energies

Article
Investigation of Water Hammer Protection in Water
Supply Pipeline Systems Using an Intelligent
Self-Controlled Surge Tank
Wuyi Wan * ID
and Boran Zhang
Department of Hydraulic Engineering, College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University,
Hangzhou 310058, China; zhangboran@zju.edu.cn
* Correspondence: wanwuyi@zju.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-571-8795-1346




Received: 27 April 2018; Accepted: 1 June 2018; Published: 4 June 2018


Abstract: A surge tank is a common pressure control device in long pressurized pipelines.
The performance is greatly influenced by the location, cross area, and the characteristics of the
connector. In order to improve the property of the surge tank, the effect of the connector is
numerically analyzed by the method of characteristics (MOC). A hysteretic effect can occur when the
discharge capacity is limited. Therefore, the performance of the surge tank can be improved if the
discharge capacity of the connector is appropriately controlled according to the different conditions.
For the adjustability of the connector’s discharge capacity, a kind of intelligent self-controlled surge
tank (IST) is proposed. In addition, through simulations and analysis, IST is proved to have
advantages in pressure control and applicability compared to normal surge tanks.

Keywords: self-control; surge tank; water hammer; transient flow; numerical simulation

1. Introduction
In long-distance water supply systems, water hammer can be magnified with the length of the
pressure pipeline due to the inertia and elasticity. Except for improved operations in long water
supply systems [1], devices such as surge tanks [2–4], air chambers, and air valves [5,6] are widely
used in some projects to ensure the running security. By breaking the continuity of the pressure
conduits, the water-carried energy can be rapidly released by vibrating it up and down in surge
tanks [4]. In recent decades, numerical simulation has become the main approach for transient analysis
with the development of computer science [7]. Various methods have been proposed and applied to
transient simulation, among which the finite difference method (FDM) [8] and finite element method
(FEM) [9] are widely used. Especially, the method of characteristics (MOC) is the most popular
method, and is widely used to simulate the transient processes in various engineering practices.
The MacCormack method is widely used to solve the hyperbolic partial differential equation in
computational fluid dynamics as well, especially in free surface flow [10,11]. In fact, it is still difficult
to simulate the complex boundary conditions of the devices. Some studies show that many complex
devices can be simplified as lump elements, which preserves the physical properties of the original
devices [12]. Especially in some simple pipe systems, many boundary conditions can be expressed by
some equation system, which accurately represents the physical properties of these complex devices.
For regular water hammer simulation, the method is widely used in water pipeline systems. Fang and
Chen [13] established a simulation system for a typical hydroelectric power plant with upstream and
downstream surge tanks. Through an actual validated case, the simulation system was proved to be
accurate and effective. Based on a turbine fuzzy model, Nagode and Skrjanc [14] proposed an internal
control model of a power turbine, which turns out to show an improvement compared to previous

Energies 2018, 11, 1450; doi:10.3390/en11061450 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 1450 2 of 16

methods. Recently, Zhou [15] confirmed a 3D SP-VOF hybrid simulation to be effective by simulating
a power-off process in hydropower pumped storage.
In long water supply systems, the surge tank is often used to control transient pressure [16–18].
The location and size of surge tanks can greatly affect the performance of the pressure control. Usually,
the closer the surge tanks are placed to the transient generator, such as the valves, pump and turbines,
the better the pressure control will be. If the size of the surge tank is insufficient, the transient pressure
fluctuation cannot be reduced efficiently. Although a common surge tank is enough to satisfy most
applications, there is still much room for improvement. Vereide and Svingen [4] investigated the
effects of a surge tank throttling on hydraulic transients in a hydropower plant system. The result
shows that the throttling can bring some slight improvement in transient pressure control. Yang
and Wang [19] proposed a linear mathematical model of unsteady flow for the tailrace system with
an open channel based on the state-space method. They found that the open tailrace channel has
a strong influence on the hydraulic transient process by observing the water level fluctuations in
tailrace surge tanks. Furthermore, they [20] also investigated the air flow in the ventilation tunnel
of a surge tank. Riasi [21] considered the high cost of the surge tank construction, and proposed a
surge relief valve to replace an expensive surge tank. Skulovich and Bent [22] optimized the placement
and size of a surge tank to improve the transient control by an algorithm method. This method
has the computational advantages in solving some specific transient boundaries. They considered a
smooth relationship between maximum pressure and tank volume, and proposed that the selection
of the protection devices is sensitive to transient event conditions. Zhou [23] proposed an enhanced
multi-objective bacterial-foraging chemotaxis gravitational search algorithm, which turned out to be
valued in controlling the rise rate of the unit rotational speed and water hammer pressure in a water
apply system with two surge tanks at two sides.
However, in some specified project, because of differences in rainfall, reservoir water levels,
and artificial operations due to temporal distribution, the optimized design of pressure control
devices is not suitable for different operating conditions. In other words, every condition has the
different transient processes, and the best parameters of the pressure control devices for one specific
case may be not useful, or may even intensify the water hammer, in another operating condition.
Thus, it is significant to optimize the flexibility and self-adjustability of the pressure control devices.
Meniconi [24] studied and optimized the pressure reducing valves with self-adjustment equipment by
experimental analysis.
In order to improve performance of the water hammer protection, a kind of intelligent
self-controlled surge tank (IST) is proposed, which can adjust the parameters to be suitable for different
conditions. The IST consists of a normal surge tank and an additional self-adjustable flow damper
in the connector. The damper is designed to adjust the discharge capacity based on the pressure
differences on the two sides of the connector. When the pressure difference is small, the discharge
capacity is limited to keep the water volume inside the IST. On the other hand, when the pressure
difference becomes large, the damper increases the discharge capacity to fully make use of the IST.
The research results show that the IST has advantages in both flexibility and pressure control compared
with normal surge tanks.

