflectance values using the formula:

ρ = π * DN / (ES * cos(θs))

Where:

ρ = surface reflectance

DN = digital number in the image

ES = exoatmospheric solar irradiance

θs = solar zenith angle

Atmospheric correction: Atmospheric correction is used to remove the effects of atmospheric

interference on the satellite image. The atmosphere scatters and absorbs electromagnetic
radiation as it travels from the ground to the satellite, which can cause distortions in the image.
Atmospheric correction involves estimating and subtracting the atmospheric path radiance
from the radiance values in the image. The atmospheric path radiance is calculated using the
following formula:

Lpath(λ) = t(λ) * T(λ) * L(λ,sun) + L(λ,sky)

Where:

Lpath(λ) = atmospheric path radiance

t(λ) = atmospheric transmission

T(λ) = atmospheric diffuse transmittance

L(λ,sun) = radiance of the sun

61
L(λ,sky) = radiance of the sk

There are several methods for atmospheric correction, including the dark object subtraction,
look-up table and empirical line methods.

Geometric correction: Geometric correction is used to remove geometric distortions in the

satellite image caused by the satellite sensor and the terrain. Geometric distortions can include
perspective distortion, terrain relief displacement, and sensor distortions. Geometric correction
involves transforming the image from its original sensor coordinates to geographic coordinates
to align the image with other geospatial data. The process of geometric correction involves
identifying control points in the satellite image and the reference data, and applying a
transformation model to align the image with the reference data. The transformation model can
be a polynomial, affine, or projective transformation.

4.11.3.3 Image Enhancement

Image Enhancement refers to a set of techniques that are utilized to enhance the quality of
satellite imagery, thus making it more amenable to human interpretation and analysis. The aim
of image enhancement is to alter the visual appearance of the image while preserving the
underlying information in the data. Such enhancement methods can be applied in the spatial,
spectral, or temporal domains.

The following are some of the commonly used techniques in image enhancement:

Contrast Enhancement: This technique is used to improve the visual contrast between
different features in the image. The brightness and/or contrast of the image pixels are adjusted
to achieve this. Histogram equalization is one of the popular techniques used in this regard,
which re-distributes the pixel values in the image to make the histogram more uniform.

The formula for histogram equalization is:

s = (L-1) * ∑(p(i))

Where:

s = output pixel value

L = number of intensity levels in the image

p(i) = probability of occurrence of pixel value i

62
Sharpening: This technique is employed to bring out the edges and details in the image. By
applying a filter, the high-frequency components of the image are increased. The Laplacian
filter is one of the commonly used sharpening filters that emphasizes the edges in the image.

The formula for the Laplacian filter is:

∇^2f(x,y) = ∂^2f(x,y)/∂x^2 + ∂^2f(x,y)/∂y^2

Where:

f(x,y) = input image

∇^2f(x,y) = Laplacian of the image

Filtering: This technique is used to remove noise and smooth the image. A range of filters can
be used for image smoothing, such as the Gaussian filter and the median filter. These filters
can be utilized to eliminate noise while preserving the underlying image features.

The formula for the Gaussian filter is:

G(x,y) = (1/2πσ^2) * e^(-(x^2+y^2)/(2σ^2))

Where:

G(x,y) = Gaussian kernel

σ = standard deviation of the Gaussian distribution

Colour Correction: This technique is used to adjust the colour balance of the image. The
colours in the image can be affected by atmospheric interference, sensor noise, and other
factors. Colour correction involves adjusting the colour channels in the image to achieve a more
natural colour balance.

The formula for the gray world assumption is:

R' = R * (Ravg/Gavg)

G' = G * (Gavg/Gavg)

B' = B * (Gavg/Bavg)

Where:

R', G', B' = corrected colour channels

63
R, G, B = original colour channels

Ravg, Gavg, Bavg = average reflectance in each colour channel

Pan-sharpening: This technique is applied to increase the spatial resolution of the image by
combining the high-resolution panchromatic band with the lower-resolution multispectral
bands. A weighted combination of the high-resolution panchromatic band and the lower-
resolution multispectral bands is used to achieve this. The result is an image that exhibits both
the high-resolution details of the panchromatic band and the spectral information of the
multispectral bands.

