Medical Physics

Applications Of Physics in the medical field

X-Rays
Strongly absorbed by bones
Can penetrate soft tissues

Properties:

Hardness : The penetration of the beam

Depends on the Acceleration voltage

Production of X-Rays
X-Rays Tube
High Voltage (50-200 KV) DC Supply connected to 2 metal plates, a filament is heated to emit electrons
(Thermionic emission) which are accelerated between the 2 plates
a metal plate (target) is connected to the anode

X-Rays are produced by bombarding a metal anode by accelerated electrons

To produce more X-Rays, increase the temperature of the filament, increasing the number of electrons
emitted

Methods of emitting X-Rays

1. Breaking Radiation (bremsstrahlung radiation)
electrons lose all their energy in the form of X-Rays

2. Electrons excite the electrons in the metal anode, emitting X-Rays as they are de-excited, creating the
Characteristic lines on the graph

Properties of an X-Ray Image

X-Rays that pass through the body are absorbed by a sensitive film to form an image.

Contrast : The parts constituting the image represented by different degrees of blackness
With Bones, contrast is very high
A contrast medium is used to take images of soft tissues
Sharpness : Image with well determined edges

Mathematics of X-Rays
−μx
I (x) = I 0 e

I0 -> Original intensity before entering a medium, e.g. : Bone

I (x) -> Intensity after exiting the medium
x -> Distance covered in the medium
μ-> Attenuation (Absorption) coefficient
depends on:
1. Typed of tissue
2. Frequency of the X-Rays
 x 1

2
-> X half thickness :- x where the intensity is halfed

Soft X-Rays : Low energy X-Rays that do not pass through the medium but are completely absorbed

an aluminum sheet can be placed in front of the X-Ray tube to absorb Soft X-Rays

CT (Computing Tomography)
X-Rays are applied on a single plane from different directions to from a 2D image.
This is repeated on the perpendicular axis several times and processed by a computer to form a 3D image
Main Principles of CT scanning :

1. X-ray image of a cross section is taken from different angles

2. Images are processed into a 2D image by a computer
3. This is repeated for different cross-sections
4. 3D image is formed

Ultrasound Imaging
Sound is produced and received by a Pizoelectric Transducer, when the ultrasound waves reflect back and hit
the silver plates, they induce a voltage, the sound waves have the same frequency as the transducer but a lower
intensity

Pizoelectric Transducer : Quartz crystal, with thin silver plates on either side acting as electrodes connected to
an AC supply, this causes the Quartz crystal to vibrate at the frequency of the AC supply
Main Principles behind the generation of ultrasound waves :

1.

A-Scan -> 1D image formed by sending ultrasound waves from one direction
B-Scan -> 2D image formed by sending multiple ultrasound waves from many directions which are processed by a
computer

Main Principles of the use of ultrasound in imaging :

1. Pulse of ultrasound produced from a quartz crystal

2. coupling medium (gel) is used to reduce reflection of sound waves at the surface of the skin
3. sound waves are reflected off the boundaries between media
4. reflected waves are detected by transmitter
5. reflected waves are processed and displayed
6. intensity of the wave gives information about the boundary
7. time delay gives information about the depth of the boundary

Specific Acoustic Impedance (Resistance)

Each medium has it's own specific acoustic impedance

Z = ρc

Z -> Specific acoustic impedance

ρ -> Density of the medium
c -> Speed of ultrasound in the medium
Intensity Reflection Coefficient (α)
Some ultrasonic waves reflect of the tissue(I ref lected ) while others enter the tissue (I )
0

I ref lected
α =
I0

2
(Z 1 − Z 2 )
α =
2
(Z 1 + Z 2 )

In order to maximize the amount of ultrasonic waves entering the body, a coupling medium (gel) is used to ensure
there is no air between the transducer and the skin.

−μx
I (x) = I 0 e

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

Used to treat :

cancerous tumors
Alzheimer

Tracer : Radioactive Substance ( 0

+
β (positron) emitter) introduced into the body, absorbed by the tissues being
studied

How PET in used to form an image :

1. Tracer is introduced into the blood stream

2. Tracer is absorbed by the tumor / tissues to be studied
3. Positrons interact with electrons from the tissue
4. Positrons are the anti-particles of electrons
5. Creating 2 gamma photons in opposite direction as annihilation radiation
6. These photons are detected by detectors outside/around the body
7. Gamma photons arrive at different times, determining the location of the source
8. High quality image of tracer concentration is the tissue is produced