2. Numerical Model

2.1. Governing Equations

For one-dimensional pressure flow, assuming the heat energy transfer can be ignored, the momentum
equation, Equation (1), and the continuity equation, Equation (2), constitutes the governing equations of
water hammer [2]:
∂h( x, t) ∂v( x, t) ∂v( x, t)
g + v( x, t) + + τw = 0 (1)
∂x ∂x ∂t
Energies 2018, 11, 1450 3 of 16

∂h( x, t) ∂h( x, t) a2 ∂v( x, t)

v( x, t) + − v( x, t) sin α + =0 (2)
∂x ∂t g ∂x
where h and v denote the water head and velocity, respectively; x and t denote the location and time,
respectively; g is the acceleration of gravity; and α denotes the angle between the pipe center line
and the horizontal plane. τw is the instantaneous wall shear stress. It can be divided into two parts,
v( x,t)|v( x,t)|
τw = τws + τwu . τws = f 2D is the quasi-steady component, where f denotes the Darcy friction
factor, D denotes the diameter of the pipeline. τwu represents the unsteady component. To simulate the
unsteady component, various numerical methods were proposed. Instantaneous acceleration-based
(IAB) models and weighting function-based (WFB) are the two popular models [25]. In this research,
the unsteady component is neglected, since the influence of the unsteady friction component on the
surge tank is insignificant.

2.2. Method of Characteristics

For numerical simulation, the MOC has been widely used to simulate the transient processes.
It is also used to simulate the transient processes along the pipeline. Combining Equations (1) and (2)
and keeping dx/dt = ± a, the characteristic equation system can be written as follows [2]:
(
C + : h(i, t + ∆t) = CP − Bq(i, t + ∆t)
(3)
C − : h(i, t + ∆t) = C M + Bq(i, t + ∆t)

in which:
CP = h(i − 1, t) + Bq(i − 1, t) − Rq(i − 1, t)|q(i − 1, t)|

C M = h(i + 1, t) − Bq(i + 1, t) + Rq(i + 1, t)|q(i + 1, t)|

f ∆x
B = a
gA , R = 2gDA2
, and h(i, t + ∆t) denote the water head at section i at time t + ∆t; q(i, t + ∆t)
denotes the discharge at section i at time t + ∆t; h(i − 1, t) denotes the water head at section i − 1 at
time t; q(i − 1, t) denotes the discharge at section i − 1 at time t; h(i + 1, t) denotes the water head at
section i + 1 at time t; and q(i + 1, t) denotes the discharge at section i + 1 at time t. Except all the inner
sections at the next time step, which can be determined by adjacent sections, the boundary conditions
for different devices need to be solved separately.

2.3. Boundary Conditions

Commonly, if the pipeline is buried shallowly underground, a broad surge pool next to the pump
station can ensure the operating security. However, based on the specific water supply pipeline in this
research, there is a mountain ridge between the upstream and downstream reservoirs. Considering
the limit of particular geological and environmental conditions, the designer planned a 40 km pipeline.
Especially, the middle of the pipeline is higher than the two ends, so a surge tank is used to control
the hydraulic transient during the pump failure. Figure 1 shows the schematic of the pipeline and
surge tank.
In this case, the relevant parameters are listed as: Inner diameter of pipeline: D = 5.0 m;
wetted perimeter: X = 15.7 m; cross area of pipeline: A = 19.6 m2 ; wave velocity in this pressured
pipeline: a = 1048 m/s; and roughness coefficient: n = 0.025.
Energies 2018, 11, 1450 4 of 16
Energies 2018, 11, x 4 of 16

60
surge tank

40


downstream
h (m)
20
pipeline reservoir
upstream
0 reservoir
 pump station

-20
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
x (km)

Figure 1. Schematic of the pipeline and surge tank.

Due to the raising pipe behind the pump station, after pump failure a significant negative
Due to the raising pipe behind the pump station, after pump failure a significant negative pressure
pressure will occur on the top due to the water hammer event. It may cause pipe and device failure
will occur on the top due to the water hammer event. It may cause pipe and device failure under
under atmospheric compression. In this case, various boundary conditions need to be solved,
atmospheric compression. In this case, various boundary conditions need to be solved, including
including reservoirs, valves, pumps, normal surge tanks, and intelligent self-controlled devices.
reservoirs, valves, pumps, normal surge tanks, and intelligent self-controlled devices.
2.3.1. Reservoirs
2.3.1. Reservoirs
In the
In the water
water supply
supply project,
project, the
the water
water level
level of
of the
the upstream
upstream reservoir
reservoir isis −−5.0 m, whereas
5.0 m, whereas the
the
downstream reservoir water level is 30.0 m. The water level can be considered as a
downstream reservoir water level is 30.0 m. The water level can be considered as a constant during constant during
the transient
the transient process,
process,since
sincethe
thereservoirs
reservoirsis is enough
enough large.
large. Then,
Then, thethe boundary
boundary condition
condition model
model of
of the
the reservoirs can be established as follows:
reservoirs can be established as follows:
( upstream reservoir: h 0, t t h
upstream reservoir : h(0, t + ∆t) = hup up (4)
(4)
downstream
downstreamreservoir:
reservoir : h(hn,nt, +
t ∆t)t= hdown
hdown

where hh
where (0,0,t t+ ∆t)tdenotes
denotesthe the water
water headhead
of theoffirst
thesection
first section
at time att +time t
∆t, which t ,atwhich
is is at the
the entrance of
the pipeline;
entrance of the t + ∆t) denotes
h(n,pipeline; h n, t the water
t denotes
head of thethewater
last section
head of at time
the last ∆t, which
t + section at istime
at thet outlet
t,
of the pipeline; and
which is at the outletup h and h down
of the pipeline;are the water level of the upstream and downstream
and hup and hdown are the water level of the upstream and reservoirs,
respectively. According to Equation (3), the discharge of the boundary nodes of reservoirs can be
downstream reservoirs, respectively. According to Equation (3), the discharge of the boundary
solved as:
nodes of reservoirs can be solved as: :
(
upstream reservoir q(0, t + ∆t) = [h(0, t + ∆t) − C M ]/B
(5)
downstream reservoir
upstream reservoir: : (0,tt+ ∆t)t )= [C
q(qn, P−
h(0, t h(n, tt)+ ∆t
C M)]/B
/B
(5)
where q(0, t + ∆t) and q(n, t + ∆treservoir:
downstream q(n, t
) denote the discharge oft )the Cfirst
P h(n, t andt )the
section / Blast section at time
t + ∆t.
where q 0, t t and q n, t t denote the discharge of the first section and the last section
2.3.2. Valve
at time t t.
To control the inlet flow discharge, a butterfly valve was set up in the water supply pipe.
2.3.2.
It Valve behind the pump station and before the entrance of the main pipeline. Figure 2 shows the
is located
relationship
To control of the
thedischarge
inlet flowcoefficient
discharge,and the openvalve
a butterfly ratio wasof theset
valve.
up in the water supply pipe. It is
located behind the pump station and before the entrance of the main pipeline. Figure 2 shows the
relationship of the discharge coefficient and the open ratio of the valve.
Energies 2018,11,
Energies2018, 11,1450
x 55ofof16
16

2.0

1.5

C d 1.0

0.5

0.0
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
%
Figure2.2.Discharge
Figure Dischargecoefficient
coefficientand
andopen
openratio.
ratio.