The formula for the Brovey transform is:

I(x,y) = (α * P(x,y)) + ((1-α) * M(x,y))

Where:

I(x,y) = pan-sharpened image

P(x,y) = panchromatic band

M(x,y) = multispectral band

α= weight factor, typically set to 0.5 or adjusted based on the sensor characteristics and the
desired output.

4.11.3.4 Image Registration

The process of Aligning satellite imagery with other geospatial data, such as maps, aerial
photographs, or other satellite imagery, is called image registration. The primary purpose of
image registration is to ensure that different images of the same location are correctly aligned,
enabling accurate comparison and analysis. Image registration involves several iterative steps,
including feature extraction, matching, transformation, and resampling. During feature
extraction, distinct features, such as points, lines, or areas, are identified and extracted from
both the satellite image and the reference data. Next, a matching algorithm is employed to
identify corresponding features in the satellite image and the reference data, and a
transformation is applied to the satellite image to align it with the reference data. This
transformation can be a combination of translation, rotation, and scaling. Finally, pixel values
in the registered satellite image are resampled, which involves interpolating the pixel values in
the satellite image to new locations that correspond to the pixels in the reference data. The

64
accuracy of image registration is influenced by several factors, including the quality of the
reference data, the precision of the feature extraction and matching algorithms, and the
complexity of the transformation required. To assess the accuracy of image registration,
metrics such as the root mean square error (RMSE) or the spatial correlation coefficient (SCC)
are used. Image registration is a crucial step in geospatial analysis and remote sensing
applications, including change detection, land use mapping, and disaster response. By aligning
satellite imagery with other geospatial data, researchers and analysts can gain a better
understanding of the Earth's surface, and make more well-informed decisions.

Feature detection: Feature detection is used to identify distinctive features in the satellite
image and the reference data. One commonly used feature detection algorithm is the Harris
corner detector, which calculates the corner response function using the following equation:

R = det(M) - k * trace(M)^2

Where:

M = structure tensor

k = empirical constant

Feature matching: Feature matching is used to identify corresponding features in the satellite
image and the reference data. One commonly used feature matching algorithm is the
normalized cross-correlation, which calculates the similarity between two feature descriptors
using the following equation:

NCC = ∑(I(x,y) - μI) * (T(x,y) - μT) / σI * σT

Where:

I(x,y) = pixel value in the satellite image

T(x,y) = pixel value in the reference data

μI = mean pixel value in the satellite image

μT = mean pixel value in the reference data

σI = standard deviation of pixel values in the satellite image

σT = standard deviation of pixel values in the reference data

65
Transformation: After corresponding features have been identified, a transformation is
applied to the satellite image to align it with the reference data. The transformation can be a
translation, rotation, scaling, or a combination of these. One commonly used transformation
model is the affine transformation, which is represented by the following equation:

X' = a11x + a12y + tx

Y' = a21x + a22y + ty

Where:

x,y = original pixel coordinates in the satellite image

x',y' = transformed pixel coordinates in the reference data

a11, a12, a21, a22 = transformation coefficients

tx,ty = translation coefficients

Resampling: Once the transformation has been applied, the pixel values in the satellite image
are resampled to align them with the reference data. There are several interpolation methods
available for resampling, including nearest neighbour, bilinear, and cubic convolution. One
commonly used interpolation method is the bilinear interpolation, which calculates the pixel
values using the following equation:

f(x,y) = (1-u)(1-v)f(i,j) + u(1-v)f(i+1,j) + (1-u)vf(i,j+1) + uvf(i+1,j+1)

Where:

f(x,y) = interpolated pixel value

f(i,j) = pixel value in the satellite image at (i,j)

u = horizontal distance between the pixel and its nearest neighbours

v = vertical distance between the pixel and its nearest neighbours

4.11.4 Training Machine Learning Algorithms

The next step is to train machine learning algorithms to recognize different features in the
satellite imagery. The machine learning algorithms can be trained using a variety of techniques
such as supervised learning, unsupervised learning, or semi-supervised learning. The goal is to
train the algorithms to detect specific features of crop plants that have been applied fertilizers

66
and chemicals from those that have not been applied any or partly applied. Tensor flow library
will be utilized in training the model.