The valve is a flow control device. To prevent the inversion and backflow in the pump system,
The valve is a flow control device. To prevent the inversion and backflow in the pump system,
the valve should be fast closed after pump failure. However, closing valves rapidly will cause water
the valve should be fast closed after pump failure. However, closing valves rapidly will cause water
hammer. The boundary equations of the valve can be expressed as follows:
hammer. The boundary equations of the valve can be expressed as follows:
q valve C d Ap 2g hvalve (6)
qvalve = Cd A 2g∆hvalve (6)
where Cd is the discharge coefficient of the valve, which depends on the valve performance curve
where Cd is the discharge coefficient of the valve, which depends on the valve performance curve and
and opening ratio at a special time. h is the pressure difference of both of its sides.
opening ratio at a special time. ∆hvalve isvalve
the pressure difference of both of its sides.
Thus, according to Equation (3), the water head of the boundary nodes of valves can be solved
Thus, according to Equation (3), the water head of the boundary nodes of valves can be solved as:
as:
(
t ∆t
hvalve,left(t(+
hvalve,left )t )= C  Bqvalve
CPP − (7)
h
valve
   (7)
hvalve,right
 valve,right( t
( +
t ∆t )
t ) = C M
M
+Bq
Bqvalve
valve

2.3.3. Pumps
2.3.3. Pumps
A pump station is set next to the upstream reservoir and consists of three pumps to provide
adequateA pump station
energy is water
for the set next to theThe
supply. upstream
completereservoir and consists
characteristic curveof of three pumpsisto
the pumps provide
shown in
Figure 3. Where xp = π + tan−1 qp /np is the instantaneous position of pump operation, qp = Q/Q Rin
adequate energy for the water supply. The complete characteristic curve of the pumps is shown

isFigure
the dimensionless   tan 1 through
3. Where xp discharge qp np  isthe
thepump,
instantaneous
np = N/N position of pump operation, qp speed.
R is the dimensionless rotated
Q QR
H/HR T/TR
np  N



W =
isHthexpdimensionless 2 discharge2 , WB xp =the pump,
through 2 2. NHRR ,isNthe
R, Q R , and TR are,rotated
dimensionless respectively,
speed.
( N/NR ) +( Q/Q R ) ( N/NR ) +( Q/Q R )

WH  xp   WB  xp  
the rated head, rated H / rotate
HR speed, rated discharge, T and/ TRrated torque.
. H R , N R , QR , and TR are,
 N / N R   lines
The characteristic
R
Q / Qof a pump are shown N / NinR Figure
  Q /4.QRA working pump provides a water head
2 2 2 2

rise. The water head and discharge on both sides of a pump can be solved using the following set of
respectively, the rated head, rated rotate speed, rated discharge, and rated torque.
equations, which combine the complete characteristic curve in Figure 3:
The characteristic lines of a pump are shown in Figure 4. A working pump provides a water
head rise. The water head and discharge on both sides of a pump can be solved using the following
set of equations, which combine the complete characteristic curve in Figure 3:
Energies 2018, 11, 1450 6 of 16
Energies 2018, 11, x 6 of 16
Energies 2018, 11, x 6 of 16

3
3

2
W
WHH
2
WBB
W
1
1
WH
WH 0
0
WB
WB -1
-1

-2
-2

-3
-3 0  /2  3 / 2 2
0  /2  3 / 2 2
xxpp
Figure 3.Complete
Completecharacteristic
characteristiccurve
curve ofthe
the pumps.
Figure
Figure 3.
3. Complete characteristic curve of
of the pumps.
pumps.

p
p
C++ dt
C dt
dx
dx

s
s
p
p

dt C-
pump dt C-
pump
s dx
s dx
Figure 4. Characteristic lines of a pump.
Figure 4. Characteristic lines of a pump.
Figure 4. Characteristic lines of a pump.

h is -ss- s, t  t  tdh  h i pppp, t  t 

 h i , t  t  tdh  h i , t  t

h(itdhs−s ,t H + ∆t n)2+ tdh
q 2  WH

xxppp−
= h i  p , t + ∆t


tdh  H RR npp22  qpp2 2WH


 = HR np + qp W H xp2


tdh


WR2g N2R  N 0  N

npnpp2+ qqppp2 WB
WBxxpp +
 n2 2  q 22
WB x
TT0 TWR

WR g NR πN N0 − NN  0

−gg N

0
 t NNRR =0 0
 0 R 0
T T g
TR T30
R 30∆t (8)
q(is−s , t + ∆t) = q i pT−Rp , t +g ∆tTR 30t N R
p R R
 (8)
 (8)
 qCPi p −p ,Bq  s , t + ∆t)

h(iqs− iss, st,+ t) =

t ∆t t  (ist−
 q  is  s , t  t   q  i p  p , t  t 





h(i p− p , t + ∆t) = C M + Bq(i p− p , t + ∆t)
 h i , t  t  C  Bq i , t  t
where tdh is the total dynamic h is shead
s ,t  
s 
t   CPP Bq
provided by
 s  s, t  t 
 isthe
s pump;  W is the weight of rotating parts plus

 t )  of
 h(i p  p , tradius
entrained liquid; R g is the gyration CMthe  Bq (i p  p , t mass.
rotating t )
 h(i p  p , t  t )  CM  Bq (i p  p , t  t )
where tdh is the total dynamic head provided by the pump; W is the weight of rotating parts
where tdh is the total dynamic head provided by the pump; W is the weight of rotating parts
plus entrained liquid; R is the gyration radius of the rotating mass.
plus entrained liquid; Rgg is the gyration radius of the rotating mass.
Energies 2018, 11, x 7 of 16

Energies 2018, 11, 1450 7 of 16

2.3.4. Normal Surge Tanks

To reduce the extreme pressure, we set a surge tank at the peak of the pipeline and simulated
hammer events
various water hammer events to study
study the effects of the connector between
between the surge tank and pipe
the pressure
on the pressurecontrol.
control.The
Theform
form and
and characteristic
characteristic lines
lines of aofsurge
a surge
tanktank are shown
are shown in Figure
in Figure 5.
5. The
The boundary
boundary condition
condition of a surge
of a surge tanktank canwritten
can be be written as follows:
as follows:

hNST
Sw

C+ dt C-
dt
dx dx
connector
j SCN k

j k
Figure 5. Boundary model of the surge tank.
Figure 5. Boundary model of the surge tank.

t
S w hNST (t t) hNST (t ) q ik k , t t q ik k , t q i j j , t t q ij j , t
∆t
2
Sw [hNST (t + ∆t) − hNST (t)] = 2 q(ik−k , t + ∆t) + q(ik−k , t) − q i j− j , t + ∆t − q i j− j , t





q (t+∆t)2 2

ABS[hNST (t + ∆t) − h(ik−k , t + ∆t)] = ξ NST NST q NST 2t t



2gS
ABS h (t t ) h ik
k , t t CN


qNST (t + ∆tNST ) = q i j− j , t + ∆t − q(ik−k , t + NST ∆t) 2gS 2

CN (9)
h(ik−k , t + ∆t) = h i j− j , t + ∆t




, t +t ∆t =t CPq−i jBqj , ti j− j , tt+ ∆t





 h i j−qjNST q ik k , t t
(9)

h(ik−k , t + ∆t) = C M + Bq(ik−k , t + ∆t)


h(ik k , t t ) h ij j , t t
where Sw is the cross area of the surge tank, hNST (t + ∆t) is the water head at time t + ∆t in the normal
surge tank, and qNST (t + ∆t) is the discharge at time t + ∆t through the connector. ξ NST is the local
h ij j , t t C P Bq i j j , t t
energy loss coefficient of normal surge tank connector, which is valued as 1.0 in this model. SCN is the
cross area of the normal surge tank connector.
h(ik k , t t ) C M Bq(ik k , t t)
2.3.5. Intelligent Self-Controlled Surge Tanks

where Here,
Sw aiskind of intelligent
the cross area of self-controlled
the surge tank,surge
hNST tank
t (IST)
t isisthe
proposed, which
water head is more
at time t flexible
t in and
the
efficient than the normal surge tank. Figure 6 shows an illustration of the intelligent self-controlled
normal surge tank, and q NST t
surge tank. t is the discharge at time t t through the connector.  NST
is the local energy loss coefficient of normal surge tank connector, which is valued as 1.0 in this
model. S CN is the cross area of the normal surge tank connector.

2.3.5. Intelligent Self-Controlled Surge Tanks

Here, a kind of intelligent self-controlled surge tank (IST) is proposed, which is more flexible
and efficient than the normal surge tank. Figure 6 shows an illustration of the intelligent
self-controlled surge tank.
Energies 2018, 11, 1450 8 of 16
Energies 2018, 11, x 8 of 16

hIST
Sw

C+ dt self-adjustable C-
damper dt
dx dx

j k
SCI

j k
Figure 6. Illustration of an intelligent self-controlled surge tank.
Figure 6. Illustration of an intelligent self-controlled surge tank.

Compared to the normal surge tank, an additional self-adjustable flow damper is equipped at
Comparedbetween
the connector to the normal the IST surge andtank, theanpipeline.
additional It self-adjustable
is just like a flow damper valve.
self-control is equipped Whenat thethe
connector between the IST and the pipeline. It is just like a
difference of water heads at its two sides is small, it contracts to limit the discharge inlet or outlet. self-control valve. When the difference
of water
On heads
the other at itsittwo
hand, sidesthe
releases is small,
limitationit contracts
when the to limit the discharge
difference increases. inlet
In or
this outlet.
way, On the the other
water in
hand, it releases the limitation when the difference increases.
the surge tank will not totally participate in the pipe flow to control water hammer until it is severe. In this way, the water in the surge tank
will boundary
The not totallycondition
participate ofin thethe IST pipe
canflow to control water
be established as: hammer until it is severe. The boundary
condition of the IST can be established as:
 t

Sw [hSIST w (ht IST
+ (∆tt )   h(IST
−t )hIST t)](t= 2 2

)  ∆t q iq i,j t j+
j− j
, t ∆t   j− j

 
t+q qi i j , jt,
t −qq(i ik k,,tt +
k−k
∆tt ) 
−qq(iikk−k k, t, t)




qIST (t+∆t)2

∆t − ∆t

ABS  [ h ( t + ) h ( i , t + )] =
qISTCI  t  t 


 IST k − k ξ IST 2gS 2 2

h(ik−ABS    j− j  k  k
     IST
  

∆t ∆t


k , t + h
 IST ) (=t h t
i ) , h
t +i , t t (10)
qIST(t + ∆t) = q(i j− j , t + ∆t) − q(ik−k , t + ∆t)
2 gSCI 2



 

h i j−hj ,(it + ,∆t , tt + ∆t





t  =t )CPh−iBq , ti j − j (10)
k k j j

h(ik−k , t + ∆t) = C M + Bq(ik−k , t + ∆t)


q  t  t   q (i , t  t )  q  i , t  t 
j j k k
where hIST(t + ∆t) is the water head at time t + ∆t in the tank above the damper, and qIST (t + ∆t) is
IST

h i , t  t  C  Bq i , t  t
  jat
the discharge  j time t+ ∆tP through j  jthe damper.  ξ IST is the local energy loss coefficient, which is
valued as5.0 in this model. SCI is the cross area of the damper, related to ABS[h(ik−k , t) − hIST (t)],
k , t  t )  CM  Bq (ik  k , t  t )
h(ik the
which denotes pressure difference between the two sides of the damper at time t.
where hIST t t is the water head at time t t in the tank above the damper, and
3. Simulation and Analysis
q IST t t is the discharge at time t t through the damper.  IST is the local energy loss
3.1. Transient Response of Normal Surge Tanks
coefficient, which is valued as 5.0 in this model. S CI is the cross area of the damper, related
In this case, the cross area of the surge tank is 100 m2 , while the cross area of the connector is
to ABS h(ik k , t ) hIST t , which denotes the pressure difference between the two sides of the
10 m2 . After pump failure, the valve behind the pump station is closed in 50 s to prevent pump reversal.
The extreme
damper water
at time t . head envelope curve is shown in Figure 7.