4.11.5 Analysing the Satellite Imagery

Once the machine learning algorithms have been trained, they can be used to analyse the
satellite imagery. The algorithms can be used to identify areas where cotton side marketing is
occurring, such as areas where crops are being harvested but not reported to the authorities.
The algorithms can also be used to detect changes in crop health or crop type, which can
indicate the presence of cotton side marketing as the crops will be showing that the crops have
not been applied fertilizers and chemicals

4.11.6 Validating the Model

The model was validated through testing its accuracy in producing the accurate results. The
accuracy will be tested on the models ability to extract cotton plant features and be able to
remember the features for classification of crops that have been applied fertilizers and those
that have been applied different chemicals. The model have produced a 72% accuracy
resembling a good fit for classification of crops in reducing cotton side marketing.

4.11.6.1 Model Accuracy

Figure 20: Model accuracy

The above is showing the validation of the model in terms of validating the accuracy of the
model. As the accuracy of the model is growing its loss is moving in the negative direction.
This is evidence that the model is good in field monitoring as a means of combating cotton side

67
marketing as it will give a good indication of the those crops that have been applied with
fertilizers from those that have not been applied with fertilizers. The same with chemicals, it
will be able to differentiate those crops that have been applied chemicals from those that have
not been applied chemicals.

4.11. 7 Model Structure

Figure 21: Model structure

CHAPTER SUMMARY
The results of the study has shown that most common form of cotton side marketing in practice
in Zimbabwe is the divergence of inputs to non-contracted. The model designed later in the
chapter has able been proven to be working in monitoring the field operations as means of
combating cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe.

68
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction
In this chapter, the study is summarised, and the researcher's findings, along with
recommendations and suggestions for future research, are presented. The chapter plays a vital
role in addressing cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe's cotton industry by thoroughly
analysing the factors that contribute to this problem and their interrelationships. The main
points of the study are highlighted in this section.

5.1 Summary

In recent years, the rate of cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe has been increasing at an
exponential rate with farmers identified to be practicing cotton side marketing in two forms of
either by selling their crops to non-contracting firms or diverge the inputs to other crops. Cotton
side marketing in Zimbabwe is not new, its origination can be traced back to the early days of
Industrial revolution when the demand for cotton has increased. The purpose of this research
was to identify the determinants of cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe, analyse their
interrelationship and to design an artificial intelligence model to combat cotton side marketing.
From the study conducted through a sample of 50 cotton industry players across all the
country’s 10 province. The respondents identified the cotton prices as a major determinant of
cotton side marketing followed by the need for quick cash contributing 27.9 % of cotton side
marketing. The limited access to proper marketing channels is contributing 27.3% of cotton
side marketing whereas the lack of transparency in the proper marketing channels has been
cited to be the least contributor of cotton side marketing contributing 16.3% of the total cotton
side marketing percentage. The relationship between these variable can be summarised buy the
following equation:

𝑪𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈

= 𝑳𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒔(𝟐𝟕. 𝟑) 𝑵𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑸𝒖𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒉(𝟐𝟕. 𝟗)
+ 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆(𝟐𝟖. 𝟔) + 𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝑶𝒇 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕(𝟏𝟔. 𝟑)

69
The study also analysed the measures that have been put in place in combating cotton side
marketing in Zimbabwe. According to the literature from the past researchers in cotton industry
sector, the challenge of the farmers need for quick cash has been partly dealt with through the
introduction of electronic methods of payment so as to ensure that cotton farmers receive their
payments in time for them to cover their expenses. The issues of price was addressed by the
introduction of the minimum prices that can be priced on cotton crop so as to protect the interest
of both parties. The limited access to the proper markets has been dealt with by encouraging
the contracting firms to convenient locate their floor near to its farmers and obliged them to
improve on its transparency. The issue of lack of transparency is coming as the farmers as are
not well understanding on how the industry is operating and in dealing with the issue the
government has enforced lawsuits the guard against knowledge inconsistencies in the industry.