3. Simulation and Analysis

3.1. Transient Response of Normal Surge Tanks

In this case, the cross area of the surge tank is 100 m2, while the cross area of the connector is 10
m . After pump failure, the valve behind the pump station is closed in 50 s to prevent pump
2

reversal. The extreme water head envelope curve is shown in Figure 7.

Energies
Energies 2018,11,
Energies2018,
2018, 11,1450
11, xx 999of
of16
of 16
16

60
60 normal
normal pipeline
pipeline
surge tank
surge tank h
hmax along the pipeline
max along the pipeline

40 hhmin along
min
along the
the pipeline
pipeline
40



(m)
hh (m) 20
20
downstream
downstream
reservoir
reservoir
00 
 pump station
pump station

upstream reservoir
upstream reservoir
-20
-20
-10
-10 00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50
xx (km)
(km)

Figure7.
Figure
Figure 7.Extreme
7. Extremewater
Extreme waterhead
water headalong
head alongthe
along thepipe
the pipeafter
pipe afterpump
after pumpfailure.
pump failure.
failure.

As shown
As shown in in Figure
Figure 7,7, both
both thethe maximum
maximum and and minimum
minimum head head occur
occur atat the
the entrance
entrance of of the
the
As shown in Figure 7, both the maximum and minimum head occur at the entrance of the
pipeline upstream, and converge to the downstream water level along the
pipeline upstream, and converge to the downstream water level along the pipeline. In other words, pipeline. In other words,
pipeline upstream, and converge to the downstream water level along the pipeline. In other words,
the hydraulic
the hydraulic transient
transient is is worst
worst nearnear the
the surge
surge tanktank upstream.
upstream. Changing
Changing the the cross
cross area
area of
of the
the
the hydraulic transient is worst near the surge2 tank upstream. Changing the cross area of the normal
normal surge
surge tank connector S CN to
tank connector to 8 m , 66 m
m ,, 244 m
2 m ,, and
2 and 22 m m , Figure
2 Figure 88 shows
shows the the various
various
normal SCN to 8 m2S, CN
6 m2 , 48mm 2 , ,and 8 shows, the
2 2 2 2
surge tank connector 2 m , Figure various transient pressure
transient in
transient
processes pressure
pressure processes
sectionprocesses
k − k and inthe extremekkpressure
in section
section --kk and and distribution
the extreme
the extremealong
pressure
pressure distribution
distribution
the pipe along
after thealong the
pumpthe pipe
pipe
failure.
Asafter
after the
shown pump
the pump failure.
failure.
in Figure As shown
Ascross
8, the shown in Figure
in of
area Figure 8, the cross
8, the cross
the connector area
hasarea of the
of the
a large connector
connector
influence has
on has a large influence
a large influence
the performance on
on
of the
the performance
the performance
surge tanks. of the surge tanks.
of the surge tanks.

40
40
2
SSCN =2m2
CN=2m h(m)
h(m)
22
SSCN =4m
CN=4m
2 35
35
SSCN =6m2
CN=6m

SSCN =8m2
2
hhmax along the pipeline
max along the pipeline
CN=8m
2
SSCN =10m2
CN=10m 30
30

25
25
hhmin along the pipeline
min along the pipeline

hhk-k after pumps' failure

k-k after pumps' failure

20
20

15
15
00 300
300 600
600 900
900 1200 1500
1200 1500 00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40
tt (s)
(s) xx (km)
(km)

Figure8.
Figure
Figure 8.Key
8. Keytransient
Key transientpressure
transient pressureand
pressure andthe
and theextreme
the extremewater
extreme waterhead
water headalong
head alongthe
along thepipe.
the pipe.
pipe.

When the
When the cross
cross area
area ofof the
the connector
connector decreases,
decreases, the
the fluctuation
fluctuation ofof hhk -k decreases,
decreases, but
but the
the
When the cross area of the connector decreases, the fluctuation of hk−k decreases,
k -k but the extreme
extreme
extreme
head alonghead
head along the
along
the pipeline the pipeline
pipeline
after the surge after
after the
tankthe surge tank
surge
increases. tank increases.
increases.
In other In other
In other the
words, adjusting words,
words, adjusting
adjusting
discharge the
the
capacity
discharge
discharge
of capacity
the surgecapacity of the surge
of the surge
tank connector tank connector
tanka connector
can cause can cause
can cause
hysteretic effect, which a hysteretic
a hysteretic effect,
can reduceeffect, which
which can
the maximum can reduce
reducehmax
pressure the
the
maximum
maximum
and minimum pressure
pressure
pressurehhmax
h andand
alongminimum
minimum
maxmin
pressure
the pipe,pressure hhminthe
and enlarge along
along the pressure
the
extreme pipe, and
pipe,
min
and enlarge the
enlarge
elsewhere. the extreme
extreme
In this case,
pressure elsewhere.
pressure elsewhere. In
In this
this case,
case, the
the optimal
optimal cross
cross area
area of
of the
the connector
connector should
should be
be between
between 44 and
and 66
 Energies 2018, 11, x 10 of 16
Energies 2018, 11, 1450 10 of 16
m2. However, for a normal surge tank, the discharge capacity of the connector is usually constant. It
may not always be the best scale for different operation conditions. Thus, a kind of intelligent
the optimal cross
self-controlled area tank
surge of theisconnector
proposed, should
whichbecan between
adjust4the 6 m2 . However,
anddischarge capacity foraccording
a normal surge
to the
tank, the discharge capacity of the connector is usually constant.
different operating conditions, maintaining the best hysteretic effect for the pipeline. It may not always be the best scale
for different operation conditions. Thus, a kind of intelligent self-controlled surge tank is proposed,
which can adjust
3.2. Transient the discharge
Response capacity
of Intelligent accordingSurge
Self-Controlled to theTanks
different operating conditions, maintaining
the best hysteretic effect for the pipeline.
The theory of the intelligent self-controlled surge tank is adjusting the discharge capacity of the
connector
3.2. Transient according
Response of to Intelligent
the requirement. An adjustable
Self-Controlled Surge Tanks flow damper is set inside the connector.
When the pressure difference between the two sides of the connector increases sufficiently, the tank
takesThe theory
charge, of the the
releases intelligent
damper, self-controlled
and enlarges surge tank is adjusting
the discharge capacity. the On discharge capacity
the other hand, whenof
the
theconnector according remains
pressure difference to the requirement. An adjustable
small and transient floware
processes damper
not severeis setenough
inside theforconnector.
the IST to
When the pressure difference between the two sides of the connector
work, the damper remains tight and reserves its water for more severe operating conditions. increases sufficiently, the tank
takes charge, releases the damper, and enlarges
Assume that the function of the flow damper can be expressed as follows:the discharge capacity. On the other hand, when the
pressure difference remains small and transient processes are not severe enough for the IST to work,
the damper remains tight 0.7 ABS h(ik k , t ) itshwater
and reserves IST
t for3 more , ABS
severeh(operating
ik k , t ) hIST t 10 Assume that
conditions.
the function of the SCI flow damper can be expressed as follows: (11)
10 , ABS h(ik k , t ) hIST t 10
(
The mechanism 0.7 ABSof [hthe t) − hIST (tis
(ik−k ,damper )] + designed
3 , ABS[has k , t ) − hISTin
(ik−shown ≤ 10
(t)] Figure 9. When
SCI = (11)
10 , 2ABS[h(ik−k , t) − hIST (t)] > 10
ABS  h(ik  k , t )  hIST  t   0 , the cross area keeps as 3 m , which is the minimum condition. As the
hydraulic head difference
The mechanism increases,
of the damper the loads
is designed ason the clapboards
shown in Figure 9. will When pushABSthem
[h(ik−move towards the
k , t) − hIST (t)] = 0,
lower head side. The resistance
2 provided by the resister depends on the pressure
the cross area keeps as 3 m , which is the minimum condition. As the hydraulic head difference increases, difference signs
from
the sensors
loads on theand the function
clapboards designed
will push as Equation
them move towards (11).
the lowerThus,head the side.
damper
The cross areaprovided
resistance expands
gradually, anddepends
attains aonmaximum m when signsfrom
of 10difference  IST and
 the. function designed as

2 ABS h(i , t ) h t 10
by the resister the pressure k  k sensors

Equation (11). Thus, the damper cross area expands gradually, and attains a maximum of 10 m2 when
ABS[h(ik−k , t) − hIST (t)] ≥ 10.

Figure9.9.Mechanism
Figure Mechanismof
ofthe
theflow
flowdamper
damperin
inthe
theIST.
IST.

Under these
Under these conditions,
conditions, in
in aa transient
transient process,
process, the
the cross
cross area
area of
ofthe
theIST
ISTconnector
connectorisisadjusted
adjusted
between33toto10
between 2
10mm. .For
2 Foraasuitable
suitablecomparison,
comparison,thethecross
cross area
area ofof
thethe IST
IST above
above thethe connector
connector remains
remains at
 x
Energies 2018, 11, 1450 11 of 16
Energies 2018, 11, x 11 of 16
at 100 m2, the same as the normal one. The water head process in the IST and at the connector are
100
shownm2 ,m
at 100 the
in same
2, the
Figure as the
same
10, as normal one. one.
the normal
compared with The water head head
The water
the water head process in the in
process
process using IST and
the atsurge
IST
a normal the connector
and attank. are shown
the connector are
in Figure
shown in10, compared
Figure with thewith
10, compared waterthehead process
water using a normal
head process using a surge
normaltank.
surge tank.
40
40

35
35

30
30 Ah Ah
h (m)

Ah Ah
h (m)

25
25
hk-k Normal surge tank
20
hk-k Normal surge tank
20 hk-k IST
hk-k IST
15
150 300 600 900 1200 1500
0 300 600 900 1200 1500
t (s)
t (s)
Figure 10. Extreme water head along the pipe after pump failure.
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Extreme
Extreme water
water head
head along
along the
the pipe
pipe after
after pump
pump failure.
failure.
As shown in Figure 10, the extreme water hammer amplitude can be measured by the
As shown
difference in Figure
between 10, peak
the first the extreme
and thewaterfirst hammer
trough, amplitude
Ah hmax1st can best .measured
hmin1 Obviously, by the
the
As shown in Figure 10, the extreme water hammer amplitude can be measured by the difference
difference between
amplitude the first than
peakthat and the normal
first trough, Ah This
hmax1result
hmin1st . Obviously, the
between theoffirst
the peak
IST is smaller trough,ofAhthe surge tank. theshows that the water
st
and the first = hmax1st − hmin1st . Obviously, amplitude of the IST
amplitude of be
hammer thereduced
IST is smaller
using than thatInof the normal surge tank. This result shows that the water
is smallercan
than that of the normal the IST.
surge tank.other words,
This result the IST
shows thatrequires
the waterless volume
hammer canorbeheight
reduced to
hammerthe
provide cansame
be reduced
protectionusing
as athe IST. In
normal other
tank. The words,
extreme thewater
IST requires
head less volume
envelope curve or height
using IST to
is
using the IST. In other words, the IST requires less volume or height to provide the same protection as
provide
shown the same
in tank.
FigureThe protection as a normal tank. The extreme water head
11.extreme water head envelope curve using IST is shown in Figure 11. envelope curve using IST is
a normal
shown in Figure 11.
40
40

35
35
hmax Normal surge tank
hmax Normal surge tank
30 hmax IST
30 hmax IST
h (m)

reduced zone increased zone

h (m)

reduced zone increased zone

25 hmin Normal surge tank
25 hmin Normal surge tank
hmin IST
hmin IST
20
20

15
15 0 10 20 30 40
0 10 x 20
(km) 30 40
x (km)
Figure
Figure 11.
11. Extreme
Extreme water
water head
head along
along the
the pipe
pipe after
after pump
pump failure
failure using
using the
the IST.
IST.
Figure 11. Extreme water head along the pipe after pump failure using the IST.
As shown in Figure 11, the water hammer intensity is better controlled by the IST in the
As
As shown
shown ininFigure 11,11,
Figure the the
water hammer intensity is better
is controlled by the IST in theIST
upstream
upstream zone. On the other hand,water hammer
the water intensity
hammer intensitybetter controlled
is slightly severebyby the in the
the IST in the
zone. On
upstream the other
zone. On hand,
the the
otherwater
hand,hammer
the intensity
water hammer is slightly severe
intensity is by the
slightly IST
severein the
by downstream
the IST in the
downstream zone, where the water hammer is commonly smaller than the upstream. Generally, the
downstream zone, where the water hammer is commonly smaller than the upstream. Generally, the
Energies 2018, 11, x 12 of 16