According to the research data, five different way of combating cotton side marketing has been
identified. These measures can be summarised by the following equation:

𝐑𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐂𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐌𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 ∶

= 𝐀(𝟎. 𝟐𝟔) + 𝐁(𝟎. 𝟐𝟐) + 𝐂(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓) + 𝐃(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓) + 𝐄(𝟎. 𝟐𝟎)

Where:

A = Prompt payments

B= Education on the benefits of following the proper channels

C=Improve on Field monitoring

D= Convenience of the proper marketing channels

E= Improve on transparency in the cotton Industry

In Zimbabwe cotton industry, all the other means of reducing cotton industry has produced
some results even though they are less than the expected outcomes. A much worth considering
gab is identified to be in Field monitoring. This research was also designed to improve on filed
monitoring field operations through the introduction of artificial intelligence in place of
humans in managing the field operations. The model was designed to monitor the field
operations as a means to combat the commonly practice form of cotton side marketing of inputs
divergence to non-contracted crops. In collaboration with the imagery satellites, the model

70
differentiates those crops that have been applied fertilizers from those that have not been
applied fertilizers and also those crop that have been applied particular chemicals from those
that have not been applied chemicals. The model results came out good with producing a good
accuracy results and made the author be willing to accept loss which is considerably lower.

Although the research's conclusions were insightful and instructive, it should be emphasized
that several major actor of cotton side marketing (farmers) were among those who took part in
the survey. This was important as we got the opportunity to gather the first hand information
on how cotton side marketing is occurring in Zimbabwe’s cotton industry. However, with
limited access resources and time, we didn’t manage to generate a large sample size for the
study and there is a greater chance that we missed some important insights from the study. The
access to the original data in training the model was also a challenge and as a result we made
use of different dataset which can mimic the required cotton data. This can pose some
challenges on validating the usefulness on the model in combating cotton side marketing as the
accuracy can improve or decrease.

In conclusion, the implementation of imagery satellites has indicated to be a good measure to

combat cotton side marketing as the algorithms can be adjusted to also predict the anticipated
cotton output which can also be important in reducing the other form of cotton side marketing.

5.2 Recommendations

According to the results, cotton side marketing has been shown to be the major challenges
which is diluting the success of the cotton industry. Both the government and some cotton
firms have kept their feet on their tolls in finding ways to eliminate this challenge of cotton
side marketing. The following are some of the important recommendations that can be made
from the study:

 The study overwhelmingly demonstrated that the most common form of cotton side
marketing in practice is the divergence of inputs to non-contracted crops. This is enough
evidence to indicate the need to incorporate artificial intelligence in cotton and utilize
all the benefits that can be attributed from its use.

 The study has also indicated that a considerable number of cotton side marketing active
participants are not aware of the implications of the practice. The same as the

71
 implications, they are also not aware of the benefits accrued on following the proper
channels. In light of this, there is great need to educate them on all these aspects.

 The study has also indicating that some cotton farmers are engaging into contract
farming without understanding the contracts, there is great need that contracting firms
prior to giving contract to farmers they need to give them enough knowledge and make
informed to farm under contract farming.

 The government also need to enforce tight lawsuits to protect the interest of both parties
in contracting farming and act as middle man in every transaction between the parties.

 There is great need to introduce computer security concepts like data encryption as
means of avoiding data manipulations to fit for cotton side marketing in the industry.

5.3 Limitations and future research avenues to explore

Limitations are an inherent aspect of any study, particularly one that is quantitative in nature.
Since the data collection method for this research involved a survey questionnaire, the analysis
and outcomes will be based on this. However, the study faced challenges due to its internet-
based nature, which made it difficult to obtain a comprehensive view of the results across all
provinces of Zimbabwe, particularly with the small sample size of only 50 qualified
respondents. Additionally, the majority of respondents were male, which may not accurately
reflect the female-dominated population of Zimbabwe. Time constraints limited the study's
scope, and subsequent research may be necessary to obtain a more extensive and insightful
perspective on the issue.

Furthermore, the study faced challenges in accessing large cotton datasets, which led to the use
of a similar dataset to predict algorithm usage. However, this approach may produce misleading
results since the characteristics of the extracted data may differ from those of the actual data.
Additionally, the implementation of the algorithm was hindered by a lack of required resources,
such as satellite imagery, which was not tested due to its high cost.

5.4 Conclusion

The major debate of this study was to evaluate the usefulness of Artificial intelligence in
monitoring the field operations. According to the study, satellite imagery and AI algorithms

72
has proved to be working solutions in improving the field operations as a means to combat
cotton side marketing in Zimbabwe’s cotton industry.

73
REFERENCES LIST
1. Swain,B.B., 2020. Contract Farming and Farmers’ Empowerment & Protection Bill 2020. Contract.

2. Barrett,C.B., Bachke, M.E., Bellemare, M.F., Michelson, H.C., Narayanan, S. and Walker, T.F., 2012.
Smallholder participation in contract farming: comparative evidence from five countries. World development,
40(4), pp.715-730.