Energies
IST can2018, 11, 1450the
improve 12 of 16
water hammer protection, since the transient pressure fluctuation is reduced in
the worst location.
zone,As shown
where in Figure
the water 12,is hcommonly
hammer IST
represents the than
smaller pressure at the side
the upstream. in thethetank,
Generally, while
IST can hk k
improve
represents
the the pressure
water hammer at thesince
protection, sidethe
in transient t
the pipe,pressure 1500s represents
fluctuation the time
is reduced theworst
in the pump starts,
location.
and As t shown
0s represents the time of pump failure. On the whole, compared
in Figure 12, hIST represents the pressure at the side in the tank, while with h , h changes
IST h k −kk represents
k

the pressureAs
in advance. at the
seenside in the 12,
in Figure pipe,S CIt =only
−1500 s represents
increased twice, the
oncetime
at thethetime
pump thestarts,
pumpand t = and
started 0s
represents the time of pump failure. On the whole, compared
the other at the time of pump failure, ranging from 3 to 7 m2 in this case. with h , h
IST In changes
k −addition,
k in advance.
the mapping
As Figure 12, S
relationship between the discharge capacity and head difference plays an importantthe
seen in CI only increased twice, once at the time the pump started and roleother at
in the
the time of pump failure, ranging from 3 to 7 m 2 in this case. In addition, the mapping relationship
damper’s efficiency. To establish the best mapping form, three kinds of functions are simulated
between the discharge
numerically, capacity
and expressed and head (12).
as Equation difference plays an important role in the damper’s efficiency.
To establish the best mapping form, three kinds of functions are simulated numerically, and expressed
as Equation (12). 0.07 ABS  h(i , t )  h  t   2  3, ABS  h(i , t )  h  t    10
F1: SCI    k k IST  
k k IST 
( 10
0.07

 ABS[h(ik−k , t) − hIST (t)]2 + 3 , ABS[h(ik−k kk, t) − hIST
, ABS h ( i , t )  h IST  t    10
(t)] ≤ 10
0.7 ABS  h(ik k , t )  hIST  t    3, , ABS IST (tt)]
> 10
F1 : SCI =
10 ABS[h(hi(ki−k kk, t, )t )− hhIST 10

F2:SCI (
ABS[h(hik(−ikk,kt,)t )−hhIST IST(tt)] 
≤10
(12)
F2 : SCI =  0.7
10 ABS[h(ik−k , t) − hIST (t)] + 3 , , ABS 10
(12)
ABS[h(ik−k , t) − hIST (t)] > 10
(  7 ABS  h(i , t )  h 0.5
10 0.5 ,
√7 ABS[ h (ik−k , tk) k− hIST (IST  t    3,
t)] + 3 , ABS[h(ikk−
 ABS  h(i k ,, tt)) −hhIST (t t)]   10
IST  ≤ 10
F3:=SCI  10 10
F3 : SCI
k

IST  t  
1010 ABS[hh((iik−k, ,t )t)−h hIST
, , ABS (t)]> 10
  k k  10

50
40
h (m)

30
hk-k
20
hIST
10
0
pump start time
10 pump failure time
t =-1500s t = 0s
8
SCI (m )
2

2
-1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500
t (s)
Figure 12.
Figure 12. The
The transient
transient process
process in
in the
the IST.
IST.

Figure 13 shows the comparisons on the transient processes using these three different
Figure 13 shows the comparisons on the transient processes using these three different functions.
functions. These functions can be realized by electrically controlling the mapping relationship
These functions can be realized by electrically controlling the mapping relationship between the
between the resister and sensors signals, shown as Figure 9. Function 1 is the convex function form,
resister and sensors signals, shown as Figure 9. Function 1 is the convex function form, function 2
function 2 is the linear function form, and function 3 is the concave function form. Concerning hk k ,
is the linear function form, and function 3 is the concave function form. Concerning hk−k , using the
using the convex function form seems to be the best choice for reducing the water hammer intensity.
convex function form seems to be the best choice for reducing the water hammer intensity. However,
However, taking into consideration the extreme head along the pipeline, the downstream extreme
taking into consideration the extreme head along the pipeline, the downstream extreme head may be
head may be more severe, whereas the linear form shows an advantage in stability. On the other
more severe, whereas the linear form shows an advantage in stability. On the other side, the concave
side, the concave function form is the most conservative choice, but with the least improvement in
function form is the most conservative choice, but with the least improvement in pressure control
pressure control compared to a normal surge tank.
compared to a normal surge tank.
Energies 2018, 11, 1450 13 of 16
Energies 2018, 11, x 13 of 16

20 20

19 19

h (m)
h (m)

18 18

the first trough of hk-k hmin along the pipeline

17 17
100 150 200 t (s) 250 300 350 0 2 4 x (km) 6 8 10
6 10
concave function
5 8
SCI (m )

SCI (m )
2

2
4 6
linear function

3 4 convex function
SCI changing process
2 2
0 200 400 600 800 0 2 4 6 8 10
t (s) ABS(hk-k-hIST) (m)
concave function linear function convex function
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Comparison
Comparisonof
ofthe
thethree
three functions
functions of
of the
the IST.
IST.