3. Mutsamba, L., Mucheuki, I., & Mhaka-Mutepfa, M. (2020). Understanding the factors influencing
smallholder cotton farmer participation in side marketing in Zimbabwe. Journal of Agribusiness in Developing
and Emerging Economies, 10(1), 1-16.

4. Murimbarimba, F., Chikobvu, D., & Chindanya, F. (2019). An analysis of factors influencing side marketing
of cotton in Zimbabwe: A case of Gokwe South District. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology,
22(4), 714-720.

5. Cotton Company of Zimbabwe. (2021). COTCO. Accessed from https://www.cotco.co.zw/.

6. Zimbabwe Agricultural Development Trust. (2021). About ZADT. Accessed from

https://www.zadt.co.zw/about-us/.

7. Cotton Incorporated (2021). "Cotton Marketing". Retrieved from https://www.cottoninc.com/cotton-

production/ag-research/cotton-marketing/

8. Shepherd, A. (2005). "Cotton Marketing Systems". In: Cotton: From Field to Fabric. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/y4353e/y4353e0g.htm

9. International Cotton Advisory Committee (ICAC) (2017). "Cotton Marketing". In: ICAC Cotton Fact Sheets.
Retrieved from https://www.icac.org/cotton_info/publications/fact_sheets/Marketing_E.pdf

10.Cotton made in Africa. (2021). Data-driven approach. Accessed from

https://www.cottonmadeinafrica.org/about-us/data-driven-approach.

11. Zimbabwe Agricultural Market Information System. (2021). Welcome to ZAMIS. Accessed from
https://www.zamis.gov.zw/

12. Better Cotton Initiative. (2021). Data Security and Privacy. Accessed from https://bettercotton.org/about-
bci/our-approach/data-security-and-privacy/.

13. The Herald. (2021). Cyber Bill to Boost Data Protection in Zimbabwe. Accessed from
https://www.herald.co.zw/cyber-bill-to-boost-data-protection-in-zimbabwe/

14. Olam International. (2021). eCotton. Accessed from https://www.olamgroup.com/products-services/agri-

business/cotton/ecotton.html.

15.Zimbabwe Legal Information Institute. (2021). Electronic Transactions and Electronic Commerce Act.
Accessed from https://www.zimlii.org/zw/legislation/act/2002/6.

74
16.Mutsamba, L., Mucheuki, I., & Mhaka-Mutepfa, M. (2020). Understanding the factors influencing
smallholder cotton farmer participation in side marketing in Zimbabwe. Journal of Agribusiness in Developing
and Emerging Economies, 10(1), 1-16

17.Better Cotton Initiative. (2021). Our Approach. Accessed from https://bettercotton.org/about-bci/our-

approach/

18.Cotton Company of Zimbabwe. (2021). COTCO. Accessed from https://www.cotco.co.zw/

19.Zimbabwe Agricultural Market Information System. (2021). About ZAMIS. Accessed from
https://www.zamis.gov.zw/about-us/.

20.Cotton Company of Zimbabwe. (2021). COTCO. Accessed from https://www.cotco.co.zw/

21.Indian Council of Agricultural Research. (2017). Assessment of Extent, Reasons and Impact of Cotton Side
Marketing in India. Retrieved from http://www.icar.org.in/files/Assessment-of-Extent-Reasons-and-Impact-of-
Cotton-Side-Marketing-in-India.pdf

22.ICAR-Central Institute for Cotton Research. (2017). ICAR-CICR study on cotton side marketing in India.
Retrieved from http://www.cicr.org.in/pdf/ICAR-
CICR%20study%20on%20cotton%20side%20marketing%20in%20India.pdf

23.National Cotton Council of America. (2018). The Economic Impact of Cotton Side Marketing in the United
States. Retrieved from https://www.cotton.org/econ/sidemarketing.cfm

24.Brown, L. (2018). Cotton side marketing costing U.S. industry $100-$150 million annually. Agfax. Retrieved
from https://agfax.com/2018/05/18/cotton-side-marketing-
costing[s](poe://www.poe.com/_api/key_phrase?phrase=s&prompt=Tell%20me%20more%20about%20s.)-
industry-100-150-million-annually/

25.Australian Cotton Research and Development Corporation. (2020). Understanding the Drivers of Cotton
Side Marketing in Australia. Retrieved from https://www.crdc.com.au/resources/publications/understanding-
drivers-cotton-side-marketing-australia

26.Australian Broadcasting Corporation. (2020). Cotton side marketing costing growers millions. Retrieved
from https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2020-10-08/cotton-side-marketing-costing-growers-millions/12738582

27.Nazeer, M., Khan, H. Z., & Khan, A. (2019). Mobile phone technology as a tool to minimize cotton side
marketing in Pakistan. Journal of Agricultural Informatics, 10(2), 1-14.