4. Discussion
4. Discussion
A surge tank is a common pressure control device in water supply systems. Since it is limited
A surge tank is a common pressure control device in water supply systems. Since it is limited by
by the diameter of the pipeline, the cross area of the connector between the surge tank and the
the diameter of the pipeline, the cross area of the connector between the surge tank and the pipeline
pipeline is always much smaller than the cross area above it. This research demonstrates the
is always much smaller than the cross area above it. This research demonstrates the influence of the
influence of the connector’s parameters on the performance of the surge tank to control water
connector’s parameters on the performance of the surge tank to control water hammer. Although not
hammer. Although not as significant as the location and cross area of surge tanks, insufficient
as significant as the location and cross area of surge tanks, insufficient connector discharge capacity
connector discharge capacity may intensify water hammer elsewhere in the pipeline. For instance,
may intensify water hammer elsewhere in the pipeline. For instance, in the case analyzed, the pressure
in the case analyzed, the pressure wave will obviously intensify when the cross area of the
wave will obviously intensify when the cross area of the connector is small, while a large connector
connector is small, while a large connector may reduce the water hammer intensity. However, the
may reduce the water hammer intensity. However, the cross area is a constant for a normal surge tank,
cross area is a constant for a normal surge tank, which means it cannot fit different operating
which means it cannot fit different operating conditions that may occur in the water supply pipelines.
conditions that may occur in the water supply pipelines. Apparently, a constant connector cannot
Apparently, a constant connector cannot always work at the best condition. This is in good agreement
always work at the best condition. This is in good agreement with Vereide et al.’s [4] previous work,
with Vereide et al.’s [4] previous work, in which the effect of the throttling shows a similar law.
in which the effect of the throttling shows a similar law.
In this research, the intelligent self-controlled surge tank is proposed to improve the performance
In this research, the intelligent self-controlled surge tank is proposed to improve the
of the surge tank. It is actually a normal surge tank with an additional self-controlled discharge damper
performance of the surge tank. It is actually a normal surge tank with an additional self-controlled
at the connector to the main pipe. The feature of the IST is that the discharge capacity has a positive
discharge damper at the connector to the main pipe. The feature of the IST is that the discharge
relationship with the pressure difference between the two sides of the connector. Therefore, the IST can
capacity has a positive relationship with the pressure difference between the two sides of the
maintain a suitable discharge capacity due to the transient pressure condition in the system. Obviously,
connector. Therefore, the IST can maintain a suitable discharge capacity due to the transient
the mapping relationship between the pressure difference and the discharge capacity of the adjustable
pressure condition in the system. Obviously, the mapping relationship between the pressure
flow damper in the IST greatly affects the ability of water hammer control in the pipe system. In this
difference and the discharge capacity of the adjustable flow damper in the IST greatly affects the
study, three different function forms are used and analyzed. Simulations and comparisons show that
ability of water hammer control in the pipe system. In this study, three different function forms are
the convex function form is the most efficient in water hammer control, whereas the concave function
used and analyzed. Simulations and comparisons show that the convex function form is the most
form is the most conservative. Thus, the mapping function and size limits may be different for various
efficient in water hammer control, whereas the concave function form is the most conservative.
project scales.
Thus, the mapping function and size limits may be different for various project scales.
Energies 2018, 11, 1450 14 of 16

5. Conclusions
In a water supply pipe system with surge tanks, a hysteretic water hammer effect will occur
when the cross area of the connector is too small. It can significantly reduce the pressure amplitude
at the worst location where the surge tanks are connected. For a specific operating condition,
there is always a best connector design to keep the hysteretic effect positive for water hammer control.
With a self-adjustable flow damper inside, the proposed IST can adjust the discharge capacity of
the connector according to various operating conditions. Compared to normal surge tanks, the IST
is more flexible, and can better control the water hammer intensity in the worst zone. Moreover,
a suitable mapping relationship between the discharge capacity and the head difference can improve
the efficiency of the IST.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Wuyi Wan and Boran Zhang; Methodology, Boran Zhang; Software,
Wuyi Wan and Boran Zhang; Validation, Boran Zhang; Formal Analysis, Boran Zhang; Investigation, Boran Zhang;
Resources, Wuyi Wan; Data Curation, Boran Zhang; Writing-Original Draft Preparation, Boran Zhang;
Writing-Review & Editing, Wuyi Wan; Visualization, Wuyi Wan; Supervision, Wuyi Wan; Project Administration,
Wuyi Wan; Funding Acquisition, Wuyi Wan.
Acknowledgments: This research work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant
nos. 51779216, 51279175) and Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no. LZ16E090001).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
g Acceleration of gravity (m/s2 )
h Pressure head (m)
x Distance along pipe from inlet (m)
t Time, as subscript to denote time (s)
v Flow velocity (m/s)
τw Instantaneous wall shear stress
τws The quasi-steady component
τwu The unsteady component
α The angle between pipe and the horizontal plane.
a Speed of pressure wave (m/s)
f Darcy friction factor
D Main pipe diameter (m)
i Serial number of nodes (s)
∆t Time step (s)
q Discharge (m3 /s)
∆x Length of segment (m)
hup Head of upstream reservoir (m)
n Number of sections
hdown Head of downstream reservoir (m)
qvalve Discharge through the valve (m3 /s)
Cd Discharge coefficient
τ Valve opening ratio
A Cross area (m2 )
∆hvalve Head difference of valve’s two sides (m)
xp Instantaneous position of pump operation
π Constant
qp Dimensionless discharge of the pump
np Dimensionless rotated speed of the pump
H Head of the pump (m)
HR Rated head of the pump (m)
Energies 2018, 11, 1450 15 of 16

N Rotate speed of the pump

NR Rated speed of the pump
Q Discharge through the pump (m3 /s)
QR Rated discharge of the pump (m3 /s)
T Torque of the pump (Nm)
TR Rated torque of the pump (Nm)
tdh Head difference of pump’s two sides (m)
W The weight of rotating parts plus entrained liquid (kg)
Rg The radius of gyration of the rotating mass (m)
Sw Cross area of normal surge tank (m2 )
hNST Head in normal surge tank (m)
ξ NST The local energy loss coefficient of normal surge tank connector
qNST The discharge through the normal surge tank connector (m3 /s)
SCN Cross area of the normal surge tank connector (m2 )
hk−k Head at the connector in pipe (m)
hIST Head in IST (m)
ξ IST The local energy loss coefficient of IST connector
qIST The discharge through the IST connector (m3 /s)
SCI Cross area of the IST damper (m2 )
hmax Maximum head along pipeline (m)
hmin Minimum head along pipeline (m)
Ah The extreme water hammer amplitude (m)
Acronyms
MOC Method of Characteristics
IST Intelligent Self-controlled Surge Tank

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