28.Makate, C., Makate, M., & Mango, N. (2013). Determinants of cotton side-marketing by smallholder farmers
in Zimbabwe: A logit analysis. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 15(6), 1229-1234

29.Mudavanhu, V., & Muzavazi, C. (2013). Cotton Company of Zimbabwe Strategic Response to Side
Marketing Research. Midlands State University

30.Moyo, M., & Chamboko, T. (2006). Cotton Side-Marketing in Zimbabwe: Extent, Motivations, and
Consequences for Smallholder Farmers. International Food Policy Research Institute.

75
31.Moyo, M., & Chamboko, T. (2007). Cotton side-marketing among smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe:
Constraints and opportunities for development. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 2(5), 224-230.

32.Fink, A. (2013). How to conduct surveys: A step-by-step guide. Sage Publications.

33.Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage
Publications.

34.Makate, C., Makate, M., Mango, N., & Mugabe, F. T. (2020). Artificial intelligence, satellite imagery and
cotton side-marketing in Zimbabwe. Journal of Cotton Research, 3(1), 1-10.

35.García-Sánchez, F., García-Sánchez, E., & García-Sánchez, A. J. (2021). Artificial Intelligence and the
Sustainable Development Goals: A Panoramic View of the Literature. Sustainability, 13(1), 254.

36.Arora, S., & Kaur, H. (2018). Data Encryption Techniques: A Review. International Journal of Advanced
Research in Computer Science, 9(2), 141-146.

37.Budiarto, R. (2019). The Importance of Data Encryption for Protecting Sensitive Information in Cloud
Computing. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1317(1), 012056.

38.Rizk, R., & El-Kassas, S. (2018). Data Security in Cloud Computing: Review and Analysis. International
Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, 9(10), 462-46

39.Moyo, T., & Chikazunga, D. (2017). The challenges of smallholder farmers in accessing markets: A case
study of Chikomba district in Zimbabwe. Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, 9(10), 233-
240.

40.Ndlovu, T., Mutanga, O., & Dube, T. (2017). Challenges faced by smallholder cotton farmers in Zimbabwe:
A case study of Muzarabani district. Journal of Agricultural Science, 9(2), 50-61

41.Tonderai, N., Denver, M., Severino, M., Lilian, N. and Kelvin, T., 2014. Cotton industry’s strategic responses
to side marketing of cotton by contract farmers in Zimbabwe. Eur J Business, Econ Account, 2.

42.Witten, I. H., Frank, E., & Hall, M. A. (2016). Data mining: Practical machine learning tools and
techniques. Morgan Kaufmann.

76
APPENDICES
APENDIX 1
Dear Responded

I'm a business studies and computer science student at the University of Zimbabwe named
Lazarus Tendai Dembetembe (63 -2090733 T 05). To learn more about the prevalence, reasons
behind, and effects of this practice on the cotton sector in Zimbabwe, I'm conducting a poll on
the topic. To fight cotton side marketing and advance a resilient cotton sector in Zimbabwe,
the data gathered from this study will be utilized to create efficient plans and regulations. It is
crucial that you take part in this survey because it will enable us to better understand the
problem and provide solutions that are suited to the requirements of cotton farmers and other
industry stakeholders. Your replies are confidential and will only be used for research. To assist
us in overcoming the difficulty of cotton side marketing for the benefit of the whole nation, we
respectfully ask that you respond to the following questions in an honest and correct manner.
We appreciate you taking the time to answer our questions in this survey.

APPENDIX 2
Research Questionnaire:

https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfsJe-yYGOZhKC6yrN-cT-
iRuGJGxepCPIc1wyhGJwmTKXf2g/viewform?usp=sf_link

77
APPENDIX 3
Data Analysis

78
79
80
APPENDIX 4
MODEL

81
THE END

82